Afd Aa 2020

Aluminum Frame
Design Manual
AA 2020
For
ISO SAP010122M50 Rev. 0

Proudly developed in the United States of America January 2022
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THIS PRODUCT IS A PRACTICAL AND POWERFUL TOOL FOR STRUCTURAL

DESIGN. HOWEVER, THE USER MUST EXPLICITLY UNDERSTAND THE BASIC
ASSUMPTIONS OF THE SOFTWARE MODELING, ANALYSIS, AND DESIGN
ALGORITHMS AND COMPENSATE FOR THE ASPECTS THAT ARE NOT
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A QUALIFIED AND EXPERIENCED ENGINEER. THE ENGINEER MUST
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Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Load Combinations and Notional Loads 1
1.2 Stress Check 2
1.3 Direct Analysis Method 2
1.4 Non-Automated Items in Aluminum Frame Design 2
2 Design Algorithms 4
2.1 Check Capability 4
2.2 Check Stations 5
2.3 Demand/Capacity Ratios 5
2.4 Design Load Combinations 6
2.5 Second Order P-Delta Effects 6
2.6 Analysis Methods 7
2.7 Notional Load Patterns 7
2.8 Member Unsupported Lengths 8
2.9 Effects of Breaking a Member into Multiple Elements 9
2.10 Effective Length Factor (K) 10
2.11 Choice of Units 12
3 Design Process 13
3.1 Notations 13
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Aluminum Frame Design – Aluminum Design Manual 2020
3.2 Design Loading Combinations 17
3.3 Buckling Constants 18
3.4 Strength of Elements for Local Buckling 20
3.5 Calculation of Factored Forces and Moments 24
3.6 Calculation of Nominal Strengths 24

3.6.1 Nominal Tensile Strength 25
3.6.2 Nominal Compressive Strength 26
3.6.3 Nominal Flexure Strength 29
3.6.4 Nominal Shear Strength 38
3.7 Design of Members for Combined Forces 40

3.7.1 Members Subjected to Flexure and Axial Force 40
3.7.2 Members Subjected to Flexure, Shear and Axial Compression 40
Appendix A P-Delta Effects 42
Appendix B Interactive Aluminum Frame Design 45
ii
1 Introduction
The design/check of aluminum frames is seamlessly integrated within the program. Initiation of
the design process, along with control of various design parameters, is accomplished using the
Design menu. Automated design at the object level is available for any one of a number of user-
selected design codes, as long as the structures have first been modeled and analyzed by the
program. Model and analysis data, such as material properties and member forces, are recovered
directly from the model database, and are used in the design process in accordance with the user
defined or default design settings. As with all design applications, the user should carefully
review all of the user options and default settings to ensure that the design process is consistent
with the user’s expectations. The AA 2020 aluminum frame design assumes that a P-Delta
analysis has been performed such that moment magnification factors can be taken as unity. The
software is well suited to make use of the Direct Analysis Method as described in the AISC 360-
10 because it can model the second-order P-Delta and P-δ effects, provided the user specifies that
a nonlinear P-Delta analysis be performed.
Chapter 2 addresses prerequisites related to modeling and analysis for a successful design in
accordance with “Aluminum Design Manual 2020.” Chapter 3 provides detailed descriptions of
the specific requirements as implemented in “Aluminum Design Manual 2020.” The appendices
provide details on various topics referenced in this manual. The user also should review the AISC
Direct Analysis Method Practical Guide.
1.1 Load Combinations and Notional Loads

The design is based on a set of user-specified loading combinations. However, the program
provides default load combinations for each supported design code. If the default load
combinations are acceptable, no definition of additional load combinations is required. The
Direct Analysis Method requires that a notional load, N = 0.002Yi , where Yi is the gravity load
acting at level i, be applied to account for the destabilizing effects associated with the initial
imperfections and other conditions that may induce sway not explicitly modeled in the structure.
The user must be aware that notional loads must be defined and assigned by the user. Currently,
the software creates design combinations that include notional loads and gravity loads only. If
the user needs notional loads that include combinations containing lateral loads, the user must
define such combinations manually. The automation of combinations, including notional loads,
is currently limited to gravity loads only. Design load combinations of notional loads acting
together with lateral loads currently are NOT automated by the software.
Load Combinations and Notional Loads 1

Aluminum Frame Design – Aluminum Design Manual 2020 Introduction
1.2 Stress Check

Aluminum frame design/check consists of calculating the ﬂexural, axial, and shear forces or
stresses at several locations along the length of a member, and then comparing those calculated
values with acceptable limits. That comparison produces a demand/capacity ratio, which
typically should not exceed a value of one if code requirements are to be satisfied. The program
does not do the connection design.
Program output can be presented graphically on the model, in tables for both input and output
data, or in calculation sheets prepared for each member. For each presentation method, the output
is in a format that allows the engineer to quickly study the stress conditions that exist in the
structure, and in the event the member is not adequate, aid the engineer in taking appropriate
remedial measures.
The implementation covers loading and load combinations from “ASCE/SEI

7-10 Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures” (ASCE
7-2010). Both LRFD (Load and Resistance Factor Design) and ASD (Allowable Strength
Design) codes are included in this implementation under the same AA 2020 code name. The
LRFD and ASD are available as two options in the program’s preferences feature. The design
codes supported under “Aluminum Design Manual 2020” are written in kip-inch units. All the
associated equations and requirements have been implemented in the program in kip-in units.
The program has been enabled with unit conversion capability. This allows the users to enjoy the
flexibility of choosing any set of consistent units during creating and editing models, exporting
and importing the model components, and reviewing the design results.
1.3 Direct Analysis Method

The Direct Analysis Method described in AISC 360-10, Chapter C, is utilized in the aluminum
frame design of the program. The user should be knowledgeable of the Design for Stability
(Chapter C) requirements and the requirements pertaining to consideration of the geometric
imperfections, stiffness reductions, and the P-Δ and P-δ effects.
The Direct Analysis Method is expected to more accurately determine the internal forces of the
structure, provided care is used in the selection of the appropriate methods used to determine the
second-order effects, notional load effects and appropriate stiffness reduction factors as defined
in AISC C2. Additionally, the Direct Analysis Method does not use an effective length factor
other than K = 1.0. The rationale behind the use of K = 1.0 is that proper consideration of the
second-order effects (P-∆ and P-δ), geometric imperfections (using notional loads) and inelastic
effects (applying stiffness reductions) better accounts for the stability effects of a structure than
the earlier Effective Length methods.
1.4 Non-Automated Items in Aluminum Frame Design

Currently, the software does not automate the following:
 Notional loads combinations that include lateral wind and quake loads
2
Aluminum Frame Design – Aluminum Design Manual 2020 Introduction
 The validity of the analysis method. The AISC code requires, for instance, that the Direct
Analysis Method be used when a ratio of the second order displacements to the first order
displacements exceeds 1.5 (AISC C1.2, App. 7.2.1(2), App. 7.3.1(2)). This check currently
must be performed by the user.
 P-Δ analysis. Since many different codes are supported by the software and not all require a
P-Δ analysis, the user must specify that a P-Δ analysis be performed during the analysis phase
so that the proper member forces are available for use in the design phase. See the AISC
Direct Analysis Method Practical Guide for additional information.
3
2 Design Algorithms
This chapter provides an overview of the basic assumptions, design preconditions, and some of
the design parameters that affect the design of aluminum frames.
For referring to pertinent sections of the corresponding code, a unique prefix is assigned for each
code.
• Reference to the Aluminum Design Manual 2020 code is identified with the prefix “AA.”
• Reference to the ANSI/AISC 360-10 code is identified with the prefix “AISC.”
• Reference to the ASCE/SEI 7-10 code is identified with the prefix “ASCE.”
2.1 Check Capability

The program has the ability to check adequacy of a section (shape) in accordance with the
requirements of the selected design code. Sections defined by the Section Designer will not be
checked as one of the limitations of the program. Other limitations include the following
calculations not being performed:
• Torsion capacity
• Lateral-torsional buckling flexural strength for bending about minor axis
• All strengths of welded members
• All strengths of elements with stiffeners
To check adequacy of a section, the program checks the demand/capacity (D/C) ratios at a predefined
number of stations for each design load combination. It calculates the envelope of the D/C ratios. It
also checks the other requirements on a pass or fail basis. If the capacity ratio remains less than or
equal to the D/C ratio limit, which is a number close to 1.0, and if the section passes all the special
requirements, the section is considered to be adequate, else the section is considered to be failed. The
D/C ratio limit is taken as 1.0 by default. However, this value can be overwritten in the Preferences
(see Chapter 3).
To check adequacy of an individual section, the user must assign the section using the Assign
menu. In that case, both the analysis and design sections will be changed.
Check Capability 4
Aluminum Frame Design – Aluminum Design Manual 2020 Design Algorithms
2.2 Check Stations

For each design combination, aluminum frame members (beams, columns) are checked at a
number of locations (stations) along the length of the object. The stations are located at equally
spaced segments along the clear length of the object. By default, at least three stations will be
located in a column or brace member, and the stations in a beam will be spaced at most 2 feet
apart (0.5 m if the model has been created in metric units). The user can overwrite the number of
stations in an object before the analysis is run and refine the design along the length of a member
by requesting more stations. Refer to the program Help for more information about specifying
the number of stations in an object.
2.3 Demand/Capacity Ratios

Determination of the controlling demand/capacity (D/C) ratios for each aluminum frame member
indicates the acceptability of the member for the given loading conditions. The steps for
calculating the D/C ratios are as follows:
• The factored forces are calculated for axial, flexural, and shear at each defined station for
each design combination. The bending moments are calculated about the geometric axes for
I-Shape, Box, Channel, Double-Channel, T-Shape, Double-Angle, Pipe, Circular, and
Rectangular sections for which the principal axes coincide with the geometric axes. For
Single-Angle sections, the design determines the axes of bending provided the lateral-
torsional restraint condition as described in Chapter 3, and bending moments are re-calculated
according to the axes of bending determined. For General sections, it is assumed that all
section properties are given in terms of the principal directions.
Shear forces are calculated for directions along the geometric axes for all shapes of section.
• The nominal strengths are calculated for compression, tension, bending and shear based on
the equations provided later in this manual. For flexure, the nominal strengths are calculated
based on the geometric or principal axes of bending. For the I-Shape, Box, Channel, Double-
Channel, Circular, Pipe, T-Shape, Double-Angle and Rectangular sections, the principal axes
coincide with their geometric axes. For the Angle sections, the lateral-torsional restraint
condition is examined to determine the bending axes and all computations related to flexural
strength are based on that.
The nominal strength for shear is calculated along the geometric axes for all sections. For I-
Shape, Box, Channel, Double-Channel, T-Shape, Double-Angle, Pipe, Circular, and
Rectangular sections, the principal axes coincide with their geometric axes. For Single-Angle
sections, principal axes do not coincide with the geometric axes.
• Factored forces are compared to nominal strengths to determine D/C ratios. In either case,
design codes typically require that the ratios not exceed a value of one. A capacity ratio
greater than one indicates a member that has exceeded a limit state.
Check Stations 5
2.4 Design Load Combinations

The design load combinations are the various combinations of the prescribed load cases for which
the structure needs to be checked. The program creates a number of default design load
combinations for aluminum frame design. Users can add their own design combinations as well
as modify or delete the program default design load combinations. An unlimited number of
design load combinations can be specified.
To define a design load combination, simply specify one or more load cases, each with its own
scale factor. The scale factors are applied to the forces and moments from the load cases to form
the factored design forces and moments for each design load combination.
For normal loading conditions involving static dead load (DL), live load (LL), roof live load
(RL), snow load (SL), wind load (WL), earthquake load (EL), notional load (NL), and dynamic
response spectrum load (EL), the program has built-in default design combinations for the design
code. These are based on the code recommendations.
The default design combinations assume all load cases declared as dead or live to be additive.
However, each load case declared as wind, earthquake, or response spectrum cases, is assumed to be
non-additive with other loads and produces multiple lateral combinations. Also, static wind,
earthquake and notional load responses produce separate design combinations with the sense (positive
or negative) reversed. The notional load patterns are added to load combinations involving gravity
loads only. The user is free to modify the default design preferences to include the notional loads for
combinations involving lateral loads.
For other loading conditions involving moving load, time history, pattern live load, separate
consideration of roof live load, snow load, and the like, the user must define the design load
combinations in lieu of or in addition to the default design load combinations. If notional loads
are to be combined with other load combinations involving wind or earthquake loads, the design
load combinations need to be defined in lieu of or in addition to the default design load
combinations.
For multi-valued design combinations, such as those involving response spectrum, time history,
moving loads and envelopes, where any correspondence between forces is lost, the program
automatically produces sub-combinations using the maxima/minima values of the interacting
forces. Separate combinations with negative factors for response spectrum load cases are not
required because the program automatically takes the minima to be the negative of the maxima
response when preparing the sub-combinations described previously.
The program allows live load reduction factors to be applied to the member forces of the
reducible live load case on a member-by-member basis to reduce the contribution of the live load
to the factored responses.
2.5 Second Order P-Delta Effects

The AA 2020 aluminum frame design does not require a specific method to consider the second-
order effects. Therefore, the program utilizes the Direct Analysis Method as described in the
Design Load Combinations 6

AISC 360-10. The software is well suited to make use of the Direct Analysis Method because it
can model the second-order P-∆ and P-δ effects, provided that the user specifies that a nonlinear
P-Delta analysis be performed.
∆
Original position of frame
element shown by vertical
line δ
Final deflected position of the
frame element that includes the
global lateral translation, ∆, and
the local deformation of the
Position of frame element
element, δ
as a result of global lateral
translation, ∆, shown by
dashed line
δ
For more details about the program capabilities and limitations, see Appendix A.
2.6 Analysis Methods

The code requires that stability shall be provided for the structure as a whole and for each of the
elements. Any method of analysis that considers the influence of second order effects of 𝑃𝑃 − 𝛥𝛥
and 𝑃𝑃 − 𝛿𝛿, geometric imperfections, out-of-plumbness, and member stiffness reduction due to
residual stresses are permitted by the code. The effects of geometric imperfection and out-of-
plumbness generally are modeled by the use of notional loads. The effect of axial, shear and
flexural deformations and the effects of residual stresses on the member stiffness reduction has
been considered in a specialized method called “Direct Analysis Method.” This method can come
in different incarnations (formats) according to the choice of the engineer as allowed in the code.
2.7 Notional Load Patterns

Notional loads are lateral loads that are applied at each framing level and are specified as a
percentage of the gravity loads applied at that level. They are intended to account for the
destabilizing effects of out-of-plumbness, geometric imperfections, inelasticity in structural
members, and any other effects that could induce sway and that are not explicitly considered in
the analysis.
The program allows the user to create a Notional Load pattern as a percentage of the previously
defined gravity load pattern to be applied in one of the global lateral directions: X or Y. The user
Analysis Methods 7
can define more than one notional load pattern associated with one gravity load by considering
different factors and different directions. In the ANSI/AISC 360-10 code, the notional loads are
typically suggested to be 0.2% (or 0.002) (AISC C2.2b(3)), a factor referred to as the notional
load coefficient in this document. The notional load coefficient can be 0.003 (AISC C2.3(3)). In
some cases, it can be a function of second order effects measured by relative story sway (AISC
App. 7.3(2)). The code also gives some flexibility to allow the engineer-of-record to apply
judgment.
The notional load patterns should be considered in combination with appropriate factors,
appropriate directions, and appropriate senses. Some of the design analysis methods need the
notional loads to be considered only in gravity load combinations (AISC C2.2b(4)), and some of
the methods need the notional loads to be considered in all the design load combinations (AISC
C2.2b(4)).
Currently, the notional loads are not automatically included in the default design load
combinations that include lateral loads. However, the user is free to modify the default design
load combinations to include the notional loads with appropriate factors and in appropriate load
combinations.
2.8 Member Unsupported Lengths

The column unsupported lengths are required to account for column slenderness effects for
flexural buckling and for lateral-torsional buckling. The program automatically determines the
unsupported length ratios, which are specified as a fraction of the frame object length. These
ratios times the frame object lengths give the unbraced lengths for the member. These ratios can
also be overwritten by the user on a member-by-member basis, if desired, using the overwrite
option.
Two unsupported lengths, 𝑙𝑙33 and 𝑙𝑙22 , as shown in Figure 2-2 are to be considered for flexural
buckling. These are the lengths between support points of the member in the corresponding
directions. The length 𝑙𝑙33 corresponds to instability about the 3-3 axis (major axis), and 𝑙𝑙22
corresponds to instability about the 2-2 axis (minor axis). The length 𝑙𝑙𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 , not shown in the
figure, is also used for lateral-torsional buckling caused by major direction bending (i.e., about
the 3-3 axis).
In determining the values for 𝑙𝑙22 and 𝑙𝑙33 of the members, the program recognizes various aspects
of the structure that have an effect on these lengths, such as member connectivity, diaphragm
constraints and support points. The program automatically locates the member support points
and evaluates the corresponding unsupported length.
It is possible for the unsupported length of a frame object to be evaluated by the program as
greater than the corresponding member length. For example, assume a column has a beam
framing into it in one direction, but not the other, at a floor level. In this case, the column is
assumed to be supported in one direction only at that story level, and its unsupported length in
the other direction will exceed the story height.
Member Unsupported Lengths 8

By default, the unsupported length for lateral-torsional buckling, 𝑙𝑙𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 , is taken to be equal to the
𝑙𝑙22 factor. Similar to 𝑙𝑙22 and l33 , 𝑙𝑙𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 can be overwritten.
Figure 2-2 Unsupported lengths 𝒍𝒍𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 and 𝒍𝒍𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
2.9 Effects of Breaking a Member into Multiple Elements

The preferred method is to model a beam, column or brace member as one single element.
However, the user can request that the program break a member internally at framing
intersections and at specified intervals. In this way, accuracy in modeling can be maintained, at
the same time design/check specifications can be applied accurately. There is special emphasis
on the end forces (moments in particular) for many different aspects of beam, column and brace
design. If the member is manually meshed (broken) into segments, maintaining the integrity of
the design algorithm becomes difficult.
Manually, breaking a column member into several elements can affect many things during design
in the program.
1. The unbraced length: The unbraced length is really the unsupported length between braces.
If there is no intermediate brace in the member, the unbraced length is typically calculated
automatically by the program from the top of the flange of the beam framing the column at
bottom to the bottom of the flange of the beam framing the column at the top. The
automatically calculated length factor typically becomes less than 1. If there are intermediate
bracing points, the user should overwrite the unbraced length factor in the program. The user
should choose the critical (larger) one. Even if the user breaks the element, the program
typically picks up the unbraced length correctly, provided that there is no intermediate
bracing point.
2. K-factors: Even if the user breaks the member into pieces, the program typically can pick up
the 𝐾𝐾-factors correctly. However, sometimes it cannot. In such case, the user should note the
𝐾𝐾-factors. All segments of the member should have the same 𝐾𝐾-factor and it should be
Effects of Breaking a Member into Multiple Elements 9

calculated based on the entire member. If the calculated 𝐾𝐾-factor is not reasonable, the user
can overwrite the𝐾𝐾-factors for all the segments.
3. 𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 factor: The 𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 factor is determined based on the loading conditions of the member
between braced points as described in the AA 2020. If the break-up points are the brace
points, no action is required by the user. If the broken segments do not represent the brace-
to-brace unsupported length, the program calculated 𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 factor is not correct according to the
AA 2020. If it is not acceptable, the user can calculate the 𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 factor manually for the critical
combination and overwrite its value for that segment.
If the user models a column with a single element, the factor 𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 will be picked up correctly if
there is no intermediate bracing point. The calculated 𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 factors will be slightly conservative if
there are intermediate bracing points.
If the user models a column with multiple elements, the factor 𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 will be picked up correctly if
the member is broken at the bracing points. The calculated 𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 factors will be conservative if the
member is not broken at the bracing points.
2.10 Effective Length Factor (K)

The effective length method for calculating member axial compressive strength has been used in
various forms in several stability-based design codes. The method originates from calculating
effective buckling lengths, 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾, and is based on elastic/inelastic stability theory. The effective
buckling length is used to calculate an axial compressive strength, 𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛 , through an empirical
column curve that accounts for geometric imperfections, distributed yielding, and residual
stresses present in the cross-section.
There is only one type of 𝐾𝐾-factor in the AA 2020 code. The 𝐾𝐾-factor is used for calculating the
axial capacity. This K factor is always less than 1 and is not calculated. By default, the program
uses the value of 1 for K. The program allows the user to overwrite K on a member-by-member
basis.
K has two values: one for major direction and the other for minor direction, 𝐾𝐾minor , 𝐾𝐾major .
There is another 𝐾𝐾-factor, 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 for lateral torsional buckling. By default, 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 is taken as equal
to 1. However, the user can overwrite this on a member-by-member basis.
The rest of this section is dedicated to the determination of K factors.
The 𝐾𝐾-factor algorithm has been developed for building-type structures, where the columns are
vertical and the beams are horizontal, and the behavior is basically that of a moment-resisting
frame for which the 𝐾𝐾-factor calculation is relatively complex. For the purpose of calculating
𝐾𝐾-factor, the objects are identified as columns, beam and braces. All frame objects parallel to
the 𝑍𝑍 -axis are classified as columns. All objects parallel to the 𝑋𝑋 -𝑌𝑌 plane are classified as beams.
The remainders are considered to be braces.
Effective Length Factor (K) 10

The beams and braces are assigned 𝐾𝐾-factor of unity. In the calculation of the 𝐾𝐾-factor for a
column object, the program first makes the following four stiffness summations for each joint in
the structural model:
𝐸𝐸𝑐𝑐 𝐼𝐼𝑐𝑐 𝐸𝐸𝑏𝑏 𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏
𝑆𝑆𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = � � � 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = � � �
𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 𝐿𝐿𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥
𝐸𝐸𝑐𝑐 𝐼𝐼𝑐𝑐 𝐸𝐸𝑏𝑏 𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏

𝑆𝑆𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = � � � 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏 𝑦𝑦 = � � �
𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 𝑦𝑦 𝐿𝐿𝑏𝑏 𝑦𝑦
where the x and y subscripts correspond to the global X and Y directions and the c and b subscripts
𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼 𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼
refer to column and beam. The local 2-2 and 3-3 terms 22 and 33 are rotated to give components
𝐿𝐿22 𝐿𝐿33
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
along the global X and Y directions to form the � � and � � values. Then for each column,
𝐿𝐿 𝑥𝑥 𝐿𝐿 𝑦𝑦
the joint summations at END-I and the END-J of the member are transformed back to the column
local 1-2-3 coordinate system, and the 𝐺𝐺 -values for END-I and the END-J of the member are
calculated about the 2-2 and 3-3 directions as follows:
𝑆𝑆 𝐼𝐼 𝑐𝑐22 𝑆𝑆𝐽𝐽 𝑐𝑐22

𝐺𝐺 𝐼𝐼 22 = 𝐺𝐺 𝐽𝐽 22 =
𝑆𝑆𝐼𝐼 𝑏𝑏22 𝑆𝑆𝐽𝐽 𝑏𝑏22
𝑆𝑆 𝐼𝐼 𝑐𝑐33 𝑆𝑆𝐽𝐽 𝑐𝑐33

𝐺𝐺 𝐼𝐼 33 = 𝐺𝐺 𝐽𝐽 33 =
𝑆𝑆𝐼𝐼 𝑏𝑏33 𝑆𝑆𝐽𝐽 𝑏𝑏33
If a rotational release exists at a particular end (and direction) of an object, the corresponding
value of 𝐺𝐺 is set to 10.0. If all degrees of freedom for a particular joint are deleted, the 𝐺𝐺 -values
for all members connecting to that joint will be set to 1.0 for the end of the member connecting
to that joint. Finally, if 𝐺𝐺 𝐼𝐼 and 𝐺𝐺 𝐽𝐽 are known for a particular direction, the column K -factors for
the corresponding direction is calculated by solving the following relationship for α:
𝛼𝛼 2 𝐺𝐺 𝐼𝐼 𝐺𝐺 𝐽𝐽 − 36 𝛼𝛼
=
6(𝐺𝐺𝐼𝐼 + 𝐺𝐺 𝐽𝐽 ) 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝛼𝛼
from which 𝐾𝐾 = π/α. This relationship is the mathematical formulation for the evaluation of
𝐾𝐾-factor for moment-resisting frames assuming sidesway to be uninhibited. For other structures,
such as braced frame structures, the 𝐾𝐾-factor for all members are usually unity and should be set
so by the user. The following are some important aspects associated with the column 𝐾𝐾-factor
algorithm:
• An object that has a pin at the joint under consideration will not enter the stiffness
summations calculated above. An object that has a pin at the far end from the joint under
consideration will contribute only 50% of the calculated EI value. Also, beam members that
have no column member at the far end from the joint under consideration, such as cantilevers,
will not enter the stiffness summation.
Effective Length Factor (K) 11

• If there are no beams framing into a particular direction of a column member, the associated
G-value will be infinity. If the G-values at both ends of a column for a particular direction
are infinity, the 𝐾𝐾 -factor corresponding to that direction is set equal to unity.
• If rotational releases exist at both ends of an object for a particular direction, the
corresponding 𝐾𝐾-factor is set to unity.
• The automated 𝐾𝐾-factor calculation procedure can occasionally generate artificially high
𝐾𝐾-factor, specifically under circumstances involving skewed beams, fixed support
conditions, and under other conditions where the program may have difficulty recognizing
that the members are laterally supported and 𝐾𝐾-factors of unity are to be used.
• All 𝐾𝐾-factor produced by the program can be overwritten by the user. These values should
be reviewed and any unacceptable values should be replaced.
• The beams and braces are assigned 𝐾𝐾-factor of unity.
2.11 Choice of Units

English as well as SI and MKS metric units can be used for input. The codes are based on a
specific system of units. All equations and descriptions presented in the subsequent chapters
correspond to that specific system of units unless otherwise noted. However, any system of units
can be used to define and design a structure in the program.
The Display Unit preferences allow the user to specify the units.
Choice of Units 12
3 Design Process
This chapter provides a detailed description of the algorithms used by the programs in the
design/check of structures in accordance with “Aluminum Design Manual 2020.” The
implementation covers load combinations from “ASCE/SEI 7-10,” which is described in the
section “Design Loading Combinations” in this chapter. The loading based on “ASCE/SEI 7-10”
has been described in a separate document entitled “CSI Lateral Load Manual” (CSI 2012).
References also are made to IBC 2012 in this document.
For referring to pertinent sections of the corresponding code, a unique prefix is assigned for each
code.
• Reference to the Aluminum Design Manual 2020 code is identified with the prefix “AA.”
• Reference to the ASCE/SEI 7-10 code is identified with the prefix “ASCE.”
• Reference to the IBC 2012 code is identified with the prefix “IBC.”
3.1 Notations
The various notations used in this chapter are described herein.
A Cross-sectional area, in2
Ae Effective cross-sectional area for slender sections, in2
Ag Gross cross-sectional area, in2
An Net area of the web parallel to the direction of applied shear, in2
Av Shear area, in2
C1 Bending coefficient
C2 Bending coefficient
Cb Bending coefficient
Do Outside diameter of pipes, in
Notations 13
Aluminum Frame Design – Aluminum Design Manual 2020 Design Process
Di Inside diameter of pipes, in
E Modulus of elasticity, ksi
Fei Critical compressive stress of element i, ksi
Fr Compressive residual stress in flange assumed 10.0 for rolled

sections and 16.5 for welded sections, ksi
Fb Flexural compression stress of an element determined according

to Table 3-3, ksi
Fc Uniform compression stress of an element determined according

to Table 3-3, ksi
Fcy Compressive yield stress of material, ksi
Fsy Shear yield stress of material, ksi. This value is taken as 0.6Fty.
Fsu Shear ultimate stress of material, ksi
Fty Tensile yield stress of material, ksi
Ftu Tensile ultimate stress of material, ksi
G Shear modulus, ksi
I22 Minor moment of inertia, in4
I33 Major moment of inertia, in4
If Moment of inertia of the element subjected to uniform

compression stress about the section’s plastic neutral axis, in4
Iw Moment of inertia of the element subjected to flexural

compression stress about the section’s plastic neutral axis, in4
J Torsional constant for the section, in4
K Effective length factor
KLTB Effective length K-factors for lateral-torsional buckling

condition
Lb Lateral-torsionally unbraced length of member, in
Me Elastic lateral-torsional buckling moment, kip-in
Mn33, Mn22 Nominal bending strength in major and minor directions, kip-in
Mnlb Nominal flexural strength due to local buckling, kip-in
Notations 14
Mnmb Nominal flexural strength due to lateral-torsional buckling, kip-

in
Mnp Nominal flexural strength due to yielding, kip-in
Mnu Nominal flexural strength due to rupture, kip-in
Mob Elastic lateral-torsional buckling moment for angle sections, kip-

in
Mr33, Mr22 Major and minor limiting buckling moments, kip-in
Mu Factored moment in member, kip-in
Mu33, Mu22 Factored major and minor moments in member, kip-in
Mn33, Mn22 Major and minor moment strength of member, kip-in
My Yield moment strength of member, kip-in
Pnt Nominal axial tensile strength, kip
Pnc Nominal axial compressive strength, kip
Pnci Limiting axial compressive strength due to interaction between

member and local buckling, kip
Pu Factored axial force in member, kips
Rb Radius of curve elements taken at the mid-thickness of the

element, in
S Section modulus, in3
S33, S22 Major and minor section moduli, in3
Sc Section modulus on the compression side of the neutral axis, in3
St Section modulus on the tension side of the neutral axis, in3
Vn2, Vn3 Nominal major and minor shear strengths, kips
Vu2, Vv3 Factored major and minor shear loads, kips
Z Plastic modulus, in3
Z33, Z22 Major and minor plastic moduli, in3
b Nominal width of flat element in a section, in
be Effective width of flange, in
Notations 15
bf Flange width, in
ccf Distance from centerline of the element subjected to uniform

compression to the section’s plastic neutral axis, in
ccw Distance from the extreme compression fiber of an element

subjected to flexural compression to the section’s plastic neutral
axis, in
d Overall depth of member, in
de Effective depth of web, in
go Distance from the shear center to the location of load

application, in
l33, l22 Major and minor directions unbraced member lengths, in
r Radius of gyration, in
r33, r22 Radii of gyration in the major and minor directions, in
t Thickness, in
tf Flange thickness, in
tw Thickness of web, in
yo y-coordinate of the shear center, in
βx Monosymmetric constant in major geometric axis of bending, in
βw Monosymmetric constant in major principal axis of bending for

angles, in
λ Slenderness
λ1 Slenderness at the intersection of the equation for yielding and

inelastic buckling
λ2 Slenderness at the intersection of the equation for inelastic

buckling and elastic buckling
ϕb Resistance factor for bending
ϕc Resistance factor for compression
ϕt Resistance factor for tension yielding
ϕT Resistance factor for torsion
Notations 16
ϕv Resistance factor for shear
Ωb Safety factor for bending
Ωc Safety factor for compression
Ωt Safety factor for tension
ΩT Safety factor for torsion
Ωv Safety factor for shear
3.2 Design Loading Combinations

The structure is to be designed such that its design strength equals or exceeds the effects of
factored loads stipulated by the applicable design code. The default design combinations are the
various combinations of the already defined load cases, such as dead load (DL), live load (LL),
roof live load (RL), snow load (SL), wind load (WL), and horizontal earthquake load (EL).
AA 2020 refers to the applicable building code for the loads and load combinations to be
considered in the design, and to ASCE 7-10 in the absence of such a building code. Hence, the
default design combinations used in the current version are the ones stipulated in ASCE 7-10:
For design in accordance with LRFD provisions:
1.4 DL (ASCE 2.3.2-1)

1.2 DL + 1.6 LL + 0.5RL (ASCE 2.3.2-2)
1.2 DL + 1.0 LL + 1.6RL (ASCE 2.3.2-3)
1.2 DL + 1.6 LL + 0.5 SL (ASCE 2.3.2-2)

1.2 DL + 1.0 LL + 1.6 SL (ASCE 2.3.2-3)
0.9 DL ± 1.0WL (ASCE 2.3.2-6)

1.2 DL + 1.6 RL± 0.5WL (ASCE 2.3.2-3)
1.2 DL + 1.0LL+ 0.5RL± 1.0WL (ASCE 2.3.2-4)
1.2 DL + 1.6 SL± 0.5 WL (ASCE 2.3.2-3)

1.2 DL + 1.0LL+ 0.5SL± 1.0 WL (ASCE 2.3.2-4)
0.9 DL ± 1.0 EL (ASCE 2.3.2-7)

1.2 DL + 1.0 LL+ 0.2SL± 1.0EL (ASCE 2.3.2-5)
For design in accordance with ASD provisions:
Design Loading Combinations 17

1.0 DL (ASCE 2.4.1-1)

1.0 DL + 1.0 LL (ASCE 2.4.1-2)
1.0 DL + 1.0 RL (ASCE 2.4.1-3)

1.0 DL + 0.75 LL + 0.75 RL (ASCE 2.3.2-4)
1.0 DL + 1.0 SL (ASCE 2.4.1-3)
1.0 DL + 0.75 LL + 0.75 SL (ASCE 2.3.2-4)
1.0 DL ± 0.6 WL (ASCE 2.4.1-5)

1.0 DL + 0.75 LL+ 0.75 RL± 0.75 (0.6WL) (ASCE 2.4.1-6a)
1.0 DL + 0.75 LL+ 0.75 SL± 0.75 (0.6WL) (ASCE 2.4.1-6a)
0.6 DL ± 0.6 WL (ASCE 2.4.1-7)
1.0 DL ± 0.7 EL (ASCE 2.4.1-5)

1.0 DL + 0.75 LL+ 0.75 SL± 0.75(0.7 EL) (ASCE 2.4.1-6b)
0.6 DL ± 0.7 EL (ASCE 2.4.1-8)
Most of the analysis methods recognized by the code are required to consider Notional Load in
the design loading combinations for aluminum frame design. The program allows the user to
define and create notional loads as individual load cases from a specified percentage of a given
gravity load acting in a particular lateral direction. These notional load patterns should be
considered in the combinations with appropriate factors, appropriate directions, and appropriate
senses. Currently, the program automatically includes the notional loads in the default design
load combinations for gravity combinations only. The user is free to modify the default design
preferences to include the notional loads for combinations involving lateral loads. For further
information, refer to the “Notional Load Patterns” section in Chapter 2.
The combinations described herein are the default loading combinations only. They can be
deleted or edited as required by the design code or engineer-of-record.
The program allows live load reduction factors to be applied to the member forces of the reducible
live load case on a member-by-member basis to reduce the contribution of the live load to the
factored responses.
3.3 Buckling Constants

The buckling constants B, D, and C are calculated as shown in Table 3-1a and 3-1b.
Buckling Constants 18
Table 3-1a Buckling Constants for Temper Designations Beginning with O, H, T1, T2,
T3, or T4, and Weld-Affected Zones of All Tempers
Type of stress and
Intercept Slope Intersection
member
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 1/2 𝐵𝐵𝑐𝑐 6𝐵𝐵𝑐𝑐 1/2 2𝐵𝐵𝑐𝑐
Member Buckling 𝐵𝐵𝑐𝑐 = 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 �1 + � � � 𝐷𝐷𝑐𝑐 = � � 𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑐 =
1000𝜅𝜅 20 𝐸𝐸 3𝐷𝐷𝑐𝑐
Uniform
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 1/3 𝐵𝐵𝑝𝑝 6𝐵𝐵𝑝𝑝 1/2 2𝐵𝐵𝑝𝑝
Compression in Flat 𝐵𝐵𝑝𝑝 = 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 �1 + � � � 𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝 = � � 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 =
440𝜅𝜅 20 𝐸𝐸 3𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝
Elements
Uniform 1/2
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 1/5 𝐵𝐵𝑡𝑡 𝐵𝐵𝑡𝑡 1/3 𝐸𝐸
Compression in 𝐵𝐵𝑡𝑡 = 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 �1 + � � � 𝐷𝐷𝑡𝑡 = � � 𝐶𝐶𝑡𝑡 = 0.76 � �
6500𝜅𝜅 3.7 𝐸𝐸 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
Curved Elements
Flexural
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 1/3 𝐵𝐵 6𝐵𝐵 1/2 2𝐵𝐵𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
Compression in Flat 𝐵𝐵𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 1.3𝐹𝐹
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 �1 + � � � 𝐷𝐷𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 � 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 � 𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 =
340𝜅𝜅 20 𝐸𝐸 3𝐷𝐷𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
Elements
Flexural
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 1/5 𝐵𝐵 𝐵𝐵 1/3 𝐵𝐵𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 − 𝐵𝐵𝑡𝑡
Compression in 𝐵𝐵𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 1.5𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 �1 + � � � 𝐷𝐷𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 � 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 � 𝐶𝐶𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = � �
6500𝜅𝜅 2.7 𝐸𝐸 𝐷𝐷𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 − 𝐷𝐷𝑡𝑡
Curved Elements
Shear in Flat 𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 1/3 𝐵𝐵𝑠𝑠 6𝐵𝐵𝑠𝑠 1/2 2𝐵𝐵𝑠𝑠
𝐵𝐵𝑠𝑠 = 𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 �1 + � � � 𝐷𝐷𝑠𝑠 = � � 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 =
Elements 240𝜅𝜅 20 𝐸𝐸 3𝐷𝐷𝑠𝑠
Table 3-1b Buckling Constants for Temper Designations Beginning with T5, T6, T7, T8,
or T9
Type of stress
Intercept Slope Intersection
and member
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 1/2 𝐵𝐵𝑐𝑐 𝐵𝐵𝑐𝑐 1/2 𝐵𝐵𝑐𝑐
Member Buckling 𝐵𝐵𝑐𝑐 = 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 �1 + � � � 𝐷𝐷𝑐𝑐 = � � 𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑐 = 0.41
2250𝜅𝜅 10 𝐸𝐸 𝐷𝐷𝑐𝑐
Uniform
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 1/3 𝐵𝐵𝑝𝑝 𝐵𝐵𝑝𝑝 1/2 𝐵𝐵𝑝𝑝
Compression in 𝐵𝐵𝑝𝑝 = 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 �1 + � � � 𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝 = � � 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 = 0.41
1500𝜅𝜅 10 𝐸𝐸 𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝
Flat Elements
Uniform 1/5 1/2
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐵𝐵𝑡𝑡 𝐵𝐵𝑡𝑡 1/3 𝐸𝐸
Compression in 𝐵𝐵𝑡𝑡 = 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 �1 + � � � 𝐷𝐷𝑡𝑡 = � � 𝐶𝐶𝑡𝑡 = 0.70 � �
50,000𝜅𝜅 4.5 𝐸𝐸 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
Curved Elements
Flexural
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 1/3 𝐵𝐵 6𝐵𝐵 1/2 2𝐵𝐵𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
Compression in 𝐵𝐵𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 1.3𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 �1 + � � � 𝐷𝐷𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 � 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 � 𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 =
340𝜅𝜅 20 𝐸𝐸 3𝐷𝐷𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
Flat Elements
Flexural 1/5
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐵𝐵 𝐵𝐵 1/3 𝐵𝐵𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 − 𝐵𝐵𝑡𝑡
Compression in 𝐵𝐵𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 1.5𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 �1 + � � � 𝐷𝐷𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 � 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 � 𝐶𝐶𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = � �
50,000𝜅𝜅 2.7 𝐸𝐸 𝐷𝐷𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 − 𝐷𝐷𝑡𝑡
Curved Elements
Shear in Flat 𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 1/3 𝐵𝐵𝑠𝑠 𝐵𝐵𝑠𝑠 1/2 𝐵𝐵𝑠𝑠
𝐵𝐵𝑠𝑠 = 𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 �1 + � � � 𝐷𝐷𝑠𝑠 = � � 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 = 0.41
Elements 800𝜅𝜅 10 𝐸𝐸 𝐷𝐷𝑠𝑠
Buckling Constants 19
3.4 Strength of Elements for Local Buckling

The nominal strengths for compression and flexure of a section are dependent on the slenderness
and stress capacity of individual elements of the section. In consideration of local buckling, each
element of the section is categorized into loading conditions of Uniform Compression (UC) or
Flexural Compression (FC), and its slenderness and stress capacity are calculated
correspondingly.
Under axial compression load, all elements of the section are subjected to Uniform Compression
(UC) stress condition. When the section is subjected to flexural bending about major axis, for
example, the flanges of wide-flange (I) section is assumed to be in Uniform Compression while
the web is in Flexural Compression. If bending is about minor axis, both the web and flanges are
in Flexural Compression.
Tables 3-2 and 3-3 summarize the loading condition of each element of the sections in the
program and its stress capacity, respectively. The width is determined for each element
considering the effect of the fillet radius. Both the width and thickness of each element are also
used to compute its area, which is utilized in calculation of the total compression and flexure
capacity due to the condition of local buckling.
Table 3-2 Limiting Width-Thickness Ratios of Elements for Stress Capacity –

Members Subjected to Compression or Flexure
Flexure
Compression
Width-Thickness Major Minor
Section
Example Ratio,
Type Support Stress Support Stress Support Stress
(𝜆𝜆)
Doubly Symmetric I-Shape
𝑏𝑏/𝑡𝑡 One Edge UC One Edge UC One Edge FC
𝑏𝑏/𝑡𝑡 Two Edges UC Two Edges FC One Edge FC
Strength of Elements for Local Buckling 20



Singly Symmetric I-Shapes
𝑏𝑏/𝑡𝑡 Two Edges UC Two Edges FC One Edge FC
𝑏𝑏/𝑡𝑡 One Edge UC One Edge UC Varies* FC

Channel
𝑏𝑏/𝑡𝑡 Two Edges UC Two Edges FC Two Edges UC

Double Channel
𝑏𝑏/𝑡𝑡 Two Edges UC Two Edges FC One Edge UC***

Box
𝑏𝑏/𝑡𝑡 Two Edges UC Two Edges UC Two Edges FC


𝑏𝑏/𝑡𝑡 Two Edges UC Two Edges FC Two Edges UC

T-Shape
𝑏𝑏/𝑡𝑡 One Edge UC Varies** FC One Edge FC
𝑏𝑏/𝑡𝑡
Double Angle
One Edge UC One Edge UC One Edge FC
𝑏𝑏/𝑡𝑡 One Edge UC Varies** FC One Edge UC***

Angle
𝑏𝑏/𝑡𝑡 One Edge UC One Edge FC One Edge UC

Pipe
𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 /𝑡𝑡 Curved UC Curved FC Curved FC
Round
Bar ――― ――― ――― ――― ―――
Rectan-
gular ――― ――― ――― ――― ―――
General ――― ――― ――― ――― ―――

UC: Uniform Compression FC: Flexural Compression
*: For Channel section subjected to bending about minor axis, the left of the flanges is in compression and supported by the
web while the right is free and in tension under positive minor bending, leading to a condition similar to both edges supported. For
negative minor bending, the flanges have the condition of being supported on the tension edge and compression edge free.
**: For this section, the top of the web is supported by the flange and the bottom is free. Under positive bending moment about
major axis, the web top is in compression and the web bottom is in tension, resulting in condition similar to both edges supported.
For negative bending moment, the web has the condition of being supported on tension edge and compression edge free.
***: The webs of the Double Channel and Double Angle sections are always conservatively treated as flat elements under
uniform compression for bending about minor axis. For special case in which the back-to-back separation is zero and the two channel
(or angle) sections are sufficiently restrained such that the webs should be treated as being under flexural compression, the user can
resort to I-shaped or Tee section as an alternative.
For elements supported on one edge in uniform compression, the program check for buckling
axis of the section by comparing the ratio 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾/𝑟𝑟 of the major and minor axes of bending. The axis

with larger value of 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾/𝑟𝑟 will be considered the buckling axis. If the section is symmetric about
this buckling axis, post buckling will be considered. Otherwise, elastic buckling condition will
be applied.
Table 3-3 Stress Capacity of Individual Elements

Fc (or Fb)
Element Type λ1 λ2
λ ≤ λ1 λ1 < λ < λ2 λ ≥ λ2
Flat Element Supported
Elastic Elastic Buckling
Buckling 𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸
𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 𝑏𝑏 2
on One Edge
𝐵𝐵𝑝𝑝 − 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 5.0 𝑏𝑏 �5.0 �

𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐵𝐵𝑝𝑝 − 5.0𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡
5.0𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝 Post- 𝑡𝑡 Post-buckling
Uniform Compression
buckling 𝑘𝑘2 �𝐵𝐵𝑝𝑝 𝐸𝐸

𝑘𝑘1 𝐵𝐵𝑝𝑝
𝑏𝑏
5.0𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝 5.0
𝑡𝑡
Supported on
Flat Element
Both Edges
𝐵𝐵𝑝𝑝 − 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑘𝑘1 𝐵𝐵𝑝𝑝 𝑏𝑏 𝑘𝑘2 �𝐵𝐵𝑝𝑝 𝐸𝐸

𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐵𝐵𝑝𝑝 − 1.6𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝 𝑏𝑏
1.6𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝 1.6𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡 1.6
𝑡𝑡
𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸
Element
𝐵𝐵𝑡𝑡 − 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
Pipe
� � 𝐶𝐶𝑡𝑡 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐵𝐵𝑡𝑡 − 𝐷𝐷𝑡𝑡 𝜆𝜆 𝜆𝜆 2

𝐷𝐷𝑡𝑡 16𝜆𝜆2 �1 + �
35
Supported on
Flat Element
𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸
One Edge
𝐵𝐵𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 − 1.5𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏

1.5𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐵𝐵𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 − 3.5𝐷𝐷𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏 2
3.5𝐷𝐷𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 3.5 𝑡𝑡 �3.5 �
𝑡𝑡
Flexural Compression
Supported on
Flat Element
Both Edges
𝐵𝐵𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 − 1.5𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑘𝑘1 𝐵𝐵𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏 𝑘𝑘2 �𝐵𝐵𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝐸𝐸

1.5𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐵𝐵𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 − 𝑚𝑚𝐷𝐷𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏
𝑚𝑚𝐷𝐷𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑚𝑚𝐷𝐷𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑡𝑡 𝑚𝑚
𝑡𝑡
𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸
Element
Pipe
𝐶𝐶𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝐶𝐶𝑡𝑡 𝐵𝐵𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 − 𝐷𝐷𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜆𝜆 𝐵𝐵𝑡𝑡 − 𝐷𝐷𝑡𝑡 𝜆𝜆 𝜆𝜆 2

16𝜆𝜆2 �1 + �
35
Note:
𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜 𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜
⎧1.15 + (2𝑐𝑐 ) −1 < < 1
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
⎪ 𝑐𝑐
1.3 𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜
𝑚𝑚 = ≤ −1
⎨ �1 − � 𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
⎪ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
⎩ 0.65 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = −𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = distance from elastic neutral axis to the element extreme fiber with the greatest
compressive stress and has negative value.
𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜 = distance from elastic neutral axis to the other extreme fiber and has positive value.
𝑘𝑘1 = 0.50 & 𝑘𝑘2 = 2.04 for flat elements in compression with temper designations
beginning with O, H, T1, T2, T3, or T4; or in flexure.

𝑘𝑘1 = 0.35 & 𝑘𝑘2 = 2.27 for flat elements in compression with temper designations
beginning with T5, T6, T7, T8, or T9.
𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏
𝜆𝜆 = � for pipe elements per section B5.4.5 and B5.5.4 of AA 2020. 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 is the radius of
𝑡𝑡
curved elements measured to the mid-thickness of the element.
3.5 Calculation of Factored Forces and Moments

The factored member loads that are calculated for each load combination are 𝑃𝑃, 𝑀𝑀33 , 𝑀𝑀22 , 𝑉𝑉2 ,
𝑉𝑉3 , and 𝑇𝑇 corresponding to factored values of the axial load, the major and minor moments and
shears, and torsion, respectively. These factored loads are calculated at each of the previously
defined stations.
The AA 2020 design algorithm assumes that the analysis considers the influence of second-order
effects (P-∆ and P-δ effects); hence the analysis results are used without amplification. Second-
order effects due to overall sway of the structure can usually be accounted for, conservatively,
by considering the second-order effects on the structure under one set of loads (usually the most
severe gravity load case,) and performing all other analyses as linear using the stiffness matrix
developed for this one set of P-delta loads (see also White and Hajjar 1991). For a more accurate
analysis, it is always possible to define each loading combination as a nonlinear load case that
considers only geometric nonlinearities. For both approaches, when P-δ effects are expected to
be important, use more than one element per line object (accomplished using the automatic frame
subdivide option; refer to the program Help for more information about automatic frame
subdivide).
3.6 Calculation of Nominal Strengths

The nominal strengths in compression, tension, bending, and shear are computed for aluminum
members in accordance with the following sections. The nominal flexural strengths for all shapes
of sections are calculated based on their geometric (or principal) axes of bending. For the
Rectangular, I-Shape, Box, Channel, Double Channel, Circular, Pipe, T-Shape, and Double
Angle sections, the principal axes coincide with their geometric axes. For the Single Angle
sections, the lateral-torsional restraint condition is examined to determine the bending axes and
all computations are based on that except shear is always based on geometric axes.
For all sections, the nominal shear strengths are calculated for directions aligned with the
geometric axes, which typically coincide with the principal axes. Again, the exception is the
Single Angle section.
The nominal strengths in compression and flexure due to global buckling depend heavily on the
unbraced length about the axes of bending, and for lateral-torsional buckling. These unbraced
lengths can be specified as a fraction of the member length in the Overwrites. By specifying a
ratio for an unbraced length type, the number of brace points will be internally determined, and
the braced point locations will be arranged such that they are symmetric over the center line of
the member, and the unbraced length at the ends of the member will be greater than or equal to
12 inches and less than or equal to the specified unbraced length 12 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖. ≤ 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ≤ 𝐿𝐿 (Figure 3-1).
Calculation of Factored Forces and Moments 24

If 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 < 12 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖., the brace point next to the ends will be ignored and 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 will be updated to be
𝐿𝐿 ≤ 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ≤ (𝐿𝐿 + 12 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖. ). By default, the unbraced length ratios about major and minor axes of
bending are determined by the analysis of structures, and the unbraced length ratios for lateral-
torsional buckling is taken as unity.
For each station to be designed, the program checks for the unbraced length (segment) in which
the station falls within and uses it to calculate all required parameters for design.
Figure 3-1: Braced point locations by Overwrites
The lateral-torsional bracing condition can also be specified by point and/or uniform bracing in
the Lateral Bracing option under the Design menu. However, the bracing condition assigned by
this option will be overwritten by the user-specified unbraced length ratio for lateral-torsional
buckling in the Overwrites.
The calculations of the nominal strengths are not performed for sections defined by the
Section Designer.
3.6.1 Nominal Tensile Strength

This section applies to the members subject to axial tension. The design tensile strength, 𝜙𝜙𝑡𝑡 𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 ,
𝑃𝑃
and the allowable tensile strength, 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 , of tension members is taken as the lower value obtained
𝛺𝛺𝑡𝑡
according to the limit states of yielding of gross section under tension and tensile rupture in the
net section.
3.6.1.1 Tensile Yielding in the Gross Section

𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔 (AA D.2-1)
𝜙𝜙𝑡𝑡 = 0.90 (LRFD) (AA D.1)
𝛺𝛺𝑡𝑡 = 1.65 (ASD) (AA D.1)
3.6.1.2 Tensile Rupture in the Net Section

𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 /𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡 (AA D.2-3)
𝜙𝜙𝑡𝑡 = 0.75 (LRFD) (AA D.1)
𝛺𝛺𝑡𝑡 = 1.95 (ASD) (AA D.1)
The effective net area, 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 , is assumed to be equal to the gross cross-sectional area, 𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔 , by default.
For members that are connected with welds or members with holes, the 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 /𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔 ratio must be
modified using the aluminum frame design Overwrites to account for the effective area.
Calculation of Nominal Strengths 25

3.6.2 Nominal Compressive Strength

The design compressive strength, 𝜙𝜙𝑐𝑐 𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 , and the allowable compressive strength, 𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 /Ω𝑐𝑐 , of
members subject to axial compression are addressed in this section. The resistance and safety
factors used in calculation of design and allowable compressive strengths are:
𝜙𝜙𝑐𝑐 = 0.90 (LRFD) (AA E.1)

𝛺𝛺𝑐𝑐 = 1.65 (ASD) (AA E.1)
The design compression strength is taken to be the least compression capacity of the members
under consideration of member buckling including flexural and torsional and flexural-torsional
buckling, local buckling, and interaction between member and local buckling.
The limit states of torsional and flexural-torsional buckling are ignored for closed sections (Box
and Pipe sections), solid sections, and general sections.
The summary of limit states considered for each type of section is displayed in Table 3-4 below
Table 3-4 Limit States Considered for the Sections Subjected to

Compression
Section Shape Limit States
I-Shape FB, FTB, LB, IB
Channel FB, FTB, LB, IB
Double Channel FB, FTB, LB, IB
Box FB, LB, IB
T-Shape FB, FTB, LB, IB
Double Angle FB, FTB, LB, IB
Angle FB, FTB, LB, IB

Table 3-4 Limit States Considered for the Sections Subjected to

Compression
Pipe FB, LB, IB
Round Bar FB
Rectangular FB
General FB
FB = flexural buckling LB = local buckling
FTB = flexural-torsional buckling IB = interaction between member
and local buckling
3.6.2.1 Member Buckling

The nominal member buckling compressive strength with, 𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 , is the minimum value obtained
according to the limit states of flexural buckling and torsional and flexural-torsional buckling.
𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 of both limit states are computed as following:
𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔 (AA E.2-1)
where:
𝐵𝐵𝑐𝑐 − 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
⎧ 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜆𝜆 ≤ 𝜆𝜆1 =
⎪ 𝐷𝐷𝑐𝑐
⎪
𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑐 − 𝜆𝜆
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 = (𝐵𝐵𝑐𝑐 − 𝐷𝐷𝑐𝑐 𝜆𝜆) �0.85 + 0.15 � 𝜆𝜆1 < 𝜆𝜆 < 𝜆𝜆2 = 𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑐
⎨ 𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑐 − 𝜆𝜆1
⎪
⎪ 0.85𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸
⎩ 𝜆𝜆 ≥ 𝜆𝜆2 = 𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑐
𝜆𝜆2
In above equation, 𝜆𝜆 is the slenderness ratio and determined for each limit state including flexural
buckling and torsional and flexural-torsional buckling as shown below:
3.6.2.1.1 Flexural Buckling

For flexural buckling, 𝜆𝜆 is determined by:
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 𝐾𝐾33 𝑙𝑙33 𝐾𝐾22 𝑙𝑙22
𝜆𝜆 = = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 � , � (AA E. 2.1)
𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟33 𝑟𝑟22
3.6.2.1.2 Torsional and Flexural-Torsional Buckling

For torsional and flexural-torsional buckling
𝐸𝐸
𝜆𝜆 = 𝜋𝜋� (AA E. 2 − 3)
𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒
𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 is the elastic buckling stress determined depending on the section shape:
3.6.2.1.2.1 Box, Pipe, Circular, Rectangular, and General Sections

The limit states of torsional and flexural-torsional buckling are ignored for members with closed
sections, such as Box and Pipe sections, solid sections (Circular and Rectangular), General
sections and sections created using the Section Designer.

3.6.2.1.2.2 I-Shapes with Equal Flanges and Double Channel Sections

𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤 1
𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 = � + 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺� � � (AA E. 2 − 4)
(𝐾𝐾𝑧𝑧 𝐿𝐿𝑧𝑧 ) 2 𝐼𝐼22 + 𝐼𝐼33
3.6.2.1.2.3 I-Shapes with Unequal Flanges, Tee Sections, Double-Angle Sections

𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒22 + 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 4𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒22 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐻𝐻
𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 = � � �1 − �1 − � (AA E. 4 − 5)
2𝐻𝐻 (𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒22 + 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑧𝑧 )2
3.6.2.1.2.4 Channel Sections and Single Angle Sections with Unequal Legs
𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 is the lowest root of the cubic equation:
𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜 2 𝑦𝑦𝑜𝑜 2
(𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 − 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒33 )(𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 − 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒22 )(𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 − 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ) − 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒2 (𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 − 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒22 ) � � − 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒2 (𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 − 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒33 ) � � = 0
𝑟𝑟0 𝑟𝑟0
(AA E.2-6)
In the preceding equations,

𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤 is the warping constant, in6 (mm6)
𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜 , 𝑦𝑦𝑜𝑜 are the coordinates of the shear center with respect to the centroid
𝐼𝐼 +𝐼𝐼
𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜2 = 𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜2 + 𝑦𝑦𝑜𝑜2 + 22 33 = polar radius of gyration about the shear center (AA E.2-7)
𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔
𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜2 + 𝑦𝑦𝑜𝑜2
𝐻𝐻 = 1 − � � (AA E. 2 − 8)
𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜2
𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸
𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒33 = (AA E. 2 − 9)
𝐾𝐾 𝐿𝐿 2
� 33 33 �
𝑟𝑟33
𝜋𝜋2 𝐸𝐸
𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒22 = 𝐾𝐾 𝐿𝐿22 2
(AA E. 2 − 10)
� 22
𝑟𝑟22
�
𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤 1
𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = �𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 + � (AA E. 2 − 11)
(𝐾𝐾𝑧𝑧 𝐿𝐿𝑧𝑧 )2 𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔 𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜2
𝐾𝐾22 , 𝐾𝐾33 are effective length factors K2 in minor and major directions
𝐾𝐾𝑧𝑧 is the effective length factor for lateral-torsional buckling, and it is taken equal
to 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 in this program; it can be overwritten
𝐿𝐿22 , 𝐿𝐿33 are unbraced lengths in the minor and major directions
𝑟𝑟22 , 𝑟𝑟33 are the radii of gyration about the principal axes
𝐿𝐿𝑧𝑧 is the unbraced length for lateral-torsional buckling and it is taken equal to 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 ;
it can be overwritten.
All three (3) types of unbraced lengths can be overwritten by modifying the unbraced
length ratios in the Overwrites. As these ratios are modified, the unbraced lengths will be
determined as described previously and used in above equations.
3.6.2.2 Local Buckling

The nominal compressive strength of members in consideration of local buckling, 𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 , is
determined using the Weighted Average Method as described in Section E.3.1 of the AA 2020:
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = � 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 + 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 �𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔 − � 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 � (AA E. 3 − 1)

𝑖𝑖=1 𝑖𝑖=1

where 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 is the local buckling stress of element 𝑖𝑖 determined using Tables 3-2 and 3-3 for the
element subjected to Uniform Compression (UC), and 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 is the area of element 𝑖𝑖.
3.6.2.3 Interaction Between Member and Local Buckling

The nominal compressive strength of the member is limited by the interaction between member
and local buckling. The elastic local buckling stress 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 is calculated for each element (i.e. flange
and web) of the section
𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸
⎧ Flat element supported on one edge
⎪ 𝑏𝑏 2
⎪ �5.0 �
𝑡𝑡
⎪ 𝜋𝜋 2
𝐸𝐸
⎪ Flat element supported on both edges
⎪ 𝑏𝑏 2
𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = �1.6 �
𝑡𝑡
⎨ 2
𝜋𝜋 𝐸𝐸
⎪ 2 Curved element - Pipe
⎪ 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏
⎪ �
⎪16 �𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 � ⎛1 + 𝑡𝑡 ⎞
⎪ 𝑡𝑡 35
⎩ ⎝ ⎠
And the limiting compressive strength is calculated as:
1/3
0.85𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸 2/3
𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = � 2
� 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔 (AA E. 4 − 1)
𝜆𝜆
where 𝜆𝜆 is the slenderness ratio of the governing case of member buckling (either flexural
buckling or torsional and flexural-torsional buckling.)
The compressive strength of the member due to interaction between member and local buckling
is taken as the lowest 𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 calculated for all elements of the cross-section (i.e. flange and web.)
3.6.3 Nominal Flexure Strength

This section applies to members subject to simple bending about one geometric or principal axis.
For the Rectangular, I-Shape, Box, Channel, Double-Channel, Circular, Pipe, T-Shape, and
Double Angle sections, the principal axes coincide with their geometric axes. For the Single
Angle sections, the lateral-torsional restraint condition is examined to determine the bending axes
according to the AA 2020 and all computations are based on that.
The design flexural strength, 𝜙𝜙𝑏𝑏 𝑀𝑀𝑛𝑛 , and the allowable flexural strength, 𝑀𝑀𝑛𝑛 /𝛺𝛺𝑏𝑏 are determined
using the following resistance and safety factors for the limit state of rupture:
𝜙𝜙𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 0.75 (LRFD) (AA F.1)
𝛺𝛺𝑏𝑏 = 1.85 (ASD) (AA F.1)
For any other limit states,

𝜙𝜙𝑏𝑏 = 0.90 (LRFD) (AA F.1)
𝛺𝛺𝑏𝑏 = 1.65 (ASD) (AA F.1)
The nominal bending strength depends on the following criteria: the geometric shape of the cross-
section; the axis of bending; the slenderness of the section; and a slenderness parameter for

lateral-torsional buckling. The nominal bending strength is the minimum value obtained
considering the limit states of yielding and rupture, local buckling, lateral-torsional buckling, and
interaction between local buckling and lateral-torsional buckling as appropriate to different
structural shapes. Table 3-5 shows the limit states considered for different sections subjected to
flexure in the program.
Table 3-5 Limit States Considered for the Sections Subjected to Flexure
Limit States
Section Shape
Major Minor
I-Shape YR, LB, LTB, IB YR, LB
Channel YR, LB, LTB, IB YR, LB
Double Channel YR, LB, LTB, IB YR, LB
Box YR, LB, LTB YR, LB
T-Shape YR, LB, LTB, IB YR, LB
Double Angle YR, LB, LTB, IB YR, LB
Angle YR, LB, LTB YR, LB
Pipe YR, LB, LTB YR, LB
Round Bar YR YR
Rectangular YR, LB, LTB YR, LB
General YR YR
YR = yielding and rupture LB = local buckling
LTB = lateral-torsional buckling IB = interaction between local
buckling and lateral-torsional
buckling

3.6.3.1 Yielding and Rupture

For yielding, the flexural strength is taken as the least of
𝑍𝑍𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑀𝑀𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = �1.5𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 (AA F.2)
1.5𝑆𝑆𝑐𝑐 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
where Z is plastic modulus, 𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡 and 𝑆𝑆𝑐𝑐 are section moduli on the tension and compression sides of
the neutral axis, respectively.
For rupture, the flexural strength is

𝑀𝑀𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑍𝑍𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 /𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡 (AA F.2-1)
3.6.3.2 Local Buckling

The Weighted Average Method described in Section F.3.1 of the AA 2020 is adopted to calculate
the flexural strength for the limit state of local buckling. The stress condition and capacity of
each element of the section are determined as described in Section 3.3 and Tables 3-2 and 3-3 of
this manual. And the nominal flexural strength is computed as
𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 𝐼𝐼𝑤𝑤
𝑀𝑀𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 + 𝐹𝐹𝑏𝑏 (AA F. 3 − 1)
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
where:
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 =uniform compression stress of an element determined according to Table 3-3
𝐹𝐹𝑏𝑏 =flexural compression stress of an element determined according to Table 3-3
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =distance from centerline of the element subjected to uniform compression to the
section’s elastic neutral axis
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = distance from the extreme compression fiber of an element subjected to flexural
compression to the section’s elastic neutral axis
𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 =moment of inertia of the element subjected to uniform compression stress about the
𝐼𝐼𝑤𝑤 = moment of inertia of the element subjected to flexural compression stress about the
For I-section having flanges with different sizes under bending about major axis, the program
checks for the direction of the demand moment, which results in the top or bottom flange under
compression and applies the stress capacity of the appropriate flange in calculation of flexural
capacity.
Similar check is also performed for Tee and Double-Angle sections, which determines whether
the flange is in compression or tension. The compression stress 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 will be replaced by the tensile
stress capacity 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 , and 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 will be taken as the distance from the extreme bottom fiber to the
section’s elastic neutral axis in Equation AA F.3-1 if the applied moment is negative and the
flange is in tension. This procedure is also applied to Channel section under bending about minor
axis. If the minor moment results in the web being under tension, 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 of the web will be replaced
by𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 , and 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 will be taken as the distance from the extreme right fiber to the section’s elastic
neutral axis
For Pipe section, the Direct Strength Method is applied:

𝑀𝑀𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝐹𝐹𝑏𝑏 𝑆𝑆𝑐𝑐 (AA F.3-2)

3.6.3.3 Lateral-Torsional Buckling

For the limit state of lateral-torsional buckling, the flexural strength is computed as
2
⎧𝑀𝑀 �1 − 𝜆𝜆 � + 𝜋𝜋 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝜆𝜆 < 𝐶𝐶
⎪ 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑐 𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑐3
𝑐𝑐
𝑀𝑀𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = (AA F. 4)
⎨ 𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
⎪ 𝜆𝜆 ≥ 𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑐
⎩ 𝜆𝜆2
where 𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑐 is the intercept buckling constant for member buckling as defined in Table 3-1. And 𝜆𝜆
is computed as described in the following sections in which 𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 is required and defined as the
lateral-torsional buckling modification factor for non-uniform moment diagram and commonly
calculated as follows:
4 𝑀𝑀max
𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 = 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 ≤ 3.0 (AA F. 4 2)
2
�𝑀𝑀𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 4 𝑀𝑀𝐴𝐴2 + 7 𝑀𝑀𝐵𝐵2 + 4 𝑀𝑀𝐶𝐶2
where
𝑀𝑀max = absolute value of maximum moment in unbraced segment, kip-in. (N-mm)
𝑀𝑀𝐴𝐴 = absolute value of moment at quarter point of the unbraced segment, kip-in. (N-mm)
𝑀𝑀𝐵𝐵 = absolute value of moment at centerline of the unbraced segment, kip-in. (N-mm)
𝑀𝑀𝐶𝐶 = absolute value of moment at three-quarter point of the unbraced segment, kip-in.
(N-mm)
2
𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = 0.5 + 2 � � for singly-symmetric members subjected to double-curvature bending
𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦
from transverse loading over the unbraced length. Otherwise, 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚 = 1.0
𝐼𝐼yf = moment of inertia of the flange on the negative side of the mid-height (where the
direction of the load is the positive direction) about the minor axis of the section
𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 = moment of inertia of the shape about minor axis.
For several specific cases as described in the AA 2020, the value of 𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 is taken as following:
• For cantilever member unbraced at free end with doubly symmetric section shape, 𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 =
1.3 if concentrated load is applied at the centroid at the free end, and 𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 = 2.1 if uniform
transverse load is applied at the centroid. If the load is not applied at the centroid, 𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 is
taken as 1.0.
• For member supported on both ends, 𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 is taken as 1.0 if the bending moment diagram
is uniform.
• For member with doubly symmetric section, 𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 is taken as 1.0 if 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 /𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 ≤ 0.1 or
𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 /𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 ≥ 0.9. Otherwise, 𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 is determined as shown in Eq. AA F.4-2 above.
• For member with singly symmetric section and simply supported, 𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 is taken as 1.0 if
𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 /𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 ≤ 0.1 or 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 /𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 ≥ 0.9. If 0.1 < 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 /𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 < 0.9, 𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 is determined depending on
several loading scenarios as follows:
o If no transverse loads are applied between ends of the unbraced segment, 𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 =
1.0.
o If the load is uniformly distributed, 𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 = 1.13.
o If a concentrated load is applied at a distance 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 from one end of the span, 𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 =
1.75 − 1.6𝑎𝑎(1 − 𝑎𝑎)
o If two symmetric concentrated loads are applied at a distance 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 from each end
of the span, 𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 = 1 + 2.8𝑎𝑎3

The value of 𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 can be overwritten in the overwrite form.
The slenderness ratio, 𝜆𝜆, in Equation (AA F.4) is determined as described below for different
section shapes.
3.6.3.3.1 General Sections

The limit state of lateral-torsional buckling is not considered for General sections.
3.6.3.3.2 I-Shape, Channel, Double-Channel, Tee, Double-Angle Sections

Although Section F.4.2.1 of the AA 2020 is applicable to calculate the lateral-torsional buckling
slenderness ratio for shapes that are symmetric about the bending axis such as I-Shape, Channel,
and Double-Channel subjected to bending about major axis, it is limited to the cases in which the
transverse loads are applied on the top or bottom fiber of the section. Therefore, the program
utilizes the procedure described in Section F.4.2.5 of the AA 2020 to compute the slenderness
ratio for I-Shape, Channel, Double-Channel, Tee, and Double-Angle sections. This section is
applicable to any section shape other than Single Angle and includes the effects of location of
transverse load application.
The slenderness is
𝐸𝐸𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
𝜆𝜆 = 𝜋𝜋� (AA F4 8)
𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 𝑀𝑀𝑒𝑒
where
𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 2+
0.038𝐽𝐽𝐿𝐿2𝑏𝑏 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤
𝑀𝑀𝑒𝑒 = �𝑈𝑈 + �𝑈𝑈 + � (AA F. 4 9)
𝐿𝐿2𝑏𝑏 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦
𝛽𝛽
𝑈𝑈 = 𝐶𝐶1 𝑔𝑔0 + 𝐶𝐶2 𝑥𝑥 (AA F.4-10)
2
1
𝛽𝛽𝑥𝑥 = �� 𝑦𝑦 3 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � 𝑦𝑦𝑥𝑥 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑� − 2𝑦𝑦0 (AA F. 4 − 11)
𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴
𝑔𝑔0 is the distance from the shear center to the location of load application and is taken as a
positive value if the load acts away from the shear center and negative value as the load
acts towards the shear center.
𝑦𝑦0 is the 𝑦𝑦 -coordinate of the shear center
𝐽𝐽 is torsional constant
𝐶𝐶1 and 𝐶𝐶2 are taken as 0 and 1, respectively, if there are no transverse loads applied between
the ends of the unbraced segment. Otherwise, if there are transverse loads applied
between the ends of the unbraced segment, 𝐶𝐶1 and 𝐶𝐶2 are both taken to be 0.5 or
determined in specific cases as follows:
1. If 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 /𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 ≤ 0.1 or 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 /𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 ≥ 0.9, for I-shape section with larger top flange, Tee
section, and Double-Angle section under positive bending moment such that the top
flange is in compression, 𝐶𝐶1 and 𝐶𝐶2 are both taken to be 0. If the moment is negative
such that smaller flange of the I-shape section is in compression, or the flange of Tee
section or Double-Angle section is in tension, 𝐶𝐶1 = 0.41𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 and 𝐶𝐶2 = 0.47𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 .
2. If the member is simply supported singly symmetric shape with 0.1 < 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 /𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 < 0.9,
𝐶𝐶1 and 𝐶𝐶2 are calculated as follows:

a) For uniformly distributed load: 𝐶𝐶1 = 0.41𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 and 𝐶𝐶2 = 0.47𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 .

b) For a concentrated load applied at a distance 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 from one end of the span: 𝐶𝐶1 =
[𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋)] 𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 −𝐶𝐶1
𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 and 𝐶𝐶1 =
𝑎𝑎(1−𝑎𝑎)𝜋𝜋2 2
c) For two symmetric concentrated loads applied at a distance 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 from each end of
[𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋)] 𝐶𝐶
the span: 𝐶𝐶1 = 2𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 2 and 𝐶𝐶2 = (1 − 𝑎𝑎)𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 − 1
𝑎𝑎𝜋𝜋 2
3.6.3.3.3 Box, Pipe, and Circular Sections

𝐿𝐿𝑏𝑏 𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
𝜆𝜆 = 2.3� (AA F. 4 − 6)
𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 �𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝐽𝐽
3.6.3.3.4 Rectangular Section

2.3 𝑑𝑑𝐿𝐿𝑏𝑏
𝜆𝜆 = � (AA F. 4 − 7)
𝑡𝑡 𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏
𝑑𝑑 = dimension of the section in the plane of flexure
𝑡𝑡 = dimension of the section perpendicular to the plane of flexure
3.6.3.4 Interaction Between Local Buckling and Lateral-Torsional Buckling

The limit of the lateral-torsional buckling is calculated as:
1/3
⎡ ⎤
⎢ 𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸 ⎥
𝑀𝑀𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = ⎢ 2
⎥ 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒2/3 𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 (AA F. 4 − 13)
⎢ 𝐿𝐿𝑏𝑏 ⎥
⎢� � ⎥
⎣ 𝑟𝑟𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 �𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 ⎦
where 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒 is the elastic buckling stress of the flange of the section as calculated in Section 3.6.2.3
for flat element with one edge supported, and 𝑟𝑟𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 is:
𝐼𝐼22 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤 0.038𝐽𝐽𝐿𝐿2𝑏𝑏

𝑟𝑟𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 = � �𝑈𝑈 + �𝑈𝑈 2 + + �
𝑆𝑆33 𝐼𝐼22 𝐼𝐼22
The above equation to compute 𝑟𝑟𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 is slightly different than Equation F.4-5 in the AA 2020 as it
takes into account the effects of the location of transverse load application and monosymmetric
constant of the section. It can also be applied to section that is not symmetric about bending axis.
If the section is symmetric about bending axis and the transverse load is applied on the top or
bottom fiber of the section, the above equation would be reduced to the same form as shown in
Equation F.4-5 in the AA 2020.
3.6.3.5 Single-Angle Sections

With the availability of overwriting the effective length factor 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 and unbraced length ratio
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 for lateral-torsional buckling, along with special cases in which bending about geometric
axes is allowed in Section F.5.1(a), (b) and (c) of the AA 2020, it is of interest to conduct a
preliminary check and determine whether the element is considered fully lateral-torsionally
restrained. The procedure is described as below:

i. The elastic lateral-torsional buckling moment is determined according to equations AA

F.5-6 and AA F.5-5:
4 𝑡𝑡𝐶𝐶 2
⎧0.58𝐸𝐸𝑏𝑏2 𝑏𝑏 𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡
��1 + 0.88 � 𝑏𝑏2 � − 1� 𝑀𝑀𝑢𝑢33 ≥ 0 or leg tip in compression
⎪ 𝐿𝐿𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏
𝑀𝑀𝑒𝑒 =
⎨0.58𝐸𝐸𝑏𝑏4 𝑡𝑡𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡 2
⎪ 2 ��1 + 0.88 � 𝑏𝑏2 � + 1� 𝑀𝑀𝑢𝑢33 < 0 or leg tip in tension
⎩ 𝐿𝐿𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏
where 𝐿𝐿𝑏𝑏 = 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 . 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 has default value of 1.0 and 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 is taken as the length of
the member by default. These can be overwritten in the Overwrite form by the user.
ii. The slenderness ratio is then

𝐸𝐸𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
𝜆𝜆 = 𝜋𝜋� (F. 4 8)
𝑀𝑀𝑒𝑒
where 𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 is taken equal to 0.80 of the geometric section modulus.
iii. This slenderness ratio is compared with 𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑐 as described in Section F.4 of the AA 2020
and summarized as follow:
𝜆𝜆 < 𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑐 Inelastic buckling - bending about geometric axes
�
𝜆𝜆 ≥ 𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑐 Elastic buckling - bending about principal axes
If 𝜆𝜆 < 𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑐 and the limit state is inelastic buckling, it is also considered fully lateral-torsionally
restrained.
The program then determines the axes of bending as outlined below:
1. If the section is under compression, bending will be about principal axes. Section modulus
𝑆𝑆𝑐𝑐 will be calculated about principal axes.
2. If the section is not under compression, the condition of lateral-torsional restraint will be
examined:
a. If the member is fully lateral-torsionally restrained as determined previously, bending
will be geometric axes. Section modulus 𝑆𝑆𝑐𝑐 will be calculated about geometric axes.
b. If the member is not fully lateral-torsionally restrained, the leg dimensions will be
checked:
i. If the section has equal legs, bending will be about geometric axes. Section modulus
𝑆𝑆𝑐𝑐 will be 80% of that calculated about geometric axes.
ii. If the section has unequal legs, bending will be about principal axes. Section modulus
𝑆𝑆𝑐𝑐 will be calculated about principal axes.
Once the axes of bending are determined, the factored moments are re-calculated
correspondingly. The nominal flexural strength will be taken as the least of the strengths
calculated considering the limit states of yielding, local buckling, and lateral-torsional buckling
about the axes of bending and using the section modulus as determined above.
3.6.3.5.1 Yielding
𝑀𝑀𝑛𝑛 = 1.5𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦 = 1.5𝑆𝑆𝑐𝑐 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (AA F.5-1)
where 𝑆𝑆𝑐𝑐 is the section modulus about the considered axes of bending (principal, geometric,
or geometric with reduction as determined previously).

3.6.3.5.2 Local Buckling

The nominal flexural strength for the limit state of local buckling are given as follows:
Table 3-6 Lateral-Torsional Buckling Moment Capacity

Element Bending Direction/ Mn
λ1 λ2
Type Orientation λ≤ λ1 λ1 < λ < λ2 λ ≥ λ2
Positive/
Bending About Geometric
𝐵𝐵𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 − 1.5𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸𝑆𝑆𝑐𝑐

Leg tip is a point of 𝑏𝑏
1.5𝑆𝑆𝑐𝑐 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 �𝐵𝐵𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 − 4.0𝐷𝐷𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 � 𝑆𝑆𝑐𝑐 𝑏𝑏 2
maximum 4.0𝐷𝐷𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 4.0 𝑡𝑡 �4.0 �
𝑡𝑡
compression
Axes
Negative/ 𝐵𝐵𝑝𝑝 − 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸𝑆𝑆𝑐𝑐

𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝
Leg is in uniform 𝑆𝑆𝑐𝑐 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 �𝐵𝐵𝑝𝑝 − 5.0𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝 (𝑏𝑏⁄𝑡𝑡)�𝑆𝑆𝑐𝑐 𝑏𝑏 2
5.0𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝 5.0 �5.0 �
compression 𝑡𝑡
Principal axes
𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸𝑆𝑆𝑐𝑐
Bending
𝐵𝐵𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 − 1.5𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏

About
N/A 1.5𝑆𝑆𝑐𝑐 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 �𝐵𝐵𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 − 4.0𝐷𝐷𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 � 𝑆𝑆𝑐𝑐 𝑏𝑏 2

4.0𝐷𝐷𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 4.0 𝑡𝑡 �4.0 �
𝑡𝑡
where:
𝑆𝑆𝑐𝑐 = elastic section modulus about the axis of bending under consideration (principal,
geometric, or geometric with reduction as determined previously)
𝑡𝑡 = thickness of the leg under consideration
𝑏𝑏 = outside width of the leg under consideration.
In calculating the bending strengths for single-angle section in both principal axes, it is assumed
that either of the two tips (toes) is under compression.
3.6.3.5.3 Lateral-Torsional Buckling

The nominal flexure strength for the limit state of lateral-torsional buckling is given as:
𝑀𝑀
⎧�0.92 − 0.17 𝑒𝑒 � 𝑀𝑀𝑒𝑒 , if 𝑀𝑀𝑒𝑒 ≤ 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦 (AA F.5-2)
⎪ 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦
𝑀𝑀𝑛𝑛 =
⎨ 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦
⎪�1.92 − 1.17� 𝑀𝑀 � 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦 ≤ 1.3𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦 , if 𝑀𝑀𝑒𝑒 > 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦 (AA F.5-3)
𝑒𝑒
⎩
where 𝑀𝑀𝑒𝑒 is the elastic lateral-torsional buckling moment defined as follows:
If bending is about geometric axes and the member is fully lateral-torsionally restrained the value
of 𝑀𝑀𝑒𝑒 is given per equations AA F.5-4 and AA F.5-5:
4 𝑡𝑡𝐶𝐶 2
⎧0.73𝐸𝐸𝑏𝑏2 𝑏𝑏 𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡
��1 + 0.88 � 𝑏𝑏2 � − 1� 𝑀𝑀𝑢𝑢33 ≥ 0 or leg tip in compression
⎪ 𝐿𝐿𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏
𝑀𝑀𝑒𝑒 =
⎨0.73𝐸𝐸𝑏𝑏4 𝑡𝑡𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡 2
⎪ 2 ��1 + 0.88 � 𝑏𝑏2 � + 1� 𝑀𝑀𝑢𝑢33 < 0 or leg tip in tension
⎩ 𝐿𝐿𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏

If bending is about geometric axes and the member is not lateral-torsionally restrained, for equal-
leg angles, 𝑀𝑀𝑒𝑒 is give per equations AA F.5-6 and AA F.5-7 as:
⎧0.58𝐸𝐸𝑏𝑏 4 𝑡𝑡𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 𝐿𝐿𝑏𝑏 𝑡𝑡 2
⎪ � � 1 + 0.88 � � − 1� 𝑀𝑀𝑢𝑢33 ≥ 0 or leg tip in compression
⎪ 𝐿𝐿2𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏 2
𝑀𝑀𝑒𝑒 =
⎨
0.58𝐸𝐸𝑏𝑏 4 𝑡𝑡𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 𝐿𝐿𝑏𝑏 𝑡𝑡 2
⎪
⎪ �
� 1 + 0.88 � 2 � + 1� 𝑀𝑀𝑢𝑢33 < 0 or leg tip in tension
𝐿𝐿2𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏
⎩
If bending is about principal axes, 𝑀𝑀𝑒𝑒 is given per equations AA F.5-8 as:
9𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑧𝑧 𝑡𝑡𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 𝛽𝛽𝑤𝑤 𝑟𝑟𝑧𝑧 2 𝛽𝛽𝑤𝑤 𝑟𝑟𝑧𝑧
𝑀𝑀𝑒𝑒 = ��1 + �4.4 � + 4.4 �
8𝐿𝐿𝑏𝑏 𝐿𝐿𝑏𝑏 𝑡𝑡 𝐿𝐿𝑏𝑏 𝑡𝑡
where:
𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 = lateral-torsional buckling modification factor for nonuniform moment diagram. It is
computed using equation AISC F1-1. A limit on 𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 is imposed (𝐶𝐶𝑏𝑏 ≤ 1.5) in the
program (AA F.5).
𝐿𝐿𝑏𝑏 = laterally unbraced length of the member. It is taken equal to 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 in the program,
in. (mm).
𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧 = minor principal axis moment of inertia, in.4 (mm4),
𝑟𝑟𝑧𝑧 = radius of gyration for the minor principal axis, in. (mm),
𝑡𝑡 = angle leg thickness, in. (mm). It is taken as 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚�𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤 , 𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓 �
𝛽𝛽𝑤𝑤 = a section property for unequal-legged angles. It is given as follows:
1
𝛽𝛽𝑤𝑤 = � 𝑧𝑧(𝑤𝑤 2 + 𝑧𝑧 2 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 2𝑧𝑧0 (AA F. 5 − 9)
𝐼𝐼𝑤𝑤 𝐴𝐴
𝛽𝛽𝑤𝑤 is positive for short leg in compression, negative for long leg in compression, and
zero for equal-leg angles. If the long leg is in compression anywhere along the
unbraced length of the member, the negative value of 𝛽𝛽𝑤𝑤 should be used (AA F.5.2).
It is conservatively taken as negative for unequal-leg angles.
𝑧𝑧 = coordinate along the minor principal axis
𝑤𝑤 = coordinate along the major principal axis
𝑧𝑧0 = coordinate of the shear center along the z-axis with respect to the centroid
𝐼𝐼𝑤𝑤 = major principal axis moment of inertia
𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧 = minor principal axis moment of inertia.
In the preceding equation, 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦 is taken as the yield moment about the major principal axis of
bending, considering the possibility of yielding at the heel and both of the leg tips.
The nominal flexural strength for bending about the minor principal axis for the limit state of
lateral-torsional buckling is not needed because the limit state of lateral-torsional buckling does
not apply for minor axis bending.

3.6.4 Nominal Shear Strength

The nominal shear strengths are calculated for shears along the geometric axes for all sections.
For I-Shape, Box, Channel, Double Channel, T-Shape, Double Angle, Pipe, Circular and
Rectangular sections, the principal axes coincide with their geometric axes. For Angle sections,
principal axes do not coincide with their geometric axes.
In calculating nominal strength for shear, 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 , it is assumed that there are no intermediate stiffeners
used to enhance shear strength of a section. The program calculates shear strengths considering
the limit states of shear yielding and buckling, and shear rupture. And the nominal shear strength
is the lower of the shear capacity by the limit states.
𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛
The design shear strength, 𝜙𝜙𝑣𝑣 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 , and the allowable shear strength, , are determined using the
𝛺𝛺𝑣𝑣
following factors.
For the limit state of shear yielding and shear buckling:

𝜙𝜙𝑣𝑣 = 0.90 (LRFD) (AA G.1)
𝛺𝛺𝑣𝑣 = 1.65 (ASD) (AA G.1)
For the limit state of shear rupture:

𝜙𝜙𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 0.75 (LRFD) (AA G.1)
𝛺𝛺𝑣𝑣 = 1.95 (ASD) (AA G.1)
3.6.4.1 Shear Rupture

The nominal shear strength 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 is computed as
𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛 I, Channel, Double-Channel, Tee, Angle, Double-Angle, Box
⎧
𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡 Rectangular, Circular, General
𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 =
⎨𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛 Pipe
⎩ 2𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡
where 𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛 is the net area of the web parallel to the direction of applied shear.
For pipe section:

𝜋𝜋(𝐷𝐷𝑜𝑜2 − 𝐷𝐷𝑖𝑖2 )
𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛 =
4
where 𝐷𝐷𝑜𝑜 and 𝐷𝐷𝑖𝑖 are outside and inside diameter of the pipe, respectively
For circular section:

𝜋𝜋𝐷𝐷2
𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛 =
4
where 𝐷𝐷 is the diameter of the circular section.
3.6.4.2 Shear Yielding and Buckling

For the limit state of shear yielding and shear buckling, the nominal shear strength 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 is calculated
as
𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 = 𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣 (AA G.1-1)

where 𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣 is the shear area that is computed as the product of the web thickness and full depth of
the section, and parallel to the direction of applied shear.
For pipe section:

𝜋𝜋(𝐷𝐷𝑜𝑜2 − 𝐷𝐷𝑖𝑖2 )
𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣 = (AA G. 4 − 3)
8
And 𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠 is determined as shown in Table 3-7 below:
Table 3-7 Shear Stress Capacity of Individual Elements

Element Fs
λ λ1 λ2
Type λ ≤ λ1 λ1 < λ < λ2 λ ≥ λ2
Supported on
Flat Element
𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸
One Edge
𝐵𝐵𝑠𝑠 − 𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 𝑏𝑏

𝑏𝑏/𝑡𝑡 𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐵𝐵𝑠𝑠 − 3.0𝐷𝐷𝑠𝑠 𝑏𝑏 2
3.0𝐷𝐷𝑠𝑠 3.0 𝑡𝑡 �3.0 �
𝑡𝑡
Supported on
Flat Element
𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸
Both Edges
𝐵𝐵𝑠𝑠 − 𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 𝑏𝑏

𝑏𝑏/𝑡𝑡 𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐵𝐵𝑠𝑠 − 1.25𝐷𝐷𝑠𝑠 𝑏𝑏 2
1.25𝐷𝐷𝑠𝑠 1.25 𝑡𝑡 �1.25 �
𝑡𝑡
Pipe Section
𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 5/8 𝐿𝐿𝑣𝑣 1/4 1.3𝐵𝐵𝑠𝑠 − 𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 1.3𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸

2.9 � � � � 𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 1.3𝐵𝐵𝑠𝑠 − 1.63𝐷𝐷𝑠𝑠 𝜆𝜆
𝑡𝑡 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 1.63𝐷𝐷𝑠𝑠 1.25 (1.25𝜆𝜆1 )2
Circular,
General
Section
N/A N/A N/A 𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
In Table 3-7, 𝑏𝑏 is determined similar to that defined in Table 3-2 for all sections but with the fillet
weld ignored. For example, with I-shaped section, 𝑏𝑏 of the web would be calculated by
subtracting the section height by the thickness of the top and bottom flanges. 𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 is taken as
0.6𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 where 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 is the tensile yield stress of material. 𝐿𝐿𝑣𝑣 is taken as the full length of the member,
which would result in slightly more conservative shear design.
Rectangular section is also considered as flat element supported on one edge for shear design.

3.7 Design of Members for Combined Forces

Previous sections of this design manual address members subject to only one type of force,
namely axial tension, axial compression, flexure or shear. This section addresses the design of
members subject to a combination of two or more of the individual forces.
In the calculation of the demand/capacity (D/C) ratios, first, for each station along the length of
the member, the actual member force/moment components are calculated for each design
combination. Then, the corresponding capacities are calculated. Then, the D/C ratios are
calculated at each station for each member under the influence of each of the design
combinations. The controlling D/C ratio is then obtained, along with the associated station and
design combination. A D/C ratio greater than the D/C ratio limit (whose default value is 1.0)
indicates exceeding a limit state.
During the design, the effect of the presence of bolts or welds is not considered.
3.7.1 Members Subjected to Flexure and Axial Force

The D/C ratio for member subjected to flexure and axial force is
𝑃𝑃 𝑀𝑀33 𝑀𝑀22
� + + � ≤ 1.0 (AA H. 1 − 1)
𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛 𝑀𝑀𝑛𝑛33 𝑀𝑀𝑛𝑛33
where:
𝑃𝑃 = applied axial force (tension or compression)
𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐 = axial capacity as determined in Section 3.5.1 or 3.5.2 for tension or compression,
respectively
𝑀𝑀33 or 𝑀𝑀22 = applied moment on major or minor axis of bending, respectively
𝑀𝑀𝑛𝑛33 or 𝑀𝑀𝑛𝑛22 = moment capacity as determined in Section 3.5.3 on major or minor axis
of bending, respectively
3.7.2 Members Subjected to Flexure, Shear and Axial Compression

The interaction of flexure, shear, and axial compression for member with I-Shape, Channel,
Double-Channel, Tee, Angle, Double-Angle, Box, or Rectangular section is given by:
𝑃𝑃 𝑀𝑀33 2 𝑀𝑀22 2 𝑉𝑉2 2 𝑉𝑉3 2
+� � +� � + � � + � � ≤ 1.0 (AA H. 3 − 1 or H. 3 − 2)
𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛 𝑀𝑀𝑛𝑛33 𝑀𝑀𝑛𝑛22 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛2 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛3
and for members with Pipe sections:

𝑃𝑃 𝑀𝑀33 2 𝑀𝑀22 2 𝑉𝑉2 2 𝑉𝑉3 2
+ �� +� � + � � + � � ≤ 1.0 (AA H. 3 − 3 or H. 3 − 4)
𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛 𝑀𝑀𝑛𝑛33 𝑀𝑀𝑛𝑛22 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛2 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛3
where, 𝑃𝑃 and 𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛 are the required and available axial strength; 𝑀𝑀 and 𝑀𝑀𝑛𝑛 are required and available
flexural strength; 𝑉𝑉 and 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 are required and available shear strength, respectively.
The form of the equation to calculate the D/C ratio for combined loads presented above is slightly
different than those in the AA 2020. They are shown here in required and available strengths
rather than stresses in the AA 2020. Nonetheless the results are expected to be the same as both
required and available stresses are obtained by dividing both required and available strengths by
cross-section area, section modulus, or shear area for axial, flexure, or shear, respectively.
Design of Members for Combined Forces 40

APPENDICES
Appendix A
P-Delta Effects
Modern design provisions are based on the principle that the member forces are
calculated by a second-order elastic analysis, where the equilibrium is satisfied
on the deformed geometry of the structure. The effects of the loads acting on the
deformed geometry of the structure are known as the second-order or the P-Delta
effects.
The P-Delta effects come from two sources: global lateral translation of the
frame and the local deformation of members within the frame.
Consider the frame object shown in Figure A-1, which is extracted from a story
level of a larger structure. The overall global translation of this frame object is
indicated by ∆. The local deformation of the member is shown as δ. The total
second order P-Delta effects on this frame object are those caused by both ∆ and
δ.
The program has an option to consider P-Delta effects in the analysis. When you
consider P-Delta effects in the analysis, the program does a good job of capturing
the effect due to the ∆ deformation (P-∆ effect) shown in Figure
B-1, but it does not typically capture the effect of the δ deformation (P-δ
effect), unless, in the model, the frame object is broken into multiple elements
over its length.
Appendix A - 42
Appendix A – P-Delta Effects
∆
Original position of frame
element shown by vertical
line δ
Final deflected position of the
frame element that includes the
global lateral translation, ∆, and
the local deformation of the
Position of frame element
element, δ
as a result of global lateral
translation, ∆, shown by
dashed line
δ
Figure A-1 𝑃𝑃 − 𝛥𝛥 and 𝑃𝑃 − 𝛿𝛿 effects
In design codes, required strengths are usually required to be determined using

a second-order analysis that considers both P-∆ and P-δ effects. Approximate
second-order analysis procedures based on amplification of responses from
first-order analysis for calculating the required flexural and axial strengths are
common in current design codes but are not specified in the Aluminum Design
Manual 2020. Therefore, second-order analysis considering both P-∆ and P-δ
effects should be run (the program has the capability of performing this rigorous
second-order analysis) before the aluminum frame design is carried out. In this
case, the required strengths are determined directly from the analysis results.
To properly model the P-δ effect in a finite element analysis, each element,
especially column elements, must be broken into multiple finite elements.
Although a single element per member can capture the P-δ effect to some extent,
the program considers that inadequate. For practical reasons, the software
internally divides the column elements into two members. The user must provide
Appendix A - 43
Appendix A – P-Delta Effects
additional subdivisions where a column is expected to have multiple inflection

points.
In general, aluminum frame design requires consideration of P-Delta effects in

the analysis before the check/design is performed. Although two elements per
line object are generally adequate to model the P-∆ effect, it is recommended to
use more than two elements per line object for the cases where both P-∆ and P-
δ effects are to be considered for a member having multiple points of inflection.
However, explicit manual breaking of the member into elements has other
consequences related to member end moments and unbraced segment end
moment. It is recommended that the members be broken internally by the
program. In this way, the member is recognized as one unit, ends of the members
are identified properly, and P-∆ and P-δ effects are modeled better.
Appendix A - 44
Appendix B
Interactive Aluminum Frame Design
The Interactive Aluminum Frame Design command is a powerful mode that

allows the user to review the design results for any aluminum frame design and
interactively revise the design assumptions and immediately review the revised
results.
Note that a design must have been run for the interactive design mode to be
available. With the design results displayed, right click on a frame object to
display the Aluminum Stress Check Information form for the member. Click on
the Overwrites button to display the Design Overwrites form, where the
member section or other design parameters may be changed. Clicking OK on
this form results in an immediate updating of the results displayed on the
Aluminum Stress Check Information form.
Appendix B - 45

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Aluminum Frame

ISO SAP010122M50 Rev. 0

Copyright  Computers and Structures, Inc., 1978-2022

No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any

Further information and copies of this documentation may be obtained from:

Computers and Structures, Inc.

[email protected] (for general information)

CONSIDERABLE TIME, EFFORT AND EXPENSE HAVE GONE INTO THE

THIS PRODUCT IS A PRACTICAL AND POWERFUL TOOL FOR STRUCTURAL

THE INFORMATION PRODUCED BY THE SOFTWARE MUST BE CHECKED BY

1.1 Load Combinations and Notional Loads 1

1.2 Stress Check 2

1.3 Direct Analysis Method 2

1.4 Non-Automated Items in Aluminum Frame Design 2

2.1 Check Capability 4

2.2 Check Stations 5

2.3 Demand/Capacity Ratios 5

2.4 Design Load Combinations 6

2.5 Second Order P-Delta Effects 6

2.6 Analysis Methods 7

2.7 Notional Load Patterns 7

2.8 Member Unsupported Lengths 8

2.9 Effects of Breaking a Member into Multiple Elements 9

2.10 Effective Length Factor (K) 10

2.11 Choice of Units 12

3.2 Design Loading Combinations 17

3.3 Buckling Constants 18

3.4 Strength of Elements for Local Buckling 20

3.5 Calculation of Factored Forces and Moments 24

3.6 Calculation of Nominal Strengths 24

3.7 Design of Members for Combined Forces 40

Appendix A P-Delta Effects 42

Appendix B Interactive Aluminum Frame Design 45

1.1 Load Combinations and Notional Loads

Load Combinations and Notional Loads 1

1.2 Stress Check

The implementation covers loading and load combinations from “ASCE/SEI

1.3 Direct Analysis Method

1.4 Non-Automated Items in Aluminum Frame Design

2.1 Check Capability

• Lateral-torsional buckling flexural strength for bending about minor axis

• All strengths of welded members

• All strengths of elements with stiffeners

2.2 Check Stations

2.3 Demand/Capacity Ratios

2.4 Design Load Combinations

2.5 Second Order P-Delta Effects

Design Load Combinations 6

2.6 Analysis Methods

2.7 Notional Load Patterns

2.8 Member Unsupported Lengths

Member Unsupported Lengths 8

Figure 2-2 Unsupported lengths 𝒍𝒍𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 and 𝒍𝒍𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐

2.9 Effects of Breaking a Member into Multiple Elements

Effects of Breaking a Member into Multiple Elements 9

2.10 Effective Length Factor (K)

The rest of this section is dedicated to the determination of K factors.

Effective Length Factor (K) 10

𝐸𝐸𝑐𝑐 𝐼𝐼𝑐𝑐 𝐸𝐸𝑏𝑏 𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏