Second Language Acquisition

(ENG504)

VIRTUAL UNIVERSITY OF PAKISTAN

Second Language Acquisition-ENG 504 VU

Table of Contents

Lesson No. Title Topic Page

Lesson 1 Introduction to Second Language Acquisition 001-006 4-5
Lesson 2 Nature of Language, Modularity and SLA Variability 007-012 6
Lesson 3 Creativity and Second Language Learning 013-018 7
Lesson 4 Second Language Use and Performance Perspective 019-025 8-9
Lesson 5 Difference Between Individual Learners 026-032 10
Lesson 6 Behaviourism and First Language Acquisition 032-038 11
Lesson 7 Second Language Learning and Krashen’s Monitor Model 039-044 12-13
Lesson 8 SLA Hypotheses 045-050 14-15
Lesson 9 Second Language and Universal Grammar 051-056 16-17
Lesson 10 Universal Grammar and First Language Acquisition 057-062 18
Lesson 11 Universal Grammar and Second Language Learning 063-068 19-20
Lesson 12 Evaluation of Universal Grammar and Cognitive Approaches 069-074 21-22
Lesson 13 Models of Second Language Learning 075-079 23-24
Lesson 14 Learning Strategies and Second Language Learning 080-085 25-26
Lesson 15 Theories of Second Language Processing and Connectionism 086-091 27-28
Evaluation Of Cognitive Approaches and Functional
Lesson 16 092-097 29-30
Perspectives
Lesson 17 Cognitive, Textual, Social, Orientations and Functionalism 098-103 31
Lesson 18 Functionalism and Interaction in Second Language Learning 104-109 32-33
Lesson 19 Input and Interaction in Second Language Acquisition 110-115 34-35
Consciousness Raising, Negative Feedback and Negative
Lesson 20 116-121 36-37
Evidence
Lesson 21 Input Processing and Autonomous Induction Theory 122-127 38-39
Lesson 22 Interactionist Approach and Sociocultural Theory 128-133 40-41
Lesson 23 Aspects of Sociocultural Theory 134-139 42-43
Lesson 24 Activity Theory, Private Speech, and Scaffolding 140-145 44
Lesson 25 Empirical Evidence and Socio-Cultural Learning 146-151 45

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Lesson 26 Second Language Socialization and Identity Construction 152-157 46

Investment and Social Identities In Second Language
Lesson 27 158-163 47
Acquisition
Sociolinguistic Perspective on Language Learning and Second
Lesson 28 164-169 48-49
Language Research
Lesson 29 Instructional Policies and the Role of L1 in L2 Learning 170-175 50
Lesson 30 The Facilitative Role of L1 176-181 51-52
Lesson 31 Different Aspects of L1 182-187 53
Lesson 32 Language Awareness and L1 188-193 54-55
Lesson 33 The Facilitation of L1 in Second Language Learning 194-199 56
The Role of L1 in Second Language Learning Performance
Lesson 34 200-205 57
Domain
Lesson 35 Factors Influencing SLA 206-211 58
Lesson 36 Different Learning Styles and Strategies 212-217 59-60
Lesson 37 Second Language Learning and Learner Motivation 218-223 61-62
Lesson 38 Language Theories and Second Language Learner 224-229 63
Lesson 39 Myths Related to SLA 230-235 64
Lesson 40 Culture Difference and Identity 236-241 65-66
Lesson 41 Teaching/Learning of Culture in Second Language Classrooms 242-247 67
Lesson 42 Second Language Acquisition and Teaching 248-254 68-69
Lesson 43 Focus on Form and Types of Instructions 255-259 70-71
Lesson 44 Explicit Instruction and Production Practice 260-263 72
Lesson 45 Input and SLA Pedagogy 264-269 73

Abbreviations Used Within the Text 74

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Lesson-01

INTRODUCTION TO SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Topic No: 001-006

Introduction to SLA; Key Concepts; What Makes a Good Theory: The Need; What Makes
a Good Theory: Types of Theories; Evaluating a Theory of SLA; Views on the Nature of
Language

The term ‘second language’ includes languages other than the native language, languages of
wider communication encountered within local region or community, and foreign languages. Learning can
either be formal, planned and systematic or informal and unstructured.

Second language acquisition (SLA) is a research field that focuses on learners and learning rather
than teachers and teaching. The field of SLA addresses the fundamental questions of how learners come to
internalize the linguistic system of another language and how they make use of that linguistic system
during comprehension and speech production.

The learning and acquisition of a second language occurs once the first language acquisition is
established. For instance, a child who speaks Hindi as the first language, starts learning English when he
starts going to school. English is learned by the process of second language acquisition. In fact, a young
child can learn a second language faster than an adult can learn the same language.

Language development, like all human development, will be heavily determined by the nature of
the environment, and may be severely limited unless the environment is appropriate. A stimulating
environment is required to enable natural curiosity, intelligence, and creativity to develop, and to enable
our biological capacities to unfold. The fact that the course of development is largely internally determined
does not mean that it will proceed without care, stimulation, and opportunity (Chomsky, 1960).

In the sciences and social sciences, the construct “theory” has a particular meaning. A ‘theory’ is
a more or less abstract set of claims about the significant units within phenomenon under study. It aims at
explanation as well as description. Theories are produced collaboratively and evolve through a systematic
enquiry. These are assessed through hypothesis testing and involve a reflexive process. A good theory is
supposed to give clear and explicit statements about its claims. It must be testable or falsifiable in some
way. The linguists view language as a complex communication which must be analyzed on different
levels.

Property Theory

The linguists are more interested in ‘property theory.’ They are concerned with the structure of
the language and how a language changes; how certain words become obsolete; how certain factors lead

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to the addition of new words and merge them in a language system. In property theory, the language
system is important.

Transition Theory
‘Transition theory’ is more concerned with the developmental processes of language education. It
is interested in finding out the different stages of learning in a second language learner. It can relate to the
first language acquisition telling about the different learning stages in a child’s life and how that learning is
different or similar to second language learning.

What is more, theories are also distinguished from frameworks and models. These latter
constructs refer to compilations of ideas and constructs that are bigger than theories. They may subsume
some theories but their intent is less to explain and predict and are generally more descriptive in nature.
They can describe what happens in some detail and in some cases make relationships between different
things, but they may not be able to explain why something happens the way it does.

Nature of language

Language is the most important phenomenon in the world. From birth to death, all our activities
are regulated by language. Language dominates every aspect of human life. In fact, it is a yardstick to
separate us from other beings. Language is a mean of communication. With the help of language, we can
express our thoughts and feelings to others. Without language, society would be impossible.

Language is learnt: Learning of language is not an automatic process. Of course, it is behaviour

but not of the type like walking and crawling that comes to child in a natural way.

Language is a system: Each language is a unique system. The system of language consists of
sounds, structures, and vocabulary. A person who wants to learn a new language will have to learn new
sounds, new structures, and new vocabulary. The sound system of language differs from language to
language depending upon the culture to which a language belongs. Similarly, each language has its own
system of vocabulary. Thus languages are systematic in their own nature.

Language is a skill: Learning of a language is a skill subject. It is a skill like swimming and
cycling. We cannot learn swimming or cycling just by studying rules. We can learn them by practice. In
the same way, we can learn a language by rigorously practicing that language. So a lot of repetition for
major linguistic skills like listening, speaking, reading and writing is required.

Language is for communication: Language is the best means of communication and self-
expressions. Human beings express their ideas, thoughts, feelings, and emotions through language. In this
way language is a means to connect past, present, and future.

Language is rule governed: Each language is governed by a particular set of rules. For example,
English is S.V.O. language. In forming a sentence, we put subject, then verb, and after verb there comes
object.
Language is unique: Each language is unique because it has its own style of functioning.
The sounds, vocabulary and structures of every language have their own specialty.

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Lesson-02
NATURE OF LANGUAGE, MODULARITY AND LANGUAGE
VARIABILITY

Topic No: 007-012

Views on the Nature of Language: Competence and Performance; The Language Learning
Process: Nature vs. Nurture; The Language Learning Process: Modularity; Modularity
and SLA; System and Variability in SLA

Linguists disagree over their main focus of interest and study. Noam Chomsky prefers
competence over performance. By competence, he refers to the abstract and hidden representation of
language knowledge held inside minds with its potential to create and understand original utterances in a
given language. However, there are difficulties in studying competence as language performance data are
believed to be imperfect reflections of competence. The competence can only be assessed indirectly,
under controlled conditions, through wide-ranging tests.

Nature vs. Nurture Debate

The best known controversy involves B. F. Skinner and Noam Chomsky. Skinner advocates
behaviorist mechanisms; whereas, Chomsky emphasized the role of innate dispositions that expect natural
languages to be organized in particular ways and support the role of Universal Grammar (UG).

Further, there are different views on seeing mind as modular or unitary. In Piaget’s view,
language is simply one manifestation of general skill of symbolic representation and first language
acquisition does not require any special mechanism; whereas, Chomsky considers language as too
complex to be learnt from environmental exposure and too distinctive in its structure to be learnable by
general cognitive means. Universal Grammar is thus endowed with its own distinctive mechanism for
learning.

When we talk about errors in SL utterances, Behaviorists view errors as a result of ‘bad habits’
which can be controlled through rote learning and pattern drilling using target language models. Recent
studies contradict this view by claiming that errors and mistakes are patterned although some of them are
caused by first language influence, yet this is not true for all of them. Learner’s language system is
unstable and characterized by high degree of variability which is a central feature of learner inter-
language.

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Lesson-03

CREATIVITY AND SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING

Topic No: 013-018

Creativity and Routines in SLA; Limited Learning: Fossilization; Cross-Linguistic

Influences; Second Language Use and SLL; Second Language Use and SLL: Other
Theorists

Creativity is a complex notion, especially in cognitive terms. This is why theorists have never
really reached a consensual definition of this notion. There are scores of theories about the nature and
taxonomies of creativity. As far as language learning is concerned, creativity is not about the product; it is
about the process of learning. The process of understanding the way the target language works through
creative thinking.

Learners’ surface utterances can be linked to underlying rule system, even if these seem
primitive and deviant compared with the target language system. Formulas and routines play an important
part in everyday language use by native speakers. Our first-language utterances are a complex mix of
creativity and prefabrication. A frequent use of unanalyzed chunks is also evident in young children’s
first-language as well as early stages of second language.

Second Language (SL) learners mostly remain noticeably different from the native speakers in
their pronunciation, and many continue to make grammar mistakes even when well-motivated to learn or
after years of study of the target language. It is typified by incomplete success.

Fossilization refers to the situation when a learner’s SL system seems to ‘freeze’ or become stuck
at some more or less deviant stage.

These two phenomena are significant facts about Second Language Learning (SLL) process.
Psycholinguistic and Sociolinguistic views interpret them differently. Former claims that language-
specific learning mechanism simply cease to work for older learners, and no amount of study and effort
can recreate them. The latter group exclaims that the older SL learners do not have the social
opportunities or motivation to identify with native community. They may rather value their distinctive
identity as learners or identifiable minority group.

Learners’ performance in SL is influenced by the language/languages they already know which

are obvious in their accent as well as in certain characteristic mistakes in their utterances. This
phenomenon is called language transfer. Behaviorists view it as an important source of error and
interference in SLL; whereas, recent theorists find widely differing views on extent and nature of
influences. Performing in a language involves speaking, making sense of data we hear, interpreting, and
processing incoming language data. Language input is essential for normal language learning. Behaviorist
theory saw regular (oral) practice as helpful in forming correct language ‘habits’ whereas the
contemporary theorists put emphasis on ‘practice’ function. For instance, information-processing theorists
argued that language competence consists of both a knowledge component and a skill component. They
see a vital role of SL use or SL performance in developing the skill component.
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Lesson-04

SECOND LANUAGE USE AND PERFORMANCE PERSPECTIVE

Topic No: 019-025

Second Language Use and SLL: Comprehensible Input Hypothesis; Second Language Use
and SLL: Performance Perspective and Psycholinguistics; Performance Perspective and
Psycholinguistics: Negative Evidence; Performance Perspective: Sociolinguistics; Views of
the Learner; Learner as a Language Processor

Language acquisition is very similar to the process children use in acquiring first and second
languages. It requires meaningful interactions in the target language, natural communication, in which
speakers are concerned not with the form of their utterances but with the messages they are conveying
and understanding. Error correction and explicit teaching of rules are not relevant to language acquisition
(Brown & Hanlon, 1970; Brown, Cazden, & Bellugi, 1973), but caretakers and native speakers can
modify their utterances addressed to acquirers to help them understand, and these modifications are
thought to help the acquisition process (Snow & Ferguson, 1977).

Krashen’s comprehensible output hypothesis gives a more contrasting view. Swain points out that
much incoming SL input is comprehensible without any need of full grammatical analysis, which raises a
question that why should we be compelled to learn grammar when it is not needed in order to understand
a message?

Another way of distinguishing among current theories from ‘performance’ perspective concerns
their view of second-language interaction when speaking and listening are viewed as integral and
mutually influential. Two major perspectives on interaction are psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic. From
a psycholinguistic view, interaction offers opportunities to fine-tune the language input they are receiving
which ensures that the input is well adapted to their internal needs. Interaction is also interesting to
linguistic theorists because of the controversies over usefulness of negative evidence’s provision for
second language development. Negative evidence means any kind of input that informs about
unacceptable forms in the target language. It includes formal correction by teacher and informal
paraphrasing by a native-speaking conversational partner. However, corrections often seem ineffective;
therefore, recent theorist put more emphasis on the provision of positive evidence.

Sociolinguistic views of interaction are very different. Here, language process is viewed as
essentially social. Identity of the learner and his/her language knowledge are collaboratively constructed
and reconstructed in the course of interaction. The details of these functions vary from apprenticeship to
scaffolding.

The second language learners may be children or the adults who embark on learning of an
additional language, at least some years after they have started to acquire their first language. They may
be leaning the target language formally in school or college, or may be learning it through informal social
interaction. They may be learning a highly localized language to become an insider in local speech
community; or may be learning a language of wider communication relevant to their region in order to get

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access to economic development and public life. There are three main points of view among SLL
researcher as far as learner is concerned. The linguistic perspective is concerned with modelling
language structures and processes within mind. Social psychological perspective is concerned with
modelling individual differences among learners and their implications for eventual learning success.
Socio-cultural perspective views the learner as social beings and members of social groups and
networks. The first two are primarily concerned with analyzing and modeling the inner mental
mechanisms available to the individual learner. They aim to document and explain the developmental
routes, but are less concerned with the speed or rate of development. They minimize or disregard social
and contextual differences.

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Lesson-05

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL LEARNERS

Topic No: 026-032

Differences Between Individual Learners; Cognitive Differences; Affective Differences;

Learner as a Social Being; Summary of Key Points; History of Second Language Research;
The 1950s – 1960s

SL learners generally greatly differ in the degree of success they achieve even if they can be
shown to be following a common developmental route. Social psychologists argue that it is due to
individual differences among learners. Gardner and Macintyre divide the learner traits into two groups:
cognitive and affective (emotional). The Cognitive factors include intelligence, language aptitude, and
language learning strategies. The affective factors include language attitudes, motivation, language
anxiety, and willingness. The two perspectives highlighted so far have concentrated (a) on universal
characteristics and (b) on individual characteristics. It is also necessary to view the SL learner as
essentially a social being and consider the social context in which learning takes place and also the
learning opportunities it makes available. Interest in ‘learner as a social being’ also leads to concern with
a range of socially constructed elements in learners’ identities and their relationship with learning.
Therefore social class, power, ethnicity and gender are significant in SLL research. The relationship
between the individual learner and the social context is viewed as dynamic, reflexive, and constantly
changing. The ‘individual differences’ tradition saw that relationship as being governed by the traits
(aptitude, anxiety, etc.) which are relatively fixed and slow to change while socially oriented researchers
viewed motivation, anxiety etc. being constantly reconstructed.

History of Second Language Research: 1950s – 1960s

This chapter aims to explore theoretical foundations of today’s thinking, focusing post-war
period. This period since the 1950s can be divided into three main phases: 1950s – 1960s, 1970s, and
1980s onwards. In 1950s and early 1960s SLL theorizing was much adjunct to the practical business of
language teaching. Language teaching methods at that time had to be justifiable in terms of an underlying
theory. ‘Progressive’ language pedagogy (1950s) drew on a version of structuralism developed by British
linguist Palmer. This approach is summed up as follows:

1. The conviction about finite set of ‘patterns’ or ‘structures’ in language systems

2. The belief that reception and practice result in accuracy and fluency in foreign language habits
3. Methodology to teach ‘the basic’ first before encouraging learners to communicate their own thoughts
and ideas

Dominant learning theory in mainstream psychology in this era was ‘Behaviourism’.

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Lesson-06

BEHAVIOURISM AND FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Topic No: 032-038

Behaviourism; Behaviourism under Attack; the 1970s: First Language Acquisition: Same
Stages; First Language Acquisition: Similar Order; First Language Acquisition: Negatives;
First Language Acquisition: Rule Governed

Behaviorists view language learning (like any other kind of learning) as a formation of habits;
that is creation of stimulus–response pairing which becomes stronger with reinforcement. In case of first
language learning, the process is relatively simple as we have to learn a new set of habits. Second
language learning involves replacing those habits by a set of new ones, which is complicated. If SL
structures are similar to the learners’ first language then learning will easily take place but in case they are
different, learning will be difficult. From a teacher’s point of view, this approach had two-fold
implications.

1) Learning takes place by imitating and repeating (practice makes perfect).

2) Teachers needed to focus their teaching on structures which were believed to be difficult, which
would be, the areas of differences.

Therefore, researchers embarked on comparing pairs of languages, termed as ‘contrastive

analyses. In the late 1950s, the linguistics saw a shift from structural linguistics to generative linguistics,
initiated by Noam Chomsky. In psychology too, pre-eminent role for the environment was losing ground
in favour of developmentalist views, such as Piaget’s cognitive development theory. Chomsky strongly
criticized Skinner’s Behaviorist views on number of issues and rejected the idea that one can compare the
behaviour of rats in a laboratory, learning to perform simple tasks, to the behaviour of children learning
language without direct teaching. Chomsky claimed that children have an innate faculty that guides them
in their learning of language.

In 1970s, Klima and Bellugi (1966), Slobin (1970), Brown (1973) found striking similarities in
language learning behaviour of young children whatever the language they were learning. It showed that
children all over the world go through similar stages, use similar constructions, and make similar kinds of
errors. A consistent order of acquisition was indicated while studying English language structures, i.e.,
children all over the world acquire negative around the same age and mark it in similar ways in all
languages. Another important finding was that a child language is rule-governed even if initially the rules
they create do not correspond to the adult ones. Children express relationships between elements in a
sentence in a consistent way. When producing adult-like forms, they are not merely imitating and
repeating; instead, they extract rules from the language they hear and apply them to their own production.
It happens much later when they will be able to take on broad exceptions to rules.

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Lesson-07

SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING AND KRASHEN’S MONITOR

MODEL

Topic No: 039-044

First Language Acquisition: General Principles; SLL: Contrastive Analysis; SLL: Error
Analysis; SLL: Where do Errors Come from? Krashen’s Monitor Model; Acquisition
Learning Hypothesis

From the brief and oversimplified account of 1970s first language acquisition research, following
characteristics emerge:

 Children go through stages.

 These stages are very similar across children for a given language, although individual progress
rate varies.
 These stages are similar across languages.
 Child language is rule-governed and systematic, and their rules do not necessarily correspond to
adult ones.
 Children are resistant to correction.
 Their processing capacity limits the number of rules they can apply at any one time.

These findings caught SLA researchers’ attention too; because, the predictions made by
contrastive analysis did not seem to be borne out in practice. Construction differences among languages
are not necessarily difficult. Neither construction similarities among languages are necessarily easy;
difficulty sometimes occurs in only one direction. The task of language comparison to design efficient
language teaching programs now seemed to be disproportionately huge in relation to its prediction
powers. Developments in first language acquisition and disillusionment with contrastive analysis
originated ‘error analysis,’ the systematic investigation of SL learners’ errors. Studies reveal that learners’
errors do not necessarily originate from first language. First language interference was remained
unfounded in majority of errors which raised a question that where do these errors come from? They are
neither target-like nor first-language like; they must be learner-internal in origin. Researchers started
classifying them for better understanding and with errors in the mother tongue. In 1972, Selinker coined a
term ‘inter-language’ that refers to the language produced by learners both as a system and as a series of
interlocked systems. These studies moved beyond error analysis and focused the learner system as a
whole.

Krashen’s Monitor Model

The theory evolved in late 1970s; it was refined and expanded in early 1980s. It is based around
five basic hypotheses:

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1. The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis

2. The Monitor hypothesis
3. The Natural Order hypothesis
4. The Input hypothesis
5. The Affective Filter hypothesis

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Lesson-08

SLA HYPOTHESES

Topic No: 045-050

Monitor Hypothesis; Natural Order Hypothesis; Input Hypothesis; Input Hypothesis:

Critique; Affective Filter Hypothesis; Schumann’s Acculturation Model of SLA

According to Krashen, learning system has only one function, i.e., as a monitor or editor. It comes
into play only to ‘make changes in the form of our utterance.’ Acquisition initiates the utterances and is
responsible for fluency, thus, monitor is thought to alter the output of the acquired system. This
hypothesis is criticized because the monitor doesn’t operate all the time as pressures and demands of
conversing in real time often doesn’t allow it. Moreover, it is impossible to test the claims empirically.

Natural order hypothesis says that we acquire the language rules in a predictable order that cannot
be determined solely by formal simplicity. This hypothesis is criticized for being too strong. It ignores
well-documented cases of language transfer or individual variability. It is based almost exclusively on the
morpheme studies, which reflect accuracy of production rather than acquisition sequences.

Input hypothesis is linked to the above mentioned hypothesis. It claims that we move along the
developmental continuum by receiving comprehensible input. Too simple or too complex input will not
be useful for acquisition. It claims that speaking is a result of acquisition and not its cause. Speech cannot
be taught directly; it emerges on its own as a result of building competence via comprehensible input.
Further, it says that if input is understood, the necessary grammar is automatically provided. This
hypothesis is criticized for being vague and imprecise. It is impossible to verify the theory as no
independently testable definitions are given. Nor does the theory specify the internal workings of the
‘Language Acquisition Device’ where acquisition actually takes place.

Just comprehensible input is not enough; learners also need to ‘let that input in’ as it is. Affective
Filter supposedly determines how receptive to the input a learner is going to be. This filter captures
relationship between affective variables and acquisition process. It posits that acquirers vary with respect
to the strength or level of their affective filter. Learners’ attitude toward second language acquisition
determines their input and affective filter. Major criticism on this hypothesis claims it to be vague and a-
theoretical.

Schumann’s Acculturation Model of SLA: It views second language acquisition from a

radically different angle, and also remained influential during subsequent decades. Schumann noticed that
early inter-language resembled pidgin language with characteristic features. SLA was compared to the
complexification of pidgins. This process was linked to degree of acculturation of learners. The closer
they feel to the target language community, the better learner will ‘acculturate’ and vice versa. This model
was influential in opening alternative lines of research comparing SLA with pidginization and
creolization, and bringing to the fore social and psychological variables along with their roles in SLL.

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According to the model, success depends on the extent to which learners adapt fully to target
language culture. Two major factors are identified in acculturation: social distance and psychological
distance.

Social distance factors refer to those involving the relationship between the internal
characteristics of a language group and the ability for the learner to become closer (socially) to that target
language group. Among these factors are the social dominance of the language group, the ability for the
individual to integrate into the group, the cohesiveness and size of the group, the attitude of both the
group and the individual toward each other, and the length of the exposure between the two.

Psychological distance factors refer to the extent to which individual learners cope
psychologically with learning an L2. Among these factors are anxiety, motivation, and self-confidence.

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Lesson-09

SECOND LANGUAGE AND UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR

Topic No: 051-056

SLA 1980s and Beyond; SLA: The Role of Internal Mechanisms; SLA 1980s: The Role of
First Language; Linguistics and Language Learning: Universal Grammar Approach; Aims
of Linguistic Research; Universal Grammar: Knowledge of Language

By mid-1980s, SLL had matured into an autonomous field of inquiry encompassing a number of
substantial programs of research with their distinctive theoretical orientations and methodologies. New
links emerged with cognitive science, neuro-psychology and socio-cultural frameworks that have greatly
enriched perception of SLA but SLL research agenda continues to focus on fundamental issues carried
forward from the 1970s such as: The role of internal mechanisms (like language-specific issues, cognitive
issues)

 The role of first language

 The role of psychological variables affecting learning (motivation, personality, language aptitude)
 The role of social and environmental factors
 The role of input

Universal Grammar Approach (UG)

Language is a result of two factors’ interplay: the initial state – ‘language acquisition device’ and
the course of experience – ‘input’. This approach is developed by Noam Chomsky. Its aim is twofold:
descriptive adequacy and explanatory adequacy. UG is a property theory that attempts to characterize the
underlying linguistic knowledge in SL learners’ minds. Main goals of SLA are to answer three basic
questions about human language:

1. What constitutes knowledge of language?

2. How is knowledge of language acquired?
3. How is knowledge of language put to use?

Linguistic theory aims to:

 Describe the mental representations of language that are stored in the human mind.
 Define what all languages have in common as well as their distinctive characteristics.

UG approach in SLL provides detailed descriptive framework that enables formulation of well-
defined hypotheses about the task facing the learner and to analyze the learners’ language in a more
focused manner.

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Universal Grammar as a ‘Transition Theory’

A transition theory describes the process of language learning. UG is also a transition theory as it
is interested in describing the language transition process or learning process that occurs during the
learning of the second language. In that sense, it does answer the two main questions that Chomsky said
the learners must know or the language theory must answer: it describes the knowledge of the language
(property theory) and also moves on to explain how that knowledge is acquired by the learners (transition
theory).

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Lesson-10

UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR AND FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISTION

Topic No: 057-062

UG: Acquisition of Language; UG: Acquisition of Language: Theoretical Scenarios; How is

Language Put to Use? Arguments from First Language Acquisition; UG and First
Language Acquisition; Opposing Evidence

On the basis of messy input, children create mental representation of language which goes
beyond the input they are exposed to and is very similar to that of other native speakers of the same
language variety. Language is the most abstract piece of knowledge. Second language learners are
cognitively mature and presumably much more resourceful in problem solving and dealing with abstract
concepts. From a theoretical point of view, different possible scenarios are open to consideration; for
example,

 SL grammars are constrained by universal grammar (UG)

 UG does not constrain SL grammar or UG is impaired

UG approach is concerned with knowledge of language called ‘competence.’ It is not about

performance, about how language is used in real life. A complete theory of language also has to define
how we access our knowledge base and how it relates to a number of sociolinguistic and psychological
variables. Chomsky acknowledges this and has been concerned almost exclusively with addressing the
first two issues. Notion of an innate language faculty in children argues that children go through
developmental stages which are very similar across children of given language though progress rate
varies. These stages are similar across languages. Child language is said to be rule-governed and
systematic; they are resistant to correction and have limited processing capacity. Universalists do not
conclude that there must be a specific language module in the brain. It does not seem to be linked in any
clear way to intelligence. In fact, children vary in the age at which they go through these developmental
steps and in how fast they go through each stage. Furthermore, many children with cognitive deficit
develop language normally. As there are numerous examples of people with cognitive disabilities or
difficulties who performed well in language(s), evidence of opposite is also found. There are many
cognitively ‘normal’ children with impaired language condition known as ‘specific language impairment.’
A study suggests that some aspects of language at least might be genetically controlled. Damage to left
hemisphere of the brain also results in language deficit. Language and cognition seem to be largely
separate but they do interact.

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Lesson-11

UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR AND SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING

Topic No: 063-068

Arguments of (Universal Grammar) UG; Principles of UG; UG: Cross-linguistic Variation;

UG and Second Language Learning; UG and SLL – Different Hypothesis; Evaluation of
UG: Scope

The evidence posits that there must be some kind of innate language faculty that is biologically
triggered. Lenneberg (1967) outlined characteristics that are typically biologically triggered behaviours
and argued that language conforms to the criteria used in order to define such behavior. Aitchison
presents Lenneberg’s criteria as a list of six features:

1. The behaviour emerges before it is necessary. They start talking when they don’t need it for
survival.
2. Its appearance is not a result of a conscious decision.
3. Its emergence is not triggered by external events.
4. Direct teaching and intensive practice have relatively little effect.
5. There is a regular sequence of ‘milestones’ as the behavior develops; these can usually be
correlated with age and other aspects of development.
6. There may be ‘critical period’ for the acquisition of the behaviour. Human beings have to be
exposed to language before puberty in order for language to develop.

First language learner’s initial state is supposed to consist of a set of principles and languages
vary in limited ways. It means that language learning is highly constrained in advance. UG is the principle
of structure-dependency which states that language critically depends on the structural relationship
between elements in a sentence. All languages are made up of sentences which consist of at least a Noun-
Phrase and a Verb-Phrase. Universal Grammar includes a universal inventory of categories that the child
selects from on the basis of the input. According to White, there are three potential sources of cross-
linguistic variation relating to functional categories:

1. Languages can differ in terms of functional categories which are realized in the grammar (like
Japanese lacks the category Determiner).
2. The features of a particular functional category can vary from language to language (i.e. French
has a gender feature while English does not).
3. Features vary in strength: a feature can be strong in one language and weak in another, with a
range of syntactic consequences. (Inflection features are strong in French and weak in English,
resulting in certain word-order alterations).

Universal Grammar is a theory of natural languages that definitely includes second language too.
First and second language learning is similar in many ways. In first language acquisition, explanation that
generated most enthusiasm was about some kind of language blueprint in brain. Second language learners

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go through fairly rigid stages which are unlike both their first language and the second language they are
exposed to. The situation is complicated by a number of factors, such as:

 SL learners are cognitively mature.

 They already know at least one other language.
 They have different motivations for learning a second language.

These points have important implications that need to be addressed. Even if, UG hypothesis is
correct for first language learning, there are still some logical possibilities concerning its role in SLL.

1. Second languages are not constrained by UG principles and parameters, and they do not behave
like natural languages.
2. They are UG constrained. There are different hypotheses regarding whether SL learner has full
access or partial access to UG.

Learners might not be able to reset parameters; therefore, they operate with first language settings for
some parts of the new language.

Scope and Achievements of (Universal Grammar) UG

1. UG theory aims to describe and explain human language.

2. It is nonetheless directly relevant to the study of SL.
3. It is a linguistic theory, not a learning theory.
4. It has been hugely influential in drawing up sophisticated hypotheses regarding SLA.
5. It helps exploring interplay between the first and second language learners and facilitates
understanding of linguistic knowledge learners bring to the task of SLA.
6. It is primarily concerned with the description and explanation of formal system underlying
language.
7. Its scope does not include a theory of processing or learning.
8. UG is more of a property theory and not a transition theory. Therefore, it must be evaluated as
such.

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Lesson-12

EVALUATIONS OF UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR AND COGNITIVE

APPROACHES

Topic No: 069-074

Evaluation of Universal Grammar (UG): View of Language; Evaluation of UG: View of

Language Acquisition; Evaluation of UG: View of Language Learner; Cognitive
Approaches to SLL: Introduction; Cognitive Approaches: Variations

The Universal Grammar (UG) view of language has been very influential since 1950s, but not
uncontroversial. UG approach views language as a mental framework, underlying all human languages. It
focuses on some aspects of language and not others. It is only concerned with the sentence and its internal
structure rather than any larger unit of language. It studies languages clinically, in a vacuum, as a mental
object, rather than a social or psychological one. It separates language knowledge and language use
rigidly. Its methodologies are criticized for not being representative of reality. It is preoccupied with the
modelling of linguistic competence, not concerned with naturalistic performance. UG theorists are
criticized for lacking in reliability of SL judgments. Therefore, their recent work has used range of
elicitation techniques. Furthermore, it has left untouched many central areas to our understanding of SLA
process. It is exclusively concerned with documenting and explaining nature of SL linguistic system and
ignores the social and psychological variables. UG has been very useful for linguistic analysis. It
facilitates well-defined and focused hypotheses; it is useful in not only establishing some facts about
SLA, but also in explaining those facts.

UG approach is only interested in the learner as the processor of a mind that contains language;
variations among different individuals are of little concern. Its primary emphasis is on language as the
object of study and on what is universal within mind. It makes clear and explicit statements of the ground
it aims to cover and the claims it makes. It has systematic procedures for theory evaluation and explains
as well as describes at least some language phenomena. It increasingly engages with other theories in the
field.

The Cognitive Approaches to Second Language Learning (SLL)

The Second Language Acquisition (SLA) researcher under these approaches put more emphasis
on the learning component of SLL; they are interested in transition theories. Their focus is still very much
on the learner as an individual. They are more interested in understanding how the human brain processes
and learns new information. UG theorists were interested primarily in competence; they were not
centrally concerned with how learners access linguistic knowledge in real time or what strategies are
employed when an incomplete linguistic system lets the learner down? On the other hand, these are the
central issues for cognitive theorists.

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The two approaches of Cognitive theorists of SLA are:

1. Processing Theorists

Those who believe that language knowledge might be ‘special’ in some way, but they are
concerned to develop transition or processing theories to complement property theories. Processing
approaches investigate how second language learner process linguistic information, and how this ability
develops over time?

2. Emergentist / Constructionist

Emergentist or Constructionist does not consider separation between property and transition
theories as legitimate. They believe that you can explain both the nature of knowledge and how it is
processed through general cognition principles.

Constructivists consider that the complexity of language emerges from associative learning
processes being exposed to a massive and complex environment. Many of them believe that the language
develops as learners move from the learning of exemplars that are committed to memory. They claim that
children pick up frequent patterns they hear around them and slowly make more abstract generalization as
the database of related utterances grow.

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Lesson-13

MODELS OF SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING

Topic No: 075-079

Processing Approaches; Information Processing Models of Second Language Learning;

McLaughlin’s Model; Processing Approaches: Anderson’s Model; Anderson’s Model:
Three Stages

Processing approaches are interested in how brain’s processing mechanism deal with second
language. These include 1) Information processing approach, 2) Processability theory.

1. Information processing approach investigates how different memory stores (short-term memory,
long-term memory) deal with SL information and how this information is automatized and restructured.

2. Processability theory looks more specifically at processing demands made by various formal aspects
of second language, and implications for learnability and teachability of second language structure.

Here, we will discuss two information processing models:

 McLaughlin’s Information processing model (1987, 1990)

 Anderson’s Active Control of Thought (ACT* ) model (1983, 1985)

In McLaughlin’s model, humans are viewed as autonomous and active. The mind is a general-
purpose, symbol processing system. Complex behaviour is composed of simpler modular processes;
processes take time so predictions about reaction time can be made. The mind is viewed as a limited-
capacity processor.

Within this framework, second language learning is viewed as acquisition of a complex cognitive
skill. To learn a second language is to learn a skill because various aspects of the task must be practiced
and integrated into fluent performance. This requires automatization of component sub-skills.
Automatization means that learning involves a shift from controlled toward automatic processing via
practice. It results in constant restructuring of the linguistic system of SL learner. When second language
learner seems unable to get rid of non-native-like structure despite abundant linguistic input over many
years, it is called fossilization. Fossilization in this model would arise as a result of a controlled process
becoming automatic prematurely.

Anderson’s Anderson’s Active Control of Thought (ACT*) model is more wide-ranging, and the
terminology is different but practice leading to automatization also plays central role. It enables
declarative knowledge. Anderson posits three kinds of memory: a working memory, a declarative long-
term memory, and a procedural long-term memory. This model has been criticized for insisting that all
knowledge starts out in declarative form, which is clearly problematic in case of first language learner as
Anderson has accepted in answering to the criticism. Anderson’s model is a general cognitive model
of skill acquisition. It can be applied to those aspects of SLL that require proceduralization and

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automatization. According to Anderson, the move from declarative to procedural knowledge takes place
in three stages.

1. The cognitive stage: a description of the procedure is learnt.

2. The associative stage: a method for performing the skill is worked out.
3. The autonomous stage: the skill becomes more and more rapid and automatic.

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Lesson-14

LEARNING STRATEGIES AND SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING

Topic No: 080-085

Explanations of Learning Offered; Critique; Application of ACT* to Learning Strategies;

Classification of Learning Strategies; Learning Strategies and Second Language Learning;
Benefits of Cognitive Theory Application to SLL; ACT* and Fluency Development in
Second Language Acquisition

Above mentioned three stages can be understood from an example. At the cognitive stage, the
learner would learn that an –s must be added to the verb after a third person subject. At associative stage,
learner would work out how to add an –s when the context requires it. In other word, he/she learns to
associate an action with corresponding declarative knowledge. At the autonomous stage learners’ action
would become increasingly automatic to the point that the declarative knowledge may even be lost.

Contemporary SLL theorists disagree with Anderson’s implied position that SL grammar is
initially learnt through conscious study and application of explicit rules. There is consensus that much
grammar learning takes place without conscious awareness. Some information-processing (I-P) theorists
have responded to this problem by suggesting that the ‘declarative knowledge’ component can be
subdivided into conscious and unconscious parts. Others have argued that I-P models are most helpful in
explaining more peripheral strands in SLL.

O’Malley and Chamot (1990) suggest that the learning strategies are procedures undertaken by
the learners to make their language learning as effective as possible. Learning strategies must not be
confused with communication strategies; they do overlap but there is difference in focus. Learning
strategies facilitate learning whereas communication strategies help overcoming a specific communicative
problem. Learning strategies can be classified into three categories:

1. Metacognition strategies: selective attention, planning, monitoring, evaluation.

2. Cognitive strategies: rehearsal, organization, inferencing, summarizing, deducing, imagery,
transfer, elaboration.
3. Social or affective strategies: co-operation, questioning for clarification, and self-talk.

Learning strategies are complex procedures applied to tasks; they may be represented as
procedural knowledge, acquired through cognitive, associative and autonomous stages of learning. The
strategies may be conscious in early stages of learning and later be performed without person’s
awareness. Thus, these have to be learnt in exactly the same way as other complex cognitive skills. Before
a skill is proceduralized, it will have to compete for working memory space with other aspects of the task
in hand. If learning strategies are a skill, then they can be taught and get proceduralized more quickly.
This will free working memory space for other aspects of learning. O’Malley and Chamot raised a
problem that teaching strategies will involve considerable time and efforts to be effective; therefore, we
need long-term studies investigating the effect of strategy teaching.

General benefits of applying cognitive theory to SLA are as follows:

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 Learning is an active and dynamic process in which individuals make use of a variety of
information and strategic modes of processing.
 Language is a complex cognitive skill in terms of how information is stored and learnt.
 Learning a language entails a stage wise progression from initial awareness, active manipulation
of information and learning processes to full automaticity in language use.
 Learning strategies parallel theoretically derived cognitive processes and have the potential to
influence learning outcomes in a positive manner.

Anderson’s Active Control of Thought (ACT*) and Fluency Development in Second

Language Acquisition

Towell and Hawkins reject the idea that Anderson’s model can account for all aspects of SLL.
They use models of natural language processing in order to explain how grammatical knowledge
transforms into fluent performance in second language. In order to explain why certain grammatical
structures appear before others and why learners go through rigid stages in acquisition of SL, they resort
to Universal Grammar approach. In order to understand how learners use this grammatical knowledge in
increasingly efficient ways, Towell and Hawkins appeal to an information-processing account.

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Lesson-15

THEORIES OF SECOND LANGUAGE PROCESSING AND

CONNECTIONISM

Topic No: 086-091

Theories of Second Language Processing; Processability Theory; Teachability Hypothesis;

Perceptual Saliency; Connectionism; Connectionist Approach Difference from Other
Approach

Next two theories we are going to discuss focus on the factors controlling how SL learners
process the linguistic input. These theories are Processability theory and Perceptual Saliency approach.

Processability Theory:

Outlined by Pienemann, it aims to clarify how learners acquire computational mechanisms that
operate on the linguistic knowledge they construct. It claims that we need both theory of grammar and a
processing component to understand SLA. It focuses on the acquisition of the procedural skills required
for processing the formal properties of second languages. Pienemann believes that language learning is
gradual acquisition of computational mechanisms. Limitations in processing skills in early stage of
learning prevent them from attending to some aspects of SL. The processing challenge within this
framework is that learners must learn to exchange grammatical information across elements of a sentence.

Teachability Hypothesis

Pienemann’s Processibility theory explains that SL learners follow a fairly rigid route while
acquiring certain grammatical structures. It implies that structures only become ‘learnable’ when previous
steps on this acquisitional path have been acquired. According to Pienamann, learners can only operate
within their Hypothesis space, constrained by available processing resources. It led him to develop
“teachability hypothesis” in which he considers the pedagogical implications of the learnability or
processability model. It predicts:

 Stages of acquisition cannot be skipped through formal instructions

 Instruction will be beneficial if it focuses on structures from ‘the next stage’

Its most interesting aspect is the attempt to establish a link between learning and teaching.

The Perceptual Saliency approach argues that human beings perceive and organize information in
certain ways, and it is perceptual saliency of linguistic information that drives the learning process
forward; rather, than an innate language-specific module. We find similarity in linguistic development
across children and across languages because human beings are programmed to perceive and organize
information in certain way. Slobin (1979) has devised operating principles which guide children in their
processing of the linguistic strings which they encounter. These principles are based on the claim that
certain linguistic forms are more ‘accessible’ or more ‘salient’ to the children than others. These
principles are as follows:
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1. Pay attention to the end of words.

2. Linguistic elements encode relation between words.
3. Avoid exceptions.
4. Underlying semantic relations should be marked overtly and clearly.
5. Use of grammatical markers should make semantic sense.

Connectionism: Advances in computer technology has given new life to this approach.
Connectionism or parallel distributed processing likens the brain to a computer that would consist of
neural networks, complex clusters of links between information nodes. These links or connections
become strengthened or weakened through activation or non-activation. Learning in this view occurs on
the basis of associative process rather than construction of abstract rules. It claims that learners are
sensitive to regularities in the language input and extract probabilistic patterns on the basis of these
regularities. Learning occurs as these patterns become strengthened or weakened through repeated
activation or non-activation. Connectionism strikingly differs from other approaches as it does not believe
that the learning of rules underlies the construction of linguistic knowledge rather it happens through
associative process. According to them learning is not rule-governed. Connectionism is seen as an
alternative to symbolic accounts of language acquisition. It is a transition theory that explains how
associative patterns emerge in learners.

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Lesson-16

EVALUATION OF COGNITIVE APPROACHES AND FUNCTIONAL

PERSPECTIVES

Topic No: 092-097

Evaluation of Cognitive Approaches to Second Language Learning: Scope and

Achievements; Evaluation: Cognitivists' View of Language; Evaluation: Cognitivists' View
of Language Learning; Cognitivists' View of the Language Learner; Functional/Pragmatic
Perspectives on Second Language Learning; Functional Perspectives on First Language
Development

The scope of cognitivists’ research varies widely from application of general models of language
processing to studies using computers to stimulate acquisition of discrete grammatical phenomena. Some
cognitivists specifically focus the processing mechanisms and how they develop in SLL. They believe
that they also need a property theory to understand the linguistic system which will complement their
transition theory. While others, adopting an emergentist or connectionist approach, see their field as the
whole process of language learning. They do not separate the development of processing from
development of linguistic system. Processing theorists do not say much about language itself. They
concentrate on study of processing constraints operating in SLA. Whereas, connectionists believe that our
mind is predisposed to look for associations between elements and create neural links between them.
They see language as a set of probabilistic patterns that gets strengthened in learner’s brain through
repeated activation. They rely on controlled laboratory research involving experiments with artificial
language or small fragments of real languages. However, controlled nature can be seen as a disadvantage.
Overall, connectionist models are often criticized for their clinical and fragmentary view of language
ignoring social and linguistic phenomena. They are unable to explain what the mental grammar of learner
consists of and what constraints learners’ hypotheses about the language system. Developmental route of
SLL and acquisition of highly complex linguistic phenomena are not yet convincingly explained by these
approaches.

Cognitivists primarily investigate development of processing in SL learners. To do so,

psychologists use laboratory techniques to measure accurately performance indicators; while, linguists
apply linguistic analysis techniques to study SL learners’ productions or intuitions. Both methodologies
have their advantages and disadvantages. The ultimate goal of any SLA model is better understanding of
SLA process overall. This goal is much enriched by cognitive studies. These studies have also
enlightened us on the processes involved in speeding up of acquisition process. Connectionists are
primarily concerned with individual; they do not see learner as a social being. They are interested in mind
as a processor of information rather than in specificity of the linguistic information it contains. The link
they build up with neurology and neurobiology is also important. The advantages of these models over
traditional symbolic models are:

a. They are neurally inspired.

b. They incorporate distributed representation and control of information.

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c. They are data-driven with prototypical representations.

d. They show graceful degradation as do humans with language disorders.
e. They are models of learning and acquisition rather than static description.

Functional/Pragmatic Perspectives on Second Language Learning

The researchers who adopt this approach are centrally concerned with the ways in which SL
learners set about making meaning and achieving their personal communicative goals. They emphasize
the importance of learners’ speech acts and how they exploit immediate social, physical and discourse
context to make meaning. They argue that the meaning-making efforts are a driving force in ongoing
second language development that interacts with the development of formal grammatical systems.
Functionalism in linguistics is the explication and explanation of grammatical structure in which semantic
and pragmatic constructs are integral.

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Lesson-17

COGNITIVE, TEXTUAL, SOCIAL ORIENTATIONS AND

FUNCTIONALISM

Topic No: 098-103

Cognitive Orientation; Textual Orientation; Social Orientation; Multifunctional

Orientation; Evaluation: Scope and Achievements; Functionalism and the Nature of Inter-
Language

Cognitive orientation can be exemplified by the work of Solbin (1985) that proposed the
existence of ‘basic child grammar’ in which children construct their own form-function relationship to
reflect a child’s-eye view of the world. He suggested that one of the opening wedges for grammar is the
linguistic encoding of a scene in which an agent brings about change of state in an object.

In textual orientation central issue is to investigate the extent to which particular linguistic
devices are employed to organize stretches of discourse intra-sententially as well as across broader
stretches of text. At discourse level, functional linguists are interested in how both vocabulary and
grammar are deployed to create textual cohesion across sequences of clauses and sentences.

Functionalist research with social orientation is interested in relationship between the

development of child’s formal language system and aspects of their social world. Some of this work
examines children’s speech acts and their relationship with lexical or grammatical choices. Other work
looks more broadly at the social context in which children interact and types of speech events they are
engaged in. It also seeks to link these influences to linguistic development.

The functional approaches pay attention respectively to the relations between grammatical
development and prototype events, between grammar, pragmatics and text organization, and between
grammar and the social world. The functional tradition is well established in SLL theory. It claims that
language development is driven by pragmatic communicative needs and that the formal resources of
language are elaborated to express more complex patterns of meaning. Functionalist research takes form
of naturalistic case studies, mostly of adults in early stages of SLL. These studies have offered numerous
rich accounts of both rate and route of naturalistic SLL. They vary in their scope of enquiries. Some
adopted a ‘patch’ approach, studying evolution of forms or development of SL within ‘time’ or ‘space’
domain. Whereas others proposed SL ‘basic variety’ that represents a proto-grammar stage that all
learners should pass through.

Functionalist tradition has contributed to our understanding of inter-language communication and

made interesting suggestions about interactions between formal and functional development.
Functionalists have demonstrated various devices which inter-language users deploy to convey meaning.
They have drawn our attention to textual and discourse organization issues, and offered considerable
evidence that early learners rely heavily on parataxis rather than on syntax. A continuing limitation of this
approach is that most attention is given to earliest stages of development. The range of target languages
investigated is also not very wide.

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Lesson-18

FUNCTIONSLISM AND INTERACTION IN SECOND LANGUAGE

LEARNING

Topic No: 104-109

Functionalism on Language Learning and Development; Functionalist View of the

Language Learner; Input and Interaction in Second Language Learning; The Significance
of Interaction in SLL; Input and Interaction in First Language Acquisition; Findings
Relevant for SLL

Functionalist researchers insist on gradual nature of Inter Language (IL) development and
syntacticization but with possible reorganizational consequences. At the same time, most functionalists
have adopted a ‘patch’ approach–working on overall utterance structure when studying the basic variety
or alternatively exploring development within semantic and formal sub-systems. Functionalists argue for
a multi-level approach to analysis. While their contribution at the descriptive level has been very strong
and varied, their contribution to the explanation of IL development is limited. It clearly shows how
effective a basic variety can be in meeting immediate communication needs, but it is less clearly
established that communicative need is the primary driver for syntacticization and development beyond
the basic variety. Functionalist research largely concentrates on analysis of learners’ inter-language output
and pays relatively less attention to input and even interaction.

Functionalist research has mostly concerned itself with naturalistic adult learners acquiring a
socially dominant target language (TL) in the workplace and other non-domestic settings. It has
conducted extensive comparative cross-language studies but has been mainly interested in the discovery
of universal rather than language-specific characteristics of the learning process. Functionalist research on
emergence of SL has concerned itself with instructed learner. These learners are seen more successful in
acquiring morphology. Though functionalists agree that instruction works by increasing acquisition rate
and pushing along the acquisitional route, yet it does not explicitly explain the reason.

Input and Interaction in Second Language Acquisition

The main focus here is directly on the role of environmental language use in promoting SLL in
the form of input received by SL learner, SL output produced by learner, and SL interaction between
learner and some other conversation partner. ‘Interactionist’ perspective mostly does not challenge the
concepts of autonomous language module or cognitive mechanisms at work within the individual learner.
Input hypothesis claims that comprehensive input is the only necessary condition for language learning to
take place provided that learner pays attention to it. It is further directed toward interaction hypothesis and
output hypothesis. Interactions are not a simple one-directional source of target language input feeding
into the learner’s presumed internal acquisition device. Instead, when learners engage with their internal
interlocutor in negotiations around meaning, input’s nature might be qualitatively changed. The more
input is queried, recycled and paraphrased, the greater its potential usefulness as input gets because it
should become increasingly well-targeted to particular developmental needs.

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Merrill Swain’s (1985, 1995) study with immersion students led her to question the claim that
comprehensible SL input was sufficient to ensure inter-language development. So she advanced her
claims called ‘Output Hypothesis.’ Swain argued that students often succeed in comprehending second
language (SL) text while only partly processing them. SL production (output) really forces learners to
undertake complete grammatical processing. Thus, it drives forward most effectively the development of
SL syntax and morphology.

When we examine the role of input and interaction in first language acquisition, we come to
know that adults commonly use ‘special’ speech styles when talking with young children. This is called
‘baby talk’ which might be helpful to language acquisition. But such child-directed speech (CDS) has
undergone criticism from UG theorists. For instance, Noam Chomsky described the notion that aspects of
first language acquisition could be related to the input as ‘absurd.’ In turn, some child language specialists
criticized parameter-setting models of acquisition as overly deterministic and ignoring substantial
evidence of probabilistic learning from ‘noisy’ input. Interactionists such as Gallaway and Richard (1994)
have pointed out the ways in which CDS might facilitate language acquisition. These include: managing
attention, promoting positive affect facilitating segmentation, feedback, correction models, reducing
processing load, encouraging conversational participation, and explicit teaching of social routines.
However, interactionists are cautious about any possible contribution of CDS to language acquisition.
Some clear findings which are also relevant to SLL are:

1. Mostly CDS studies were carried out in English-speaking, middle-class family context in
developed countries. In such context, CDS is typically semantically contingent. Also, explicit
formal corrections of child’s production are unusual but recasts are common which offer useful
negative evidence.
2. There is evidence for some specific claims about relationship of particular formal characteristics
of CDS and children’s developing control of particular construction. However, such relationships
are complex and dependent on precise developmental stage reached by the individual child.
3. Caretakers are neither motivated by any prime language-teaching goal nor are their speech
adapted to model target grammar. Instead, it is derived from the communicative goal of engaging
in conversation with a less competent partner, and sustaining and directing their attention.
4. Cross-cultural studies of interaction revealed that styles of CDS in middle class Anglophone
societies are far from universal where infants are not seen as conversational partner. They
strongly challenge environmentalist explanations of language learning that finely tuned CDS is
actually necessary.

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Lesson-19

INPUT AND INTERACTION IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Topic No: 110-115

An Overview of the Field; Input in Second Language Acquisition: Krashen's Input

Hypothesis; Critique of Krashen’s Input Hypothesis; Interaction Hypothesis and Others;
Interaction in Second Language Acquisition; Long's 'Interaction Hypothesis'

Cultures where child directed speech (CDS) of Western type is rare or absent, children’s early
utterances frequently include partial imitation and rote-learned segments. Cross cultural study of child
language development supports the idea that children will only learn to talk in an environment which they
can make some sense of. On the other hand, they can learn to talk in a much wider variety of
environments (Lieven, 1994). The normally developing child is well buffered against variation in the
input. Buffering implies either small amount of social support or any of several different environmental
events (Snow, 1994). Researchers agree that multi-dimensional models of acquisition are necessary, and
the way forward in clarifying how input and interaction may be facilitating language acquisition lies at
present in close.

Comprehensible input is both necessary and sufficient for SLL to take place. Humans acquire
language in only one way – by understanding or by receiving ‘comprehensive input.’ Speaking is a result
of acquisition, not its cause. If input is understood, there is enough of it, the necessary grammar is
automatically provided.

Critique

Input hypothesis is supported by rather little empirical evidence and is not easily testable. The
concepts of ‘understanding’ and ‘noticing gap’ are not clearly operationalized and constantly proposed.
The processes whereby language in social context is analyzed and new elements are identified and
processed by language acquisition device are imprecise.

Among the research traditions that took inspiration from Krashen’s proposals are:

1. The Interaction hypothesis

2. The Output hypothesis

Some alternative psycholinguistic theories and claims are:

3. Noticing hypothesis
4. Input processing hypothesis
5. Autonomous induction hypothesis

Interaction in Second Language Acquisition

Various studies during 1970s and 1980s demonstrated that the talk addressed to learners was
typically grammatically regular but somewhat simplified linguistically. The degree of simplification
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reported in many descriptive studies was puzzlingly variable. Also, these studies stopped short at
description of distinctive features of ‘Foreigner Talk Discourse.’ Long proposed a more systematic
approach to linking features of ‘environmental’ language, and learners’ second language. Long proposed
his Interaction hypothesis as an extension of Krashen’s original Input hypothesis. Following on Long’s
original studies, many others used a similar taxonomy and taught us a good deal about the types of task
that are likely to promote extensive negotiation of meaning, inside and outside the classroom. They also
demonstrated that negotiation of meaning occurs between non-native speaker peers as well as between
more fluent and less fluent speakers, given the right task conditions.

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Lesson-20

CONSCIOUSNESS RAISING, NEGATIVE FEEDBACK AND NEGATIVE

EVIDENCE

Topic No: 116-121

Noticing, Consciousness Raising and Attention; Rethinking the Interaction Hypothesis;

Output in Second Language Acquisition; Feedback, Recasts and Negative Evidence: First
Language Acquisition; Negative Feedback and Recasts; Negative Feedback and Recasts in
the Second Language Classroom

Mackey’s (1999) study provided the clearest evidence that taking part in interaction can facilitate
second language development. However, somewhat contradictory findings show a need for stronger
theoretical models clarifying the claimed link between interaction and acquisition. These researchers
appealed to add the ideas of noticing, consciousness-raising, attention etc. to acquisition. Earlier
interactionist research was criticized for being one-sidedly pre-occupied with functional aspects of SL
interaction and neglecting linguistic theory. Long’s eventual reformulation of interaction hypothesis
places more emphasis on linking features of input and the linguistic environment with ‘learner-internal
factors’ and explaining how such linkages may facilitate subsequent language development. This new
version highlights the possible contribution of negative evidence to SLL and clarifies the processes by
which input becomes intake through introducing the notion of ‘selective attention.’

Output Hypothesis

Many researchers consider output as necessary to increase fluency and emphasize on practice.
However, output hypothesis by Swain (1985, 1995) goes beyond this ‘practice’ function and proposes
three further functions for learner output:

 The noticing/ triggering function (conscious-rising role)

 The hypothesis-testing function
 The metalinguistic function (reflective role)

Swain believes that the activity of producing target language may push the learner to become aware
of gaps and problems in their current SL system, provide them with the opportunities to reflect on, discuss
and analyze problems explicitly and offer opportunities to experiment with new structures and forms.

Feedback, Recasts, and Negative Evidence in First Language Acquisition

These are increasingly important topic in debates. Theorists arguing for a strongly Innatist Model
claimed that language is simply not learnable from normal input that provides positive evidence and lacks
negative evidence. Without negative evidence, learners cannot discover the limits and boundaries of the
language system. On the other hand, Nativists finds the answer in some form of Universal Grammar to
eliminate many possible generalizations about language structure that are compatible with the input
received but are actually incorrect.

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We previously saw that negative evidence is much more prevalent in child-directed speech.
Caretakers’ recasts offer implicit negative evidence about children’s interim grammatical hypotheses. It
remains still less clear whether negative evidence is necessary for the acquisition of core aspects of
language or not.

In light of the first language debate, related questions can be asked about the role of negative
evidence in SLL, like, to what extent does the indirect negative evidence influence SL learners? And to
what extent do they notice and make use of this evidence? To explore these questions, Oliver’s (1995)
study provides significant findings. It indicated that more than 60% of the errors by non-native speaker
children received negative feedback from their native speaker partners; the most frequent were
negotiations of some kind. Recasts usually occurred in response to utterances containing single errors in
association with particular types of grammar mistakes.

Negative Feedback and Recasts in the Second Language Classroom

Further observational studies examined the occurrence, and apparent effects of negative feedback
in SL classroom. For instance, Lyster and colleagues (1997) noted that recasts were the most common
type of feedback. However, recasts were much less likely to lead to immediate self-correction by the
students. A further analysis reported that feedback provided by the teachers varied according to the type
of error that had been made. Teachers were more likely to respond to lexical errors with negotiation (e.g.
clarification requests), whereas they respond to grammatical and phonological errors with recasts. Recasts
were seen as an effective strategy in case of phonological error. However, recasting was much less
effective for repair of grammatical mistakes. The study suggested that more interactive feedback modes
would be more effective in pushing learners to amend their hypotheses about SL grammar as well as
vocabulary.

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Lesson-21

INPUT PROCESSING AND AUTONOMOUS INDUCTION THEORY

Topic No: 122-127

Attention, Consciousness-raising and 'Focus on Form'; Theorizing Input and Interaction

Research; Input Processing; Input Processing: Critique; Autonomous Induction Theory;
Autonomous Induction Theory: Critique

Researchers have developed the idea that the amount of attention may influence the extent to
which SL input and interaction actually produce SL intake. Schmidt (1990, 1994, 2001) has been most
influential in promoting this view. He is careful to distinguish among different types of attention. He uses
the term ‘noticing’ to refer to the process of bringing some stimulus into focal attention and registering its
simple occurrence, whether voluntarily or involuntarily. He reserves the terms ‘understanding’ and
‘awareness’ for explicit knowledge: ‘awareness of a rule or generalization.’ Schmidt is optimistic about
the contribution of both kinds of attention. His main evidence supports the significance of noticing. He
argued that noticing is the necessary and sufficient condition for conversion of input to intake for
learning; later, he modified this view to the claim that: more noticing leads to more learning.

Accuracy of Recast Reproduction (Philip, 2003)

The accuracy of recast reproduction depends on the following factors:

1. Learners’ language level

2. Length of the recast
3. Number of corrections

Survey of input, output, and interaction research showed descriptive nature of research; attempts
to link different types of second language usage with SLL have produced mixed results. Many
commentators have argued that stronger theorizing is required for interaction studies to progress.
Interactionist researchers are increasingly interested in modelling internal linguistic and psycholinguistic
factors. However, no detailed models of language processing have been proposed by any of interactionist
researchers. Here, we will briefly discuss two models: Input processing theory and Autonomous induction
theory.
Input Processing theory by Bill Van Patten and associates (1996, 2002) is well known because of
an associated research program on language pedagogy, ‘processing instruction.’ It attempts to explain
how environmental second language input becomes converted into intake. It does not offer a complete
model of these processes; instead, it offers a set of ‘principles’ to explain apparent failure of second
language to completely process the linguistic forms encountered in SL input.

Input Processing Principles

Principle No.1: Learners have preferences for semantic processing over morphological
processing.
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Example: ‘We travelled by train yesterday.’

Principle No. 2: The learners have a preference for beginning and ending words.

Example: Learners give importance to the beginning and ending words of recast/feedback.

This approach has led to a series of pedagogical experiments. Input processing theory is primarily
focused on explaining the shortcuts and restricted processing strategies which learners seem to use.

Intake in Light of Input Processing Theory by Bill Van Patten

1. Linguistic data is actually processed from the input.

2. It is held in working memory for further processing.
3. Input processing theory does not offer a complete model of successful processing input.
4. It offers a set of principles.
5. It explains the apparent failures of learners to process the input.

Autonomous Induction theory by Suzanne Carroll (2000) offers a much more complete and
ambitious model of the above mentioned processes. According to Carroll, understanding of SLA
processes requires an adequate theory of the following phenomena:

1. Representation of language in the mind

2. How the language is processed both receptively and productively?
3. How our mental representations of language can be changed to process the environmental
language we encounter?

Carroll rejects parameter (re)setting as a totally inadequate metaphor. Instead, she proposes
inductive learning (i-learning). Inductive learning refers to learning by generalization from examples.
Carrol challenges the claim that increased comprehension can lead to identification and acquisition in a
sequential manner. According to her, it is logically impossible. Unless enough formal analysis is done so
that elements are identified in the speech stimulus, there is no way of generating interpretation of its
meaning. Carroll’s model is complex. It’s been criticized for its neglect of the detail of language
processing which converts language stimuli into interpretable input.

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Lesson-22

INTERACTIONIST APPROACH AND SOCIOCULRURAL THEORY

Topic No: 128-133

Evaluation: The Scope of Interactionist Approach; Achievements of Interactionist

Research; Limitations of Interactionist Approach; Socio-Cultural Perspectives On Second
Language Learning; Sociocultural Theory; Mediation and Mediated Learning

Input, Output, and Interaction hypotheses have led to very active strands of empirical research.
The first phase of research was inclined toward documenting phenomenon of meaning negotiation. The
second phase developed in the following ways:

a) Relating environmental factors in language learning to linguistic theory, particularly to Universal

Grammar
b) Interest in the significance of negative evidence
c) Increased attention to information processing theory and the complications involved in
conversion of environmental language firstly into input and subsequently into intake

When we look at the achievements of this tradition, it has been shown that:

 Native speaker and non-native speaker interlocutors can and will work actively to achieve mutual
understanding.
 Negotiations involve both linguistic and interactional modifications, which together offer
opportunities to ‘notice’ aspects of target language form, whether from positive or negative
evidence.
 Non-native speaker participants in ‘negotiations for meaning’ can’t attend to, take up, and use
language items made available to them by native speaker interlocutors.
 Learners receiving negative feedback, relating to particular target language structures, can be
significantly advantaged when later tested on those structures.

Limitations of Interactionist Approach

Achievements of this tradition are still constrained by a number of important limitations, such as:

1. Work on interaction has been carried out within a Western or Anglophone educational setting.
More cross-cultural studies are still required before any claims can be made that ‘negotiation for
meaning’ is a universal phenomenon.
2. Researchers in Input or Interactionist tradition generally accept that SLA must be the result of
interaction between environmental stimuli, a learner-internal language system, and some
language-specific language capabilities. Attempts at modelling this interaction are mostly still
very fragmentary and incomplete.
3. There are still not many studies that focus on particular language structures, tracking them
through processes of instruction, negotiation, and output or recasting.
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4. There is lack of studies that document learners’ use and control of these items.
It is still not in position to generalize or make powerful predictions about likely usefulness of
interaction in domains of variability.

Socio-cultural Perspectives on Second Language Learning

The theorists who advocate this perspective view language learning in essentially social terms.
They claim that target language interaction cannot be viewed simply as a source of ‘input’ for
autonomous and internal learning mechanisms; rather, it plays more central role in learning. This theory
was originally presented by Soviet developmental psychologist Vygotsky who argued that humans do not
act directly on physical world but rely on tools and labour activity, use symbolic tools or signs to mediate,
and regulate their relationships with others.

Vygotsky’s Leading Supporters

Following were the leading supporters of the Soviet theorist Lev Semeonovich Vygotsky:

1. Jerome Bruner
2. James Wertsch
3. Barbara Rogoff
4. James Lantolf
5. Mercer
6. Wells

From this point of view, learning is also a mediated process. It is mediated partly through
learners’ developing use and control of mental tools. It is also seen as socially mediated, that is dependent
on face-to-face interaction and shared processes.

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Lesson-23

ASPECTS OF SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY

Topic No: 134-139

Other Aspects of Sociocultural Theory; Zone of Proximal Development; Scaffolding; Self-

Regulation; Learning as Social Activity; Private and Inner Speech

Self-regulation is the capability of autonomous functioning that mature and skilled individual
possess; whereas, children or unskilled individual learn under guidance of other more skilled individuals
through a process of other-regulation, mediated through language. Thus, successful learning involves a
shift from collaborative inter-mental activity to autonomous intra-mental activity. The process of
supportive dialogue that prompts them through successive steps of a problem is known as ‘scaffolding’.
The domain where learning can most productively take place is named as the ‘Zone of Proximal
Development’. This is a domain where learner is not yet capable of independent functioning but can
achieve the desired outcome through relevant scaffolding. Scaffolding has following functions:

 Recruiting interest in the task

 Simplifying the task
 Maintaining pursuit of the goal
 Marking critical features and discrepancies between what has been produced and the ideal
solution
 Controlling frustration during problem solving
 Demonstrating an idealized version of the act to be performed

Learning is first seen as social, then individual consciousness and conceptual development are
seen firstly as inter-mental phenomena; later individuals develop their own consciousness. Language is
the prime symbolic mediating tool for this development. Humans remain capable of learning throughout
their life, and local learning process for more mature individuals acquiring new knowledge or skills is
viewed as essentially the same. This means that new concepts are also acquired through social or
interactional means.

Principles of Socio-cultural Theory across Time Scales

1. Phylogenesis is the learning that happens across different human races across different periods of
time.
2. Microgenesis is the description of how humans learn throughout their life.
3. Ontogenesis is the learning that infants pass through in the course of their early development.

Young children are well known to engage in private speech, talk to and for themselves rather
than for external conversational partners. This private speech in classic Piagetian theory is seen as an
evidence of children’s egocentrism, whereas socio-cultural theory interprets it as an evidence of

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children’s growing ability to regulate their own behavior. For Vygotsky, private speech eventually
becomes inner speech, a use of language to regulate internal thought without any external articulation.

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Lesson-24

ACTIVITY THEORY, PRIVATE SPEECH AND SCAFFOLDING

Topic No: 140-145

Activity Theory; Applications of Socio-Cultural Theory to Second Language Learning;

Private Speech and Self-Regulation in Second Language; Types of Private speech and SLL;
Activity Theory and Small Group Interaction; Scaffolding and Second Language Learning
in the Zone of Proximal Development

Activity theory comprises a series of proposals for the social context within which individual
learning takes place. Activity is defined in terms of sociocultural settings in which collaborative
interaction, inter-subjectivity, and assisted performance occur. It contains a subject, an object, actions,
and operations. Actions are always goal-directed; different actions or strategies may be taken to achieve
the same goal. Operational level of activity is the way an action is carried out and depends on the
conditions under which actions are executed.

Socio-cultural perspective sees early language learning as a process of meaning-making in

collaborative activity with other members of a given culture. Thus, language itself develops as a ‘tool’ for
making meaning. Similarly, second language learner has an opportunity to create yet more tools and new
ways of meaning through collaborative activity with other users of target second language. The radically
different view challenges the compartmentalization of social and psychological aspects of language
learning. The concept of microgenesis of new language forms disputes the distinctions between surface
performance and underlying competence. The concept of Zone of Proximal Development links processes
of instruction, organized learning, and ‘naturalistic’ development or acquisition. It assumes that
knowledge is constructed through collaborative activity and then appropriated by the learners, seen as
active agents in their own development.

The aspect of private speech has been regularly noted in naturalistic studies of child SLA;
however, their significance has been variously interpreted. In Vygotskyan perspective, it provides
evidence about the role of language in problem solving, self-regulation, and appropriation. Early studies
of private speech worked with data elicited from older learners in semi-controlled settings, while one of
the earliest studies to apply Vygotskyan theory to SLL was critical of schema theories of narrative and
information processing models of communication.

Three main types of second language private speeches were identified by Ohta (2001), repetition,
vicarious responses, and manipulation. Vygotskyan theorists of SLL are generally critical of
‘transmission’ models of communication, input, and interactional models of language learning in which
‘negotiation of meaning’ is central. Activity theory strongly argues for the distinctive nature of individual
interactions as experienced by the participants. According to it, individuals’ personal goals, entry level of
knowledge, and skill may vary as well as being subject to change in course of the task itself.

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Lesson-25

EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE AND SOCIO-CULTURAL LEARNING

Topic No: 146-151

Empirical Evidence; Evaluation of Sociocultural Theory: Scope; Socio-cultural

Interpretations of Language; The Socio-Cultural View of (Language) Learning;
Sociolinguistic Perspectives to SLL; Variability in Language Use

Aljaafreh and Lantolf (1994) conducted a study to examine SL development during scaffolded
teacher-student talk. Researchers looked for increased accuracy over time, evidence of students’
developing capacity to self-correct and reducing dependency on other-regulation by the tutor. The
researchers argued that the reduced need for other-regulation constituted evidence for microgenetic
development within the learner’s ZPD.

Socio-cultural theory is relatively newcomer to the field. Its distinctive features are:

1. It rejects conventional separation between social and psychological aspects of cognition and
development.
2. It also rejects the classic view of language as a formal abstract system that is distinct from
language use.
3. Learning is seen as a social and inter-mental activity taking place in the ZPD which precedes
individual development.

These are challenging ideas for a second language research community accustomed to the
Chomskian distinction between language competence and performance and psycho-linguistic
assumptions. However, these research approaches are affected by difficulties in developing causal
explanations and generalizations through naturalistic research. Researchers working in this tradition are
aware of these problems and have tried to address them.

Socio-cultural theory views language as a ‘tool for thought.’ It is critical of ‘transmission’

theories of communication. Dialogic communication is seen as central to the joint construction of
knowledge. Private speech and meta-statement are values used positively as instruments for self-
regulation. However, it does not offer any thorough or detailed view of the nature of language as a
system. It lacks a ‘property theory.’

Sociolinguistic Perspectives to SLL

Sociolinguistics or the study of language in use is a diverse field with multiple theoretical
perspectives. Socially patterned variation in language use is one of its major themes. Sociolinguists are
interested in explaining why we speak differently in different social contexts.

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Lesson-26

SECOND LANGUAGE SOCIALIZATION AND IDENTITY

CONSTRUCTION

Topic No: 152-157

Second Language Socialization; Communities of Practice and Situated Second Language

Learning; Empirical Studies of Second Language Learning as a Situated Social Practice;
Power Relations and Opportunities for Second Language Learning; SLA and Identity
Construction; Adult Transformations of Identity

Researchers in socialization believe that language and culture are not separable. They are
acquired together, each supporting the development of the other. Meanings and functions are socio-
culturally organized; linguistic knowledge is embedded in sociocultural knowledge; whereas,
understanding of social organization of everyday life is acquired through language. A language
socialization perspective predicts that there will be structured strategic relationship between language
development and ‘culturally organized situations of use.’

The communities of practice are an aggregate of people who come together around mutual
engagement in an endeavor and this is different from the traditional community. Their practices emerge in
the course of this mutual endeavor. The social structure of communities and the power relations obtaining
within them define the learning possibilities available to the members.

The ideas of socially situated learning through participation in communities of practice were used
to study SL development among both children and adults. The most obvious application was to consider
the classroom as a community of practice.

Another important aspect that was investigated was the relations of power impact on language
learning and teaching. It revealed that understanding is an interactive process that is mutually constructed
in the course of inference by all participants in an encounter.

The concept of social identity has been borrowed in SLL studies from social psychology. Social
identity is the sense of ‘belonging’ to a particular social group, whether defined by ethnicity, by language,
or any other means. This concept has been criticized for being too static and too focused on the
individual. Norton’s (2000) longitudinal study explored changes in social identity over time, particularly,
their struggle to achieve the right to speak in SL settings. The study presented different examples, such as
a young worker Eva’s transformation from an unskilled immigrant with no right to speak to multicultural
citizen possessing the power to impose reception.

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Lesson-27

INVESTMENT AND SOCIAL IDENTITIES IN SECOND LANGUAGE

ACQUISITION

Topic No: 158-163

Adolescents, SLA and Identity; Autobiographical Narrative; Affect and Investment in

SLA; Investment and Social Identities; Evaluation of Sociolinguistics Approach: Scope;
Sociolinguistic Perspectives on Inter-language

Ethnographic studies of SL learners produced complex and dynamic portraits such as Chinese
immigrants in USA high school being stuck in conflicting demands by multiple discourses in their
environment. These included colonialist or racialized discourses positioning them as deficient and
backward, ‘model minority’ discourses which celebrated economic success of Asian Americans and
Chinese cultural-nationalist discourses which defined them ‘being Chinese’, etc. Individual students
managed their identities differently in this complex environment with different consequences for their
ambitions and success in learning English oral or literacy skills.

Pavlenko’s (1998) analysis of autobiographical narratives revealed that many female SL users
accepted second language English as the language that gives them enough freedom to be the kind of
women they would like to be, because of the positive association between American English and feminist
discourses. Norton (2000) shows that learners’ motivation to succeed in SLL and the amount of effort
they are willing to ‘invest’ are closely related to the social identities they were aiming to construct over
time.

In quantitative strand of SLL variation, we have seen that sociolinguistic factors play an
important role of increasing importance as learners become more advanced, but much variability must be
attributed primarily to the psycholinguistic influences. The other strands, embedded in their social
context, deal with SLL in a broader way. This work is qualitative and interpretive in nature and frequently
involves case studies, focus on the personal qualities and ambitions of the learner, and its own social
contribution to the learning context. Valuable concepts like ‘community of practice’ were introduced to
the field. However, more attention is required for the linguistic detail of learning path or cognitive
processes involved. One of the obvious strengths of sociolinguistic tradition in SLA is the rich accounts
offered for cross-cultural second language communication.

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Lesson-28

SOCIOLINGUISTIC PERSPECTIVE ON LANGUAGE LEARNING AND

SECOND LANGUAGE RESEARCH

Topic No: 164-169

Sociolinguistic Perspectives on Language Learning; Sociolinguistic Perspective on

Language Learner; One Theory or Many; Achievements of SLA Research; Future
Directions for SLL Research; SLA Research and Language Education

Sociolinguistically-oriented research has provided rich descriptions of the context for language
learning and the speech events. Second language ethnographers believed that learning is a collaborative
affair and language knowledge is socially constructed through interaction. They have paid less attention
than socio-cultural theorists to the linguistic detail of expert or novice interaction or to ‘microgenesis’ of
new language forms in learner’s SL repertoire. On the other hand, current ethnographies of SL
communication and language socialization offer rich evidence of the influence of learning context and
learner’s evolving style of engagement with it. SL ethnographers take a more rounded view of the learner
as a social being; thus, dimensions as gender and ethnicity are seen as significant for language learning
success.

Different research groups are pursuing theoretical agendas by focusing on different parts of the
total language learning process. While many emphasize modelling of learners’ grammars as core issue,
others focus on language processing or on SL interaction. Each tradition has developed its cluster of
specialized research procedures. New perspectives emerge without displacing the established ones. On the
whole, the grand synthesizing theories have not received general support. Rather, a process of theory
reduction and consolidation is proposed.

Achievements

From a linguistic perspective, continuing application of UG has led to sophisticated and complex
range of proposals. The UG approach has also been instrumental in providing sharper linguistic
description of the learner’s language and has helped to better document the linguistic route.

From a cognitive perspective, main developments have been the application of information
processing models to grammar learning domains. The connectionist models radically challenge traditional
thinking in grammar learning. The functionalist tradition added substantially to our understanding of the
course of SL development. Variationist studies suggest that much second language variability can be
accounted for by evolving links between form and function.

The sociolinguistic perspective tells us that learners’ engagement in SL interaction is influenced

by power relations and other cultural factors which are not inferably fixed but can be negotiated as
learners build new identities. Interactionist and socio-cultural research show how ongoing character of SL
interaction can systematically affect learning opportunities it makes available.

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Future directions for SL research indicated here are: continuing reflexes of evolving linguistic
thinking in SL research, ongoing application of general learning theories derived from cognitive
psychology, attempts to cross-refer between different strands within SLA, and systematic examination of
relations between different learning ‘modules.’

The roots of theorizing about SLL in reform movements are connected to the practical business of
language teaching. It has been argued that the ‘scientific’ findings of second language acquisition should
guide the practices of classroom teachers. Present SLA research offers a rich variety of concepts and
descriptive accounts, facilitates teachers in making better pedagogic choices, and discusses the role of
recasts and negative evidence. The sub-field of research on ‘instructed second language acquisition’ plays
a special role in addressing teachers’ concerns. It may offer opportunities for more direct involvement of
teachers as research partners. The researchers thus have a continuing responsibility to make their findings
and interpretations as intelligible as possible to a wider professional audience.

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Lesson-29

INSTITUTIONAL POLICIES AND THE ROLE OF L1 IN L2 LEARNING

Topic No: 170-175

Rethinking the Role of the First Language in Second Language Learning; Institutional
Policies; The Context of Pakistan; The Focus of the Paper; Key Constructs and the Map;
The Role of L1 in L2 Learning: Background

The role of L1 in L2 learning has been a subject of much research and debate. Shifting paradigms
in the debate are discussed in this paper, and teachers and educators are invited to rethink and restructure
second language teaching toward more facilitative account of the role of L1. It points out the institutional
policy of completely excluding learners’ home or first language from SL classrooms in the context of elite
private schools and universities in Pakistan. This policy is driven by the assumption that maximum L2
input will force learners to eventually think in L2 and that the habit of using L1 interferes and delays L2
learning. The evidence informs that Pakistani elite schools frequently punish, fine, or humiliate students
for speaking Urdu or a home language in English classrooms. Despite much emerging evidence of the
positive role of L1, its role is condemned in L2 classrooms. This practice not only infests the learners’
identities with a sense of shame but also excludes a majority of students from meaningful learning. The
paper invites a rethinking of the role of L1 in L2 classrooms from two theoretical perspectives:

(i) Sociocultural theory of learning

(ii) Language awareness (LA) theory of pedagogy

In the 1950s, L1 was seen as negative interference and prime cause of the learners’ errors by the
behaviourists. Robert Lado’s Contrastive Analysis (CA) claimed that L1 interference was the main
impediment toward L2 learning. It emphasized that similar aspects of L1 facilitate L2 learning, while
dissimilar aspects cause difficulty. Therefore, a parallel study of two languages could predict learner
errors in L2. Marton (1981) pointed out the learners’ tendency to revert to their ‘strong and persistent
habit’ of expressing in L1 that leads toward retroactive inhibition. He denied any sort of peaceful
coexistence between the two language systems in the learner.

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Lesson-30
THE FACILITATIVE ROLE OF L1

Topic No: 176-181

The Problem with Contrastive Analysis; Shift Toward the Facilitative Role of L1; The
When and How of L1 Transfer to SLL; Manifestation of L1 Transfer to SLL; Recognition
of Facilitative Role of L1; L1 in Classrooms

CA was strongly criticized by Chomsky (1959). CA had failed to predict the learner errors
accurately as studies confirmed that L1 was not a major source of learner errors in L2. Dulay and Burt
presented a study in 1974 in which they:

1. Challenged the very assumptions of CA.

2. Marginalized the role of L1 in L2 learning.
3. Presented the concept of ‘creative construction of language’.
4. Emphasized that notion of ‘interference’ was built on the negative transfer of L1.
5. Argued that CA led to ‘unlearning the habit of L1’ – not the aim of L2 learning.
6. Criticized the lack of distinction between children and adults in the analysis as evidence was
taken from adult settings.

As theorists revisited the role of L1 in L2 learning, there was a significant shift toward its
facilitative role. New concepts of ‘learner syllabus,’ ‘transitional competence,’ ‘idiosyncratic dialect,’
‘approximative system’, and ‘inter-language’ were introduced.

Transitional Competence

The first language acts as facilitator in second language learning and it helps the second language
in terms of transition. While learning a second language, the L2 learners rely on their first language. They
use their old knowledge to build new structures. Hence, the first language was seen as ‘transitional
competence.’

Example

For example, a new computer comes in the market and we relate it with a computer that we know,
like an IPad. We say ‘this new computer is just like an IPad.’ That is how we start making sense of the
new computer. It works the same for L2 learning.

Idiosyncratic Dialect

The language (L2) that the learners use while learning the second language can be identified as
idiosyncratic dialect. It is not the target language; it is simply another language.

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Approximative System

Approximative system is a system of L2 that is near the target language. It is almost like the
target language but not exactly like the target language.

Inter-language

It is not essential that all language L2 learners speak like natives. The language (L2) that the L2
learners speak while learning L2 is known as ‘Inter-language.’ It is not the target language but a language
in its own right.

Selinker (1972) described L1 ‘transfer’ as the first of five processes at work in learners’ inter-
language. Corder (1981) suggested that L1 basic grammar is the starting point of this continuum and L1
transfer is a learner strategy for formulating hypothesis about L2, not resulting from the negative transfer
but from borrowing. It reformulated the concept of transfer as ‘intercession.’ Research focus was shifted
to when and how of transfer rather than if. It was suggested that certain similarities may lead to negative
transfer; these similarities can also lead to fossilization and ‘retardation’ of L2 development. Corder
suggests that borrowing from L1 would be positive in case of close similarities between both languages
and would lead to errors if only moderately similar. Jackson (1987) asserts that interference occurs in
proportion to the contrast between the two languages. According to Kellerman (1983), the complexity of
transfer depends upon the interaction of learner’s perception of distance from L1 and the degree of
markedness in L1. Zobl (1982) emphasizes that L1 can accelerate or inhibit the developmental sequence
of L2 learning but cannot alter it.

Mainly the role of L1 transfer is regarded as facilitative in terms of universal grammar. It is also
suggested that L2 learners can only approach L2 through the parameters set for their L1. Corder finds it
‘predominantly heuristic’ and facilitative in the ‘process of discovery’ upon which the learning and
elaboration of SL must proceed. Many methodologists endorse ‘systematic’ use of L1 in L2 classrooms,
urging a ‘paradigm shift’ in L2 classrooms. It is argued that many teachers intuitively make use of L1 to
ensure comprehension and meaningful involvement. There is a need to legitimize judicious use of L1 in
L2 classrooms so that teachers can get rid of the guilt and conflict they feel with its use. Cook (2001)
suggests that teachers should use L1 in view of four factors: ‘efficiency,’ ‘learning,’ ‘naturalness,’ and
‘relevance.’

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Lesson-31

DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF L1

Topic No: 182-187

Sociocultural Theory of Learning and L1; Role of L1 in Mediation; Scaffolding and L1; L1
and Zone of Proximal Development; L1 and Deep Processing of Knowledge; The Role of
Inner Speech

Sociocultural theory emphasizes that there is a crucial link between mental processes and
sociocultural settings. It asserts that experimental or instructional manipulation can’t deflect learner’s
overpowering and transformative agency. This agency embedded in their personal histories inevitably
becomes involved in their learning process. The theory argues that the primary elements that promote
learning and development are social by nature and meaningful learning occurs in interaction. L1 of
learners is an important tool to facilitate interaction and make learning meaningful. The role of L1 in L2
learning from a sociocultural perspective can be argued through discussion of its basic concepts:
mediation, scaffolding in the ZPD, and inner speech.

The sociocultural concept of mediation holds that humans interact through signs which are
culturally and historically determined and act as psychological or physical tools. Learning is mediated as
learners co-construct meanings through these tools, of which language is the most important. Language in
this verbally mediated interaction supports memory and enhances its functional relationship with speech.
It enables learner to comprehend, process and use knowledge. L1 remains the only available tool as they
struggle to learn L2 since systems and structures of L2 have not been acquired.

Scaffolding is a dialogic process that assists learners to move from ‘other regulation’ to ‘self-
regulation.’ It is a process of supportive dialogue that directs the learners through successive steps of a
problem and enables them to achieve higher linguistic performance that was originally beyond them.
Language mediates scaffolding of the learner within Zone of Proximal development (ZPD). First
language (L1) assists to establish ZPD of the learner and ensures scaffolding by affording dialogic
opportunities for ‘expansion of established knowledge.’ This concept is strikingly different from
Krashen’s (1982) input concept that perceives learner receiving input as a passive listening body. The
concept of ZPD and scaffolding are social practices of assistance that shape, construct, and influence
learning in which learner actively participates. In this, the value of L1 cannot be underestimated as it
mediates mutual problem-solving and interaction.

Inner speech is the third fundamental tool in learning conceptualized by sociocultural theory. It assists in
regulating internal thought, managing actions, appropriating and systematizing information, and carrying
out meta-cognitive activities. It emerges when the learner faces difficulty and supports them in effective
manipulation of the task. It works as dominant mode of verbal thought and remains a central fixture
governing our higher mental functions.

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Lesson-32

LANGUAGE AWARENESS AND L1

Topic No: 188-193

L1 and the Role in Inner Speech; Language Awareness; Language Awareness and L1; L1
and Interface Between Acquisition and Learning; L1 and Input Enhancement; LA as
Interface Between L1 and L2

Learners are more likely to switch to first language (L1) in their inner speech when confronted
with a difficult task. In the early development stages, learners have to resort to L1-the only available
resource to organize and process new information. This resorting is critical for the learners to understand,
contextualize, and respond to new knowledge. Encouraging them to use L1 inner speech allows them the
crucial time and space to develop their inner speech in second language (L2), until they are able to
manipulate tools of both languages. L1 facilitates self-regulation functions. It maintains the vital dialect
relationship between speech and thought. Hence, it is best utilized rather than denied existence in L2
classrooms.

Language Awareness (LA)

Language Awareness (LA) pedagogical theory is suggested as complementary to

communicative language teaching for its unique stance between L1 and L2. It accords value to learners’
social background and their L1 and capitalizes learners’ knowledge and experience of L1. It emphasizes
persons’ sensitivity and conscious awareness of language’s nature and role in human life. LA empowers
the learners to consolidate and systemize knowledge of L2 and become conscious of the relationship
between different languages. It aims to enhance communicative effectiveness in their L1 as well as L2 by
cultivating understanding of cross cultural, cross linguistic differences and influences in different modes
of manifestation.

LA is predicated on the assumption of interface between acquisition and learning. It believes that
explicit instruction and focus on form leads to L2 acquisition. Once consciousness of particular feature is
raised through formal instruction, learners continue to remain aware of the feature and notice it. Taking
L1 point of departure in discussion, LA raises consciousness about L2 as learners are encouraged to talk
about the language. This meta-talk that encourages reflection is expected to be a pedagogical mean to
ensure that other language acquisition process operates. Raising consciousness in learners is termed as
input enhancement which involves focusing on the formal properties of language through ‘induced
salience.’

One of the ways of inducing salience is that the learners are encouraged to analyze and over
generalize on the basis of L1 knowledge which is later used to serve as negative evidence to draw
learner’s attention to the differences between both languages. It enables them to appropriate their current
assumptions about L2 by noticing the gap between their current and target knowledge. In communicative
language teaching, as the sole focus is on meaning processing, learners often fail to ‘notice’ the difference
in form, leading to fossilization of errors. Drawing on L1, LA focuses on forms and functions of L2 by

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exploiting a methodology that is reflexive, inductive, interactive, and investigational. LA sees integral
links between L1 and L2 and strongly stresses the positive role of L1 in L2 learning. Ironically, LA takes
inspiration from behavioral concepts of transfer of L1/training, generalizability, and interference but
works to produce the opposite effect: to focus on a comparative discussion and raising consciousness
about L2. Structural similarities between L1and L2 are juxtaposed and meanings are mutually clarified as
‘mismatch’ is talked about. It is referred to as ‘contrastive salience.’

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Lesson-33

THE FACILITATION OF L1 IN SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING

Topic No: 194-199

Meaning Making and Pattern Recognition: The Role of L1 in LA; The Facilitation of L1 in
Five Domains of SLL; Affective Domain of SLL; Cognitive Domain of SLL; Social Domain
of SLL; Power Domain of SLL

All languages have much in common and many shared meanings which can be exploited.
Language Acquisition (LA) facilitates learning by exploiting this commonality and highlighting
divergence. The basic difference that marks L2 learner from native speaker is analytical competence. LA
aims to evoke analytical insight into the learner and bridge the space between L1 and L2. Both languages
work to strengthen each other, enabling the learner to discern the patterns in L2 and develop expectations
for its structure. In this process, LA draws upon the learner’s sensitivity toward L1 to develop L2 and
brings realisation that the level of operating both languages is same, i.e. forms and function. This paves
way for a more meaningful learning. LA works in five domains:

a) Affective domain involves the whole person of learner by encouraging them to develop personal
relevance to L2 and assigns importance to their feelings and attitudes.
b) Social domain fosters tolerance and acceptance of ethnic diversity and awareness of the origins
and characteristics of their own language, dialect and its place among other languages.
c) Power domain creates awareness of the way language can be used to imply meaning.
d) Cognitive domain helps analyzing the language, drawing inferences, and categorizing new
knowledge.
e) Performance domain raises consciousness of learner toward better performance.

In all operational domains, L1 is accorded pivotal facilitative position in L2 learning.

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Lesson-34

THE ROLE OF L1 IN SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING

Topic No: 200-205

Performance Domain of SLL; Achievement of Objectivity with L1; Arguments Against L1;
The Contribution of LA in SLL? The Emphasis on the Role of L1 in SLL; Exploiting L1
for Learning L2

As mentioned above, the performance domain raises the consciousness of the learners to gear
them toward better performance. This domain is expected to reduce chances of fossilization. It simplifies
the task and ensures focus on goal.

According to Hawkin, assigning a role to L1 in L2 learning provides the learners with the
opportunity to view language objectively as a phenomenon. This detachment enables the learners to
develop an understanding of how languages operate in a society and allows them to know what they can
do with language. It also assists the development of sensitivity and is a step toward understanding the
functioning of languages across cultures.

The debate about L1’s role continues though in cognitive rather than behaviorist terms. The use
of L1 in L2 classrooms has been appraised as too complex for learners, requiring them to operate in two
different ways. It has been argued that frequent resource to L1 would lead to slower L2 learning because
of the habit of translation. However, stopping the flow of L1 information and thoughts is not possible,
hence it is best to utilize it rather than ignore it. It is argued that focus on form and consciousness-raising
could lead to cognitive development and better L2 performance. It has been observed that the learners
have a very strong association with their native culture even after spending decades in another country.
Ignoring this cultural bond can only add problems for L2 learners. Thus, bilingual medium oriented
strategies must be not only allowed but actively encouraged to ensure real communicative competence.
Inter-relationship between L1 and L2 lies at a much deeper level than surface or even near-surface
categories. The role of L1 as prior knowledge is well founded in the light of human information
processing, perceptual mechanism, and memory. Learners must not be deprived of the opportunity to use
their language. Instead, they should be encouraged to exploit the richness of bilingualism by developing
connections, comparisons and contrasts in formal functions of languages, cultural association, and cross-
linguistic reference for knowledge building.

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Lesson-35

FACTORS INFLUENCING SLA

Topic No: 206-211

Concluding Arguments; Recommendations for the Use of L1 for SLL; Factors that
Influence SLA; Internal Factors; External factors; Individual Differences in SLA

Summing up the debate, the role of L1 in L2 classrooms confounds L2 teachers and thus
remains in debate among researchers and educationists. The paper challenges the assumptions of official
dismissal of L1 from L2 classrooms. It has analyzed the issue from dual theoretical perspectives: the
sociocultural theory and language awareness pedagogical theory. It argues that L1 can be positively
utilized to play a significant role in L2 learning; though, the use must be pre-planned; its effective role is
acknowledged by the sociocultural and LA theorists. It is said to be related to affective, cognitive, social,
power, and performance domains. Therefore, more informed institutional policy making is recommended
to develop greater acceptance of L1 in L2 classrooms. The issue must be discussed at length in teacher
education programmes. A more positive role of L1 should be advocated to allow teacher to move beyond
mere methodological and procedural knowledge. Teachers also need to identify with the struggle and
strengths of their learners for meaningful relationships and enhanced L2 learning outcomes.

Influencing Factors

Some students learn a new language more quickly and easily than others. The factors
influencing their success are categorized as internal and external. It is their complex interplay that
determines their learning speed and facility. The internal factors include age, personality, motivation
(intrinsic), experiences, cognition, and L2’s similarity to their native language. The external factors
include curriculum, instruction, culture and status, motivation (extrinsic), and access to native speakers.
Moreover, there are individual differences in language learning as they are reflected in learning styles,
strategies, and affective variables.

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Lesson-36

DIFFERENT LEARINNG STYLES AND STRATEGIES

Topic No: 212-217

Differences in Learning Styles; Differences in Cognitive Styles; Conditions Under Which

Strategies are Useful; Learning Strategies: Use; Learning Strategies: Six Groups; Defining
Learning Strategies in SLL

The term learning styles is commonly reserved for preferred forms of brain activity associated
with information acquisition and processing. Researchers and practitioners use learning style research
with personality and cognitive styles to determine ability, predict performance, and improve classroom
teaching and learning. The terms learning style, cognitive style, personality type, sensory preference and
modality etc. are often used loosely and interchangeably. Cognitive-style research initially addressed
phenomena as perceptual speed and flexibility; later, researchers focused on processing styles from the
point of view of ‘ego psychology.’ In recent years, the influence of personality variables on learning
styles has increased greatly. Recently preferred models include Multiple Intelligences Model, 4-MAT
Model, Kolb’s Jung-based Model, and Stenberg’s Mental Self-government Model. Ehrman and Leaver
(2001-2003) have reorganized the scales for cognitive styles like random-sequential, levelling-sharpening,
and abstract-concrete along with Eherman-defined field (in) dependence/field sensitive styles under the
new comprehensive construct. In this model, an ectenic learner wants or needs conscious control over
learning process; whereas, a synoptic learner leaves more to preconscious or unconscious processing.

Learning styles and strategies are often interrelated. Styles are made manifest by strategies;
strategy is neither good nor bad. It is essentially neutral. A strategy is useful under these conditions:

a) It relates well to the L2 task at hand.

b) It fits the particular students’ learning style preference to one degree or another.
c) The students employ the strategy effectively and link it with other relevant strategies.

Such strategies make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more
transferable to new situations.

In language-learning field, definitions of strategies imply conscious movement toward a language

goal. Students who frequently employ learning strategies enjoy a high level of self-efficacy. Less able
learners often use strategies in a random, unconnected, and uncontrolled manner. Oxford (1990) identified
six major groups of L2 learning strategies:

1. Cognitive strategies (reasoning, note-taking, synthesizing)

2. Metacognitive strategies (identifying one’s own preferences and needs, planning, monitoring
mistakes and evaluating task success)
3. Memory-related strategies (acronyms, sound similarities, images, key words)
4. Compensatory strategies (guessing from context, circumlocution, gestures, and pause words)

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5. Affective strategies (identifying one’s mood and anxiety level, talking about feelings,
rewarding oneself etc.)
6. Social strategies (asking questions, asking for clarifications, asking for help, talking with
native-speakers, exploring culture and social norms)

Biggs (1992) categorizes learning strategies differently, that is, by grouping learning approaches
by the purpose of learning. This model and instrument address both motivation and learning strategies:

 Surface (to get a task done with little personal investment)

 Achieving (to succeed in competition and get good marks)
 Deep (to make personal investment in the task through associations and elaboration)

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Lesson-37

SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING AND LEARNER MOTIVATION

Topic No: 218-223

Deep Processing vs. Surface Processing; Strategy Instruction in SLL; Affective Factors in
SLL; Learner Motivation and SLL: Early Studies; Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation;
Expectancy-value Model of Motivation

Deep processing is an active process of making associations with material that is already familiar,
examining interrelationships, elaborating stimulus, connecting the new material with personal experience,
and considering alternative interpretations. While surface processing is completion of the task with
minimum conceptual effort that results in much less information retained in memory because there is no
emotional or cognitive investment in it. Biggs’ model exploits the probable connection between intrinsic
motivation and deep strategies and treats motivation in parallel with strategies. Ehrman indicates that
students may not have a choice for using deep strategies due to weak educational background, lack of
aptitude for learning, inexperience, or inflexible learning style. Some other important treatments of
language learning strategies are to be found in Cohen (1998) and Wenden & Rubin (1987).

Many researchers have attempted to design and execute strategy training programs. Positive
effects of strategy instruction emerged for proficiency in speaking and reading. The most effective
strategy instruction included demonstrating when a given strategy might be useful, as well as how to use
and evaluate it, and how to transfer it to other related tasks and situations.

Affective factors in SLL include motivation, self-efficacy, tolerance of ambiguity, and anxiety,
etc. Gardner and various colleagues proposed the Socio-Educational Model of Language Learning which
presents two kinds of motivation: integrative and instrumental. Integrative motivated students are more
successful language learners than the others. These are the learners who want to integrate into the target
culture; however, this orientation proved far less important in foreign language settings. At times, highly
ethnocentric individuals who do not like the culture of the languages they are studying, achieve high
levels of foreign language proficiency. Clément et al. (1994) identified five orientations of foreign
language learners:

(a) Friendship and travel-related

(b) Identification with the target language group
(c) General interest in the culture and in world events
(d) Knowledge expansion and career improvement
(e) Desire to understand L2 media

Dec and Ryan’s (1985) model distinguishes between intrinsic and extrinsic motivations. The
former comes from within the individual and is related to the individual’s identity and sense of well-
being. It comes when learning is the goal itself; while, the latter comes from outside when learning is
done for the sake of rewards. Students’ total motivation is most frequently a combination of both.

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External rewards can either increase or decrease intrinsic motivation depending on how they affect self-
efficacy. Thus, motivation depends greatly on the context, people involved, and specific circumstances.

The expectancy-value model of motivation distinguishes between valuing something and

expecting to be able to do it. Within the area of expectancy, two key theories stand out: Weiner’s (1986)
Attribution theory, and Bandura’s (1997) self-efficacy theory.

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Lesson-38

LANGUAGE THEORIES AND SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNER

Topic No: 224-229

Attribution Theory by Weiner; Bandura’s Self Efficacy Model; Attributes of Effective

Second Language Learners; Shift in Focus in Motivation Theories; Affective Factors:
Concluding Arguments; Helping the L2 Learner Succeed

According to attribution theory, expectancy is tied to attribution about one’s success. Some
learners believe that their language learning success is attributable to their own actions or abilities. Others
believe that their success depends on other people or on fate.

Self-efficacy theory refers to belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of
action required to produce given attainments. Such beliefs influence the amount of effort people put forth
and how long they continue to pursue tasks. Research indicates that highly motivated successful learners
(a) possess self-efficacy; (b) have an internal locus of control; (c) have positive attitudes toward learning;
and (d) desire both social relatedness and self-direction or autonomy. According to Eccles (1984) and
Wigfield (1994), motivation is based on how much students expect to succeed at a task; and how much
they value that success. Eccles proposed four dimensions: attainment value, intrinsic value, extrinsic
utility value, and cost attainment value.

All these models are criticized as being too broad, too simplistic, and too ambiguous.
Consequently, today, theories about and even instrumentation for motivation abound. In recent years,
interesting changes have occurred in expansion of motivation theory beyond the individual student to
entire class or group of students. The ‘process model’ of motivation holds teachers responsible for student
motivation; however, it does not let students off the hook. It suggests that teachers need to encourage
students’ self-evaluation.

Other affective factors besides motivation are all in some way related to motivation. These
include anxiety, defense mechanisms, internal attitudes, self-esteem, activation or alertness required to
act, hierarchies of need, self-regulation, self-management, beliefs, emotional intelligence, and self-
monitoring. All these factors play important role in promoting or preventing learning autonomy.

In order to enable maximum learners to learn as much as they can, we need to give them every
advantage including a program that enables them to start out in comfortable and stress-free way. We need
to give them the opportunity to learn in their preferred styles rather than always outside of them.
Moreover, good teachers and well-constructed syllabi are more important than ever for the majority of
learners. Just as students vary, so do teachers in motivation, overall aptitude, self-efficacy as teachers, in
teaching/learning style, and in preferred strategies. Self-knowledge is as important for teachers as it is for
students. It is important for teachers to understand how a genuine desire to help can become interference
for a learner whose approach to learning differs from the teacher’s preference.

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Lesson-39

MYTHS RELATED TO SLA

Topic No: 230-235

Different Aspects of Second Language Proficiency; Myths Related to SLA: I; Myths

Related to SLA: II; Myths Related to SLA: III; Myths Related to SLA: IV; Myths Related
to SLA: V

There are different aspects of second language proficiency. Canadian researcher Jim Cummins
(1981) formally defined the two aspects as Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) and
Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) for the sake of simplicity. BICS are often referred to
as conversational English, the surface language that native speakers use in informal talk. Although there
are individual differences, research shows that SL learners frequently develop native-like conversational
skills within two years.

CALP is referred to as academic English, the proficiency to read, write, and learn at an
appropriate grade level. This aspect of proficiency is much more critical to students’ academic success
and takes about five to seven years to develop. Educators sometimes mistakenly assume that student with
fluent conversational English no longer require language instruction. It is difficult to know how long the
academic language process will take for an individual student. There are numerous variables that affect
the duration to acquire a second language and the approaches and methods effective in teaching the
student. Such as: social and cultural factors, previous educational background, age, oral literacy skills in
primary/home language, parental attitudes, and experiences etc. SLL is a complicated process that takes
time. Teachers must know how children learn a second language; intuitive assumptions are often
mistaken and children can be harmed if teachers have unrealistic expectations of the process of L2
learning and its relationship to the acquisition of other academic skills and knowledge. Some common
misconceptions and myths about children and SL learning are:

1. Children learn SL quickly and easily as their brains are more flexible. Current research
challenges it. Learning SL is as difficult for a child as it is for an adult or even more difficult
since children do not have access to memory techniques and other strategies.
2. The younger the child, the more skilled he is in acquiring an L2. Research does not support
this conclusion in school settings.
3. The more time spent in SL context, the quicker they learn the language. Research indicates
that increased exposure does not necessarily speed the SL acquisition. Children in bilingual
classes acquired SL skills equivalent to those acquired by children who have been in English-only
programs.
4. Children have acquired an L2 once they can speak it. For school-aged children, proficiency in
face-to-face communication does not imply proficiency in the more complex academic language.
5. All children learn an L2 in the same way. This assumption underlies a great deal of practice.
Teachers must be aware of cultural differences. They need to plan varied instructional activities
that consider children’s diversity of experience, as children are likely to be more responsive to a
teacher who affirms the values of the home culture.

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Lesson-40

CULTURE, DIFFERENCE, AND IDENTITY

Topic No: 236-241

The Role of Culture in Second Language Teaching and Learning; Classroom Interaction:
Cultural Differences Between Teachers and Japanese Learners; SLA and Identity:
Japanese Example; Cultural Differences and Teaching Challenges: Japanese Example; The
Concept of Hierarchy in Classroom: Japanese Example; Culture in Second Language
Teaching and Learning

The methods of teaching and learning are both affected by culture. When we look at Japanese
culture, we find that watching, imitating, memorizing, and other receptive methods are well represented in
their teaching and learning of Japanese. But in proactive Western teaching-learning repertoire, we find
doing, problem solving, comparing, discussing, etc. The former puts emphasis on perception and
consideration of the whole context prior to understanding. Whereas, the latter puts emphasis on
concentration of overt message and expects a prompt reaction to it. While the former is nearer to the
defensive, the latter is nearer to the offensive type of communication behavior.

Good communication is the keystone of all teaching-learning situations. But the question is what
is meant by ‘good communication’ and by whom? In western concept, it is a smooth, verbose interaction,
exchange of ideas, exchange of doubts and offering solutions to problems, discussion, and debate. But in
Japanese culture, things work differently. For them, primary function of communication is to maintain
good human relationships. We will examine Japanese teaching-learning interface using Hofstede’s
cultural dimensions theory as a framework. These dimensions are: identity, hierarchy, truth, and virtue.

Identity: There is definite shift in Japanese values toward the western values, but these changes
are traceable on consciousness level; very few of these manifest on behavior level. Like, students confess
to a strong preference for individualism above collectivism, but in real-life situations they often behave
according to the collectivistic behavior patterns. Students do not volunteer in answering question in class.
Not because they do not have knowledge, but because no one takes the odium to be singled out from the
group. This preference of cooperation and group achievement leads toward less competitiveness and
behavior and attitude, and less assertiveness in their communication than their scores suggest in surveys.
In Western settings, the main function of communication is information presentation and information
exchange. While in Japanese communication, this function is only of secondary importance. The primary
function is to maintain good relationships. Therefore, Japanese sacrifice individual preferences or
convenience, keep back opinions, and control their communicative behavior to meld into the group.

Truth: The Japanese students avoid risks and show little value for personal choice or freedom of
thought. They would rather be quiet than risk thinking differently. If they are unsure of how to do
something, they would either refuse to do it or they would follow the crowd as carefully as possible.

Hierarchy: In the Japanese culture, the words and statements of authority (hence of teachers) are
not doubted or criticized. Their truth-value is taken for granted and also treated so. Their interaction is

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less mutual; students are not active and dynamic players of communication. They do not enter into
communication flow with the same commitment because they do not feel they have the right to do so.
Their passiveness is interpreted as a sign of respect within the Japanese frame and as a sign of
indifference within the Western frame.

Language is not only part of how we define culture; it also reflects culture. Students cannot
master the language without mastering the cultural contexts. Forms and uses of a given language reflect
the cultural values of the society in which the language is spoken. Linguistic competence alone is not
enough for language learners to be competent in that language. They need to be aware of culturally
appropriate ways to address people, express gratitude, make requests, and agree or disagree with
someone. In many regards, culture is taught implicitly because it is imbedded in the linguistic forms that
students are learning. Students need to learn both the linguistic and cultural norms.

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Lesson-41

TEACHING/ LEARNING OF CULTURE IN SECOND LANGUAGE

CLASSROOMS

Topic No: 242-247

Teaching/ Learning of Culture in Second Language Classrooms Non-Judgmentally;

Facilitating Cultural Knowledge: Strategies; Use of Authentic Materials; Strategies: A
Closer Look; Some more Strategies; The Significance of Cultural Comparison: Concluding
the Argument

Cultural information should be presented non-judgmentally without placing value or judgement

on distinction between students’ native culture and the culture explored in the classroom. Kramsch (1993)
describes the ‘third culture’ of the language classroom – a neutral space that learners can create and use to
explore and reflect on their own and target culture and language. Teachers must allow students to observe
and explore cultural interactions from their own perspective to enable them to find their own voices in the
SL speech community. Cultural activities and objectives should be carefully organized and incorporated
into lesson plans to enrich and inform the teaching content. Some useful strategies are:

1. Use of authentic materials

2. Proverbs (discussion of common proverbs and their comparison to the proverbs in students’
native language)
3. Role play (they can act out miscommunications based on cultural differences)
4. Culture capsules (presenting objects like figurines, tools, jewelry, and art originated from the
target culture)
5. Students as cultural resources (exchange students and immigrant students who speak target
language at home can be invited as expert resources)
6. Ethnographic studies (carrying out interviews with native speakers, having discussion activities
etc.)
7. Literature (as it is replete with cultural information)
8. Film (it connects with language and culture simultaneously)

Culture must be fully incorporated as a vital component of language learning. Second language
teachers must identify the key cultural items in every aspect of language they teach. Students can be
successful in speaking SL only if the cultural issues are an inherent part of the curriculum.

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Lesson-42

SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND TEACHING

Topic No: 248-254

Second Language Acquisition and Language Teaching; The Relationship Between

Language Acquisition and Teaching; Communicative Language Teaching and SLA;
Krashen’s Theory and CLT; Problem with Krashen’s Theory - Strong Version of CLT;
Focus on Form; Focus on Form and Noticing Hypothesis

Researches proposed that Second Language acquisition (SLA) research has played on two recent
pedagogical proposals: Communicative language teaching and Focus on form in meaning-based curricula.
Further, it discusses four macro-options of ‘focus-on-form’ interventions and their theoretical motivations
followed by recent research evidence: input processing, input enhancement, form-focused output, and
negative feedback. Then, it will deal with two related pedagogical issues: the choice of linguistic forms in
focused instruction, and its benefits depending on individual factors and the learning context.

The relationship between SLA and teaching is neither straightforward nor it is determined that
how much influence SLA should play on language teaching. Studies show that proportional knowledge
within teacher education courses plays role in shaping teachers’ personal theories of language learning
and teaching. Nevertheless, basic SLA research tends to be regarded by teachers as difficult to understand
and removed from their own concerns. There are contradictory findings about the impact of SLA research
on teachers. There are linguists who consider that SLA research has made relevant contributions to
language pedagogy, while others see a gap or conflict of interests between researchers and practitioners.
However, these diverging stances originate from fundamental differences in the conception of teaching
that both groups hold.

Criticism of SLA Research

Those critical of the role of mainstream SLA research reject the view of teaching as mainly
proportional knowledge, as a set of behaviours that can be prescribed by researchers. Instead they view
teaching as intuitive knowledge that takes form of theories or as a craft where the context guides the
teachers’ moment-to-moment decisions. Because of these views, basic SLA research has been criticized
for paying little attention to the social context of L2 acquisition.

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

Communicative language teaching (CLT) emerged when teachers were skeptical about the role of
grammar in foreign language instruction and felt disillusioned with the results of audio-lingual teaching.
Scholars like Widdowson and Candlin advocated for a view of language as a communication system with
focus on language in use. According to Krashen (1985), SL acquisition requires comprehensible input and
motivation. Krashen made fundamental distinction between learning and acquisition. He mentioned that
the teachers in his environment took it for granted that pointing out students’ errors was not good nor was
it recommended to focus on one single grammatical point at a time. These ideas fostered the adoption by
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some of the strong versions of CLT. According to which, communicative activities are an integral part of
instruction where students’ attention is focused on the meaning of the message to the exclusion of any
focus on the code.

Criticism on Krashen’s Theory

Krashen’s theory was well tuned to the needs of teachers. It was criticized for having
methodological problems. Its main weakness was presenting hypotheses as empirically valid models
when those have not been tested.

The origin of Focus on form (FonF) can be traced back to Lon’s distinction between focus on
form and focus on forms, characteristic of synthetic and analytic approaches to language teaching
respectively. It was motivated by Long’s interaction hypothesis according to which negotiation of
meaning in interaction between learners and other speakers plays a crucial role for language development,
particularly L2. Negotiation of meaning also elicits negative feedback that leads the learner to focus on
form. Formal instructions are said to be beneficial in both acquisition-rich and acquisition-poor
environment.

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FOCUS ON FORM AND TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONS

Topic No: 255-259

Reaction to Immersion Programmes and Options for Focus on Form; Processing

Instruction; Explicit Instruction; Explicit Instruction: Consciousness Raising Tasks;
Explicit Instruction: Procedural and Declarative Knowledge

The interest in focus on form also came as a reaction to the studies of French immersion
programmes in Canada. Initial studies showed positive evidence as regards to listening comprehension
skills and ability to use French to learn subject matter. However, later studies looking at the quality of
students’ spoken French showed less positive results. As a result of these studies, researchers started to
question experiential approaches to language learning, especially learning in context where input is
limited to classroom setting.

Ellis (1998) identified four macro-options to foster noticing or processing of linguistic form:

1. Processing instruction
2. Explicit instruction
3. Production practice
4. Negative feedback

In processing instruction, pedagogical intervention takes place at the input stage when learners
are actively engaged in comprehension. It assumes that FonF interventions at comprehension stage will be
less cognitively demanding. The input is carefully manipulated at the comprehension stage; learners are
induced to notice the target grammatical features.

Less Explicit Processing Instruction Options

1. Input flood
2. Input enhancement
3. Involvement of comprehension-based activities

In explicit instruction, the pedagogical intervention impinges on the learners’ L2 knowledge by

deliberately directing them to attend to form. An instructional treatment is explicit if rule explanation
forms part of the instruction (deduction) or if learners are asked to attend forms and try to find rules
themselves (induction). In other words, explicit instruction can be delivered in two modes, depending on
its directness: direct explicit instruction where grammatical explanation is directly communicated either
orally or in writing, and indirect explicit instruction where learners discover grammatical rules by
themselves through conscious-raising tasks. These tasks develop awareness at the level of ‘understanding’
rather than at the level of ‘noticing.’

Explicit Declarative knowledge is assumed to foster development of implicit procedural

knowledge through intake facilitation. DeKeyser (1998) takes a different position about the role of

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explicit knowledge. He advocates for explicit grammar instruction followed by first form-focused
exercises to develop declarative knowledge, then by open-ended activities to foster automatization. In this
way, practice may gradually bridge the gap between explicit knowledge and its use.

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EXPLICIT INSTRUCTION AND PRODUCTION PRACTICE

Topic No: 260-263

Production Practice; Production Practice: Structure Based; Negative Feedback; Existing

Controversies

In production practice, the pedagogical interventions take place at output stage through tasks that
include language production. Production practice aims at noticing in several ways i.e. through
specifically designed tasks to elicit use of preselected target linguistic items, or through communicatively
oriented tasks followed by meta talk. According to Swain (1995), producing language may have three
benefits: 1) it makes learners aware of their own limitations, 2) it fosters hypothesis formation and testing,
and 3) it promotes reflection on one’s own and others’ language use.

The above mentioned type of task is reformulated by Ellis (2003) as structure-based production
task. It suggests three ways of designing a task that incorporates target language features:

1. Task-naturalness: Target structure can be expected to arise naturally and frequently in

performing the task, even though it may not be necessary for completion.
2. Task-usefulness: Targeted feature is not essential for completing task but it is very useful.
3. Task-essentialness: Learners are required to use the essential feature to complete the task
successfully.

Structure-based production tasks cater to implicit learning, in contrast to conscious-raising tasks,

which cater to explicit learning. The negative feedback provides information to the learner as to what is
not grammatically possible in the target language. It occurs on the spot in an unplanned way and plays no
role in task designing. Its techniques include recasts (implicit negative feedback) and metalinguistic clues
(explicit negative feedback). Recasts are viewed as a more attractive option due to its implicit nature.

While reviewing key concepts and theoretical foundations of four macro-options in focus on form
(FonF), there is perception of a growing emphasis on cognitive processes. There is also room for
theoretical controversy. Central disagreement is about amount and type of attention needed for learning.
While Noticing Hypothesis seems to be the most widely accepted position, there are other applied
linguists who hold alternative views. Another source of controversy is the relationship between
metalinguistic or explicit knowledge and L2 acquisition and performance. While Ellis believes that this
type of knowledge can facilitate development of implicit knowledge, DeKeyser believes L2 learning
should start with explicit rules that are later on proceduralized and automatized through spontaneous
performance.

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INPUT AND SLA PEDAGOGY

Topic No.: 264-269

Input Processing Instruction; Input-enhancement; Form Focused Output; Negative

Feedback and its Utility; From Research to SLA Pedagogy; SLA Pedagogy-Learner and
Learning Context

Numerous studies have evaluated the effectiveness of Processing Instruction (PI) in comparison
with Traditional Instruction (TI). Typically, PI involves information about the target linguistic form or
structure followed by information processing strategy and structured input activities; whereas, TI involves
initial explanation, followed by mechanical and later communicative practice. Some of the referential
activities proposed in PI are similar to traditional exercises in TI, the only difference being that language
production is not required.

Comparison of visually enhanced vs. non-enhanced input showed limited results for this mode of
FonF in which task design involves pre-selection of the target forms. A comparative study by Izumi
(2002) of the effects of input enhancement vs. output activities failed to show any advantage for the
former instructional mode. The other type of input enhancement, which is delivered orally through exact
repetition, may be more effective. In contrast to these input modes, research carried out in nineties on
form-focused output has been of descriptive nature. It proved validity of dictogloss as a task that
promotes attention to form as a result of the students’ collaboration. Text reconstruction seemed to be a
more effective procedure to get learner to focus more often on the targeted features.

Research on negative feedback has been more abundant over the past few years than any other
mode of FonF. Studies have shown that recasts contribute to the learners’ inter-language development as
measured by the performance tests. Recasts were considered more beneficial than models on form.
Recasts can also be beneficial on forms of low perceptual salience and little communicative value. The
superiority of recasts was confirmed by many researchers.

The relationship between research and language pedagogy is a complex one. Research findings
cannot always advise teachers about how or what to teach. However, language teachers have a wealth of
findings on SLA that may inform their methodological options. Similarly, they will find relevant
proposals about the choice of the language features or items that may most appropriately receive form-
focused instruction.

Abbreviations Used Within the Text

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FonF~Focus on Form

UG~ Universal Grammar

IL~ Inter-language

TL~ Target Language

CDS~ Child Directed Speech

CA~Contrastive Analysis

SL~ Second Language

SLL~ Second Language Learning

SLA~Second Language Acquisition

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