CHAPTER 4

THE COMPONENTS OF THE SYSTEM UNIT

Overview
 Describe the components in the system unit

 Explain how the CPU uses the four steps of a machine cycle to process data
 Define a bit and describe how a series of bits represents data
 Differentiate between the various types of memory
 Describe the types of expansion slots and cards in the system unit
 Explain the difference between a serial, a parallel, and a USB port
 Describe how buses contribute to a computer's processing speed
 Identify components in a notebook computer
 Identify components in a handheld computer

Chapter presents the components in the system unit, described how memory stores data,
instructions, and information, and discusses the sequence of operations that occur when a
computer executes an instruction. The chapter included a comparison of various microprocessors
on the market today.

Describe the components in the system unit

The system unit, sometimes called the chassis, is a box-like case housing the electronic
components of a computer that are used to process data. System unit components include the
processor, memory module, cards, ports, and connectors. Many of the system unit’s components
reside on a circuit board called the motherboard. The motherboard contains many different types
of chips, or small pieces of semiconducting material, on which one or more integrated circuits
(IC) are etched. An integrated circuit is a microscopic pathway capable of carrying electronic
current. Each IC can contain millions of transistors, which act as switches for electronic signals.

Explain how the CPU uses the four steps of a machine cycle to
process data
The central processing unit (CPU), also called a processor, significantly impacts overall
computing power and manages most of a computer’s operations. The CPU contains the control
unit and the arithmetic/logic unit.

The control unit directs and coordinates most of the operations in the computer. For every
instruction, the control unit repeats a set of four basic operations called the machine cycle:
 fetching the instruction or data item from memory,

 decoding the instruction into commands the computer understands,

 executing the commands, and, if necessary,

 Storing, or writing the result to memory.

The arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) performs the execution part of the machine cycle. Specifically,
the ALU carries out three operations:

Arithmetic operations – performing calculations, which include addition, subtraction,

multiplication, and division
Comparison operations – comparing data items to determine if the first item is greater than,
equal to, or less than the other item
Logical operations – working with conditions and logical operators such as AND, OR, and
NOT

Compare and contrast various personal computer processors on

the market today

A personal computer’s CPU usually is contained on a single chip, which some call a
microprocessor.

Intel is a leading manufacturer of personal computer processors.

Most high-performance PCs use a processor from Intel called the Pentium® processor.

A second Intel brand, called the Celeron™, is designed for less expensive PCs.

Two more brands, called the Xeon™ and Itanium™ processors, are ideal for workstations and
low-end servers. Intel-compatible processors have the same internal design as Intel processors and
perform the same functions, but are made by other companies and often are less expensive.

An alternative design to the Intel-style processor, the Motorola processor, is found in Apple
Macintosh and Power Macintosh systems.

A new type of processor designed for lower-costing personal computers and Internet appliances,
called an integrated CPU, combines functions of a processor, memory, and a video card on a
single chip.

Today’s processors are equipped with MMX™ technology, a built-in set of instructions that
manipulates and processes multimedia data more efficiently. Intel’s SSE instructions and AMD’s
3DNow!™ are two other technologies that improve a processor’s performance of multimedia, the
Web, and 3-D graphics. To optimize and extend battery life for notebook computers, Intel®
mobile processors use SpeedStep™ technology and AMD processors use PowerNow!™
technology.

Define a bit and describe how a series of bits represents data

Most computers are digital, meaning they understand only two discrete states: on and off. These
states are represented using two digits, 0 (off) and 1 (on). Each on or off value is called a bit
(short for binary digit), the smallest unit of data a computer can handle. Eight bits grouped
together as a unit form a byte. A byte provides enough different combinations of 0s and 1s to
represent 256 individual characters including numbers, letters of the alphabet, punctuation marks,
and other characters.

The combinations of 0s and 1s used to represent data are defined by patterns called coding
schemes. Popular coding schemes are ASCII, EBCDIC, and Unicode. Coding schemes make it
possible for humans to interact with a digital computer that recognizes only bits. Every character
you type on a keyboard is converted into a corresponding byte, a series of on/off electrical states
the computer can process.

Differentiate between the various types of memory

Memory is a temporary storage place for data, instructions, and information. Memory stores the
operating system, application programs, and the data processed by application programs. A byte
is the basic storage unit in memory. Memory size is measured by the number of bytes available
for use.

 A kilobyte (KB or K) of memory is approximately one thousand bytes,

 a megabyte (MB) is approximately one million bytes, and

 a gigabyte (GB) is approximately one billion bytes.

The system unit contains several types of memory.

RAM (random access memory) consists of memory chips that the processor can read from and
write to. Most RAM is volatile memory, meaning that its contents are lost when the computer’s
power is turned off. Two basic types of RAM chips are dynamic RAM and static RAM.
Dynamic RAM (DRAM) must be re-energized constantly or it loses its contents.

Static RAM (SRAM) is faster and more reliable than DRAM and has to be re-energized less
often, but it is much more expensive.
Memory cache, also called a cache store or RAM cache, improves processing time by storing
frequently used instructions and data.
ROM (read-only memory) refers to memory chips that only can be read and used; that is, they
cannot be modified. ROM is non-volatile memory (NVM), meaning that its contents are not lost
when the computer’s power is turned off. A variation of the ROM chip, called programmable
read-only memory (PROM), is a blank chip on which you can place items permanently.

Flash memory, also known as flash ROM or flash RAM, is non-volatile memory that can be
erased electronically and reprogrammed.

Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) memory, another type of memory chip,

stores configuration information about the computer and uses battery power to retain information
when the power to the computer is off.

Describe the types of expansion slots and cards in the system

unit

An expansion slot is an opening, or socket, where you can insert a circuit board into the
motherboard. These circuit boards – called cards, expansion cards, boards, expansion boards,
adapters, adapter cards, interface cards, add-ins, or add-ons -- add new devices or capabilities to
the computer. Four types of expansion cards found in most computers are a video card, a sound
card, a network interface card, and a modem card.

A video card converts computer output into a video signal that is sent through a cable to the
monitor, which displays an image.

A sound card enhances the sound-generating capabilities of a personal computer by allowing

sound to be input through a microphone and output through speakers.

A network interface card (NIC) is a communications device that allows the computer to
communicate via a network.

A modem card is a communications device that enables computers to communicate via telephone
lines or other means. Many of today’s computers support Plug and Play, a capability with which
the computer automatically can configure expansion boards and other devices as you install them.

Notebook and other portable computers have a special type of expansion slot used for installing a
PC Card, which is a thin credit card-sized device that adds memory, disk drives, sound,
fax/modem, and communications capabilities to a mobile computer.
Explain the difference between a serial, a parallel, and a USB
port

A cable often attaches external devices to the system unit. A port is the interface, or point of
attachment, to the system unit. Ports have different types of connectors, which are used to join a
cable to a device. Male connectors have one or more exposed pins, while female connectors have
matching holes to accept the pins.

Most computers have three types of ports: serial, parallel, and USB.

A serial port is a type of interface that connects a device to the system unit by transmitting data
only one bit at a time. Serial ports usually connect devices that do not require fast data
transmission rates, such as a mouse, keyboard, or modem.

A parallel port is an interface that connects devices by transferring more than one bit at a time.
Many printers connect to the system unit using a parallel port.

A universal serial bus (USB) port can connect up to 127 different peripheral devices with a
single connector type, greatly simplifying the process of attaching devices to a personal computer.

Describe how buses contribute to a computer's processing

speed
Bits are transferred internally within the circuitry of the computer along electrical channels. Each
channel, called a bus, allows various devices inside and attached to the system unit to
communicate with each other.

The bus width, or size of the bus, determines the number of bits that can be transferred at one
time. The larger the bus width, the fewer number of transfer steps required and the faster the
transfer of data.

In most computers word size (the number of bits the CPU can process at a given time) is the
same as the bus width.

Every bus also has a clock speed. The higher the bus clock speed, the faster the transmission of
data, which results in applications running faster.

A computer has two basic types of buses.

A system bus connects the CPU to main memory.

An expansion bus allows the CPU to communicate with peripheral devices.

Identify components in a notebook computer
Users with mobile computing needs often have a mobile computer, such as a notebook computer
and/or handheld computer. A notebook computer, also called a laptop computer, can run either
using batteries or using a standard power supply. In addition to the motherboard, processor,
memory, sound card, PC Card slot, and drive bay, the system unit for a notebook computer also
houses other devices, such as the keyboard, pointing device, speakers, and display.
Identify components in a handheld computer
Handheld computers run strictly on battery. Similar to desktop and notebook computers,
handheld computers have a system unit that contains electronic components that process data. A
handheld computer’s system unit also contains a display and may house speakers and some form
of keyboard and/or pointing device. Handheld computers often have an IrDA port so you can
communicate wirelessly with other computers. Many also include a serial port.

Expand Your Knowledge

 The system unit
 The CPU
 Processor comparison
 Data representation
 Memory
 Expansion slots and expansion cards
 Ports
 Buses
 Notebook computers
 Handheld computers

The System Unit

The motherboard in the system unit contains different types of chips. Manufacturers package
chips so the chips can be attached to circuit boards, such as the motherboard.

Types of chip packages include:

Dual inline package (DIP), which consists of two parallel rows of downward-pointing thin
metal feet (pins)

Pin grid array (PGA) package, which holds a larger number of pins because the pins are
mounted on the surface of the package

Flip chip-PGA (FC-PGA) package, which places chips on the opposite side (flip side) of the
pins
Single edge contact (SEC) cartridge, which connects to the motherboard on one of its edges

The CPU
The power of personal computer processor chips (the chips that contain the CPU) has grown at
an astounding rate. As chips become older and more widely used, price cuts usually are
introduced.

Several factors affect CPU processing speed. CPUs in most of today’s personal computers use
pipelining, a technique that increases processing speed by beginning execution of a second
machine cycle instruction before the first instruction is completed. CPUs also use high-speed
storage locations, called registers, to hold data and instructions temporarily. The control unit relies
on a small chip called the system clock to synchronize all computer operations. The speed at
which a processor executes instructions is called clock speed, or clock rate, and is measured in
megahertz (MHz). The system clock is a major factor affecting processor speed. A higher clock
speed means the CPU can process more instructions per second.

Processor Comparison

Although once frequently used, the term “microprocessor” is much less common today.
Sometimes you can upgrade your processor to increase the computer’s performance. There are
three forms of upgrades:

 With a chip for chip upgrade, the existing processor chip is replaced with a new one

 With a piggyback upgrade, the new processor is stacked on top of the old one

 With a daughterboard upgrade, the new processor is on a small circuit board (the
daughterboard) that plugs into the motherboard

The past three years have seen a steady drop in the cost of computers. PC prices plunged as a
result of lower prices for processors, memory chips, and hard drives. Consumers also are
showing increased interest in new less powerful, but less expensive, personal computers that work
perfectly well for the most popular uses – word processing, Internet access, and spreadsheet
applications. The surge in low-priced computer sales has had an impact on Intel, the world’s
largest processor manufacturer. By focusing on making inexpensive processor chips, rivals AMD
and Cyrix are making inroads into Intel’s dominance. Intel’s response, the Celeron™, has proven
popular, but the lower-priced chip offers a smaller profit margin.

Data Representation

Just as the decimal system (10 digits) is suited to human anatomy (10 fingers), the binary system
(2 digits) is perfect to represent the on-off states (2 states) of a computer. Basic coding standards
make it possible for components within computers to communicate, allow manufacturers to be
confident that the components they produce will operate correctly in a computer, and enable
consumers to purchase components that are compatible with their systems. In the ASCII-8 and
EBCDIC codes, the first four characters represent the zone, and the last four characters represent
the digits 1 through 8. ASCII, originally a seven-bit code, was expanded to eight bits in an effort
to provide for symbols used in other nations. Unicode, a 2-byte (16-bit) code, can represent 216,
or 65,536, characters. The system employs the codes used by ASCII and also includes other
alphabets (such as Cyrillic and Hebrew), special characters (including religious symbols), and
some of the “word writing” symbols used by various Asian countries.

Memory
Because computers use the binary number system, the actual values for the units in which
memory and storage are measured are based on powers of 2. For example, one kilobyte = 2 10 =
1,024.

RAM’s volatility, and its ability to be changed, are its most distinguishing characteristics. When
RAM is purchased it comes in banks of nine chips – eight are needed to represent a byte and the
ninth is needed for parity. RAM chips usually are packaged on small circuit boards called single
inline memory modules (SIMMs) or dual inline memory modules (DIMMs) that are inserted
into the motherboard. During the past 20 years, the price of RAM has dropped an average of 20
percent each year, but its capacity has more than doubled every two years.

Similar to flash ROM, another variation of ROM, called EEPROM (electrically erasable
programmable read-only memory), can be erased electrically and rewritten. Because of its non-
volatile nature, EEPROM is used in electronic cash registers to store item prices.

The amount of time it takes the processor to read data from memory, called access time, directly
affects how fast the computer can process data. Memory access time is measured in terms of
nanoseconds, or billionths of a second.