Machine Learning Overview

Foreword

⚫ Machine learning is a core research field of AI, and it is also a necessary knowledge
for deep learning. Therefore, this chapter mainly introduces the main concepts of
machine learning, the classification of machine learning, the overall process of
machine learning, and the common algorithms of machine learning.

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 Objectives

Upon completion of this course, you will be able to:

 Master the learning algorithm definition and machine learning process.
 Know common machine learning algorithms.
 Understand concepts such as hyperparameters, gradient descent, and cross validation.

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 Contents

1. Machine Learning Definition

2. Machine Learning Types

3. Machine Learning Process

4. Other Key Machine Learning Methods

5. Common Machine Learning Algorithms

6. Case Study

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Machine Learning Algorithms (1)
⚫ Machine learning (including deep learning) is a study of learning algorithms. A computer
program is said to learn from experience 𝐸 with respect to some class of tasks 𝑇 and
performance measure 𝑃 if its performance at tasks in 𝑇, as measured by 𝑃, improves with
experience 𝐸.

Learning Basic
Data
algorithms understanding
(Experience E)
(Task T) (Measure P)

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Machine Learning Algorithms (2)

Experience Historical data

Induction Training

Input Prediction Input Prediction

New New Future
Regularity Future Model
problems data attributes

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 Created by: Jim Liang

Differences Between Machine Learning Algorithms and

Traditional Rule-Based Algorithms
Rule-based algorithms Machine learning

Training
data

Machine
learning

New data Model Prediction

• Samples are used for training.

• Explicit programming is used to solve problems. • The decision-making rules are complex or difficult
to describe.
• Rules can be manually specified.
• Rules are automatically learned by machines.

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Application Scenarios of Machine Learning (1)
⚫ The solution to a problem is complex, or the problem may involve a large amount of data
without a clear data distribution function.
⚫ Machine learning can be used in the following scenarios:

Task rules change over time. For Data distribution changes over
Rules are complex or cannot be example, in the part-of-speech time, requiring constant
described, such as voice tagging task, new words or readaptation of programs, such as
recognition. meanings are generated at any predicting the trend of commodity
time. sales.

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Application Scenarios of Machine Learning (2)

Complex
Machine learning
Manual rules
Rule complexity

Simple algorithms

Rule-based
Simple problems
algorithms

Small Large

Scale of the problem

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Rational Understanding of Machine Learning Algorithms

Target equation
𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌

Ideal

Actual
Training data Hypothesis function
Learning algorithms
𝐷: {(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) ⋯ , (𝑥𝑛 , 𝑦𝑛 )} 𝑔≈𝑓

⚫ Target function f is unknown. Learning algorithms cannot obtain a perfect function f.

⚫ Assume that hypothesis function g approximates function f, but may be different from function f.

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Main Problems Solved by Machine Learning
⚫ Machine learning can deal with many types of tasks. The following describes the most typical and common types of tasks.
 Classification: A computer program needs to specify which of the k categories some input belongs to. To accomplish this task, learning
algorithms usually output a function 𝑓: 𝑅𝑛 → (1,2, … , 𝑘). For example, the image classification algorithm in computer vision is developed
to handle classification tasks.

 Regression: For this type of task, a computer program predicts the output for the given input. Learning algorithms typically output a
function 𝑓: 𝑅𝑛 → 𝑅. An example of this task type is to predict the claim amount of an insured person (to set the insurance premium) or
predict the security price.
 Clustering: A large amount of data from an unlabeled dataset is divided into multiple categories according to internal similarity of the
data. Data in the same category is more similar than that in different categories. This feature can be used in scenarios such as image
retrieval and user profile management.

⚫ Classification and regression are two main types of prediction, accounting from 80% to 90%. The output of classification is
discrete category values, and the output of regression is continuous numbers.

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 Contents

1. Machine Learning Definition

2. Machine Learning Types

3. Machine Learning Process

4. Other Key Machine Learning Methods

5. Common Machine Learning Algorithms

6. Case study

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Machine Learning Classification
⚫ Supervised learning: Obtain an optimal model with required performance through training and learning based on the
samples of known categories. Then, use the model to map all inputs to outputs and check the output for the purpose of
classifying unknown data.

⚫ Unsupervised learning: For unlabeled samples, the learning algorithms directly model the input datasets. Clustering is a
common form of unsupervised learning. We only need to put highly similar samples together, calculate the similarity
between new samples and existing ones, and classify them by similarity.

⚫ Semi-supervised learning: In one task, a machine learning model that automatically uses a large amount of unlabeled data
to assist learning directly of a small amount of labeled data.

⚫ Reinforcement learning: It is an area of machine learning concerned with how agents ought to take actions in an
environment to maximize some notion of cumulative reward. The difference between reinforcement learning and
supervised learning is the teacher signal. The reinforcement signal provided by the environment in reinforcement learning is
used to evaluate the action (scalar signal) rather than telling the learning system how to perform correct actions.

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Supervised Learning
Data feature Label

Feature 1 ... Feature n Goal

Supervised learning
Feature 1 ... Feature n Goal
algorithm

Feature 1 ... Feature n Goal

Wind Enjoy
Weather Temperature
Speed Sports
Sunny Warm Strong Yes
Rainy Cold Fair No
Sunny Cold Weak Yes
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Supervised Learning - Regression Questions
⚫ Regression: reflects the features of attribute values of samples in a sample dataset. The
dependency between attribute values is discovered by expressing the relationship of sample
mapping through functions.
 How much will I benefit from the stock next week?
 What's the temperature on Tuesday?

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Supervised Learning - Classification Questions
⚫ Classification: maps samples in a sample dataset to a specified category by using a
classification model.
 Will there be a traffic jam on XX road during
the morning rush hour tomorrow?
 Which method is more attractive to customers:
5 yuan voucher or 25% off?

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Unsupervised Learning

Data Feature

Feature 1 ... Feature n

Unsupervised learning Internal

Feature 1 ... Feature n similarity
algorithm

Feature 1 ... Feature n

Monthly Consumption
Commodity
Consumption Time Category
Badminton Cluster 1
1000–2000 6:00–12:00
racket
Cluster 2
500–1000 Basketball 18:00–24:00
1000–2000 Game console 00:00–6:00

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Unsupervised Learning - Clustering Questions
⚫ Clustering: classifies samples in a sample dataset into several categories based on the
clustering model. The similarity of samples belonging to the same category is high.
 Which audiences like to watch movies
of the same subject?
 Which of these components are
damaged in a similar way?

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Semi-Supervised Learning
Data Feature Label

Feature 1 ... Feature n Goal

Semi-supervised
Feature 1 ... Feature n Unknown
learning algorithms

Feature 1 ... Feature n Unknown

Wind Enjoy
Weather Temperature
Speed Sports
Sunny Warm Strong Yes
Rainy Cold Fair /
Sunny Cold Weak /

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Reinforcement Learning
⚫ The model perceives the environment, takes actions, and makes adjustments and choices
based on the status and award or punishment.

Model

Reward or Action 𝑎𝑡
Status 𝑠𝑡
punishment 𝑟𝑡

𝑟𝑡+1

𝑠𝑡+1 Environment

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Reinforcement Learning - Best Behavior
⚫ Reinforcement learning: always looks for best behaviors. Reinforcement learning is
targeted at machines or robots.
 Autopilot: Should it brake or accelerate when the yellow light starts to flash?
 Cleaning robot: Should it keep working or go back for charging?

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 Contents

1. Machine learning algorithm

2. Machine Learning Classification

3. Machine Learning Process

4. Other Key Machine Learning Methods

5. Common Machine Learning Algorithms

6. Case study

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Machine Learning Process

Feature Model
Data Model Model
Data cleansing extraction and deployment and
collection training evaluation
selection integration

Feedback and iteration

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Basic Machine Learning Concept — Dataset
⚫ Dataset: a collection of data used in machine learning tasks. Each data record is called a
sample. Events or attributes that reflect the performance or nature of a sample in a
particular aspect are called features.
⚫ Training set: a dataset used in the training process, where each sample is referred to as a
training sample. The process of creating a model from data is called learning (training).
⚫ Test set: Testing refers to the process of using the model obtained after learning for
prediction. The dataset used is called a test set, and each sample is called a test sample.

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Checking Data Overview
⚫ Typical dataset form

Feature 1 Feature 2 Feature 3 Label

No. Area School Districts Direction House Price

1 100 8 South 1000

2 120 9 Southwest 1300

Training
set
3 60 6 North 700

4 80 9 Southeast 1100

Test set 5 95 3 South 850

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Importance of Data Processing
⚫ Data is crucial to models. It is the ceiling of model capabilities. Without good data, there is
no good model.

Data
Data cleansing
preprocessing Data normalization

Fill in missing values, Normalize data to reduce

and detect and noise and improve model
eliminate causes of accuracy.
dataset exceptions.

Data dimension
reduction
Simplify data attributes to
avoid dimension
explosion.

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Workload of Data Cleansing
⚫ Statistics on data scientists' work in machine learning

3% Remodeling training datasets

5% Others
4% Optimizing models

9% Mining modes from data

19% Collecting datasets

60% Cleansing and sorting data

CrowdFlower Data Science Report 2016

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Data Cleansing
⚫ Most machine learning models process features, which are usually numeric
representations of input variables that can be used in the model.
⚫ In most cases, the collected data can be used by algorithms only after being preprocessed.
The preprocessing operations include the following:
 Data filtering
 Processing of lost data
 Processing of possible exceptions, errors, or abnormal values
 Combination of data from multiple data sources
 Data consolidation

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Dirty Data (1)
⚫ Generally, real data may have some quality problems.
 Incompleteness: contains missing values or the data that lacks attributes
 Noise: contains incorrect records or exceptions.
 Inconsistency: contains inconsistent records.

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Dirty Data (2)
#Stu
IsTea
# Id Name Birthday Gender dent Country City
cher
s

1 111 John 31/12/1990 M 0 0 Ireland Dublin

2 222 Mery 15/10/1978 F 1 15 Iceland Missing value

3 333 Alice 19/04/2000 F 0 0 Spain Madrid

4 444 Mark 01/11/1997 M 0 0 France Paris

5 555 Alex 15/03/2000 A 1 23 Germany Berlin Invalid value

6 555 Peter 1983-12-01 M 1 10 Italy Rome

7 777 Calvin 05/05/1995 M 0 0 Italy Italy Value that should

be in another
8 888 Roxane 03/08/1948 F 0 0 Portugal Lisbon
column
Genev
9 999 Anne 05/09/1992 F 0 5 Switzerland
Invalid duplicate item a

10 101010 Paul 14/11/1992 M 1 26 Ytali Rome Misspelling

Incorrect format Attribute dependency

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Data Conversion
⚫ After being preprocessed, the data needs to be converted into a representation form suitable for the machine
learning model. Common data conversion forms include the following:
 With respect to classification, category data is encoded into a corresponding numerical representation.
 Value data is converted to category data to reduce the value of variables (for age segmentation).
 Other data
◼ In the text, the word is converted into a word vector through word embedding (generally using the word2vec model, BERT model,
etc).
◼ Process image data (color space, grayscale, geometric change, Haar feature, and image enhancement)

 Feature engineering
◼ Normalize features to ensure the same value ranges for input variables of the same model.
◼ Feature expansion: Combine or convert existing variables to generate new features, such as the average.

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Necessity of Feature Selection
⚫ Generally, a dataset has many features, some of which may be redundant or irrelevant to
the value to be predicted.
⚫ Feature selection is necessary in the following aspects:

Simplify
models to
Reduce the
make them
training time
easy for users
to interpret

Improve
Avoid model
dimension generalization
explosion and avoid
overfitting

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Feature Selection Methods - Filter
⚫ Filter methods are independent of the model during feature selection.
By evaluating the correlation between each feature
and the target attribute, these methods use a
statistical measure to assign a value to each feature.
Features are then sorted by score, which is helpful for
preserving or eliminating specific features.

Common methods
Select the
• Pearson correlation coefficient
Traverse all Train models Evaluate the
features optimal feature performance • Chi-square coefficient
subset
• Mutual information

Procedure of a filter method Limitations

• The filter method tends to select redundant
variables as the relationship between features is not
considered.

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Feature Selection Methods - Wrapper
⚫ Wrapper methods use a prediction model to score feature subsets.

Wrapper methods consider feature selection as a search

issue for which different combinations are evaluated
and compared. A predictive model is used to evaluate a
combination of features and assign a score based on
Select the optimal
model accuracy.
feature subset
Common methods
Generate a
Traverse all
feature
Train models
Evaluate • Recursive feature elimination (RFE)
features
subset models
Limitations
Procedure of a • Wrapper methods train a new model for each subset,
wrapper method resulting in a huge number of computations.
• A feature set with the best performance is usually
provided for a specific type of model.

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Feature Selection Methods - Embedded
⚫ Embedded methods consider feature selection as a part of model construction.

The most common type of embedded feature selection

method is the regularization method.
Regularization methods are also called penalization
Select the optimal feature subset methods that introduce additional constraints into the
optimization of a predictive algorithm that bias the model
toward lower complexity and reduce the number of
Traverse all Generate a Train models
features feature subset + Evaluate the effect features.

Common methods
Procedure of an embedded method
• Lasso regression
• Ridge regression

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Overall Procedure of Building a Model
Model Building Procedure

1 2 3

Data splitting: Model training: Model verification:

Divide data into training Use data that has been cleaned Use validation sets to
sets, test sets, and up and feature engineering to validate the model
validation sets. train a model. validity.

6 5 4

Model fine-tuning: Model deployment: Model test:

Continuously tune the Deploy the model in Use test data to evaluate the
model based on the actual an actual production generalization capability of
data of a service scenario. scenario. the model in a real
environment.

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Examples of Supervised Learning - Learning Phase
⚫ Use the classification model to predict whether a person is a basketball player.
Feature (attribute)
Target

Service Name City Age Label

Training set
data Mike Miami 42 yes The model searches
Jerry New York 32 no for the relationship
(Cleansed features and tags)
between features and
Splitting Bryan Orlando 18 no
targets.
Task: Use a classification model to predict Patricia Miami 45 yes
whether a person is a basketball player under a
specific feature. Elodie Phoenix 35 no Test set
Remy Chicago 72 yes Use new data to verify
the model validity.
John New York 48 yes
Model
training
Each feature or a combination of several features can
provide a basis for a model to make a judgment.

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Examples of Supervised Learning - Prediction Phase
Name City Age Label
Marine Miami 45 ?
Julien Miami 52 ? Unknown data
Recent data, it is not
New Fred Orlando 20 ?
known whether the
data
Michelle Boston 34 ? people are basketball
Nicolas Phoenix 90 ? players.

IF city = Miami → Probability = +0.7

IF city= Orlando → Probability = +0.2
IF age > 42 → Probability = +0.05*age + 0.06
Application IF age ≤ 42 → Probability = +0.01*age + 0.02
model
Name City Age Prediction
Marine Miami 45 0.3
New Possibility prediction
Julien Miami 52 0.9
data Apply the model to the
Fred Orlando 20 0.6 new data to predict
Prediction whether the customer will
data Michelle Boston 34 0.5
change the supplier.
Nicolas Phoenix 90 0.4

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What Is a Good Model?

• Generalization capability
Can it accurately predict the actual service data?

• Interpretability
Is the prediction result easy to interpret?

• Prediction speed
How long does it take to predict each piece of data?

• Practicability
Is the prediction rate still acceptable when the service
volume increases with a huge data volume?

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Model Validity (1)
⚫ Generalization capability: The goal of machine learning is that the model obtained after learning should
perform well on new samples, not just on samples used for training. The capability of applying a model to new
samples is called generalization or robustness.
⚫ Error: difference between the sample result predicted by the model obtained after learning and the actual
sample result.
 Training error: error that you get when you run the model on the training data.
 Generalization error: error that you get when you run the model on new samples. Obviously, we prefer a model with a
smaller generalization error.

⚫ Underfitting: occurs when the model or the algorithm does not fit the data well enough.
⚫ Overfitting: occurs when the training error of the model obtained after learning is small but the generalization
error is large (poor generalization capability).

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Model Validity (2)
⚫ Model capacity: model's capability of fitting functions, which is also called model complexity.
 When the capacity suits the task complexity and the amount of training data provided, the algorithm effect is usually
optimal.
 Models with insufficient capacity cannot solve complex tasks and underfitting may occur.
 A high-capacity model can solve complex tasks, but overfitting may occur if the capacity is higher than that required by a
task.

Underfitting Good fitting Overfitting

Not all features are learned. Noises are learned.
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Overfitting Cause — Error
⚫ Total error of final prediction = Bias2 + Variance + Irreducible error
⚫ Generally, the prediction error can be divided into two types:
 Error caused by "bias"
Variance
 Error caused by "variance"

⚫ Variance: Bias

 Offset of the prediction result from the average value

 Error caused by the model's sensitivity to small fluctuations
in the training set

⚫ Bias:
 Difference between the expected (or average) prediction value and the correct value we
are trying to predict.

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Variance and Bias
⚫ Combinations of variance and bias are as follows:
 Low bias & low variance –> Good model
 Low bias & high variance
 High bias & low variance
 High bias & high variance –> Poor model

⚫ Ideally, we want a model that can accurately capture

the rules in the training data and summarize the
invisible data (new data). However, it is usually
impossible for the model to complete both tasks at
the same time.

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Model Complexity and Error
⚫ As the model complexity increases, the training error decreases.
⚫ As the model complexity increases, the test error decreases to a certain point and then
increases in the reverse direction, forming a convex curve.

High bias & low Low bias & high

variance variance

Testing error
Error

Training error

Model Complexity

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Machine Learning Performance Evaluation - Regression
⚫ The closer the Mean Absolute Error (MAE) is to 0, the better the model can fit the training data.

𝑚
1
𝑀𝐴𝐸 = ෍ 𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦ො𝑖
m
𝑖=1

⚫ Mean Square Error (MSE)

m
1 2
𝑀𝑆𝐸 = ෍ 𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦ො𝑖
m
𝑖=1

⚫ The value range of R2 is (–∞, 1]. A larger value indicates that the model can better fit the training data. TSS
indicates the difference between samples. RSS indicates the difference between the predicted value and
sample value.
𝑚 2
2
𝑅𝑆𝑆 σ𝑖=1 𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦ො𝑖
𝑅 =1− =1− 𝑚 2
𝑇𝑆𝑆 σ𝑖=1 𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦ത𝑖

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Machine Learning Performance Evaluation - Classification (1)
⚫ Terms and definitions: Estimated
amount
yes no Total
 𝑃: positive, indicating the number of real positive cases
Actual amount
in the data.
yes 𝑇𝑃 𝐹𝑁 𝑃
 𝑁: negative, indicating the number of real negative cases
no 𝐹𝑃 𝑇𝑁 𝑁
in the data.
Total 𝑃′ 𝑁′ 𝑃+𝑁
 𝑇P : true positive, indicating the number of positive cases that are correctly
classified by the classifier. Confusion matrix
 𝑇𝑁: true negative, indicating the number of negative cases that are correctly classified by the classifier.
 𝐹𝑃: false positive, indicating the number of positive cases that are incorrectly classified by the classifier.
 𝐹𝑁: false negative, indicating the number of negative cases that are incorrectly classified by the classifier.

⚫ Confusion matrix: at least an 𝑚 × 𝑚 table. 𝐶𝑀𝑖,𝑗 of the first 𝑚 rows and 𝑚 columns indicates the number of cases that
actually belong to class 𝑖 but are classified into class 𝑗 by the classifier.
 Ideally, for a high accuracy classifier, most prediction values should be located in the diagonal from 𝐶𝑀1,1 to 𝐶𝑀𝑚,𝑚 of the table while
values outside the diagonal are 0 or close to 0. That is, 𝐹𝑃 and 𝐹𝑃 are close to 0.

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Machine Learning Performance Evaluation - Classification (2)
Measurement Ratio
𝑇𝑃 + 𝑇𝑁
Accuracy and recognition rate
𝑃+𝑁
𝐹𝑃 + 𝐹𝑁
Error rate and misclassification rate
𝑃+𝑁
𝑇𝑃
Sensitivity, true positive rate, and recall
𝑃
𝑇𝑁
Specificity and true negative rate
𝑁
𝑇𝑃
Precision
𝑇𝑃 + 𝐹𝑃
𝐹1 , harmonic mean of the recall rate and 2 × 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙
precision 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 + 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙

𝐹𝛽 , where 𝛽 is a non-negative real (1 + 𝛽 2 ) × 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙

number 𝛽 2 × 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 + 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙

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Example of Machine Learning Performance Evaluation
⚫ We have trained a machine learning model to identify whether the object in an image is a cat. Now
we use 200 pictures to verify the model performance. Among the 200 images, objects in 170
images are cats, while others are not. The identification result of the model is that objects in 160
images are cats, while others are not.
𝑇𝑃 140
Precision: 𝑃 = 𝑇𝑃+𝐹𝑃 = 140+20 = 87.5% Estimated amount
Actual 𝒚𝒆𝒔 𝒏𝒐 Total
amount
𝑇𝑃 140
Recall: 𝑅 = 𝑃
=
170
= 82.4%
𝑦𝑒𝑠 140 30 170

𝑇𝑃+𝑇𝑁 140+10
Accuracy: 𝐴𝐶𝐶 = 𝑃+𝑁
=
170+30
= 75% 𝑛𝑜 20 10 30

Total 160 40 200

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 Contents

1. Machine Learning Definition

2. Machine Learning Types

3. Machine Learning Process

4. Other Key Machine Learning Methods

5. Common Machine Learning Algorithms

6. Case study

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Machine Learning Training Method - Gradient Descent (1)
⚫ The gradient descent method uses the negative gradient Cost surface
direction of the current position as the search direction, which
is the steepest direction. The formula is as follows:

wk +1 = wk − f wk ( x )
i

⚫ In the formula, 𝜂 indicates the learning rate and 𝑖 indicates the

data record number 𝑖. The weight parameter w indicates the
change in each iteration.
⚫ Convergence: The value of the objective function changes very
little, or the maximum number of iterations is reached.

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Machine Learning Training Method - Gradient Descent (2)
⚫ Batch Gradient Descent (BGD) uses the samples (m in total) in all datasets to update the
weight parameter based on the gradient value at the current point.
1 m
wk +1 = wk −   f wk ( x i )
m i =1
⚫ Stochastic Gradient Descent (SGD) randomly selects a sample in a dataset to update the
weight parameter based on the gradient value at the current point.
wk +1 = wk − f wk ( x i )
⚫ Mini-Batch Gradient Descent (MBGD) combines the features of BGD and SGD and selects
the gradients of n samples in a dataset to update the weight parameter.
1 t + n −1
wk +1 = wk −   f wk ( x i )
n i=t
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Machine Learning Training Method - Gradient Descent (3)
⚫ Comparison of three gradient descent methods
 In the SGD, samples selected for each training are stochastic. Such instability causes the loss function to be unstable or
even causes reverse displacement when the loss function decreases to the lowest point.
 BGD has the highest stability but consumes too many computing resources. MBGD is a method that balances SGD and
BGD.

BGD
Uses all training samples for training each time.

SGD
Uses one training sample for training each time.

MBGD
Uses a certain number of training samples for training
each time.

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Parameters and Hyperparameters in Models
⚫ The model contains not only parameters but also hyperparameters. The purpose is to
enable the model to learn the optimal parameters.
 Parameters are automatically learned by models.
 Hyperparameters are manually set.

Model parameters are

"distilled" from data.

Model

Training
Use hyperparameters to
control training.
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Hyperparameters of a Model

• λ during Lasso/Ridge regression

• Often used in model parameter
• Learning rate for training a neural
estimation processes. network, number of iterations, batch
size, activation function, and number
• Often specified by the practitioner. of neurons
• Can often be set using heuristics. • 𝐶 and 𝜎 in support vector machines
(SVM)
• Often tuned for a given predictive • K in k-nearest neighbor (KNN)
modeling problem. • Number of trees in a random forest

Model hyperparameters are

Common model hyperparameters
external configurations of models.

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Hyperparameter Search Procedure and Method

1. Dividing a dataset into a training set, validation set, and test set.
2. Optimizing the model parameters using the training set based on the model performance
indicators.
3. Searching for the model hyper-parameters using the validation set based on the model
Procedure for performance indicators.
searching 4. Perform step 2 and step 3 alternately. Finally, determine the model parameters and
hyperparameters hyperparameters and assess the model using the test set.

• Grid search
• Random search
• Heuristic intelligent search
Search algorithm (step • Bayesian search
3)

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Hyperparameter Searching Method - Grid Search
⚫ Grid search attempts to exhaustively search all possible
hyperparameter combinations to form a hyperparameter value
grid. Grid search
5
⚫ In practice, the range of hyperparameter values to search is

Hyperparameter 1
4
specified manually.
3
⚫ Grid search is an expensive and time-consuming method.
2
 This method works well when the number of hyperparameters
1
is relatively small. Therefore, it is applicable to generally
machine learning algorithms but inapplicable to neural networks 0 1 2 3 4 5

(see the deep learning part). Hyperparameter 2

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Hyperparameter Searching Method - Random Search
⚫ When the hyperparameter search space is large, random search
is better than grid search. Random search
⚫ In random search, each setting is sampled from the distribution
of possible parameter values, in an attempt to find the best
subset of hyperparameters.

Parameter 1
⚫ Note:
 Search is performed within a coarse range, which then will be
narrowed based on where the best result appears.
 Some hyperparameters are more important than others, and the
Parameter 2
search deviation will be affected during random search.

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Cross Validation (1)
⚫ Cross validation: It is a statistical analysis method used to validate the performance of a classifier. The basic
idea is to divide the original dataset into two parts: training set and validation set. Train the classifier using the
training set and test the model using the validation set to check the classifier performance.
⚫ k-fold cross validation (𝑲 − 𝑪𝑽):
 Divide the raw data into 𝑘 groups (generally, evenly divided).
 Use each subset as a validation set, and use the other 𝑘 − 1 subsets as the training set. A total of 𝑘 models can be
obtained.
 Use the mean classification accuracy of the final validation sets of 𝑘 models as the performance indicator of the 𝐾 − 𝐶𝑉
classifier.

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Cross Validation (2)

Entire dataset

Training set Test set

Training set Validation set Test set

⚫ Note: The K value in K-fold cross validation is also a hyperparameter.

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 Contents

1. Machine Learning Definition

2. Machine Learning Types

3. Machine Learning Process

4. Other Key Machine Learning Methods

5. Common Machine Learning Algorithms

6. Case study

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Machine Learning Algorithm Overview

Machine learning

Supervised learning Unsupervised learning

Classification Regression Clustering Others

Logistic regression Linear regression K-means Correlation rule

Hierarchical Principal component
SVM SVM
clustering analysis (PCA)
Neural network Neural network Density-based Gaussian mixture
clustering model (GMM)
Decision tree Decision tree

Random forest Random forest

GBDT GBDT

KNN

Naive Bayes

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Linear Regression (1)
⚫ Linear regression: a statistical analysis method to determine the quantitative relationships between
two or more variables through regression analysis in mathematical statistics.
⚫ Linear regression is a type of supervised learning.

Unary linear regression Multi-dimensional linear regression

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Linear Regression (2)
⚫ The model function of linear regression is as follows, where 𝑤 indicates the weight parameter, 𝑏 indicates the bias, and 𝑥
indicates the sample attribute.

hw ( x) = wT x + b
⚫ The relationship between the value predicted by the model and actual value is as follows, where 𝑦 indicates the actual
value, and 𝜀 indicates the error.
y = w x +b+
T

⚫ The error 𝜀 is influenced by many factors independently. According to the central limit theorem, the error 𝜀 follows normal
distribution. According to the normal distribution function and maximum likelihood estimation, the loss function of linear
regression is as follows:
1
J ( w) =  ( hw ( x) − y )
2

2m
⚫ To make the predicted value close to the actual value, we need to minimize the loss value. We can use the gradient descent
method to calculate the weight parameter 𝑤 when the loss function reaches the minimum, and then complete model
building.

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Linear Regression Extension - Polynomial Regression
⚫ Polynomial regression is an extension of linear regression. Generally, the complexity of a dataset
exceeds the possibility of fitting by a straight line. That is, obvious underfitting occurs if the original
linear regression model is used. The solution is to use polynomial regression.

hw ( x ) = w1 x + w2 x 2 + + wn x n + b
⚫ where, the nth power is a polynomial regression
dimension (degree).
⚫ Polynomial regression belongs to linear regression as
the relationship between its weight parameters 𝑤 is still
linear while its nonlinearity is reflected in the feature
Comparison between linear regression and
dimension. polynomial regression

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Linear Regression and Overfitting Prevention
⚫ Regularization terms can be used to reduce overfitting. The value of 𝑤 cannot be too large or too
small in the sample space. You can add a square sum loss on the target function.

1
J ( w) =  ( w − )  2

2 2
h ( x ) y + w
⚫ Regularization terms (norm): The2regularization
m term here is called L2-norm. Linear regression that
uses this loss function is also called Ridge regression.

1
J ( w) =  ( w − ) +  w 1
2
h ( x ) y
2m
⚫ Linear regression with absolute loss is called Lasso regression.

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Logistic Regression (1)
⚫ Logistic regression: The logistic regression model is used to solve classification problems. The
model is defined as follows:
𝑒 𝑤𝑥+𝑏
𝑃 𝑌=1𝑥 =
1 + 𝑒 𝑤𝑥+𝑏
1
𝑃 𝑌=0𝑥 =
1 + 𝑒 𝑤𝑥+𝑏
where 𝑤 indicates the weight, 𝑏 indicates the bias, and 𝑤𝑥 + 𝑏 is regarded as the linear function of 𝑥. Compare the
preceding two probability values. The class with a higher probability value is the class of 𝑥.

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Logistic Regression (2)
⚫ Both the logistic regression model and linear regression model are generalized linear models.
Logistic regression introduces nonlinear factors (the sigmoid function) based on linear regression
and sets thresholds, so it can deal with binary classification problems.
⚫ According to the model function of logistic regression, the loss function of logistic regression can be
estimated as follows by using the maximum likelihood estimation:
1
J ( w) = −  ( y ln hw ( x) + (1 − y ) ln(1 − hw ( x)) )
m
⚫ where 𝑤 indicates the weight parameter, 𝑚 indicates the number of samples, 𝑥 indicates the
sample, and 𝑦 indicates the real value. The values of all the weight parameters 𝑤 can also be
obtained through the gradient descent algorithm.

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Logistic Regression Extension - Softmax Function (1)
⚫ Logistic regression applies only to binary classification problems. For multi-class
classification problems, use the Softmax function.

Binary classification problem Multi-class classification problem

Grape?

Male? Orange?

Apple?

Female? Banana?

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Logistic Regression Extension - Softmax Function (2)
⚫ Softmax regression is a generalization of logistic regression that we can use for K-class
classification.
⚫ The Softmax function is used to map a K-dimensional vector of arbitrary real values to
another K-dimensional vector of real values, where each vector element is in the interval
(0, 1).
⚫ The regression probability function of Softmax is as follows:
wkT x
e
p( y = k | x; w) = K
, k = 1, 2 ,K
e
l =1
wlT x

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Logistic Regression Extension - Softmax Function (3)
⚫ Softmax assigns a probability to each class in a multi-class problem. These probabilities must add
up to 1.
 Softmax may produce a form belonging to a particular class. Example:
Category Probability

Grape? 0.09

• Sum of all probabilities:

Orange? 0.22 • 0.09 + 0.22 + 0.68 + 0.01 =1
• Most probably, this picture is an
Apple? apple.
0.68

Banana? 0.01

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Decision Tree
⚫ A decision tree is a tree structure (a binary tree or a non-binary tree). Each non-leaf node represents a test on a feature
attribute. Each branch represents the output of a feature attribute in a certain value range, and each leaf node stores a
category. To use the decision tree, start from the root node, test the feature attributes of the items to be classified, select
the output branches, and use the category stored on the leaf node as the final result.

Root

Short Tall

Cannot Can Short Long

squeak squeak neck neck

Short Long
Might be a Might be a
Might be a nose nose
squirrel giraffe
rat

On land In water Might be an

elephant

Might be a Might be a
rhinoceros hippo
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Decision Tree Structure
Root Node

Internal Internal
Node Node

Internal
Leaf Node Leaf Node Node Leaf Node

Leaf Node Leaf Node Leaf Node

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Key Points of Decision Tree Construction
⚫ To create a decision tree, we need to select attributes and determine the tree structure between
feature attributes. The key step of constructing a decision tree is to divide data of all feature
attributes, compare the result sets in terms of 'purity', and select the attribute with the highest
'purity' as the data point for dataset division.
⚫ The metrics to quantify the 'purity' include the information entropy and GINI Index. The formula is
as follows:
K K
H ( X )= - pk log 2 ( pk ) Gini = 1 −  pk2
k =1 k =1

⚫ where 𝑝𝑘 indicates the probability that the sample belongs to class k (there are K classes in total). A
greater difference between purity before segmentation and that after segmentation indicates a
better decision tree.
⚫ Common decision tree algorithms include ID3, C4.5, and CART.
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Decision Tree Construction Process
⚫ Feature selection: Select a feature from the features of the training data as the split
standard of the current node. (Different standards generate different decision tree
algorithms.)
⚫ Decision tree generation: Generate internal node upside down based on the selected
features and stop until the dataset can no longer be split.
⚫ Pruning: The decision tree may easily become overfitting unless necessary pruning
(including pre-pruning and post-pruning) is performed to reduce the tree size and optimize
its node structure.

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Decision Tree Example
⚫ The following figure shows a classification when a decision tree is used. The classification result is impacted by
three attributes: Refund, Marital Status, and Taxable Income.

Marital Taxable
Tid Refund Cheat
Status Income
1 Yes Single 125,000 No
Refund
2 No Married 100,000 No
3 No Single 70,000 No Marital
No Status
4 Yes Married 120,000 No
5 No Divorced 95,000 Yes
Taxable
6 No Married 60,000 No Income No
7 Yes Divorced 220,000 No
8 No Single 85,000 Yes No Yes
9 No Married 75,000 No
10 No Single 90,000 Yes

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SVM
⚫ SVM is a binary classification model whose basic model is a linear classifier defined in the eigenspace with the
largest interval. SVMs also include kernel tricks that make them nonlinear classifiers. The SVM learning
algorithm is the optimal solution to convex quadratic programming.

weight
Projection

Complex segmentation Easy segmentation in

height
in low-dimensional high-dimensional space
space

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Linear SVM (1)
⚫ How do we split the red and blue datasets by a straight line?

or

With binary classification Both the left and right methods can be used to divide
Two-dimensional dataset datasets. Which of them is correct?

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Linear SVM (2)
⚫ Straight lines are used to divide data into different classes. Actually, we can use multiple straight lines to divide
data. The core idea of the SVM is to find a straight line and keep the point close to the straight line as far as
possible from the straight line. This can enable strong generalization capability of the model. These points are
called support vectors.
⚫ In two-dimensional space, we use straight lines for segmentation. In high-dimensional space, we use
hyperplanes for segmentation.

Distance between
support vectors
is as far as possible

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Nonlinear SVM (1)
⚫ How do we classify a nonlinear separable dataset?

Linear SVM can function well for Nonlinear datasets cannot be split
linear separable datasets. with straight lines.

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Nonlinear SVM (2)
⚫ Kernel functions are used to construct nonlinear SVMs.
⚫ Kernel functions allow algorithms to fit the largest hyperplane in a transformed high-dimensional
feature space.
Common kernel functions

Linear Polynomial
kernel kernel
function function

Gaussian Sigmoid
kernel kernel
function function Input space High-dimensional
feature space

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KNN Algorithm (1)
⚫ The KNN classification algorithm is a theoretically
mature method and one of the simplest machine
learning algorithms. According to this method, if
the majority of k samples most similar to one
sample (nearest neighbors in the eigenspace) ?
belong to a specific category, this sample also
belongs to this category.

The target category of point ? varies with the

number of the most adjacent nodes.

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KNN Algorithm (2)
⚫ As the prediction result is determined based on the
number and weights of neighbors in the training set, the
KNN algorithm has a simple logic.
⚫ KNN is a non-parametric method which is usually used in
datasets with irregular decision boundaries.
 The KNN algorithm generally adopts the majority voting
method for classification prediction and the average value
method for regression prediction.

⚫ KNN requires a huge number of computations.

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KNN Algorithm (3)
⚫ Generally, a larger k value reduces the impact of noise on classification, but obfuscates the boundary between
classes.
 A larger k value means a higher probability of underfitting because the segmentation is too rough. A smaller k value
means a higher probability of overfitting because the segmentation is too refined.

• The boundary becomes smoother as the

value of k increases.
• As the k value increases to infinity, all data
points will eventually become all blue or
all red.

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Naive Bayes (1)
⚫ Naive Bayes algorithm: a simple multi-class classification algorithm based on the Bayes theorem. It assumes
that features are independent of each other. For a given sample feature 𝑋, the probability that a sample
belongs to a category 𝐻 is:

P ( X 1 ,  , X n | Ck ) P ( C k )
P ( Ck | X 1 ,  , X n ) =
P ( X 1 , , X n )

 𝑋1 , … , 𝑋𝑛 are data features, which are usually described by measurement values of m attribute sets.
◼ For example, the color feature may have three attributes: red, yellow, and blue.

 𝐶𝑘 indicates that the data belongs to a specific category 𝐶

 𝑃 𝐶𝑘 |𝑋1 , … , 𝑋𝑛 is a posterior probability, or a posterior probability of under condition 𝐶𝑘 .
 𝑃 𝐶𝑘 is a prior probability that is independent of 𝑋1 , … , 𝑋𝑛
 𝑃 𝑋1 , … , 𝑋𝑛 is the priori probability of 𝑋.

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Naive Bayes (2)
⚫ Independent assumption of features.
 For example, if a fruit is red, round, and about 10 cm (3.94 in.) in diameter, it can be considered
an apple.
 A Naive Bayes classifier considers that each feature independently contributes to the probability
that the fruit is an apple, regardless of any possible correlation between the color, roundness,
and diameter.

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Ensemble Learning
⚫ Ensemble learning is a machine learning paradigm in which multiple learners are trained and combined to solve the same
problem. When multiple learners are used, the integrated generalization capability can be much stronger than that of a
single learner.

⚫ If you ask a complex question to thousands of people at random and then summarize their answers, the summarized answer
is better than an expert's answer in most cases. This is the wisdom of the masses.

Training set

Dataset 1 Dataset 2 Dataset m

Model 1 Model 2 Model m

Large
Model
model
synthesis

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Classification of Ensemble Learning

Bagging (Random Forest)

• Independently builds several basic learners and then averages
Bagging
their predictions.
• On average, a composite learner is usually better than a
single-base learner because of a smaller variance.
Ensemble learning

Boosting (Adaboost, GBDT, and XGboost)

Constructs basic learners in sequence to gradually
Boosting
reduce the bias of a composite learner. The composite
learner can fit data well, which may also cause
overfitting.

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Ensemble Methods in Machine Learning (1)
⚫ Random forest = Bagging + CART decision tree

⚫ Random forests build multiple decision trees and merge them together to make predictions more accurate
and stable.
 Random forests can be used for classification and regression problems.
Bootstrap sampling Decision tree building Aggregation prediction
result
Data subset 1 Prediction 1

Data subset 2 Prediction 2

• Category: majority
All training data voting Final prediction
• Regression:
Prediction average value

Data subset Prediction n

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Ensemble Methods in Machine Learning (2)
⚫ GBDT is a type of boosting algorithm.
⚫ For an aggregative mode, the sum of the results of all the basic learners equals the predicted value. In
essence, the residual of the error function to the predicted value is fit by the next basic learner. (The residual
is the error between the predicted value and the actual value.)
⚫ During model training, GBDT requires that the sample loss for model prediction be as small as possible.

Prediction
30 years old 20 years old
Residual
calculation

Prediction
10 years old 9 years old
Residual
calculation

Prediction
1 year old 1 year old

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Unsupervised Learning - K-means
⚫ K-means clustering aims to partition n observations into k clusters in which each observation belongs to the
cluster with the nearest mean, serving as a prototype of the cluster.
⚫ For the k-means algorithm, specify the final number of clusters (k). Then, divide n data objects into k clusters.
The clusters obtained meet the following conditions: (1) Objects in the same cluster are highly similar. (2) The
similarity of objects in different clusters is small.

x1 x1

K-means clustering

The data is not tagged. K-means

clustering can automatically classify
datasets.
x2 x2

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Unsupervised Learning - Hierarchical Clustering
⚫ Hierarchical clustering divides a dataset at different layers and forms a tree-like clustering structure. The
dataset division may use a "bottom-up" aggregation policy, or a "top-down" splitting policy. The hierarchy of
clustering is represented in a tree graph. The root is the unique cluster of all samples, and the leaves are the
cluster of only a sample.

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 Contents

1. Machine Learning Definition

2. Machine Learning Types

3. Machine Learning Process

4. Other Key Machine Learning Methods

5. Common Machine Learning Algorithms

6. Case study

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Comprehensive Case
⚫ Assume that there is a dataset containing the house areas and prices of 21,613 housing
units sold in a city. Based on this data, we can predict the prices of other houses in the
city.
House Area Price
1,180 221,900
2,570 538,000
770 180,000
1,960 604,000
1,680 510,000
5,420 1,225,000 Dataset
1,715 257,500
1,060 291,850
1,160 468,000
1,430 310,000
1,370 400,000
1,810 530,000
… …

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Problem Analysis
⚫ This case contains a large amount of data, including input x (house area), and output y (price), which is a continuous value.
We can use regression of supervised learning. Draw a scatter chart based on the data and use linear regression.
⚫ Our goal is to build a model function h(x) that infinitely approximates the function that expresses true distribution of the
dataset.
⚫ Then, use the model to predict unknown price data.

x Unary linear regression function

Feature: house area
h( x) = wo + w1 x
Input

Price
Dataset Learning h(x)
algorithm

Output

y
Label: price
House area

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Goal of Linear Regression
⚫ Linear regression aims to find a straight line that best fits the dataset.
⚫ Linear regression is a parameter-based model. Here, we need learning parameters 𝑤0 and 𝑤1 .
When these two parameters are found, the best model appears.

Which line is the best parameter?

h( x) = wo + w1 x
Price

Price
House area House area

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Loss Function of Linear Regression
⚫ To find the optimal parameter, construct a loss function and find the parameter values
when the loss function becomes the minimum.

1
J ( w) =  ( − )
2
Loss function of linear h ( x ) y
regression: 2m

Error
Error
Error
Error
Goal:
Price

1
arg min J ( w) =  ( h( x ) − y )
2

w 2m
• where, m indicates the number of samples,
• h(x) indicates the predicted value, and y indicates
House area the actual value.

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Gradient Descent Method
⚫ The gradient descent algorithm finds the minimum value of a function through iteration.
⚫ It aims to randomize an initial point on the loss function, and then find the global minimum value of the loss
function based on the negative gradient direction. Such parameter value is the optimal parameter value.
 Point A: the position of 𝑤0 and 𝑤1 after random initialization.
𝑤0 and 𝑤1 are the required parameters.

 A-B connection line: a path formed based on descents in Cost surface

a negative gradient direction. Upon each descent, values 𝑤0

and 𝑤1 change, and the regression line also changes.

 Point B: global minimum value of the loss function.

Final values of 𝑤0 and 𝑤1 are also found.

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Iteration Example
⚫ The following is an example of a gradient descent iteration. We can see that as red points on the
loss function surface gradually approach a lowest point, fitting of the linear regression red line with
data becomes better and better. At this time, we can get the best parameters.

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Model Debugging and Application
⚫ After the model is trained, test it with the test set The final model result is as follows:
to ensure the generalization capability. h( x) = 280.62 x − 43581
⚫ If overfitting occurs, use Lasso regression or Ridge
regression with regularization terms and tune the
hyperparameters.

Price
⚫ If underfitting occurs, use a more complex
regression model, such as GBDT.
⚫ Note:
 For real data, pay attention to the functions of data
cleansing and feature engineering.
House area

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 Summary

⚫ First, this course describes the definition and classification of machine learning, as well as
problems machine learning solves. Then, it introduces key knowledge points of machine
learning, including the overall procedure (data collection, data cleansing, feature extraction,
model training, model training and evaluation, and model deployment), common algorithms
(linear regression, logistic regression, decision tree, SVM, naive Bayes, KNN, ensemble
learning, K-means, etc.), gradient descent algorithm, parameters and hyper-parameters.
⚫ Finally, a complete machine learning process is presented by a case of using linear regression
to predict house prices.

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 Quiz

1. (True or false) Gradient descent iteration is the only method of machine learning algorithms. ( )
A. True

B. False

2. (Single-answer question) Which of the following algorithms is not supervised learning ? ( )

A. Linear regression

B. Decision tree

C. KNN

D. K-means

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 Recommendations

⚫ Online learning website

 https://e.huawei.com/en/talent/#/

⚫ Huawei Knowledge Base

 https://support.huawei.com/enterprise/en/knowledge?lang=en

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Thank you. 把数字世界带入每个人、每个家庭、
每个组织，构建万物互联的智能世界。
Bring digital to every person, home, and
organization for a fully connected,
intelligent world.

Copyright©2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd.

All Rights Reserved.

The information in this document may contain predictive

statements including, without limitation, statements regarding
the future financial and operating results, future product
portfolio, new technology, etc. There are a number of factors that
could cause actual results and developments to differ materially
from those expressed or implied in the predictive statements.
Therefore, such information is provided for reference purpose
only and constitutes neither an offer nor an acceptance. Huawei
may change the information at any time without notice.