Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Topic
1 X Fundamentals
of Power
Electronics
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the types of switching devices; and
2. Discuss the characteristic of various switching devices.
X INTRODUCTION
Power electronics is the technology associated with the efficient conversion,
control and conditioning of electric power from its available input form into the
desired electrical output form.
Power electronic converters can be found wherever there is a need to modify the
electrical energy form (i.e modify its voltage, current or frequency). Therefore,
their power range from some milliwatts (as in a mobile phone) to hundreds of
megawatts (e.g in a transmission system).
The first very high power electronic devices were mercury arc valves. In modern
systems, the conversion is performed with power semiconductor switching
devices such as diodes, thyristors and transistors. An AC/DC converter (rectifier)
is the most typical power electronics device found in many consumer electronic
devices, e.g., television sets, personal computers, battery chargers, etc. The power
range is typically from tens of watts to several hundred watts. In industry the
most common application is the variable speed drive (VSD) that is used to
control an induction motor. The power range of VSDs start from a few hundred
watts to tens of megawatts.
2 X TOPIC 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF POWER ELECTRONICS
The power conversion systems can be classified according to the type of the input
and output power:
(a) AC to DC (rectification)
(b) DC to AC (inversion)
(c) DC to DC (conversion)
(d) AC to AC (conversion)
Figure 1.1: Evolution of power electronic devices
1.1 MERCURY-VALVE
A mercury arc valve (mercury vapor rectifier) is a type of electrical rectifier
which converts alternating current into direct current. Rectifiers of this type were
used in electric motor power supplies for industry in electric railways, streetcars
and diesel-electric locomotives, and in static inverter stations in electric power
transmission. Mercury arc rectifiers were invented by Peter Cooper Hewitt in
1902 and further developed throughout the 1920s and 1930s by researchers in
both Europe and North America. Before the advent of solid-state devices,
mercury arc rectifiers were the most efficient form of conversion from alternating
to direct current. By the 1970s, the development of high-voltage solid state
devices made the mercury arc rectifier obsolete even in high-voltage DC
applications.
TOPIC 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF POWER ELECTRONICS W 3
Figure 1.2: Glass bulb mercury arc rectifier from the 1940s
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_arc_valve
1.2 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

Power semiconductor devices are semiconductor devices used as switches or
rectifiers in power electronic circuits. They are also called power devices or when
used in integrated circuits, called power ICs.
Some common power devices are the diode, thyristor, MOSFET and IGBT
(insulated gate bipolar transistor).
Structural changes are often made in power devices to accommodate the higher
current density, higher power dissipation and/or higher reverse breakdown
voltage. The vast majority of the discrete (i.e non integrated) power devices are
built using a vertical structure, whereas small-signal devices employ a lateral
structure. With the vertical structure, the current rating of the device is
proportional to its area.
1.2.1 History of Power Semiconductor Devices

Power semiconductor devices appeared with the introduction of the thyristor in
1957. They are able to withstand very high reverse breakdown voltage and are
also capable of carrying high current. One disadvantage of the thyristor is that
once it turned ON, it cannot be turned off. Hence, the power must be
disconnected from the device to turn it off.
Bipolar transistors with substantial power handling capabilities were introduced

in the 1960s. These components overcome the limitations of the thyristors, as they
can be turned ON or OFF.
With the improvements of the Metal Oxide Semiconductor technology, power

MOSFET became available in the late 1970s. These devices allow operation at
higher frequency than bipolar transistors, but are limited to the low voltage
applications.
Developed in the 1980s, the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) became
widely available in the 1990s. This component has the power handling capability
of the bipolar transitor, with the advantages of the isolated gate drive of the
power MOSFET. It has since almost completely replaced the bipolar transistor in
power applications.
Figure 1.3: The power devices family
1.2.2 Properties of Power Semiconductor Devices

The trade-off between voltage, current and frequency ratings also exists for the
semiconductors devices. All power semiconductors rely on a PiN diode structure
to sustain voltage. This can be seen in Figure 1.4.
The power MOSFET has the advantages of the majority carrier devices, so it can
achieve very high operating frequency, but cant be used with high voltages. As it
is a physical limit, no improvement is expected from silicon MOSFET concerning
their maximum voltage ratings. However, its excellent performance in low
voltage make it the device of choice (actually the only choice) for applications
below 200V. By connecting several devices in parallel, it is possible to increase
the current rating of a switch. The MOSFET is particularly suited to this
configuration because its positive thermal coefficient of resistance tends to

balance current between individual devices.
Figure 1.4: Current/Voltage/switching frequency domains

of the main power electronics switches

The IGBT is a relatively new component, so its performance improve regularly as
technology evolves. It has already completely replaced the bipolar transistor in
power applications, and the availability of power modules (in which several
IGBT devices are connected in parallel) makes it attractive for power levels up to
several megawatts, pushing further the limit where thyristors and GTO become
the only option. Basically, an IGBT is a bipolar transistor driven by a power
MOSFET: it has the advantages of being a minority carrier device (good
performance in on-state, even for high voltage devices), with the high input
impedance of a MOSFET (it can be driven on or off with a very low amount of
power). Its major limitation for low voltage applications is the relatively high
voltage drop it exhibits in on-state (2 to 4 V). Compared to the MOSFET, the
operating frequency of the IGBT is relatively low (few devices are rated over
50 kHz).
At very high power levels, thyristor-based devices (SCR, GTO, MCT) are still the
only choice. The thyristor circuit is somewhat complicated, as this device can
only be turned-ON. It turns OFF by itself as soon as no more current flows
through it. This requires specific circuit with means to divert current. Different
solution have been developed to overcome this limitation (Mos Controlled
Thyristors, Gate Turn Off thyristor...). These components are widely used in
power distribution applications, say at 11kV, 33kV, 132kV.
Parameters of power semiconductor devices:

(a) Breakdown voltage: Often the trade-off is between breakdown voltage
rating and on-resistance because increasing the breakdown voltage by
incorporating a thicker and lower doped drift region leads to higher on-
resistance.
(b) On-resistance: Higher current rating lowers the on-resistance due to greater
numbers of parallel cells. This increases overall capacitance and slows
down the speed.
(c) Rise and fall times for switching between on and off states.
Figure 1.5: A power device is usually attached to a heatsink

to remove the heat caused by operation losses
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_semiconductor_device#Switches
1.2.3 Types of Power Semiconductor Devices

(a) Diodes
In electronics, a diode is a component that restricts the direction of
movement of charge carriers. Essentially, it allows an electric current to
flow in one direction, but blocks it in the opposite direction. Thus, the diode
can be thought of as an electronic version of a check valve. Circuits that
require current flow in only one direction will typically include one or more
diodes in the circuit design.
Today the most common diodes are made from semiconductor materials
such as silicon or germanium.
A diode has two operating states:

(i) When forward-biased, turned ON.
(ii) When reverse-biased, turned OFF.
Figure 1.6: Types of diodes

(b) Thyristor
The thyristor is a solid-state semiconductor device with four layers of
alternating N and P-type material. They act as a switch, conducting when
their gate receives a current pulse, and continue to conduct for as long as
they are forward biased.
Figure 1.7: Symbol of a thyristor
Thyristors have three operating states:

(i) Reverse blocking mode ă Voltage is applied in the direction that
would be blocked by a diode
(ii) Forward blocking mode ă Voltage is applied in the direction that
would cause a diode to conduct, but the thyristor has not yet been
triggered into conduction
(iii) Forward conducting mode ă The thyristor has been triggered into
conduction and will remain conducting until the forward current
drops below a threshold value known as the holding current.
Thyristors are mainly used where high currents and voltages are involved.
(c) Transistor
A transistor is a semiconductor device, the most commonly use as a current
amplifier. The transistor is the fundamental building block of the circuitry
that governs the operation of computers, cellular phones, and all other
modern electronics.
Because of its fast response and accuracy, the transistor may be used in a
wide variety of digital and analog functions, including amplification,
switching, voltage regulation, signal modulation, and oscillators.
Transistors may be packaged individually or as part of an integrated circuit
chip, which may hold thousands of transistors in a very small area.
Figure 1.8: Examples of transistors

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Transistors.agr.jpg
Modern transistors are divided into two main categories: bipolar junction
transistors (BJTs) and field effect transistors (FETs).
In analog circuits, transistors are used in:

(i) Amplifiers (radio frequency amplifiers)
(ii) Linear regulated power supplies
(iii) Digital circuits where they function as electronic switches. Digital

circuits include logic gates, random access memory (RAM),
microprocessors, and digital signal processors (DSPs).
The transistor is considered by many to be one of the greatest inventions in

modern history, ranking in importance with the printing press, car and
Electric/Electronic communication. It is the key active component in
practically all modern electronics. The transistors low cost, flexibility and
reliability have made it a universal device for non-mechanical tasks, such as
digital computing
Semiconductor devices are electronic components that exploit the electronic

properties of semiconductor materials, principally silicon, germanium, and
gallium arsenide.
(i) List of common semiconductor devices:
(ii) Avalanche diode (avalanche breakdown diode)
(iii) Diode (rectifier diode)
(iv) Gunn diode
(v) IMPATT diode
(vi) Laser diode
(vii) Light-emitting diode (LED)
(viii) Photocell
(ix) PIN diode
(x) Schottky diode
(xi) Solar cell
(xii) Bipolar transistor
(xiii) Darlington transistor
(xiv) Field effect transistor
(xv) IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor)
(d) Power MOSFET

A Power MOSFET is a specific type of Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-
Effect Transistor (MOSFET) designed to handle large powers. Compared to
the other power semiconductor devices (IGBT, Thyristor...), its main
advantages are high commutation speed and good efficiency at low
voltages.
It was made possible by the evolution of the CMOS technology, developed

for manufacturing Integrated circuits in the late 1970s. The power MOSFET
share its operating principle with its low-power counterpart, the lateral
MOSFET. The power MOSFET is the most widely used low-voltage (i.e less
than 200 V) switch. It can be found in most power supplies, DC to DC
converters, low voltage motor controllers.
Figure 1.9: Power MOSFET
(e) Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)

The Insulated (sometimes called Isolated) Gate Bipolar Transistor is a
Power semiconductor device that combines the simple gate drive
characteristics of the MOSFETs with the high current and low saturation
voltage capability of bipolar transistors by combining an isolated gate FET
for the control input, and a bipolar power transistor as a switch, in a single
device. The IGBT is mainly used in switching power supplies and motor
control applications.
The IGBT is a recent invention. The first-generation" devices of the 1980s

and early 90s were relatively slow in switching, and prone to failure
through such modes as latchup and secondary breakdown. Second-
generation devices were much improved, and the current third-generation
ones are even better, with speed rivaling MOSFETs, and excellent
ruggedness and tolerance of overloads.
The extremely high pulse ratings of second-generation and third-generation

devices also make them useful for generating large power pulses in areas
like particle and plasma physics.
Figure 1.10: A Power IGBT
• Power electronics is the technology associated with the efficient conversion,

control and conditioning of electric power from its available input form into
the desired electrical output form.
• A mercury arc valve (mercury vapour rectifier) is a type of electrical rectifier

which converts alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC).
• Power semiconductor devices are semiconductor devices used as switches or

rectifiers in power electronic circuits. They are also called power devices or
when used in integrated circuits, called power ICs.
• The trade-off between voltage, current and frequency ratings also exists for
the semiconductors devices. All power semiconductors rely on a PiN diode
structure to sustain voltage.
• In electronics, a diode is a component that restricts the direction of movement

of charge carriers. Essentially, it allows an electric current to flow in one
direction, but blocks it in the opposite direction.
• A diode has two operating states: When forward-biased, turned ON and

when reverse-biased, turned OFF.
• The thyristor is a solid-state semiconductor device with four layers of

alternating N and P-type material. They act as a switch, conducting when
their gate receives a current pulse, and continue to conduct for as long as they
are forward biased.
• Thyristors have three operating states: Reverse blocking, forward blocking

mode and forward conducting mode
• A transistor is a semiconductor device, the most commonly use as a current

amplifier. The transistor is the fundamental building block of the circuitry
that governs the operation of computers, cellular phones, and all other
modern electronics.
• A Power MOSFET is a specific type of Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-

Effect Transistor (MOSFET) designed to handle large powers.
• The Insulated (sometimes called Isolated) Gate Bipolar Transistor is a Power

semiconductor device that combines the simple gate drive characteristics of
the MOSFETs with the high current and low saturation voltage capability of
bipolar transistors by combining an isolated gate FET for the control input,
and a bipolar power transistor as a switch, in a single device.
Mercury arc valve Diode

Semiconductor Thyristor
Insulated gate bipolar transistor Transistor
PiN diode structure Power MOSFET

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Topic

Figure 1.1: Evolution of power electronic devices

1.2 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

1.2.1 History of Power Semiconductor Devices

Bipolar transistors with substantial power handling capabilities were introduced

With the improvements of the Metal Oxide Semiconductor technology, power

Figure 1.3: The power devices family

1.2.2 Properties of Power Semiconductor Devices

configuration because its positive thermal coefficient of resistance tends to

Figure 1.4: Current/Voltage/switching frequency domains

Parameters of power semiconductor devices:

Figure 1.5: A power device is usually attached to a heatsink

1.2.3 Types of Power Semiconductor Devices

A diode has two operating states:

Figure 1.6: Types of diodes

Figure 1.7: Symbol of a thyristor

Thyristors have three operating states:

Figure 1.8: Examples of transistors

In analog circuits, transistors are used in:

(iii) Digital circuits where they function as electronic switches. Digital

The transistor is considered by many to be one of the greatest inventions in

Semiconductor devices are electronic components that exploit the electronic

(d) Power MOSFET

It was made possible by the evolution of the CMOS technology, developed

Figure 1.9: Power MOSFET

(e) Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)

The IGBT is a recent invention. The first-generation" devices of the 1980s

The extremely high pulse ratings of second-generation and third-generation

Figure 1.10: A Power IGBT

• Power electronics is the technology associated with the efficient conversion,

• A mercury arc valve (mercury vapour rectifier) is a type of electrical rectifier

• Power semiconductor devices are semiconductor devices used as switches or

• In electronics, a diode is a component that restricts the direction of movement

• A diode has two operating states: When forward-biased, turned ON and

• The thyristor is a solid-state semiconductor device with four layers of

• Thyristors have three operating states: Reverse blocking, forward blocking

• A transistor is a semiconductor device, the most commonly use as a current

• A Power MOSFET is a specific type of Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-

• The Insulated (sometimes called Isolated) Gate Bipolar Transistor is a Power

Mercury arc valve Diode

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