MODULE-II

PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY OF EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS

STURCTURE
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Components of Language
2.3 Language Development
2.4 Language and the Human Brain
2.5 Thinking
2.6 Building Blocks of Thought
2.7 Types of Thinking
2.8 Development of Thinking:
2.9 Tools of Thinking:
2.10 Problem Solving
2.11 The Steps in Problem-Solving
2.12 Role of Brain in thinking and Problem Solving
2.13 Summary
2.14 Questions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

 To know the development of language and its relationship with the human brain.
 To know how to utilize our cognitive abilities in day to day functioning.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Language is a communication system that involves using words and systematic rules to organize
those words to transmit information from one individual to another. While language is a form of
communication, not all communication is language. Many species communicate with one another through
their postures, movements, odors, or vocalizations. This communication is crucial for species that need to
interact and develop social relationships with their conspecifics. However, many people have asserted that
it is language that makes humans unique among all of the animal species (Corballis & Suddendorf, 2007;
Tomasello & Rakoczy, 2003). This section will focus on what distinguishes language as a special form of
communication, how the use of language develops, and how language affects the way we think.

2.2 COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE

Language, be it spoken, signed, or written, has specific components: a lexicon and grammar.
Lexicon refers to the words of a given language. Thus, lexicon is a language’s vocabulary. Grammar
refers to the set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use of the lexicon (Fernández &
Cairns, 2011). For instance, English grammar dictates that most verbs receive an “-ed” at the end to
indicate past tense.
Words are formed by combining the various phonemes that make up the language. A phoneme (e.g., the
sounds “ah” vs. “eh”) is a basic sound unit of a given language, and different languages have different
sets of phonemes. Phonemes are combined to form morphemes, which are the smallest units of language
that convey some type of meaning (e.g., “I” is both a phoneme and a morpheme).

We use semantics and syntax to construct language. Semantics and syntax are part of a language’s
grammar. Semantics refers to the process by which we derive meaning from morphemes and words.
Syntax refers to the way words are organized into sentences (Chomsky, 1965; Fernández & Cairns,
2011).

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We apply the rules of grammar to organize the lexicon in novel and creative ways, which allow us to
communicate information about both concrete and abstract concepts. We can talk about our immediate
and observable surroundings as well as the surface of unseen planets. We can share our innermost
thoughts, our plans for the future, and debate the value of a college education. We can provide detailed
instructions for cooking a meal, fixing a car, or building a fire. The flexibility that language provides to
relay vastly different types of information is a property that makes language as distinct as a mode of
communication among humans.

2.3 ANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

Given the remarkable complexity of a language, one might expect that mastering a language
would be an especially arduous task; indeed, for those of us trying to learn a second language as adults,
this might seem to be true. However, young children master language very quickly with relative ease. B.
F. Skinner (1957) proposed that language is learned through reinforcement. Noam Chomsky (1965)
criticized this behaviorist approach, asserting instead that the mechanisms underlying language
acquisition are biologically determined.

The use of language develops in the absence of formal instruction and appears to follow a very similar
pattern in children from vastly different cultures and backgrounds. It would seem, therefore, that we are
born with a biological predisposition to acquire a language (Chomsky, 1965; Fernández & Cairns, 2011).
Moreover, it appears that there is a critical period for language acquisition, such that this proficiency at
acquiring language is maximal early in life; generally, as people age, the ease with which they acquire
and master new languages diminishes (Johnson & Newport, 1989; Lenneberg, 1967; Singleton, 1995).

Children begin to learn about language from a very early age (Table 1). In fact, it appears that this is
occurring even before we are born. Newborns show preference for their mother’s voice and appear to be
able to discriminate between the language spoken by their mother and other languages. Babies are also
attuned to the languages being used around them and show preferences for videos of faces that are
moving in synchrony with the audio of spoken language versus videos that do not synchronize with the
audio (Blossom & Morgan, 2006; Pickens, 1994; Spelke & Cortelyou, 1981).

After the first few months of life, babies enter what is known as the babbling stage, during which time
they tend to produce single syllables that are repeated over and over. As time passes, more variations
appear in the syllables that they produce. During this time, it is unlikely that the babies are trying to
communicate; they are just as likely to babble when they are alone as when they are with their caregivers
(Fernández & Cairns, 2011). Interestingly, babies who are raised in environments in which sign language

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is used will also begin to show babbling in the gestures of their hands during this stage (Petitto, Holowka,
Sergio, Levy, & Ostry, 2004).

Generally, a child’s first word is uttered sometime between the ages of 1 year to 18 months, and for the
next few months, the child will remain in the “one word” stage of language development. During this
time, children know a number of words, but they only produce one-word utterances. The child’s early
vocabulary is limited to familiar objects or events, often nouns. Although children in this stage only make
one-word utterances, these words often carry larger meaning (Fernández & Cairns, 2011). So, for
example, a child saying “cookie” could be identifying a cookie or asking for a cookie.
As a child’s lexicon grows, she begins to utter simple sentences and to acquire new vocabulary at a very
rapid pace. In addition, children begin to demonstrate a clear understanding of the specific rules that
apply to their language(s). Even the mistakes that children sometimes make provide evidence of just how
much they understand about those rules. This is sometimes seen in the form of overgeneralization. In this
context, overgeneralization refers to an extension of a language rule to an exception to the rule. For
example, in English, it is usually the case that an “s” is added to the end of a word to indicate plurality.
For example, we speak of one dog versus two dogs. Young children will overgeneralize this rule to cases
that are exceptions to the “add an s to the end of the word” rule and say things like “those two gooses” or
“three mouses.” Clearly, the rules of the language are understood, even if the exceptions to the rules are
still being learned (Moskowitz, 1978).

The first 3 years of life, when the brain is developing and maturing, is the most intensive period for
acquiring speech and language skills. These skills develop best in a world that is rich with sounds, sights,
and consistent exposure to the speech and language of others.
There appear to be critical periods for speech and language development in infants and young children
when the brain is best able to absorb language. If these critical periods are allowed to pass without
exposure to language, it will be more difficult to learn.

What are the milestones for speech and language development?

The first signs of communication occur when an infant learns that a cry will bring food, comfort, and
companionship. Newborns also begin to recognize important sounds in their environment, such as the
voice of their mother or primary caretaker. As they grow, babies begin to sort out the speech sounds that
compose the words of their language. By 6 months of age, most babies recognize the basic sounds of their
native language.

Children vary in their development of speech and language skills. However, they follow a natural
progression or timetable for mastering the skills of language. A checklist of milestones for the normal
development of speech and language skills in children from birth to 5 years of age is included below.
These milestones help doctors and other health professionals determine if a child is on track or if he or
she may need extra help. Sometimes a delay may be caused by hearing loss, while other times it may be
due to a speech or language disorder.

2.4 LANGUAGE AND THE HUMAN BRAIN

The human brain is divided into two hemispheres. The left hemisphere is the "logical brain" and is
involved in language and analysis and the right hemisphere is the "creative brain," involved in
daydreaming and imagination. The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body while the right
hemisphere controls the left side.

The earliest research on speech and language centers of the brain dates back to the early nineteenth
century. Physicians noted that brain-injured patients with damage to the left hemisphere would lose power
of speech and language abilities, while those with injuries to the right hemisphere did not lose this ability.
Recent studies have shown that in around 97% of people, language is represented in the left hemisphere.
However, in about 19% of left-handed people, the areas responsible for language are in the right

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hemisphere and as many as 68% of them have some language abilities in both the left and the right
hemispheres.

Determination of language areas

A procedure called cortical stimulation mapping is a technique that is used to analyze regions of
the brain that are related to speech. On performing brain surgery to treat epilepsy or remove tumors for
example, electrical stimulation of speech-related areas in the cortex prevents the patient from being able
to name things that are shown to them and may also prevent their ability to produce grammatically
coherent sentences. When such a site is identified, it is spared, since damaging these areas could cause a
temporary or permanent loss of speech.

Neural networks in the brain

Neural networks are established over time as an individual learns and experiences things.
Language and speech skills are therefore acquired after birth. The human genome codes for the speech
ability that will evolve as the brain is trained.

Speech and language brain regions

The visual cortex is the part of the cerebral cortex that is responsible for processing visual
information.
The auditory cortex in the cerebral cortex processes auditory information and as part of the sensory
system for hearing performs both basic and higher hearing functions.

Wernicke's area is an area in the cerebral cortex related to speech and is involved in both spoken and
written language. This area was named after Carl Wernicke, a German neurologist who discovered that
the area is related to how words and syllables are pronounced.

Broca's area is an area in the frontal lobe of the brain that is related to the production of speech. The area
is named after Pierre Paul Broca who noticed an impaired ability to produce speech in two patients who
had sustained injury to the region.

2.5 THINKING

Cognitive abilities like thinking, reasoning and problem-solving may be considered to be some of
the chief characteristics which distinguish human beings from other species including the higher animals.
The challenges and problems faced by the individual or by society, in general are solved through series of
efforts involving thinking and reasoning. The powers of thinking and reasoning may thus be considered to
be the essential tools for the welfare and meaningful existence of the individual as well as society.

Thinking is the base of all cognitive activities or processes and is unique to human beings. It involves
manipulation and analysis of information received from the environment. For example, while seeing a
painting, you are not simply focusing on the colour of the painting or the lines and strokes, rather you are
going beyond the given text in interpreting its meaning and you are trying to relate the information to
your existing knowledge. Understanding of the painting involves creation of new meaning that is added to
your knowledge. Thinking, therefore, is a higher mental process through which we manipulate and
analyse the acquired or existing information. Such manipulation and analysis occur by means of
abstracting, reasoning, imagining, problem solving, judging, and decision-making.

Thinking is mostly organised and goal directed. All day-to-day activities, ranging from cooking to solving
a math problem have a goal. One desires to reach the goal by planning, recalling the steps that one has
already followed in the past if the task is familiar or inferring strategies if the task is new.

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Thinking is an internal mental process, which can be inferred from overt behaviour. If you see a chess
player engrossed in thinking for several minutes before making a move, you cannot observe what he is
thinking. You can simply infer what he was thinking or what strategies he was trying to evaluate, from his
next move.

2.6 BUILDING BLOCKS OF THOUGHT

We already know that thinking relies on knowledge we already possess. Such knowledge is
represented either in the form of mental images or words. People usually think by means of mental
images or words. Suppose you are travelling by road to reach a place, which you had visited long back.
You would try to use the visual representation of the street and other places. On the other hand, when you
want to buy a storybook your choice would depend upon your knowledge about different authors, themes,
etc. Here, your thinking is based on words or concepts. We shall first discuss mental image and then
move on to concepts as the base of human thought.

Mental Image
Suppose, I ask you to imagine a cat sitting on a tree with its tail slightly raised and curved. You
would most likely try to form a visual image of the whole situation; something similar to what the girl in
the picture is doing (Fig.8.1). Or think of another situation where you are asked to imagine yourself
standing in front of the Taj Mahal and describe what you see.

The Girl forming a Mental Image

While doing this you are actually forming a visual image of the event. You are probably trying to see
through your mind’s eye, just like the way you would see a picture. Why is it useful to draw a map while
giving directions to someone? Try to remember your earlier experience in reading a map, remembering
the different places and subsequently locating them in a physical map in your examination. In doing this,
you were mostly forming and using mental images. An image is a mental representation of a sensory
experience; it can be used to think about things, places, and events. You can try out Activity, which
demonstrates how images are formed.

Activity
Give a map, like the following in to your friend to observe for 2 minutes and tell her/him that later
on s/he will be asked to locate the marked places in a blank map. Then present a map, like the one in
Fig.8.2b, with no indications of the different places. Ask your friend to locate the places s/he has seen in
the first map. Then ask how s/he was able to locate the places. S/he will probably be able to tell you the
way s/he formed an image of the whole situation.

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 A Map Showing Places

A Blank Map up Side Down

Concepts
How do you know that a lion is not a bird but a parrot is? You have already read this in Chapter 7.
Whenever we come across an object or event familiar or unfamiliar, we try to identify the object or event
by extracting its characteristics, matching it with the already existing category of objects and events. For
example, when we see an apple, we categorise it as fruit, when we see a table we categorise it as
furniture, when we see a dog we categorise it as an animal, and so on. When we see a new object, we try
to look for its characteristics, match them with characteristics of an existing category, and if matching is
perfect we give it the name of that category.

For example, while walking on the road you come across an unfamiliar quadruped of a very small size,
with a face like a dog, wagging its tail and barking at strangers. You would no doubt identify it as a dog
and probably think that it is of a new breed, which you have never seen before. You would also conclude
that it would bite strangers. A concept thus, is a mental representation of a category. It refers to a class of
objects, ideas or events that share common properties.

Why do we need to form concepts? Concept formation helps us in organising our knowledge so that
whenever we need to access our knowledge, we can do it with less time and effort. It is something similar
to what we do to organise our things at home. Children, who are very systematic and organised, put their
things such as books, note books, pen, pencil, and other accessories in specific places in their cupboard,
so that in the morning, they don’t have to struggle to find a particular book or the geometry box.

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In the library too you have seen books organised as per subject areas and labelled so that you would be
able to find them quickly with less effort. Thus, for making our thought process quick and efficient, we
form concepts and categorise objects and events. You can find out how children form concepts by doing
activity.

Activity
Take a piece of cardboard and cut triangles, circles, and squares of three different sizes each,
small, medium and large. Then colour them yellow. Similarly prepare a second set and colour them green
and a third set and colour them red. Now you have a set of 27 cards varying in shape, size, and colour.
Ask a child of five to six years of age to group the similar cards together if you will try the above activity
with a group of small children, you will observe that there are a number of ways in which the child would
respond. S/he would pile them up into different groups based on:
 Size: all small triangles, squares, and circles together, all medium sized together, and so
on.
 shape: all triangles together, all circles together, and so on
 colour: all reds together, all yellows together, and so on
 Both size and shape: all small triangles together, all medium triangles together, and so on.
 size, shape and color: all small circles of red colour together, all medium circles of yellow
colour together, and so on
Concepts usually fall into hierarchies or levels of understanding. The levels are classified as superordinate
(the highest level), basic (an intermediate level), and subordinate (the lowest level). While speaking us
mostly use basic level concepts. When a person says, “I saw a dog” a basic level is used. Such a statement
is much more likely to be made than “I saw a four legged animal that barks and wags its tail” or “an
animal”. The first (subordinate) is far too specific than is needed for conversation, while the second
(superordinate) is far too vague to convey the intended message. Children also learn basic level concepts
first and then the other levels.

Most of the concepts people use in thinking is neither clear nor unambiguous. They are fuzzy. They
overlap one another and are often poorly defined. For example, under which category would you put a
small stool? Would you put it under the category of ‘chair’ or under the category of ‘table’? The answer
to these questions is that we construct a model or prototype. A prototype is the best representative
member of the category. Eleanor Rosch argues that in considering how people think about concepts,
prototypes are often involved in real life. In prototype matching, people decide whether an item is a
member of a category by comparing it with the most typical item(s) of the category.

2.7 TYPES OF THINKING:

Thinking can be classified as follows:

1. Perceptual or Concrete Thinking:
This is the simplest form of thinking the basis of this type is perception, i.e. interpretation of sensation
according to one’s experience. It is also called concrete thinking as it is carried out on the perception of
actual or concrete objects and events.

2. Conceptual or Abstract Thinking:

Here one makes use of concepts, the generalized objects and languages; it is regarded as being superior to
perceptual thinking as it economizes efforts in understanding and problem-solving.

3. Reflective Thinking:
This type of thinking aims in solving complex problems, thus it requires reorganization of all the relevant
experiences to a situation or removing obstacles instead of relating with that experiences or ideas.
This is an insightful cognitive approach in reflective thinking as the mental activity here does not involve
the mechanical trial and error type of efforts.

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In this type, thinking processes take all the relevant facts arranged in a logical order into an account in
order to arrive at a solution of the problem.

4. Creative Thinking:
This type of thinking is associated with one’s ability to create or construct something new, novel or
unusual. It looks for new relationships and associations to describe and interpret the nature of things,
events and situations. Here the individual himself usually formulates the evidences and tools for its
solution. For example; scientists, artists or inventors.

Skinner, the famous psychologist says creative thinking means that the prediction and inferences for the
individual are new, original, ingenious and unusual. The creative thinker is one who expresses new ideas
and makes new observations, new predictions and new inferences.

Characteristics of Creative Thinking:

 Creative thinking, in all its shapes and forms is absolutely an internal mental process and hence
should be considered as an important component of one’s cognitive behaviour.
 Every one of us is capable of creative thinking and hence it is a universal phenomenon.
 Creative thinking results in the production of something new or novel including a new form of
arrangement of old elements.
 Creative thinking in all its dimensions involve divergent thinking instead of the routine and final
types of convergent thinking. The mind must have complete freedom to wander around to create a
new idea.
 The field of creative thinking and its out part is quite comprehensive and built wide. It covers all
the aspects of human accomplishments belonging to an individual’s life.

5. Critical Thinking:
It is a type of thinking that helps a person in stepping aside from his own personal beliefs,
prejudices and opinions to sort out the faiths and discover the truth, even at the expense of his basic belief
system.

Here one resorts to set higher cognitive abilities and skills for the proper interpretation, analysis,
evaluation and inference, as well as explanation of the gathered or communicated information resulting in
a purposeful unbiased and self-regulatory judgment.

An ideal thinker is habitually inquisitive, well-informed, open-minded, flexible, fair-minded in

evaluation, free from personal bias and prejudices, honest in seeking relevant information, skilled in the
proper use of the abilities like interpretation, analysis, synthesis, evaluation and drawing conclusion and
inferences, etc.

The critical thinking is of a higher order well-disciplined thought process which involves the use of
cognitive skills like conceptualization, interpretation, analysis, synthesis and evaluation for arriving at an
unbiased, valid and reliable judgment of the gathered or communicated information or data as a guide to
one’s belief and action.

6. Non-directed or Associative Thinking:

There are times when we find ourselves engaged in a unique type of thinking which is non-directed and
without goal. It is reflected through dreaming and other free-flowing uncontrolled activities.
Psychologically these forms of thought are termed as associative thinking.

Here day-dreaming, fantasy and delusions all fall in the category of withdrawal behaviour that helps an
individual to escape from the demands of the real world by making his thinking face non-directed and
floating, placing him somewhere, ordering something unconnected with his environment.

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We hear there is nothing seriously abnormal in behaviour involving day-dreaming and fantasy but
behaviour involving delusions definitely points towards abnormality.
A person under the influence of such delusions may think or believe that he is a millionaire, the ruler of
the universe, a great inventor, a noted historian or even God. In contrast, a person in the grip of delusion
may be inclined to be the most incapable, unworthy and unwanted person and may develop guilt feelings
or complain that he is the victim of some incurable physical or mental diseases.

2.8 DEVELOPMENT OF THINKING:

Thinking is one of the most important aspects of learning process. Our ability to learn and solve
the problems depends upon our ability to think correctly which helps us in adjustment and is necessary for
a successful living.

Only those men who can think distinctly, constructively and carefully can very much contribute
something worthwhile to the society.
As no person is born-thinker, one has to acquire knowledge of technique and practice of proper thinking.
There are few methods which help to develop thinking through training.

1. Adequacy of the Knowledge and Experience:

Adequacy of the knowledge and experience is considered to be the background of systematic thinking.
So care should be taken to help the children with adequate knowledge and experiences which can be done
by:
(a) Training the children to enhance the process of sensation and perception to gain better knowledge
and experience to improve critical thinking.

(b) A person should be provided with opportunities for gaining adequate experiences and should be
encouraged for self-study, discussion and participation in healthy and stimulating activities.

2. Adequate Motivation and Definiteness of Aims:

Motivation helps in mobilizing our energy for thinking. It creates genuine interest and voluntary attention
in the process of thinking, and thus helps a lot in increasing the adequacy and efficiency of our thinking.
Thus one should try to think on definite lines with a definite end or purpose, the problems we solve
should have intimate connection with our immediate needs and basic motives, and such thinking should
be directed on creative and productive activities.

3. Adequate Freedom and Flexibility:

Thinking should not be obstructed by imposing unnecessary restrictions and narrowing of the field of
thought process. If the past experiences or habitual methods do not help in solving the problem we should
strive for new association, relationships and possibilities for arriving at satisfactory results.

4. Incubation:
When we set ourselves to solve a problem but fail to solve it in-spite of our strain, putting more efforts to
thinking and persistent thinking, it is better to lay aside the problem for some time and relax for a while or
engage in some other activity. During this interval a solution is evolved to that specific problem through
the efforts of our unconscious mind. This phenomenon of incubation is helpful.

5. Intelligence and Wisdom:

Intelligence is defined as the ability to think properly, and thus proper development of intelligence is
essential for bringing adequate thinking. Proper care should be taken to use intelligence, wisdom and
other cognitive abilities for carrying out the process of thinking.

6. Proper Development of Concepts and Language:

Concept is a word or idea with a generalized meaning which represents an entire class of objects, ideas or
events; for example, a word “saree” is a concept, when you think this word it represents all kinds of
sarees which are six yards or eight yards long sarees made of silk, cotton, nylon or a mixture of the
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concept formation begins in early childhood which are first hand face-to-face example. It can be +ve or -
ve.

Language is a highly developed system of symbols in which words within a grammar can be written or
spoken in different combinations. Much of the thinking depends upon language although some imaging
are also present.

Concepts, symbols, signs, words and language are the vehicles as well as instruments of thought. Without
their proper development one cannot proceed effectively on the path of thinking. Their development
stimulates and guides the thought process.

Improper development and faulty formation of concepts and likewise, symbolic behaviour not only
hampers a person’s progress in thinking but also proves fatal, as they may provoke perverted thinking and
wrong conclusions.

7. Adequacy of Reasoning Process:

Thinking is also influenced by the mode of reasons one adopts. Illogical reasoning often leads to incorrect
thinking. Logic is the science of correct reasoning which helps to think correctly. Therefore, we should
cultivate the habit of logical reasoning among our children.

2.9 TOOLS OF THINKING:

3There are a few important elements involved in the thinking process:

1. Images:
As mental pictures consist of personal experiences of objects, persons or situations, heard and felt. These
mental pictures symbolize actual objects, experiences and activities. In thinking, we usually manipulate
the images rather than the actual objects, experiences or activities.

2. Concepts:
A concept is a general idea that stands for a general class and represents the common characteristics of all
objects or events of this general class. Concept, as a tool, economize the efforts in thinking, for example,
when we hear the word ‘elephant’ we are at once reminded not only about the nature and qualities of
elephant as a class but also our own experiences and understanding of them come to the surface in our
consciousness to stimulate our thinking at that time.

3. Symbols and signs:

Symbols and signs represent and stand for substitute of the actual objects, experiences and activities. For
example, traffic lights, railway signals, school bells, badges, songs, flags and slogans all are symbolic
expressions, they stimulate and motivate resultant thinking because they tell us what to do or how to act.

4. Language:
Is the most efficient and developed vehicle used for carrying out the process of thinking. When a person
reads, writes or hears words or sentences or observes gesture in any language one is stimulated to think.
Thus reading and writing of documents and literature also help in stimulating and promoting the thinking
process.

5. Muscular activities:
Thinking in one way or the other shows the evidence of the involvement of some incipient movements of
groups of our muscles. A high positive relation has been found to exist for the thinking and muscular
activities of an individual. The more we engage ourselves in thought, the greater is the general muscular
tension and conversely as we moved towards muscular relation, our thought processes gradually diminish.

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6. Brain functions:
Whatever may be the role of the muscles, thinking is primarily a function of the brain. Our mind is said to
be the chief instrument of the thinking process. The experiences registered by our sense organs have no
meaning, and thus cannot serve as stimulating agents, or instruments for thinking unless these
impressions are received by our brain cells and properly interpreted to derive some meaning.

The mental pictures or images can be stored, reconstructed or put to use only on being processed by the
brain. What happens in our thought process is simply the function or product of the activities of our brain.

2.10 PROBLEM SOLVING

Problem-solving is a mental process that involves discovering, analyzing and solving problems.
The ultimate goal of problem-solving is to overcome obstacles and find a solution that best resolves the
issue.
The best strategy for solving a problem depends largely on the unique situation. In some cases, people are
better off learning everything they can about the issue and then using factual knowledge to come up with
a solution. In other instances, creativity and insight are the best options.

2.11 THE STEPS IN PROBLEM-SOLVING

In order to correctly solve a problem, it is important to follow a series of steps. Many researchers
refer to this as the problem-solving cycle, which includes developing strategies and organizing
knowledge.
While this cycle is portrayed sequentially, people rarely follow a rigid series of steps to find a solution.
Instead, we often skip steps or even go back through steps multiple times until the desired solution is
reached.
1. Identifying the Problem: While it may seem like an obvious step, identifying the problem is not
always as simple as it sounds. In some cases, people might mistakenly identify the wrong source of
a problem, which will make attempts to solve it inefficient or even useless.

2. Defining the Problem: After the problem has been identified, it is important to fully define the
problem so that it can be solved.

3. Forming a Strategy: The next step is to develop a strategy to solve the problem. The approach used
will vary depending upon the situation and the individual's unique preferences.

4. Organizing Information: Before coming up with a solution, we need to first organize the available
information. What do we know about the problem? What do we not know? The more information
that is available, the better prepared we will be to come up with an accurate solution.

5. Allocating Resources: Of course, we don't always have unlimited money, time, and other resources
to solve a problem. Before you begin to solve a problem, you need to determine how high priority
it is. If it is an important problem, it is probably worth allocating more resources to solving it. If,
however, it is a fairly unimportant problem, then you do not want to spend too much of your
available resources into coming up with a solution

6. Monitoring Progress: Effective problem-solvers tend to monitor their progress as they work
towards a solution. If they are not making good progress toward reaching their goal, they will
reevaluate their approach or look for new strategies.

7. Evaluating the Results: After a solution has been reached, it is important to evaluate the results to
determine if it is the best possible solution to the problem. This evaluation might be immediate,
such as checking the results of a math problem to ensure the answer is correct, or it can be delayed,
such as evaluating the success of a therapy program after several months of treatment.

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2.12 ROLE OF BRAIN IN THINKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING
Decision-making is problem solving that we all do many times every day. Whether a decision is
simple and casual, weighty and momentous, or somewhere in between, the same regions of the brain are
activated to do their jobs.

The striatum is one area of the brain crucial to deciding among options. It is part of the basal ganglia,
found in the inner core of the brain. The striatum has three sections, and each one seems to work hardest
during a specific portion of the decision-making process.

One section activates at the start of the process, as though it is managing the organization of thoughts
about the task at hand (Abigail listing her possessions and making an appointment with her attorney).
Another part kicks in when the relative merits of each choice are being considered, weighing the pros and
cons (Hugh looking over the specs on the cars he is interested in). The third appears to control preparation
for actions to be taken once a choice is made (Nick and Willa getting ready to walk to the Greek
restaurant they decide on).

Another area of the brain vital to problem solving is the prefrontal cortex, located toward the front of the
brain. For a long time, it was thought that some parts of the prefrontal cortex were only involved in
simple thought, while others activated during complex problem solving. However, recent studies have
found that while we are doing routine tasks unrelated to our problem, the brain is still engaged with it.
Roxy is a novelist with a big problem. She's written herself into a corner. Her characters are trapped, and
she can't figure out how to free them. Finally, she throws up her hands. It's a beautiful day, and she
decides to wash her car and forget about the whole thing for a while.

Do you really think she's forgotten? By now, you know better! If we could put Roxy in an MRI machine,
it would show us that while she is changing into her shorts and soaping up her car, her prefrontal cortex,
along with other areas of her brain, like the anterior cingulate cortex, are still busy.

2.13 SUMMARY
Executive functions are high-level cognitive abilities that control and regulate other processes and
behavior. Executive functions are needed for goal-directed behavior. They include the ability to initiate
and stop actions, to monitor and change behavior as needed, and to plan future behavior when faced with
novel tasks and situations. Executive functions allow us to anticipate outcomes and adapt to changing
situations. In addition, the ability to form concepts and think abstractly is considered a part of executive
function.
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The frontal lobes of the brain play a major role in executive function. The frontal cortex develops more
slowly than other parts of the brain, and many executive functions do not fully develop until adolescence.
Some executive functions also appear to decline in old age. Traumatic brain injuries and strokes involving
the anterior cerebral artery typically cause injuries to the frontal lobes. The frontal lobes of the brain play
a major role in executive function. Because of its complexity, the frontal cortex develops more slowly
than other parts of the brain, and many executive functions do not fully develop until adolescence. Some
executive functions also appear to decline in old age, and some executive function deficits may be useful
in early detection of mild dementia. Traumatic brain injuries and strokes in the anterior cerebral artery
typically cause injuries in the frontal lobes.

Problem-solving is a part of thinking abilities. Problem-solving can be described as a higher-order

cognitive process that requires the modulation and control of more routine or fundamental skills.
Problem-solving includes problem finding and problem shaping. Problem finding requires intellectual
vision and insight into what is missing. This involves the application of creativity. Problem shaping
means revising a question so that the solution process can begin or continue. This often involves the
application of critical thinking. Disorders in problem-solving can take form of an inability to find what is
missing, difficulty making a plan of solution, or lack of ability to carry out the plan.

Reasoning, creative thinking and decision-making are used in problem-solving. Reasoning is the
cognitive process of looking for reasons for beliefs, conclusions, actions or feelings. Reasoning can be
inductive or deductive, verbal, non-verbal, visual or mathematical. Problems in reasoning are often
related to injuries in frontal lobes, but also in case of other injuries, different types of reasoning problems
have been indicated.

Reasoning, creative thinking and decision-making are part of problem-solving. Reasoning is the cognitive
process of looking for reasons for beliefs, conclusions, actions or feelings. Reasoning can be inductive or
deductive, verbal or non-verbal and visual or mathematical. Problems in reasoning are often related to
injuries in the frontal lobes, but different types of difficulties with reasoning can also occur as a result of
injuries to the other parts of the brain.

2.14 QUESTIONS
1. Explain the process of language development

What is relation between brain and language?

2. Write a note on thinking and problem solving
3. What are the Role of Brain in thinking and Problem Solving?

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