CHAPTER 5 – DISLOCATIONS OF PLASTIC DEFORMATION

5.1 If the shear vectors, τ , in Fig. 5.1 were moved from the top and bottom faces of the crystal, and
applied to front and rear surfaces, with the forward vector pointing upwards and the rear one
downwards, could any of the Frank-Read dislocation segments move as a result of this shearing
stress? Explain.

Solution:

In order for the applied shear stress to be able to move a dislocation it should have a finite
component in the direction of the dislocation’s Burgers vector. As may be seen in the above
figure, the given shear stress is perpendicular to the Burgers vector in all three parts of the
Frank-Read Source dislocation. This stress will not move the dislocation.

5.2 (a) Again, with reference to Fig. 5.1, describe what might be expected to happen to the
dislocation configuration of this crystal if a horizontal tensile were to be applied to right and left
faces of the crystals.

(b) What would be the effect on this dislocation configuration of Fig. 5.1 if the tensile stress in
part (a) of this problem were to be changed to a compressive stress?

Solution:

(a) A tensile stress is associated with an increase in size of the extra plane of a dislocation. Thus,
in reference to the figure for this problem (below), the extra plane, which lies inside the two
vertical and one horizontal segments of the Frank-Read disloaction configuration, will grow
in size with the forward vertical segment moving towards the front of the crystal, and the
one in back of it moving towards the rear. At the same time the horizontal segment will
move downward.
(b) A compressive stress will act to decrease the size of the extra plane and the movements
described in (a) of this problem will be reversed.

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41
5.3 There are three slip systems on an fcc octahedral plane. Assume a 2 MPa tensile stress is applied
along the [100] direction of a gold crystal, whose critical resolved shear stress is 0.91 MPa.
Demonstrate quantitatively that measurable slip will not occur on any of three slip systems in
the (111) plane as a result of this applied stress.

Solution:

The slip systems associated with the (111) plane in a fcc metal are (
111 ¿ [ 1 1 0 ] , ( 111 ) [ 01 1 ] and ( 111 ) [ 10 1 ] . This problem requires the use of the Schmid equation:

r =σ ×cos (θ)cos( ϕ)

Where θ is the angle between the stress axis, [100], and the pole of the slip plane and ϕ the
angle between the stress axis, and one of the three slip directions. Both cos (θ)∧cos (ϕ ) can be
evaluated with the aid of Eq. 5.3, which is:

h1 ×h2 + k 1 × k 2 +l 1 ×l 2
cos ( α )= 2 2 2 1 /2 2 2 2 1 /2
(h +k 1 +l 1) ×(h2 +k 2 +l 2)
1

To find cos (ϕ ) for the slip system (111)[ 11 0 ] , with a [100] stress axis we have:

1× 1+1× 0+1 ×0
cos ( ϕ )= 2 2 2 1/ 2 2 1 /2
=0.577
(1 + 1 +1 ) ×(1 +0+0)

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 A similar calculation, for this slip system, yields: cos ( θ )=0.707 , so that we have:

τ =σ × cos(θ)cos( ϕ)=2 ( 0.577 )( 0.707 )=0.817 MPa

In the same manner we find that for the slip system (111) [ 01 1 ] :

τ =0

and for the (111)[101] system:

τ =0.817 MPa

Note that the resolved shear stress on all three of the slip systems is less than the critical
resolved shear stress of 0.91 MPa. As a consequence, the applied stress will not cause slip on
any of the slip systems.

5.4 On a 100 standard stereographic projection of a cubic crystal (see Fig. 1.31), plot the (111) pole,
as well as the great circle corresponding to this plane. Mark the three ¿ 11 0> ¿ slip directions on
the great circle of the (111) plane. Then plot the position, on the stereographic projection, of the
[310] direction. If a tensile stress is applied along the [310] direction, what would be the
magnitude of the Schmid factor (that is cos (θ)cos ( ϕ)¿ ,for the (111)[101] slip system with this
stress axis orientation?

Solution:

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 The problem is to evaluate the Schmid factor, cos (θ)× cos(ϕ), when the stress axis is on the
[310] direction. In this case:

[ 310 ] ×[111] 4
cos ( θ )= =
√ 9+ 1+ 0 × √ 1+ 1+ 1 √ 30

and

[ 310 ] ×[111] 3
cos ( θ )= =
√20 √ 20
so that the Schmidt factor is:

12
cos (θ)× cos( ϕ)= =0.49
√ 600

5.5 Deformation twins are also able to form along the {111} planes of fcc crystals, as a result of the
application of a shear stress across this type of plane. In twinning, the shear directions are
¿ 2 11> ¿.

(a) Prove, using Eq. 5.3, that the [ 12 1 ] and[11 2] are directions that lie in the (111) plane.

(b) Determine the Schmid factors for the (111)[ 211 ] , ( 111 ) [1 21], and (111)[11 2] twinning
systems if a tensile stress is applied along the [711] direction.

Solution:

(a) For a direction to lie in a plane, the dot product of the direction and the pole of the plane
must equal zero. Thus, consider the dot product of the [12 1] direction, and the [111] pole;

[ 12 1 ] × [ 111 ] =1×1−2× 1+1× 1=0

and for the other system:

[ 112 ] × [ 111 ] =1 ×1+1× 1−2 ×1=0

Consequently, we may conclude that both of these directions lie in the (111) plane.
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44
 (b) First consider the Schmid factor for the ( 111 ) [211] system. The cosine of the angle between
the pole of the twinning plane, [111], and the [711] stress axis is given by:

7 × 1+ 1× 1+1 ×1 9
cos ( θ )= = =0.728
√1+1+1 × √ 49+1+1 √ 3× √ 51

and the cosine of the angle α between the [711] stress axis, and the [211] twinning shear
direction is:
−7 ×2+1 ×1+1 ×1
cos ( α )= =−0.686
√ 6 × √51

And the Schmid factor is:

cos ( θ ) × cos ( α )=0.728 × (−0.686 )=−0.499

If we let β represent the angle between the stress axis and the twinning shear direction in
the ( 111 ) [ 12 1] twin system, it may be shown that:

7 ×1−1× 2+ 1× 1
cos ( β )= =0.343
√ 6 × √ 51
So that the Schmid factor for the ( 111 ) [12 1] twinning system is

cos ( θ ) × cos ( β )=0.728 ×0.343=0.250

Finally, it may be shown that the Schmidt factor for the ( 111 ) [112] twinning system, when
the stress axis is along [711] is:

cos (θ)cos ( δ ) =0.728 × ( 7 ×1+1 ×1−1× 2

√6 × √51 )=0.250
5.6 With the aid of Eq. 5.3, prove that the ( 4 22) plane of a cubic crystal belongs to the zone whose
axis is [111].

Solution:

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 If a plane belongs to a zone, the pole of the plane will be normal to the axis of the zone and the
dot product between the zone axis and the pole will equal zero. Thus, the fact that:

[ 111 ] × [ 4 22 ] =−4+2+2=0

proves that [ 4 22 ] lies in the 111 zone.

5.7 (a) Determine the angle between [123], and [321] in a cubic crystal. Check Appendix A to see if
your answer is correct.

(b) Find a combination of two <321> directions that make an angel of 85.90 degress with each
other.

Solution:

(a) Using Eq. 5.3 we have:

3 ×1+2 ×2+1 ×3 10
cos ( λ )= = =0.714
√ 3 + 2 +1 × √ 1 +2 + 3
2 2 2 2 2 2 14

and
−1
λ=cos ( 0.714 )=44.42 degrees

(b) Given θ=85.90 degrees, the problem is to determine a pair of <123> directions that make
this angle with each other. Appendix A shows that there are 10 possible angles between
<1123> directions in a cubic crystal. However, 85.90 degrees is the largest. This suggests
that, for this largest angle, cos (λ) should be the smallest. By inspection of the equation in
part (a) of this problem, it may be deduced that in all cases the denominator of the
expression on the right should equal 14. For a minimum value of cos (λ), it is necessary to
find a combination of <123> directions that have a minimum value for their dot-product.
Such a pair is [ 312 ] and [ 123 ] , which make:

−3 ×1−1 ×2+2 ×3 1
cos ( λ )= = =0.0714 degrees
14 14
and

λ=cos−1 ( 0.0714 )=85.90 degrees

5.8 A 10 mm diameter zinc crystal has a longitudinal axis that makes an angle of 85 degrees with
the pole of the basal plane, and a 7 degree angle with the closest ¿ 11 20> ¿ slip direction in the
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46
 basal plane. If the critical resolved shear stress of zinc is 0.20 MPa, at what axial load would the
crystal begin to deform by basal slip: (a) newtons, (b) kilograms force?

Solution:

The Schmid equation is:

τ =σ cos (θ)cos ( ϕ)

In this equation the only unknown is σ , the applied tensile stress. Solving for σ and substituting
into this equations for τ , the critical resolved shear stress, and the values of the angles θ and ϕ
yields:

τ 0.20 0.20
σ= = = =2.31 MPa
cos(θ) cos (ϕ) cos (85)cos (7) 0.0872× 0.9925

Note: 2.31 MPa = 2.31 ×106 Pa. Let p represent the load. Then, since 10 mm = 0.01 m, the
2
π (0.01) 2
cross-section area of the specimen will be m . The load p is accordingly:
4

2
σπ (0.01)
=2.31 ×10 ( 7.9 ×10 ) =181.4 N
6 5
(a) p=
4
181.4
(b) p= =18.49 kilograms force
9.81

5.9 With regard to slip in hcp crystals answer the following.

(a) Would it be possible for rotational slip to occur with the pole of a {11 2 2} plane as the axis
of rotation?

(b) Would bend gliding be possible with { 11 22 } <11 23>¿ slip? Explain.

Solution:

(a) Each of the { 11 22 } slip planes contains a single ¿ 11 23>¿ slip direction. Consequently,
rotational slip on these planes is very unlikely. Rotational slip is normally associated with slip
planes containing multiple slip directions.
(b) Bending deformation needs only a single set of edge dislocations of the same sign so that
bending is possible with this kind of slip.

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47
5.10 (a) Would it be possible to deform a zinc crystal in compression parallel to its [0001] axis using
only the three (0001)¿ 11 20> ¿ slip systems? Explain,

(b) If the { 11 22 } <11 23>¿ slip systems were to operate, could the crystal be deformed in the
direction of the basal pole?

Solution:

(a) Since all of the ¿ 11 20> ¿ slip directions lie in basal plane, and the stress direction is normal to
the basal plane, the resolved shear stress on the basal plane will be zero and there should be no
deformation.
(b) Yes. In this type of slip the slip directions have a finite component parallel to the basal plane
pole.

5.11 The total line length of the dislocations in a 4 cm by 4 cm TEM photograph of a metal foil, taken
at a magnification of 25,000X, is 400 cm. The foil imaged by the picture had a thickness of 300
nm. Determine the disloaction density in the foil.

Solution:

The total area of the photograph is 0.04 m by 0.04 m. This corresponds to an area:

0.04 × 0.04 −12 2

A= =4 × 10 m
20,000 ×20,000

The volume of the foil, V, is equal to this area multiplied by the foil thickness, t=300 ×10−9 m ,
and is V =1.2×10−18 m3. The length of the dislocations in this volume is:

4 −4
L= =2 ×10 m
20,000

The dislocation density, p, may now be calculated:

−4
L 2× 10 14 m
p= = −18
=1.67 ×10 3
V 1.2× 10 m

5.12 Identify the dislocation in terms of its Burgers vector (using vector notation) that can cross-slip
between (111) and (1 11) of a fcc crystal.

Solution:

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48
 In order to cross-slip between two planes, the Burgers vector of a dislocation must lie in both
planes. This slip direction in (111) are [ 110 ] , [ 101 ] ,[0 11] while those in
( 1 11 ) are [ 110 ] , [ 1 01 ] , [ 011 ] . The common slip direction is [ 10 1 ] , and is the direction of the
Burgers vector of a dislocation able to cross-slip between (111) and ( 1 11 ) .

1
5.13 In some hcp metals, a dislocation with a <11 2 3>¿ Burgers vector has been observed to
3
cross-slip between (0001), { 10 1 0 } and {11 22 } planes. Identify the specific planes on which a
1
dislocation with a [11 23] Burgers may move.
3

Solution:

1
It is theoretically possible for a dislocation with a <11 2 3>¿ Burgers vector to cross-slip
3
between the ( 1 100 ) , ( 10 11 ) , and( 112 2) planes because the [1123] direction is common to
all three of these planes, as illustrated in the figure below. In this diagram, the [1123] direction
corresponds to line ad, the (11 00) plane is the prism plane on the left, outlined by a heavy
dashed line, ( 10 11 ) is marked by the symbols abcd, and outlined by dashed lines, and the
(11 22) plane is delineated by lines with shorter dashes.

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5.14 (a) The diagram accompanying this problem shows a 111 standard projection of a fcc crystal, in
which the standard stereographic triangles are outlined. Assuming that point a in the figure
represents the orientation of the tensile stress axis, indicate on a copy of this diagram, the path
that the crystal axis would follow during tensile deformation of the crystal.

(b) Give the Miller indices of the final orientation of the stress axis.

Solution:

Consider the stereographic projection below. (A more completely labeled 111 standard
projection is given in Fig. 1.32). In tension, the stress axis will rotate towards the nearest slip
direction lying across one stereographic triangle boundary. In this example it lies to the right of
point a, and is [011]. However, in crossing the boundary, the stress axis enters another
stereographic triangle and another slip system becomes the most highly stressed system. Its slip
direction is [101], and the stress axis now moves towards the left. This process continues with
the stress axis moving first to the right, and then to the left until a stable end orientation is
reached.

(a)

(b) The end orientation is [112].

5.15 Now consider that point a represents the stress axis during compressive deformation, and show
the path on the stereographic projection that this axis will follow, and identify its end
orientation.

Solution:

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50
 The following figure shows the path of the stress axis in compression. Note that in compression,
the stress axis moves towards the pole of the slip plane. This end orientation for this problem is
the [101] direction.

5.16 For the case of tensile deformation considered in Prob. 5.14, determine the indices of the
primary, conjugate, and cross-slip systems, as well as those for the critical plane.

Solution:

(a) The primary system is ( 1 11 ) [ 011 ] .

(b) The conjugate system is ( 1 11 ) [ 101 ] .
(c) The cross-slip system is ( 11 1 ) [ 011 ] .
(d) The critical plane is (111).

5.17 Johnston and Gilman have reported that in a grown LiF crystal, subjected to a constant stress of
2
1110 gm×mm ( 10.8 MPa ) , the dislocation velocity at 249.1 K was 6 ×10−3 cm s−1
( 6 × 10−5 m s−1 ) ,and at 227.3 K the velocity was 10−6 cm s−1 ( 10−5 m s−1 ) . They also observed
that their data suggested an Arrhenius relationship between the dislocation velocity and the

absolute temperature, so that one might write v= A exp ( )

−Q
RT
, where v is the dislocation

velocity, A a constant of proportionality, Q an effective activation energy in J per mole, and R the
international gas constant (8.314 J per mole × K). Use the velocity versus temperature data of

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51
 Johnston and Gilman, given above, to determine Q and A for their LiF crystal, stressed at 1100
2
gm× mm . Note that Q may be obtained using the relation:

ln v 1−ln v 2=
Q 1 1
−(
R T2 T1 )
Once Q has been obtained, A may be determined by substitution into the Arrhenius equation.

Solution:

Given:
−5 −8
v1 =6 ×10 , v 2=10 ,T 1=249.1 , T 2 =227.3 , R=8.314

Now solving the above equation for Q, and substituting these data into this equation yields:

( )
ln ( 6 × 10 )−ln ⁡(10 )
−5 −8
5
Q=8.314 =1.879 ×10 J per mole
1
− (
1
227.3 249.1 )
Next to obtain A use:

v1 =A exp ( −Q
RT )

and solve for A:

v1 6 ×10−5 35 −1
A= = =1.571 ×10 m s
(R−QT ) ( −1.879
8.314 × 249.1 )
−5
exp ×10
exp

5.18 (a) Johnston and Gilman also observed that at a constant temperature the dislocation velocity
obeyed a power law. See Eq. 5.20. Assuming that the dislocation velocity exponent, m, is 16.5
and that the stress, D, for a velocity of 1 cm s−1 is 5.30 MPa, determine the stress needed to
obtain a velocity that is 5 times greater than that given in Eq. 5.21.

Solution:

Given:

D=5.30 , v=5 ( 1.1× 10 ) , m=16.5

−5

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52
 and the equation:
1 1
−5
τ =D ×v m =5.30×(5.5 ×10 )16.5 =2.925 MPa

5.19 A typical cross-headed speed in a tensile machine is 0.5 cm per minute.

(a) What is the nominal engineering strain rate imposed by this cross-head speed on a typical
engineering tensile specimen with a 5 cm gage length?

(b) Estimate the dislocation velocity that would be obtained with this strain rate in an iron
specimen, with a dislocation density of 1010 m/m3 . Assume that the Burgers vector of iron is
0.248 nm.

(c) If a very slow tensile test at a strain rate of 10−7 is used, what dislocation velocity would be
expected in the specimen?

Solution:

dε 0.5
(a) = min−1=0.0016 7 s−1
dt 5
(b) ε̇ =ρ bv

Where ε̇ is the strain rate, ρ the dislocation density, b the Burgers vector, and v the dislocation
density.

Solving for v, and substituting the given values of p, b, and v give:

ε̇ 0.00167 −12 −1
v= = 14 =6.734 ×10 m s
ρ× b 10 × 0.248 ×10−9

ε̇ 1 10−7 −12 −12

(c) v1 = = 14 =4.032× 10 m s
ρ × b 10 × 0.248× 10−9

5.20 Necking of a tensile specimen begins at a true strain of 0.20. The corresponding engineering
stress at this point is 1000 MPa. Determine the work hardening rate at the beginning of
necking.

Solution:

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 When necking commences, the work hardening rate is equal to the true stress. The true stress
may be obtained from the engineering stress, σ , and the engineering strrain, ϵ , with the aid of
the equation:

st =σ ×(1+ϵ )

Thus,

σ t=1000 × (1+ 0.2 )=1200 MPa .

5.21 A tensile test was made on a tensile specimen, with a cylindrical gage section which had a
diameter of 10 mm, and a length of 40 mm. After fracture, the length of the gage section was
found to be 50 mm, the reduction in area 90 percent, and the load at fracture 1000 N. Compute:

(a) The specimen elongation.

(b) The engineering fracture stress.

(c) The true fracture stress, ignoring the correctyion for triaxiality at the neck.

(d) The true strain at the neck.

Solution:

(a) The specimen elongation is

dl (50−40)
= =0.25 .
l 40

(b) The engineering fracture stress, σ f , equals the fracture load, Pf , divided by the original
specimen area, Ai , or:
P f 1000
σf= =
Ai ¿¿

(c) The reduction in area, RA, is defined as the initial area, minus the final area, divided by the initial
area or:
Ai −A f
RA =
Ai
−5 2
where RA=0.8 , A i=7.85 ×10 m , thus:

−5 2
A f = A i ( 1−RA )=1.57 ×10 m

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54
 The true stress at fracture is equal to the load, P, divided by A f or:

1000
σ t= −5
=6.369× 107 Pa=63.69 MPa
1.57 ×10

(d) The true stress at fracture is given by the equation:

σ t=ln ( ) (
Ai
Af
=ln
7.85 × 10−5
1.57 × 10−5 )
=1.609

5.22 The Hollomon equation is:

m
σ t=k (ε t )

Where σ t is the true stress, ε t the true strain, is capable of approximating roughly the shape of
some stress strain curves.

(a) Assume k = 750 MPa, and m = 0.6. If the true stress at the point of maximum load is 552
MPa, what is the true strain at the maximum load?
(b) Compare m with ε t at the maximum load.
(c) Prove that in general m =ε t at the maximum load.

Solution:

(a) Given:

k =750 MPa , m=0.6 , σ t =552 MPa

Substituting these values in the Hollomon equation yields:

( )
1
552 0.6
ϵt= =0.6
750

(b) It is to be noted that in this case at the maximum load ε t=m.

(c) At the maximum load by Considè re’s criterion:
d σt
=σ t
d ϵt

So that by the Hollomon equation:

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55
 d σt m
=k (ϵ t )
d ϵt

However, if one takes the derivative of the Hollomon equation it is found that:

d σt
=km( ϵ t )m−1
dϵt

Equating these last two relationships proves that at the maximum load:

ε t=m

5.23 The slope, m, of the curve drawn through the data points in Fig. 5.35 is approximately equal to
−4 kg
2.55 ×10 2
×cm , using the units in the figure. Compute the fractional increase in the
mm
dislocation density that would correspond to an increase in flow stress from 588 to 784 MPa
(use the titanium data of Jones and Conrad).

Solution:

Since the data in Fig. 5.35 are given in kg /mm2 units, first convert the given stresses, 588 and
784 MPa into kg /mm2. This may be done by dividing by the factor 9.81. Thus, 588 MPa = 60
2 2
kg /mm , and 784 MPa = 80 kg /mm . Next use the equation relating the stress to the square
root of the dislocation density.
1
σ =σ 0+ k × ρ 2

Now solve for ρ .

( )
2
σ −σ 0
ρ=
k

where σ 0 is the intercept of the straight line, through the data in Fig. 5.35, with the stress axis.
−4 kg
The value ofσ 0 is 39 kg / mm2 , and k =2.55 ×10 × cm . Accordingly for the 60 kg /mm2
mm2
stress we have:

( )
2
60−39
ρ 1= −4
=6.78 ×10 9 cm/ cm3=6.78 ×10 13 m/m3
2.55× 10
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A similar calculation for the dislocation density at the 80 kg / mm2stress yields:

9 3 3 3
ρ2=25.9× 10 cm/ cm =25.9× 10 m/m

The ratio of these two dislocation denstities is:

ρ2
=3.82
ρ1

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