Chapter 4 Energy Line Integrals and Work:

Introduction:  The equation just derived is only valid for an

infinitesimal displacement, but we can extend this to
 Energy is another important concept in physics and it macroscopic displacements by integrating, to get:
is yet another quantity that is conserved. 𝒓2

 But unfortunately discussion of conservation of 𝛥𝑇 = ∫ 𝑭 ⋅ 𝑑𝒓

𝒓1
energy is more complicated than the other
conservation laws for linear and angular momentum. which says that the change in kinetic energy of a
The main reason is that each type of momentum particle is equal to the sum of force (in the direction
comes in only one flavor (i.e. momentum and angular of the displacement) times the incremental
momentum don’t have any types) whereas there are displacement.
many forms of energy (kinetic, several kinds of
 However, note that this is the displacement along the
potential, thermal, etc.).
path of the particle. Such an integral is called a line
 Processes transform one type of energy into another, integral. [Line integral is a generalization of the
and it is only the total energy that is conserved, hence integral ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥.] In evaluating the integral, it is
the additional complication. usually possible to convert it into an ordinary integral
over a single variable, as in the following example
 We will be introducing new mathematical tools of (which we will look at in a moment).
vector calculus, such as the gradient and the curl.
 With the notation of the line integral
4.1 Kinetic Energy and Work:
2
 The kinetic energy (T) of a particle of mass m traveling 𝛥𝑇 = 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = ∫ 𝑭 ⋅ 𝑑𝒓 ≡ 𝑊(1 → 2)
1
at speed v is defined to be:
where the last is a definition, defining the work done
1
𝑇 = 𝑚𝑣 2 by F in moving from point 1 to point 2.
2
1 Example 4.1: Three Line Integrals:
𝑇 = 𝑚𝐯⋅𝐯
2  Evaluate the line integral for the work done by the 2-
 Consider such a particle moving on some trajectory d force 𝑭 = (𝑦, 2𝑥) going from the origin O to the
through space while its kinetic energy changes, on point 𝑃 = (1, 1) along each of the three paths:
moving from position 𝒓1 to 𝒓1 + 𝑑𝒓. a) OQ then QP, b) OP along x = y, c) OP along a circle

 We can take the time derivative of the kinetic energy,

so that
𝑑𝑇 1 𝑑 1 1
= 𝑚 (𝐯 ⋅ 𝐯) = 𝑚(𝐯̇ ⋅ 𝐯 + 𝐯 ⋅ 𝐯̇ ) = (𝐯̇ ⋅ 𝐯)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2 2  Path a):
= 𝑚𝐯̇ ⋅ 𝐯
𝑄 𝑄
 But 𝑭 = 𝒑̇ = 𝑚𝒗̇ . Thus, 𝑊𝑎 = ∫𝑎 𝑭 ⋅ 𝑑𝒓 = ∫𝑂 𝑭 ⋅ 𝑑𝒓 + ∫𝑃 𝑭 ⋅ 𝑑𝒓
1 1 1
𝑑𝑇
=𝑭⋅𝒗 𝑊𝑎 = ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 2𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0 + 2 ∫ 𝑑𝑦 = 2
𝑑𝑡 0 0 0

 Finally, multiplying both sides by 𝑑𝑡 and  Path b)

𝑑𝑇 = 𝑭 ⋅ 𝐯 𝑑𝑡 𝑃
𝑊𝑏 = ∫𝑏 𝑭 ⋅ 𝑑𝒓 = ∫𝑂 𝑭 ⋅ 𝑑𝒓 = ∫𝑂 (𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑑𝑦)
𝑃

note that 𝐯 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝒓, we have 1

1
𝑥2
𝑑𝑇 = 𝑭 ⋅ d𝐫 𝑊𝑏 = ∫ 3𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 3 | = 1.5
0 2 0
This is work-KE theorem “The change in the particle’s  Path c): This is a tricky one. Path c can be expressed as
kinetic energy between two neighbouring points on
its path is equal to the work done by the net force. 𝒓 = (𝑥, 𝑦) = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 , 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)

So, 𝑑𝒓 = (𝑑𝑥, 𝑑𝑦) = (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)

This is a parametric equation, using 𝜃 as a parameter Reason for calling it conservative force:
along the path. With this parameter,
 The reason that forces meeting these conditions are
𝑭 = (sin 𝜃 , 2(1 − cos 𝜃)).
called conservative is that, if all of the forces on an
With this substitution: object are conservative, we can define a quantity
called potential energy, denoted 𝑈(𝒓), a function
only of position, with the property that the total
𝑊𝑐 = ∫ 𝑭 ⋅ 𝑑𝒓
𝑐 mechanical energy
𝜋/2 𝐸 = 𝑇 + 𝑈(𝒓)
𝜋
=∫ (sin2 𝜃 + 2(1 − cos 𝜃) cos 𝜃)𝑑𝜃 = 2 − = 1.21
0 4
is constant, i.e. is conserved.
 Notice that 𝑊𝑎 ≠ 𝑊𝑏 ≠ 𝑊𝑐 i.e. the line integral
Potential Energy:
depends on the path, in general (but not for special
kinds of forces, which we will introduce in a moment).  To define the potential energy (which is denoted by
𝑈), we must first choose a reference point 𝒓𝑜 , at
4.2 Potential Energy and Conservative Forces: which 𝑈 is defined to be zero. (For gravity, we
 Potential energy cannot be defined for every force typically choose the reference point to be ground
but only for conservative forces. level.) Then 𝑈(𝒓), the potential energy, at any
arbitrary point 𝒓, is defined to be
 Conditions for a Force to be Conservative
𝒓
i. The first condition for a force 𝑭 to be 𝑈(𝒓) = −𝑊(𝒓0 → 𝒓) = − ∫ 𝑭(𝒓′). 𝑑𝒓′
𝒓0
conservative is that 𝑭 depends only on the
position 𝒓 of the object on which it acts. It  In words, 𝑈(𝒓) is minus the work done by 𝑭 when the
cannot depend on velocity, time, or any other particle moves from the reference point 𝒓0 to the
parameter. point 𝒓.

[Some examples are: gravity, the spring force, the

electric force. Notice that gravitational force:
𝐺𝑚𝑀
𝑭(𝒓) = − 𝑟2
𝒓̂ depends only on 𝒓.]

ii. The second condition for a force to be

conservative concerns the work done by the
force as the object on which it acts moves
between two points 𝒓1 and 𝒓2 (or just points
1 and 2, for short)
2
𝑊(1 → 2) = ∫ 𝑭 ⋅ 𝑑𝒓
1
Example 4.2: Potential Energy of a Charge in a Uniform
 In example 4.1 that the force described there was Electric Field:
NOT conservative, because for three different paths
𝑊𝑎 ≠ 𝑊𝑏 ≠ 𝑊𝑐 .  Statement of the problem: A charge q is placed in a
uniform electric field pointing in the x direction with
 Forces involving friction, obviously are not
̂.
strength 𝐸𝑜 , so that the force on q is 𝑭 = 𝑞𝑬 = 𝑞𝐸𝑜 𝒙
conservative, because if you were sliding a box, say,
Show that this force is conservative and find the
on a surface with friction along the three paths
corresponding potential energy.
shown, the friction would do work 𝑊fric (1 → 2) =
−𝑓fric 𝐿 , where L is different for the three paths. Such  Solution: The work done by F in going between any
forces are non-conservative. two points 1 and 2 along any path (which is negative
potential energy) is:
2 2 2
̂ ⋅ 𝑑𝒓 = 𝑞𝐸𝑜 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑊(1 → 2) = ∫ 𝑭 ⋅ 𝑑𝒓 = 𝑞𝐸𝑜 ∫ 𝒙
1 1 1
= 𝑞𝐸𝑜 (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )

 This work done is independent of the path, because

the electric force depends only on position, i.e. the
force is conservative. To find the corresponding
potential energy, we must first choose a reference
point at which U is zero. A natural choice is to choose
our origin (the point 1), in which case the potential
 The force of gravity, on the other hand, has the energy is𝑈(𝑟) = −𝑊(0 → 𝒓) = −𝑞𝐸𝑜 𝑥
property that the work done is independent of the  recall that −𝐸𝑜 𝑥 = 𝑉 (electric potential), so that
path. You know that if the height of point 1 and point potential energy is
2 differ by an amount −ℎ, then you will drop in
height by ℎ no matter what path you take. In fact, 𝑈(𝑟) = 𝑞𝑉
𝑊grav (1 → 2) = −𝑚𝑔ℎ is independent of path.
Work done in terms of potential energy hence total mechanical energy is conserved.

Let 𝒓1 and 𝒓2 be any two points. If 𝒓0 be the reference  Principle of Conservation of Energy for One Particle
point at which 𝑈 is zero then (from figure) If all of the 𝑛 forces 𝐹𝑖 (𝑖 = 1 … 𝑛) acting on a
particle are conservative, each with its
corresponding potential energy 𝑈𝑖 (𝑟), the total
mechanical energy
𝐸 ≡ 𝑇 + 𝑈1 (𝒓) + ⋯ + 𝑈𝑛 (𝒓)
is constant in time.

Nonconservative Forces:
 As we have seen, not all forces are conservative,
meaning we CANNOT define a corresponding
potential energy and in that case we CANNOT define
a conserved mechanical energy.

 However, if there are some conservative forces

𝑊(𝒓0 → 𝒓2 ) = 𝑊(𝒓0 → 𝒓𝟏 ) + 𝑊(𝒓𝟏 → 𝒓2 ) acting, for which a potential energy can be defined,
then we can divide the forces into a conservative part
𝑊(𝒓𝟏 → 𝒓2 ) = 𝑊(𝒓0 → 𝒓2 ) − 𝑊(𝒓0 → 𝒓𝟏 )
𝑭𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠 , and a nonconservative part 𝑭𝑛𝑐 , such that
Recall: 𝑈(𝒓) = −𝑊(𝒓0 → 𝒓) ⇒ 𝑊(𝒓0 → 𝒓) = −𝑈(𝒓),
∆𝑇 = 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠 + 𝑊𝑛𝑐
so
∆𝑇 = −∆𝑈 + 𝑊𝑛𝑐
𝑊(𝒓𝟏 → 𝒓2 ) = −𝑈(𝒓2 ) − [−𝑈(𝒓𝟏 )] = −[𝑈(𝒓2 ) − 𝑈(𝒓𝟏 )]
which allows us to write
𝑊(𝒓𝟏 → 𝒓2 ) = −∆𝑈
𝛥(𝑇 + 𝑈) = 𝑊𝑛𝑐
i.e. the work done by a conservative force between two
points is negative of change is potential energy between the This says is that mechanical energy (𝑇 + 𝑈) is no
points. longer conserved, but any changes in mechanical
Recall work-KE theorem: ∆𝑇 = 𝑊(𝒓𝟏 → 𝒓2 ) energy are precisely equal to the work done by the
nonconservative forces.
Compare this with above equation
 In many problems, the only nonconservative force is
∆𝑇 = −∆𝑈 friction, which acts in the direction opposite the
motion so that the work 𝒇 ⋅ 𝑑𝒓 is negative.
∆(𝑇 + 𝑈) = 0
Where 𝑇 + 𝑈 = 𝐸 (mechanical energy), so Example 4.3: Block Sliding Down an Incline (Ex 1.1:

∆𝐸 = 0  Statement of the problem: A block of mass 𝑚 is

observed accelerating from rest down an incline that
That means the mechanical energy does not change as has coefficient of friction 𝜇 and is at angle 𝜃 from the
the particle moves from 𝒓𝟏 → 𝒓2 . It is another way of horizontal. How far will it travel in time 𝑡?
saying that the particle’s energy is conserved.

Several Forces:

 The potential energy can be defined even when more

than one conservative force is acting. An important
example is when both gravity 𝑭𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣 and a spring force
𝑭𝑠𝑝𝑟 are acting (so long as the spring obeys Hooke’s
Law, 𝑭(𝒓) = −𝑘𝒓).

 The work-kinetic energy theorem says that if we

move an object subject to these two forces along
some path, the forces will do work independent of the  Solution: In chapter we did this problem using forces.
path (depending only on the two end-points of the Let’s now apply these ideas of energy to arrive at the
path) given by same result.
𝛥𝑇 = 𝑊grav + 𝑊spr = −(𝛥𝑈grav + 𝛥𝑈spr )  As before, we have to identify the forces, and set a
coordinate system, but this time we write down the
 Rearrangement shows that
potential and kinetic energies in the problem.
𝛥(𝑇 + 𝑈grav + 𝑈spr ) = 0
 The kinetic energy, as always, is 𝑇 = ½ 𝑚𝑣 2.
here we define total mechanical energy as
 The gravitational potential energy is 𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔𝑦,
𝐸 = 𝑇 + 𝑈grav + 𝑈spr where we can set 𝑦 = 0 (and hence 𝑈 = 0) at the
ground level.
Such that ∆𝐸 = 0
 The friction force does negative work  Solution to (a):

𝑊𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐 = −𝑓𝑑  We start with the definition of potential energy:

2 2
but recall that 𝑓 = 𝜇𝑁 where 𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃.
𝑈(𝑥) = −𝑊(1 → 2) = − ∫ 𝐹𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥
Putting all of this together in 𝛥(𝑇 + 𝑈) = 𝑊fric, we have 1 1
1
1 1 = 𝑘(𝑥22 − 𝑥12 )
𝑚𝑣𝑓 2 − 2 𝑚𝑣𝑖 2 + 𝑚𝑔𝛥𝑦 = −𝜇𝑚𝑔𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 2
2
 But we choose 𝑈 = 0 at 𝑥 = 𝑥1 , which amounts to
where 𝑑 is the distance along the incline, and ∆𝑦 is
choosing 𝑥1 = 0, so that
the change in height.
1
 If the block starts out with zero initial velocity at the 𝑈(𝑥) = 𝑘𝑥 2
2
top of the incline, and we ask what is the speed 𝑣 at
the bottom,  (b) Suppose this spring is hung vertically from the
ceiling with a mass 𝑚 suspended from the other end,
then ∆𝑦 = −ℎ = −𝑑 sin 𝜃, and constrained to move in the vertical direction only.
1 Find the extension 𝑥𝑜 of the new equilibrium position
so 𝑚𝑣 2 − 𝑚𝑔𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = −𝜇𝑚𝑔𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
2 with the suspended mass. Show that the total
1 potential energy (spring plus gravity) has the same
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑚𝑔𝑑(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = −𝜇 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃) form ½ 𝑘𝑦 2 if we use the coordinate 𝑦 equal to the
2
displacement measured from the new equilibrium
or 𝑣 = √2𝑔𝑑(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 𝜇 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃) position at 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 (and redefine our reference point
Comparison with Example 1.1: so that 𝑈 = 0 at 𝑦 = 0).

 When we did this problem using forces, we obtained  Solution to (b):

equation of motion  The new equilibrium position is reached when the
𝑥̈ = 𝑔(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 𝜇 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃) force of the stretched spring 𝑘𝑥𝑜 equals the force of
gravity on the mass 𝑚𝑔. Thus
1
𝑑 = 𝑔(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 𝜇 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)𝑡 2 𝑘𝑥𝑜 = 𝑚𝑔
2
2𝑑 𝑚
𝑡=√ 𝑥𝑜 = 𝑔
𝑔(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 𝜇 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃) 𝑘
 To define the potential energy at the new equilibrium
from which, after integration, we got the expression position, we have to examine the work done in
𝑥̇ = 𝑔(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 𝜇 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)𝑡 displacing the mass a distance 𝑦:
𝑦
 Comparing with our just derived expression 𝑈(𝑦) = −𝑊(0 → 𝑦) = − ∫ (𝐹grav + 𝐹spr )𝑑𝑦′
0
𝑣 = √2𝑔𝑑(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 𝜇 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃) 𝑦

they may seem quite different. What is happening is 𝑈(𝑦) = − ∫ (mg + 𝑘(𝑥0 + 𝑦′) )𝑑𝑦′
0
that using forces we can get the velocity versus time,
𝑦 𝑦 𝑦
whereas with energy we are only getting the speed at 𝑈(𝑦) = − ∫ 𝑚𝑔𝑑𝑦 ′ + 𝑘𝑥0 ∫ 𝑑𝑦′ + 𝑚𝑔 ∫ 𝑦′𝑑𝑦′
the end points. Energy considerations are very 0 0 0
powerful if you just want to know the result at a 1
particular point, in which case you can ignore the 𝑈(𝑦) = −𝑚𝑔𝑦 + 𝑘𝑥0 𝑦 + 𝑘𝑦 2
2
details of the motion in getting there. If you instead
need to know the path taken, or the details along the 4.3 Force as a Gradient of Potential Energy:
path, you have to use the tools of Newton’s Laws.  Consider a conservative force with 𝑭(𝒓) with
 However, we will find in a few weeks that these corresponding potential energy 𝑈(𝒓). Work done in
energy considerations do contain all of the moving from 𝒓 to 𝒓 + 𝑑𝒓 is
information of Newton’s Laws, and we will build the 𝑊(𝒓 → 𝒓 + 𝑑𝒓) = 𝑭(𝒓). 𝑑𝒓
tools necessary in Lagrangian mechanics to get the = 𝐹𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐹𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝐹𝑧 𝑑𝑧 − −(1)
equation of motion starting from energy. This allows But we know that
us to attack much more complicated problems. 𝑊(𝒓 → 𝒓 + 𝑑𝒓) = −𝑑𝑈
= −[𝑈(𝒓 + 𝑑𝒓) − 𝑈(𝒓)]
Problem 4.9: = −[𝑈(𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑑𝑦, 𝑧 + 𝑑𝑧) − 𝑈(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)] − −(2)
 Recall
 Statement of the problem: (a) The force exerted by a
𝑑𝑓
one-dimensional spring, fixed at one end, is 𝑭 = 𝑑𝑓 = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
−𝑘𝑥, where 𝑥 is the displacement of the other end Therefore
from its equilibrium position. Assuming that this 𝑑𝑈 = 𝑈(𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑑𝑦, 𝑧 + 𝑑𝑧) − 𝑈(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
force is conservative (which it is) show that the 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
corresponding potential energy is 𝑈 = ½ 𝑘𝑥 2 , if we 𝑑𝑈 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
choose U = 0 at its equilibrium position.
  Equation (2) can be written as (iii) We can use conservation of energy to
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 completely solve the problem.
𝑊(𝒓 → 𝒓 + 𝑑𝒓) = − ( 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
− −(3) Let’s look at them one by one.]
 Compare equation (1) and (3)
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈  Constraining the body to move in 1D only greatly
𝐹𝑥 = − , 𝐹𝑦 = − , 𝐹𝑥 = − simplifies the problem. However, 1D does not always
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 But 𝑭 (vector) is mean to on a perfectly straight, or linear, track.
̂ + 𝐹𝑦 𝒚
𝑭 = 𝐹𝑥 𝒙 ̂ + 𝐹𝑧 𝒛̂  Here 1D mean that the system’s position requires
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 only one coordinate for its description.
𝑭=− ̂
𝒙− ̂−
𝒚 𝒛̂  Consider an object confined to move along a straight
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 track. In this case, 𝑭 = 𝐹𝑥 𝐱̂
𝑭 = −( ̂ 𝒙+ 𝒚 ̂ + 𝒛̂) 𝑈  The work done in moving an object from 𝑥1 to 𝑥2 is
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑥2
𝑭 = −𝛁U 𝑊(𝑥1 → 𝑥2 ) = ∫ 𝐹𝑥 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑥1
This gives a relation of force in terms of derivative
 Recall that the two conditions that the force is
potential energy.
conservative are: (i) It depends only on position, (ii)
[Recall work done by it is path independent.
𝒓  H.W. Show that in 1D case, first condition guarantees
𝑈(𝒓) = − ∫ 𝑭(𝒓′). 𝑑𝒓′ the second one.
𝒓0

is an expression that gives potential energy as an Graph for the Potential Energy:
integral of force.]  For 1D systems, graph can easily be plotted and
 Follow example 4.4 visualised.
 Equation (3) can be written as  Recall that the 3D expression for force is, 𝑭 = −𝛁U
and in 1D we need to consider only x-component
𝜕𝑈
𝑊(𝒓 → 𝒓 + 𝑑𝒓) = −𝛁U. d𝐫 𝐹𝑥 = −
𝜕𝑥
Equivalence of Second Condition that Force be and definition of potential energy at a position 𝑥 is
𝑥
Conservative:
𝑈(𝑥) = − ∫ 𝐹𝑥 (𝑥′)𝑑𝑥′
𝑥0
 We have seen the second condition for a force to be
conservative is that the work done by the force is  For a certain situation the potential energy as a
independent of the path between two points function of 𝑥 is plotted as shown in figure
2
𝑊(1 → 2) = ∫ 𝑭 ⋅ 𝑑𝒓
1

But this is cumbersome method.

 Another easier to check if the force is conservative is
to calculate its curl. Force is conservative if
𝛁×𝑭=𝟎
(Hint: Use Stokes’s theorem)
 Follow example 4.5

Time Dependent Potential Energy:

 If we have a time dependent force in addition to

position i.e. 𝑭(𝒓, 𝑡) that satisfies 𝛁 × 𝑭 = 𝟎, we can
still define potential energy 𝑈(𝒓, 𝑡) with the property
that 𝑭 = −𝛁𝑈. However, in this case mechanical
energy 𝐸 = 𝑇 + 𝑈 is not constant anymore and it is  For 1D system, think about the graph of 𝑈(𝑥) as
converted into some other of energy or to mechanical picture of a roller coaster.
energy of other bodies external to the system of  At point 𝑥3
interest. 𝑑𝑈 𝑑2 𝑈
= 0 and >0
 Prove that in this case 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
𝜕𝑈 so 𝑈(𝑥) is minimum and a small displacement from
𝑑𝐸 = 𝑑𝑡 equilibrium causes a force that pushes the object back
𝜕𝑡
where 𝐸 = 𝑇 + 𝑈 to equilibrium.
 At point 𝑥4
4.6 Energy for Linear One-Dimensional Systems:
𝑑𝑈 𝑑2 𝑈
= 0 and <0
[There are three main useful features of 1D systems: 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
so 𝑈(𝑥) is maximum and a small displacement from
(i) For a force to be conservative, we don’t equilibrium causes a force that moves the object
need two conditions, one condition away from the equilibrium.
suffices.
(ii) Plot for potential energy is easy.
 Equilibrium points where 𝑈(𝑥) is
2
𝑑2 𝑈 𝑥̇ (𝑥) = ±√ √𝐸 − 𝑈(𝑥)
 minimum and 𝑑𝑥 2
> 0 are the points of 𝑚
stable equilibrium. [in this equation, we can determine 𝐸 from initial
𝑑2 𝑈
 Maximum and 𝑑𝑥 2
< 0 are the points of conditions and 𝑈 will be given for given system so we
unstable equilibrium. can determine 𝑥̇ ].
𝑑𝑥
𝑥̇ (𝑥) =
𝑑𝑡
Requirement that the system is confined Separate the variables
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡 =
𝑥̇ (𝑥)
Integrate between initial and final points
𝑥𝑓
𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫
𝑥𝑖 𝑥̇ (𝑥)
𝑥𝑓
𝑑𝑥
𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖 = ∫
𝑥𝑖 𝑥̇ (𝑥)
Put the positive value of 𝑥̇ (𝑥)

𝑥
𝑑𝑥′
𝑡−0=∫
𝑥0
√ 2 √𝐸 − 𝑈(𝑥′)
𝑚

 Graph shows if the object is moving, its 𝑚 𝑥 𝑑𝑥′

𝑡=√ ∫
kinetic energy is positive and its total energy 2 𝑥0 √𝐸 − 𝑈(𝑥′)
has to be greater than 𝑈(𝑥). This equation will ′𝑡′ as a function of ′𝑥′. We can solve
 If we want object to move between 𝑎 and 𝑐, it find 𝑥(𝑡).
then 𝑈(𝑎) = 𝑈(𝑏) = 𝐸.  Follow example 4.6
 If object starts with energy greater than the
crest of the right hill (but lower than height of 4.8 Curvilinear One-Dimensional Systems
left hill), it will escape to the right. In case, if  If a body’s position is specified by a single variable, it
its energy is higher than both the hill, it can is also a 1D system. For example (i) a bead threaded
escape in either direction. on a curved rigid wire (ii) roller coaster confined to a
 An example from molecular physics. Figure shows the curved track. The variable we can choose is the
potential energy of a diatomic molecule (e.g. HCl) as distance ′𝑠′, measured along the wire, from a chosen
a function of the separation of the atoms. (Read origin ′𝑂′.
further description from the book).

 Bead’s kinetic energy is

1
𝑇 = 𝑚𝑠̇ 2
2
 Force in this case has two components:
 Normal component of force or force of
constraint: it constrains the bead to follow the
curved path. But it does no work.
Complete Solution of the Motion  Tangential component of force (𝐹𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔 )
𝐹𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔 = 𝑚𝑠̈
 For 1D system, we can use conservation of energy to (Follow problem 4.32)
obtain complete solution i.e. to find 𝑥(𝑡).  If 𝐹𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔 is (are) conservative, we can define a
 Since
corresponding potential energy,
𝐸 = 𝑇 + 𝑈(𝑥) 𝑑𝑈
𝑇 = 𝐸 − 𝑈(𝑥) 𝐹𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔 = −
𝑑𝑥
1
𝑚𝑥̇ 2 = 𝐸 − 𝑈(𝑥) and the total mechanical energy 𝐸 = 𝑇 + 𝑈(𝑠) is
2 constant.
 Follow example 4.7
Futher Generalizations:

 There are many systems, consisting of several bodies  Consider a gravitational interaction, so that, as usual,
that are joined in such a way that just one parameter
𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2 𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
is needed to describe the system’s position. 𝑭12 = − 2
𝒓̂ = − 𝒓.
𝑟 𝑟3
 Such systems with constraining particles can be
treated in this way: The constraining forces are very  From the definition of 𝒓 and the vector difference of
important in determining how the system moves, but the two position vectors, we can rewrite this as:
they do no work on the system as a whole. Thus, in 𝒓 = 𝒓1 − 𝒓2
considering the total energy of the system, we can as shown in the figure.
simply ignore the constraining forces. In particular, if
all other forces are conservative, we can define a
potential energy 𝑈𝛼 for each particle 𝛼, and the total
energy
𝑁

𝐸 = ∑(𝑇𝛼 + 𝑈𝛼 )
𝛼=1

4.8 Central Forces

 It is a force that is always directed toward or away
from a fixed “force center” and (taking force center to
be the origin), it is given by
𝑭(𝒓) = 𝑓(𝒓)𝐫̂
 Its two important properties are: So we can write above formula for force as
 It is conservative. 𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
 It is spherically symmetric or rotationally 𝑭12 = − (𝒓 − 𝒓2 ).
|𝒓1 − 𝒓2 |3 1
invariant.
 The fact that this depends only on the difference of
An amazing feature of central forces is that the the two position vectors means that the force is
two properties are always go together: A central translationally invariant. We can write
force that is conservative is automatically 𝑭12 = 𝑭12 (𝒓1 − 𝒓2 )
spherically symmetric, and conversely, a central
force that is spherically symmetric is  This fact of translational invariance—the fact that the
automatically conservative. force of interaction depends only on the distance
between two particles, and not on their absolution
 This can be proved easily using spherical coordinates position, allows us to greatly simplify the discussion
𝑭(𝒓) = −𝛁𝑈 by choosing a point, 𝒓2 , say, as the origin (even
𝜕𝑈 1 𝜕𝑈 1 𝜕𝑈 though the position of particle 2 is changing, i.e. the
𝑭(𝒓) = −𝒓̂ −𝜽̂ −∅̂
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕∅ origin need not be a fixed point). In this case we can
If 𝑭(𝒓) is central, only its radial component is write
nonzero, and
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝑭12 = 𝑭12 (𝒓1 )
= =0
𝜕𝜃 𝜕∅  With this choice, our earlier discussion of force on a
 So forces reduces to
single particle applies. For example, if the force 𝑭12
𝜕𝑈
𝑭(𝒓) = −𝒓̂ on particle 1 is conservative, then
𝜕𝑟
Since 𝑈 is spherically symmetric (depends only on 𝑟), 𝜵1 × 𝑭12 = 0,
𝜕𝑈
so is 𝜕𝑟
and we see that the central force 𝑭(𝒓) is
where the operator
indeed spherically symmetric.
 H.W. problems 4.43, 4.44 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
̂
𝜵1 = 𝒙 ̂
+𝒚 + 𝒛̂
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑦1 𝜕𝑧1
4.9 Energy of Interaction of Two Particles:
with respect to the coordinates 𝒓1 = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ).
 Up to now we have been discussing the energy of a
single particle. Now let’s look at the energy of two  When the curl above is zero (i.e. the force is
particles. conservative) then we can define a potential energy

 Imagine two isolated particles, alone in the universe 𝑭12 = −𝜵1 𝑈(𝒓1 ).
(no external forces) interacting with each other.  Note that 𝑈(𝒓1 ) is defined throughout space, but the
Particle 2, at position 𝒓2 from the origin, exerts a force force at particle 1 is the gradient of 𝑈(𝒓1 ) evaluated
𝑭12 on particle 1, while the particle 1 at position 𝒓1 at the point where particle 1 is, i.e. at 𝒓1 .
exerts an equal and opposite force 𝑭21 = −𝑭12 on
particle 2.  The previous discussion is specific to the case when
particle 2 is at the origin, but we can always translate
 In general, 𝑭12 could depend on position of both the to some other origin such that particle 2 is at position
particles and we can write is as 𝒓2 , so that:
𝑭12 = 𝑭12 (𝒓1 , 𝒓2 ) 𝑭12 = −𝜵1 𝑈(𝒓1 − 𝒓2 ).
 The trick is that we do not have to modify the potential energy takes both of these terms into
𝜕 account).
operator 𝜵1 , because a derivative like 𝜕𝑥1
is
 Obviously, then, the total energy is conserved. This
unchanged by adding a constant to 𝑥1 .
can be seen by recalling 𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑑𝑇 and comparing
 We can then find the force on particle 2 by particle 1 as with above expression
𝑑𝑇 = −𝑑𝑈
𝑭21 = −𝑭12
𝑑(𝑇 + 𝑈) = 0
𝑭21 = −[−𝜵1 𝑈(𝒓1 − 𝒓2 )] 𝐸 = 𝑇 + 𝑈 = 𝑇1 + 𝑇2 + 𝑈 = constant.
 Notice that there are two kinetic energies, one for
𝑭21 = 𝜵1 𝑈(𝒓1 − 𝒓2 ) each particle, but only one potential energy arising
but {𝜵1 𝑈(𝒓1 − 𝒓2 ) = −𝜵2 𝑈(𝒓1 − 𝒓2 )} from the configuration of the particles (𝑈 accounts
for the work done by both 𝑭12 and 𝑭21).
𝜕 𝜕
[Hint: 𝜕𝑥1
𝑓(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ) = − 𝜕𝑥 𝑓(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ). For detail, Elastic Collisions:
2
se problem 4.50]. So
 Elastic collisions are ones that take place through
𝑭21 = −𝜵2 𝑈(𝒓1 − 𝒓2 ). conservative forces, so that no energy is lost (to heat
or other mechanism). A collision between a proton
 What this says is that we can consider a single
and an electron, for example, occurs through the
potential energy for the interaction between
conservative electrostatic force. Collisions between
particles 1 and 2, and evaluate its gradient at the
two billiard balls is largely elastic, because the balls
position of each particle to find the force on each
are made to act like stiff springs when they collide.
particle.
 If particles start out far apart (𝑈 = 0), approach one
(Force on particle 1) = −𝜵1 𝑈
}. another under conservative force (𝑈 ≠ 0 and T
(Force on particle 2) = −𝜵2 𝑈
changes), and then move far apart. Total energy is
Total Energy of Interaction: conserved; so well before and after the particles
come together, we have
 Now consider the two particles moving through space
under their mutual interaction, so that particle 1 𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑇𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
moves through a distance 𝑑𝒓1 under the force 𝑭12
and particle 2 moves through a distance 𝑑𝒓2 under  At sufficiently low energy, collisions of an electron
the force 𝑭21. with an atom, to a good approximation, the same as
for billiard balls, and collision is elastic. At high enough
 By the work-KE theorem, there will be a change in energies, there may be internal motion and collision
kinetic energy of each of the particles: cannot be elastic.
𝑑𝑇1 = (work on 1) = 𝑭12 ⋅ 𝑑𝒓1  Follow example 4.8
and 𝑑𝑇2 = (work on 2) = 𝑭21 ⋅ 𝑑𝒓2 .
4.10 Generalizing to Multiple Particles:

Let’s first consider four particle system:

Four Particles:

 Four particles interact with each other e.g. via

Coulomb force and there may be some external
forces.

 We simply add these to find the total kinetic energy:

𝑑𝑇 = 𝑑𝑇1 + 𝑑𝑇2
𝑑𝑇 = (work on 1) + (work on 2) = 𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡
where
𝑊tot = 𝑭12 ⋅ 𝑑𝒓1 + 𝑭21 ⋅ 𝑑𝒓2
𝑊tot = 𝑭12 ⋅ 𝑑𝒓1 − 𝑭12 ⋅ 𝑑𝒓2
 This can be rewritten as
𝑊tot = (𝑑𝒓1 − 𝑑𝒓2 ) ⋅ 𝑭12
𝑊tot = 𝑑(𝒓1 − 𝒓2 ) ⋅ [−𝜵1 𝑈(𝒓1 − 𝒓2 )]
 Let 𝒓1 − 𝒓2 = 𝒓, then we finally have:
𝑊tot = −𝑑𝒓 ⋅ 𝜵𝑈(𝒓) = −𝜵𝑈(𝒓). 𝑑𝒓 = −𝑑𝑈.
Recall that total work is sum of two terms namely
𝑊tot = 𝑭12 ⋅ 𝑑𝒓1 + 𝑭21 ⋅ 𝑑𝒓2
According to 𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡 = −𝑑𝑈 (as derived): As the
 Total kinetic energy is
particles move, the potential energy changes, but the
change is just the negative of the change in potential 𝑇 = 𝑇1 + 𝑇2 + 𝑇3 + 𝑇4
energy that results from the interaction force (i.e. the 1
Where 𝑇𝛼 = 2 𝑚𝛼 𝑣𝛼2
 Consider a pair of particle 3 and 4 for which  One can calculate the force on particle 𝛼 by
𝑭34 = −𝑭43. If forces are conservative, we can define 𝑭𝛼 = −𝜵𝛼 𝑈,meaning calculate the gradient of 𝑈 at
potential energy the position of the particle 𝛼. The total energy
𝐸 = 𝑇 + 𝑈 is conserved.
𝑈34 = 𝑈34 (𝒓3 − 𝒓4 )
Rigid Bodies:
and we can write
 The subtlety of
𝑭34 = −𝜵3 𝑈34
}
𝑭43 = −𝜵4 𝑈34
𝑈 = 𝑈 𝑖𝑛𝑡 + 𝑈 𝑒𝑥𝑡 = ∑ ∑ 𝑈𝛼𝛽 + ∑ 𝑈𝛼ext
Similarly for all six pairs 12, 13, 14, 23, 24, 34. 𝛼 𝛽>𝛼 𝛼

 The external force on particle 𝛼 i.e. 𝑭𝑒𝑥𝑡

𝛼 depends on can be illustrated with an example of rigid body
𝑒𝑥𝑡 rotation.
its position 𝒓𝛼 (for particle 1, 𝑭1 depends on 𝒓𝟏 and
not on 𝒓2 , 𝒓3 , … etc. If this external force is
 For a macroscopic rigid body, the number of particles
conservative
(atoms) may be vast. However, because the body is
𝑭α = −𝜵𝛼 𝑈𝛼𝑒𝑥𝑡 (𝒓𝛼 ) rigid, the interaction forces between atoms is
constant, and the particles do not shift position
 The total potential energy is
appreciably to change the internal potential energy.
𝑈 = 𝑈 𝑖𝑛𝑡 + 𝑈 𝑒𝑥𝑡
𝑈 𝑖𝑛𝑡 = ∑ ∑ 𝑈𝛼𝛽 (|𝒓𝛼 − 𝒓𝛽 |)
𝑈 = (𝑈12 + 𝑈13 + 𝑈14 + 𝑈23 + 𝑈24 + 𝑈34 ) 𝛼 𝛽>𝛼
+ (𝑈1𝑒𝑥𝑡 + 𝑈2𝑒𝑥𝑡 + 𝑈3𝑒𝑥𝑡 + 𝑈4𝑒𝑥𝑡 )
Thus, the internal potential energy is constant and we
Now, force on particle 𝛼 is can completely ignore it.
𝑭α = −𝜵𝛼 𝑈(𝒓𝛼 )
 However, if the body is NOT rigid, and the shape or
 (for example) for particle 1, apply −𝜵1 on above configuration of atoms changes, then there may be an
expression for potential energy 𝑈 appreciable change in internal kinetic energy that
DOES have to be taken into account.
−𝜵1 𝑈 = −𝜵1 (𝑈12 + 𝑈13 + 𝑈14 + 𝑈23 + 𝑈24 + 𝑈34 )
− 𝜵1 (𝑈1𝑒𝑥𝑡 + 𝑈2𝑒𝑥𝑡 + 𝑈3𝑒𝑥𝑡 + 𝑈4𝑒𝑥𝑡 )  An example is a star that may expand or contract
during its lifetime. The change in configuration of the
−𝜵1 𝑈 = −𝜵1 𝑈12 −𝜵1 𝑈13 − 𝜵1 𝑈13 −𝜵1 𝑈1𝑒𝑥𝑡
internal layers of the star affect the potential energy,
−𝜵1 𝑈 = 𝑭12 + 𝑭13 + 𝑭14 + 𝑭1𝑒𝑥𝑡 and hence also the kinetic energy.
−𝜵1 𝑈 = 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 1  Since total energy is conserved, for example, an
expanding star must become cooler.
(H.W. problem 4.51)
Example 4.9: A Cylinder Rolling Down an Incline:
 So in general
 Statement of the problem: A uniform rigid cylinder
−𝜵𝛼 𝑈 = 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝛼
of mass M, radius R rolls without slipping down a
 Since forces involved are conservative, we can prove sloping track as shown in the figure. Use energy
that conservation to find its speed 𝑣 when it reaches a
𝑑𝐸 = 𝑑𝑇 + 𝑑𝑈 = 0 vertical height ℎ below its point of release.
And energy is conserved.
 Solution:
N particles:
 For cylinder (a rigid body), we may ignore its 𝑈 𝑖𝑛𝑡 .
 For N particles, 𝛼 = 1, 2, 3, … , 𝑁, total kinetic energy
The external potential energy is 𝑈 ext = 𝑀𝑔𝑦,
is
where y is the vertical position of its CM measured
1 from any convenient location.
𝑇 = ∑ 𝑇𝛼 = ∑ 𝑚𝛼 𝑣𝛼2
2
𝛼 𝛼  The KE of a rotating (rolling) cylinder is 𝑇=
1 1
 Taking the system of N particles interacting through 2
𝑀𝑣 2 + 2
𝐼𝜔2 , where for cylinder, 𝐼 = ½𝑀𝑅 2 ,
conservative forces, one can consider the “internal and 𝜔 is the angular velocity of rolling. Because the
potential energy” of the system, 𝑈 𝑖𝑛𝑡 , and any cylinder is rolling without slipping, 𝜔 = 𝑣/𝑅.
“external potential energy”, 𝑈 𝑒𝑥𝑡 , imposed from Thus, the final kinetic energy is
outside.
3
𝑇 = 𝑀𝑣 2 .
 The total potential energy is then 4
 If the cylinder starts from rest, (see figure in book)
𝑈 = 𝑈 𝑖𝑛𝑡 + 𝑈 𝑒𝑥𝑡 = ∑ ∑ 𝑈𝛼𝛽 + ∑ 𝑈𝛼ext
𝛼 𝛽>𝛼 𝛼 ∆𝑇 = −∆𝑈𝑒𝑥𝑡
3
where the sums are over all of the particles and the 𝑀𝑣 2 = −𝑀𝑔(𝑌𝑓𝑖𝑛 − 𝑌𝑖𝑛 ) = −𝑀𝑔(−ℎ) = 𝑀𝑔ℎ,
4
𝛽 > 𝛼 in the second of the double sum ensures that
we do not double count an interaction, e.g. 𝑈12 and 4
⇒ 𝑣 = √ 𝑔ℎ.
𝑈21 . 3