Mech 30a March 21 2022 Eteeap Module

University of Cebu Main Campus
Expanded Tertiary Education Equivalency Accreditation Program
Course Code: Mech 30A

Course Name: Mechanics of Deformable Bodies
Objectives:
After completing this course, the student must be able to:
1. Understand the concepts of stress and strain;

2. Calculate stresses due to bending, shears, torsion and combined loading; and
3. Analyze statically determinate and indeterminate structures
Suggested References:
Hibbeler, Russell C. Mechanics of Materials, 5th ed. Prentice Hall, Inc., 2002.
Higdon, Archie, et al. Mechanics of Deformable Bodies, 4th ed. John Wiley & Sons,
1989.
McGill, David and Wilton M. King. Engineering Mechanics, An Introduction to Dynamics,
3rd ed. PWS Publishing Co., 1995.
Introduction
Strength of materials extends the study of forces that was begun in Engineering
Mechanics, but there is a sharp distinction between the two subjects. Fundamentally, the field
of mechanics covers the relations between forces acting on rigid bodies; in statics, the bodies
are in equilibrium, whereas in dynamics, they are accelerated but can be put in equilibrium by
applying correctly placed inertia forces.
In contrast to mechanics, strength of materials deals with the relations between

externally applied loads and their internal effects on bodies. Moreover the bodies are no longer
assumed to be ideally rigid; the deformations, however small, are of major interest. The
properties of the material of which a structure or machine is made affect both its choice and
the dimensions that will satisfy the requirements of strength and rigidity.
Three Basic Classification of Loading
1. Simple axial load = A force with its resultant passing through the centroid of a particular
section and being perpendicular to the plane of the section.
2. Twisting load
3. Bending load
Mech 30A Mechanics of Deformable Bodies`

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Lesson 1: Stresses
Simple Stress
One of the basic problems of the engineer is to select the proper material and correctly use
and proportion it so as to enable a structure or machine to do most efficiently what it is
designed to do. For this purpose, it is essential to determine the strength, stiffness, and other
properties of materials. A tabulation of the average properties of common metals is given in
Table 1.
Three Types of Simple Stress

1. Normal Stress
1.1. Compressive Stress
1.2. Tensile Stress
2. Shearing Stress
3. Bearing Stress
Normal Stress
Applied load P
Normal Stress = =
Cross − sec tional area A
Compressive load P
Compressive stress = c = c
Cross − sec tional area Ac
Tensile load Pt
Tensile stress = t =
Cross − sec tional area At

2
Example 1:
Two bars of equal length but different materials are suspended from a common support as
shown.
Bar 1 Bar 2
500 N 5000 N
Bars supporting maximum loads
Cross-sectional area of each bar:

A1 = 10 mm2
A2 = 1000 mm2`
500 N
1 = = 50 MPa
10mm2
5000 N
2 = = 5 MPa
1000mm2
Thus the material of bar 1 is ten times as strong as the material of bar 2.
Example 2: An aluminum tube is rigidly fastened between a bronze and steel as shown.
Axial loads are applied at the positions indicated. Determine the stress in each material.
Bronze Al Steel
20 kN 15 kN 15 kN 10 kN
Table 1: Properties of Common Materials

Material Area Length Stress in each section
(mm2) (mm) (MPa)
Bronze 700 500 28.6
Al 1000 600 5.0
Steel 800 700 12.5

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Example 3: For the truss as shown, determine the stress in members AC and BD. The
cross-sectional area of each member is 900 mm2.
B 2 D F
1
3m
A Hx
C E G H
Ay 30 kN 70 kN Hy
4 panels at 4 m = 16 m
Answer
σAC = 59.3 MPa (tension)
σBD = 74.07 MPa (compression)
Exercise No 1
1. Determine the largest weight which can be supported by the two wires as shown. The
stresses in wires AB and AC are not to exceed 100 MPa and 150 MPa, respectively.
The cross sectional areas of the two wires are 400 mm 2 for wire AB and 200 mm2 for
wire AC.
Answer: W = 33.46 kN
B C
30º A 45º
2. Determine the outside diameter of a hollow steel tube that will carry a tensile load of 500
kN at a stress of 140 MN/m2. Assume the wall thickness to be one-tenth of the outside
diameter.
Answer: D = 112.39 mm

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3. A 1000-kg homogeneous bar AB is suspended from two cables AC and BD, each with
cross- sectional area of 400 mm2 as shown. Determine the magnitude P and x of the
largest additional force which can be applied to the bar. The stresses in the cables AC
and BD are limited to 100 MPa and 50 MPa, respectively.
Answers: P = 50.2 kN; x = 0.602 m
C
1.8 m P 1.8 m
x
A B
2m
Shearing Stress
Shearing stress differs from both tensile and compressive stress in that it is caused by
forces acting along or parallel to the area resisting the forces, whereas tensile and
compressive stresses are caused by forces perpendicular to the areas on which they act. For
this reason, tensile and compressive stresses are frequently called normal stresses, whereas a
shearing stress may be called a tangential stress.
A shearing stress is produced whenever the applied loads cause one section of a body to
tend to slide past its adjacent section.
Re sul tan t shearing force
Shearing stress ( average ) =
Area (Parallel)
V P
= or  = s
A As
Types of shears
1. Single shear: A rivet resists shear across its cross-sectional area.
P P
P
P
2. Double Shear: A bolt resists two cross-sectional areas.

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3. A circular slug is about to be punched out of a plate.

P
In each case, the shear occurs over an area parallel to the applied load. This may be called a
direct shear in contrast to the induced shear that may occur over sections inclined with the
resultant load.
Definition of Terms:
1. Shear = an action or force that causes or tends to cause two parts of a body to slide on
each other in a direction parallel to their plane of contact.
2. rivet = a metal bolt with a head at one end used for uniting two or more pieces by
passing the shank through a hole in each piece and then beating or pressing down the
plain end so as to make a second head.
3. shank = a part of something by which it can be attached.
Example 1: A hole is to be punched out of a plate having an ultimate shearing stress of 300
MPa. (a) If the compressive stress in the punch is limited to 400 MPa, determine the
maximum thickness of plate from which a hole 100 mm in diameter can be punched. (b) If the
plate is 10 mm thick, compute the smallest diameter hole which can be punched.
P

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Pc Ps
a) c = =
Ac As
Pc = Ps
c A c = A s
 
c  D2  = s  Dt 
4 
 N  2  N 
 400 mm2   4 (100 mm )  =  300 mm2    (100 mm ) t 
    
t = 33.33 mm
 N  2  N 
b)  400 mm2   4 D  =  300 mm2   D (10 mm ) 
    
D = 30 mm
Example 2: The end chord of a timber truss is framed into the bottom chord as shown.
Neglecting friction, compute dimension b if the allowable shearing stress is 900 kPa.
P = 50 kN
30º
b
30º
150 mm
Ps
=
As
Ps = Pcos30º = 50,000 cos30º = 43,301.27 N
A s = 0.15b m
N 43,301.27 N
0.9 2
=
mm 150b mm
b = 321 mm

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Bearing stress
Bearing stress is the contact pressure between separate bodies. It differs from compressive
stress, as it is an internal stress caused by compressive forces.
P P Projected area of rivet hole

Pb
Pb t
P
P d
Pb
b =
Ab
Example 1:
Assume that a 20-mm diameter rivet joins the plates which are each 100 mm wide. (a) If the
allowable stresses are 140 MN/m2 for bearing in the plate material and 80 MN/m2 for shearing
of the rivet, determine the minimum thickness of each plate.
P
= s
As
N Ps
80x106 =
2

m
( 0.02 m )
2
4
Ps = 25,132.74 N = Pb
Pb
b =
Ab
N 25,132.74 N
140x106 =
m2 ( 0.02 m ) t
t = 8.98 mm
Exercises
1. What force is required to punch a 20-mm-diameter hole in a plate that is 25 mm thick?
The shear strength is 350 MPa. Answer: P = 549.80 kN
2. Find the smallest diameter bolt that can be used in the clevis shown if P = 400 kN. The
shearing strength of the bolt is 300 MPa. Answer: d = 29.13 mm

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3. The lap joint shown is fastened by four ¾-in.-diameter rivets. Calculate the maximum
safe load P that can be applied if the shearing stress in the rivets is limited to 14 ksi and
the bearing stress in the plates is limited to 18 ksi. Assume the applied load is uniformly
distributed among the four rivets. Answer: 24.74 kips
4. In the clevis shown, find the minimum bolt diameter and the minimum thickness of each
yoke that will support a load P = 14 kips without exceeding a shearing stress of 12 ksi
and a bearing stress of 20 ksi. Answer: d = 0.8618 in. t = 0.4061 in
Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels
Thin-Walled Cylindrical Vessel: A cylinder is regarded as thin walled when the wall thickness t
is less than 1/20 of the diameter D. When the wall is thicker than this, it is regarded as a thick
wall and it is treated differently as described later.
A tank or pipe carrying a fluid or gas under a pressure is subjected to tensile forces, which
resist bursting, developed across longitudinal and transverse sections.

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Tangential Stress (or Circumferential Stress or Hoop Stress)

P
2P = F
2  t A  = pA
2  tLt  = pDL
pD
t =
2t
where :
P = force exerted by the metal plate
F = force exerted by the fluid inside
t = tangentialstress
p = int ernal pressure
D = diameter
t = thickness

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Longitudinal Stress (or Axial Stress)
F
P
P=F
L A = pA
 D2 
L ( Dt ) = p  
 4 
pD
L =
4t
Example 1:
1. A water tank is 8 m in diameter and 12 m high. If the tank is to be completely filled,
determine the minimum thickness of the tank plating if the stress is limited to 40 MPa.
Based on tangential stress : Based on longitudinal stress :

pD pD
t = p = gh = h L =
2t 4t
hD ghD
t = L =
2t 4t
 N   N 
 9.81x10 mm3  (12,000 mm )( 8000 mm )  9.81x10 mm3  (12,000 mm )(8000 mm )
−6 −6
t=  t= 
 N   N 
2  40 2 
4  40 2 
 mm   mm 
t = 11.77 mm t = 5.89 mm
To be safe, use t = 11.77 mm
Example 2:

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For longitudinal joint (tangential stress):
P P
= 480 kN / m
L
2P = F
L 2P = pA
2P = pDL
P
2   = pD
L
 480,000 N   N 
2  =  1.5
mm2 
D
 1000 mm  
D = 640 mm
For girth joint (longitudinal stress):
P
= 200 kN / m
D
P=F
 D2 
L ( Dt ) = p  
 4 
pD
L =
4t
pD
L t =
4
P
L t =
D
P pD
=
D 4
200,000 N  N  D 
=  1.5
1000 mm  mm2  
 4 
D = 533 mm
Use the smaller diameter, D = 533 mm

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Exercises
1. A cylindrical steel pressure vessel 400-mm in diameter with a wall thickness of 20-mm is
subjected to an internal pressure of 4.5 MN/m2. (a) Calculate the tangential and longitudinal
stresses in the steel. (b) To what value may the internal pressure be increased if the stress in
the vessel is limited to 120MN/m2? (c) If the internal pressure were increased until the vessel
burst, sketch the type of fracture that would occur.
Answers: (a) 45 MPa, 22.5 MPa (b) 12 MPa
(c) The bursting force will cause a stress on the longitudinal section that is twice
to that of the transverse section. Thus, fracture is expected as shown.
2. The wall thickness of a 4 feet diameter spherical tank is 5/16 inch. Calculate the allowable
pD
internal pressure if the stress is limited to 8000 psi. Use  =
4t
Answer: 208.33 psi
3. Calculate the minimum wall thickness for a cylindrical vessel that is to carry a gas at a
pressure of 1400 psi. The diameter of the vessel is 2 feet and the stress is limited to 12 ksi.
Answer: 1.40 inch
4. A cylindrical pressure vessel is fabricated from steel plating that has a thickness of 20-mm.
The diameter of the pressure vessel is 450-mm and its length is 2.0-m. Determine the
maximum internal pressure that can be applied if the longitudinal stress is limited to 140-MPa
and the circumferential stress is limited to 60-MPa. Answer: 5.33-MPa

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Spherical Shell
If a spherical tank of diameter D and thickness t contains gas under a pressure of p, the
stress at the wall can be expressed as:
pD
Wall stress, s W =
4t
Example: A spherical pressure vessel 400 mm in diameter has a uniform thickness of 6 mm.
The vessel contains gas under a pressure of 8000 kPa. If the ultimate tensile stress of the
material is 420 MPa, what is the factor of safety with respect to tensile failure?
pD
W =
4t
 N 
 8 mm2  ( 400 mm )
W =  
4 ( 6 mm )
 W = 133 MPa
ut 420 MPa
Factor of Safety = = = 3.15
 w 133 MPa
Thick-Walled Cylinder
In thin-walled cylinders, the wall thickness is very small compared to the tank diameter.
If in the case of thick-walls cylinders, the tangential stress sT and radial stress sR at any
distance r from the center is given by the following equations:
ri2pi − ro2po ri ro (pi − po )

2 2
sH = +
ro2 − ri2 ( )
ro2 − ri2 r 2
ri2pi − ro2po ri2pi − ro2po ri ro (pi − po )

2 2
sL = sR = −
ro2 − ri2 ro2 − ri2 ( )
ro2 − ri2 r 2
Example:
A thick cylinder is 100 mm outer diameter and 50 mm inner diameter. It is pressurized to 112
MPa gauge on the inside. Calculate the following.
1. The circumferential stress on the outside layer (74.64 MPa)
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2. The circumferential stress on the inside layer (186.67 MPa)

3. The longitudinal stress (37.33 MPa)
Lesson 2: Simple Strain
Simple Strain is the ratio of the change in length caused by an applied force and the original
length.

=
L
where  is the elongation, and L is the original length, thus  is dimensionless.
Stress-Strain Diagram: Suppose that a metal specimen be placed in a tension-compression-

testing machine. As the axial load is gradually increased in increments, the total elongation
over the gage length is measured at each increment of the load and this is continued until the
failure of the specimen takes place. Knowing the original cross-sectional area and length of
the specimen, the normal stress  and the strain  can be obtained. The graph of these
quantities with the stress  along the y-axis and the strain along the x-axis is called the stress-
strain diagram. The stress-strain diagram differs in form for various materials. The diagram
shown below is that for a medium-carbon structural steel.
Metallic engineering materials are classified as either ductile or brittle materials. A ductile
material is one having relatively large tensile strains up to the point of rapture like structural
steel and aluminum, whereas brittle materials has a relatively small strain up to the point of
rapture like cast iron and concrete. An arbitrary strain of 0.05 mm/mm is frequently taken as
the dividing line between these two classes.
Figure 1
U
R
Y
Stress, σ E
P P = Proportional limit
E = Elastic limit
Y = Yield limit
U = Ultimate strength
R = Rapture strength
O Strain, ε
Proportional Limit: From the origin, O to a point P called proportional limit, the stress-strain
curve is a straight line.

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Elastic Limit: The elastic limit beyond which the material will no longer go back to the original
shape when the load is removed, or it is the maximum stress that may be developed such that
there is no permanent or residual deformation when the load is entirely removed.
Elastic and Plastic Ranges: The region in the stress-strain diagram from O to P is called the
elastic range. The region from P to R is called the plastic range.
Yield Point: The point at which the material will have an appreciable elongation or yielding
without any increase of load.
Ultimate Strength: The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain diagram is the ultimate strength
or tensile strength.
Rapture Strength: The strength of the material at rapture. This is also known as the breaking
strength.
Modulus of Resilience: Modulus of Resilience is the work done on a unit volume of material
as the force is gradually increased from O to P, N-m/m3. This may be calculated as the area
under the stress-strain curve from the origin O up to the elastic limit E. The resilience of a
material is its ability to absorb energy without creating a permanent distortion.
Modulus of Toughness: Modulus of Toughness is the work done on a unit volume of material
as the force is gradually increased from O to R, N-m/m3. This may be calculated as the area
under the entire stress-strain curve (from O to R). The toughness of a material is its ability to
absorb energy without causing it to break.
Working Stress, Allowable Stress and Factor of Safety: Working Stress is defined as the
actual stress of a material under a given loading. The maximum safe stress is that a material
can carry is termed as the allowable stress. The allowable stress should be limited to values
not exceeding the proportional limit. However, since proportional limit is difficult to determine
accurately, the allowable stress is taken as either the yield point or ultimate strength divided by
a factor of safety. The ratio of this strength (ultimate or yield strength) to the allowable strength
is called the factor of safety.
Hooke’s Law: Axial Deformation: The slope of the line in Figure 1 is the ratio of stress to

strain. It is called the modulus of elasticity and is denoted by E. E=

which is usually written in the form  = E
In this form it is known as Hooke’s Law. Originally Hooke’s Law specified merely that stress
was proportional to strain, but Thomas Young in 1807 introduced a constant of proportionality
that came to be known as Young’s modulus. Eventually this name was superseded by the
P 
phrase modulus of elasticity. Since  = and  = , then
A L
P  PL
=E =
A L AE

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To use this formula, the load must be axial, the bar must have a uniform cross-sectional area,
and the stress must not exceed the proportional limit.
Greek Small Letter Symbol

1. sigma σ Compressive stress, tensile stress, or bearing stress
2. tau τ Shearing stress
3. epsilon ε Strain
4. delta δ Elongation
Axial Deformation
Exercises:
1. A steel rod is 2.2 m long and must not stretch more than 1.2 mm when a 8.5 kN load is
applied to it. Knowing that E ~ 200 GPa, determine (a) the smallest diameter rod which should
be used, (b) the corresponding normal stress caused by the load.
Answers: a) 9.96 mm b) 109.10 MPa
2. A 4.8-ft long steel wire of 1 4 in. diameter steel wire is subjected to a 750-lb tensile load.
Knowing that E = 29 X 106 psi, determine (a) the elongation of the wire, (b) the corresponding
normal stress.
Answers: a) 0.0303 in b) 15.28 ksi
3. A control rod made of yellow brass must not stretch more than 3 mm when the tension in the
wire is 4 kN. Knowing that E = 105 GPa and that the maximum allowable normal stress is 180
MPa, determine (a) the smallest diameter that can be selected for the rod, (b) the
corresponding maximum length of the rod.
Answers: a) 5.32 mm b) 1.75 m
4. A 9-m length of 6-mm diameter steel wire is to be used in a hanger. It is noted that the wire
stretches 18 mm when a tensile force P is applied. Knowing that E = 200 GPa, determine (a)
the magnitude of the force P, (b) the corresponding normal stress in the wire.
Answers: a) 11.31 kN b) 400 MPa
5. A 9-kN tensile load will be applied to a 50-m length of steel wire with E = 200 GPa.
Determine the smallest diameter wire which can be used, knowing that the normal stress must
not exceed 150 MPa and that the increase in length of the wire should be at most 25 mm.
Answer: 10.70 mm

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If however, the cross sectional area is not uniform, the axial deformation can be determined by
considering a differential length and applying integration.
Problem:
Compute the total elongation caused by an axial load of 100 kN applied to a flat bar 20 mm
thick, tapering from a width of 120 mm to 40 mm in a length of 10 m as shown. Assume E =
200x109 N/m2. Answer: 3.43 mm
For rod of unit mass m suspended vertically from one end, the total elongation due to its own
weight is
mgL gL2
= =
2AE 2E
Problem:
A steel wire 5-m long, hanging vertically supports a weight of 1200 N. Determine the required
wire diameter if the stress is limited to 140 MPa and the total elongation must not exceed 4
mm. Neglect the weight of the wire and assume E = 200 GPa. Answer: 3.30 mm
Shearing Deformation
Shearing forces cause shearing deformation. An element subject to shear does not change in
length but undergoes a change in shape.
The change in angle at the corner of an original rectangular element is called the shear strain
and expressed as

= s
L
The ratio of the shear stress  and the shear strain  is called the modulus of elasticity in
shear or modulus of rigidity and is denoted by G, in MPa.

G=

The relationship between the shearing deformation and the applied shearing force is
VL L
s = =
A sG G
where V is the shearing force acting over an area As.

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Poisson's Ratio
When a bar is subjected to a tensile loading there is an increase in length of the bar in the
direction of the applied load, but there is also a decrease in a lateral dimension perpendicular
to the load. The ratio of the sidewise deformation (or strain) to the longitudinal deformation (or
strain) is called the Poisson's ratio and is denoted by  . For most steel, it lies in the range of
0.25 to 0.3, and 0.20 for concrete.
y z
=− =−
x x
where εx is strain in the x-direction and εy and εz are the strains in the perpendicular direction.
The negative sign indicates a decrease in the transverse dimension when εx is positive.
Biaxial Deformation
If an element is subjected simultaneously by tensile stresses, σx and σy, in the x and y
directions, the strain in the x direction is σx/E and the strain in the y direction is σy/E.
Simultaneously, the stress in the y direction will produce a lateral contraction on the x direction
of the amount -ν εy or -ν σy/E. The resulting strain in the x direction will be
x =
x 
− y or x =
( x +  y ) E
E E 1 − 2
and
y =
y
−
x
or y =
( y +  x ) E
E E 1 − 2
Triaxial Deformation
If an element is subjected simultaneously by three mutually perpendicular normal
stresses σx, σy, and σz, which are accompanied by strains εx, εy, and εz, respectively,
 x −  (  y +  z ) 
1
x =
E
1
 y =  y −  (  x +  z ) 
E
 z = z −  (  x +  y ) 
1
E
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Tensile stresses and elongation are taken as positive. Compressive stresses and contraction
are taken as negative.
Relationship of E, G, and 
The relationship between modulus of elasticity E, shear modulus G and Poisson's ratio  is:
E
G=
2 (1 +  )
Bulk Modulus of Elasticity or Modulus of Volume Expansion, K
The bulk modulus of elasticity K is a measure of a resistance of a material to change in volume
without change in shape or form. It is given as
E 
K= =
3 (1 − 2 ) V
V
where V is the volume and ΔV is change in volume. The ratio ΔV/V is called volumetric strain
and can be expressed as
V  3 (1 − 2 )
= =
V K E
Exercises
1. A 2-in.-diameter steel tube with a wall thickness of 0.05 inch just fits in a rigid hole. Find
the tangential stress if an axial compressive load of 3140 lb is applied. Assume ν = 0.30
and neglect the possibility of buckling.
Answer: 2298.5 psi
2. A 150-mm-long bronze tube, closed at its ends, is 80 mm in diameter and has a wall
thickness of 3 mm. It fits without clearance in an 80-mm hole in a rigid block. The tube is
then subjected to an internal pressure of 4.00 MPa. Assuming ν = 1/3 and E = 83 GPa,
determine the tangential stress in the tube. Answer: 8.89-MPa
3. A rectangular steel block is 3 inches long in the x direction, 2 inches long in the y
direction, and 4 inches long in the z direction. The block is subjected to a triaxial loading
of three uniformly distributed forces as follows: 48 kips tension in the x direction, 60 kips
compression in the y direction, and 54 kips tension in the z direction. If ν = 0.30 and E =
29 × 106 psi, determine the single uniformly distributed load in the x direction that would
produce the same deformation in the y direction as the original loading.
Answer: 253 kips

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Statically Indeterminate Members
When the reactive forces or the internal resisting forces over a cross section exceed the
number of
independent equations of equilibrium, the structure is called statically indeterminate. These
cases require the use of additional relations that depend on the elastic deformations in the
members.
m + r = 2j statically det er minate

m + r  2j statically indet er minate
where:
m = is the total number of members in the structure.
r = is the number of reaction components.
j = is the total number of joints in the structure.
m + r = the number of unknowns
2j = the number of equilibrium equations
A static determinate structure can be transformed into a static indeterminate structure by:
1. increasing the number of support reaction than what is required.
2. increasing the number of internal members.
Statically Determinate Members
Statically Indeterminate Members

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Example:
The composite bar as shown is firmly attached to unyielding supports. Compute the stress in
each material caused by the application of the axial load P = 50 kips.

22
Equilibrium condition :
X = 0
R1 + R2 − 50,000 = 0
R1 + R2 = 50,000
(1 equation, two unknowns )
Compatibility condition :
12 = 0
 Al − st = 0
 PL   PL 
 AE  −  AE  = 0
  Al  st
 R1 (15 )   R (10 ) 
 − 2
=0
( ) (
 (1.25 ) 10x10   ( 2 ) 29x10 6
6
) 
3 1
6
R1 − R2 = 0
2.5x10 5.8x106
R1 = 6,281.41 lb R 2 = 43,718.59 lb
6,281.41 43,718.59
 Al = st =
1.25 2
 Al = 5,025 psi st = 21,859 psi

23
Exercises:
1. The composite bar in Fig. P-247 is stress-free before the axial loads P1 and P2 are
applied. Assuming that the walls are rigid, calculate the stress in each material if P1 =
150 kN and P2 = 90 kN.
Ans: 86.22 MPa; 36.20 MPa; 135.33 MPa
2. A rigid beam with negligible weight is pinned at one end and attached to two vertical
rods. The beam was initially horizontal before the load W = 50 kips was applied. Find
the vertical movement of W.
Ans: 0.1368 in.

24
Thermal Stresses
Temperature changes cause the body to expand or contract. The amount  T , is given by
T = LT = L ( TF − Ti ) T = L = (LF − Li )
where  is the coefficient of thermal expansion in m/m°C, L is the length in meter, Ti and TF
are the
initial and final temperatures, respectively in °C.
If temperature deformation is permitted to occur freely, no load or stress will be induced in the
structure.
In some cases where temperature deformation is not permitted, an internal stress is created.
The internal stress created is termed as thermal stress.
For a homogeneous rod mounted between unyielding supports as shown, the thermal stress is
computed as:
deformation due to temperature changes:

T = LT
deformation due to equivalent axial stress:
T = 
L
LT =
E
 = ET
where  is the thermal stress in MPa, E is the modulus of elasticity of the rod in MPa.
If the wall yields a distance of x as shown, the following calculations will be made:

25
T = x + P
L
LT = x +
E
Take note that as the temperature rises above the normal, the rod will be in compression, and
if the
temperature drops below the normal, the rod is in tension.
Table 1
Coefficient of Linear Expansion

Materials (per0C) (per 0F)
Aluminum 23 x 10-6 13 x 10-6
Brass 19 x 10-6 11 x 10-6
Copper 17 x 10-6 9.3 x 10-6
Glass 3.3-9 x10-6 1.8-5 x 10-6
Iron 12 x 10-6 6.6 x 10-6
Platinum 9 x10-6 5.0 x 10-6
Steel 11.7 x10-6 6.5 x 10-6
Tungsten 4.4 x 10-5 2.5 x 10-6
Uranium 15 x 10-6 8.2 x 10-6
Exercises:
1. A steel rod with a cross-sectional area of 0.25 in2 is stretched between two fixed points.
The tensile load at 70°F is 1200 lb. What will be the stress at 0°F? At what temperature
will the stress be zero? Assume α = 6.5 × 10-6 in/(in·°F) and E = 29 × 106 psi.
Answers: 18 ksi 95.46ºC
2. A steel rod is stretched between two rigid walls and carries a tensile load of 5000 N at
20°C. If the allowable stress is not to exceed 130 MPa at -20°C, what is the minimum
diameter of the rod? Assume α =11.7 μm/(m·°C) and E = 200 GPa.
Answer: 13.22 mm
3. Steel railroad reels 10 m long are laid with a clearance of 3 mm at a temperature of

15°C. At what temperature will the rails just touch? What stress would be induced in the
rails at that temperature if there were no initial clearance? Assume α = 11.7 μm/(m·°C)
and E = 200 GPa.
Answers: 40.64ºC 60MPa
4. A steel rod 3 feet long with a cross-sectional area of 0.25 in2 is stretched between two
fixed points. The tensile force is 1200 lb at 40°F. Using E = 29 × 106 psi and α = 6.5 ×
10-6 in./(in.·°F), calculate (a) the temperature at which the stress in the bar will be 10 ksi;
and (b) the temperature at which the stress will be zero.
Answers: 12.41ºF 65.46ºF
26
Lesson 4: Torsion
Consider a bar to be rigidly attached at one end and twisted at the other end by a torque or
twisting moment T equivalent to F × d, which is applied perpendicular to the axis of the bar, as
shown in the figure. Such a bar is said to be in torsion.
Torsional Shearing Stress

For a solid or hollow circular shaft subject to a twisting moment T, the torsional shearing
stress τ at a distance ρ from the center of the shaft is
T Tr
= and max =
J J
where J is the polar moment of inertia of the section and r is the outer radius.
For solid cylindrical shaft

 4 16T
J= D max =
32 D3
For hollow cylindrical shaft


J= (
D4 − d4 ) max =
16TD
32 (
 D4 − d4 )

27
Angle of Twist
The angle θ through which the bar length L will twist is
TL
= in radians
JG
where T is the torque in N·mm, L is the length of shaft in mm, G is shear modulus in MPa, J is
the polar moment of inertia in mm4, D and d are diameter in mm, and r is the radius in mm.
Example 1:
A steel shaft 3 ft long that has a diameter of 4 in is subjected to a torque of 15 kip·ft. Determine
the maximum shearing stress and the angle of twist. Use G = 12 × 106 psi.
16T 16 (15 )(1000 )(12 )
max = =
D3 ( )
 43
max = 14,324 psi
max = 14.30 ksi
= =
( )
TL 15 ( 3 )(1000 ) 12
2
 4
JG
32
( )(
4 12x106 )
 = 0.0215 rad
 = 1.23º
Example 2:
What is the minimum diameter of a solid steel shaft that will not twist through more than 3° in a
6-m length when subjected to a torque of 12 kN·m? What maximum shearing stress is
developed? Use G = 83 GPa.

28
TL
=
JG
(
 1 rad  12 ( 6 ) 1000
3
)
3º  =
 57.3º  D 83000
4
( )
32
D = 113.98 mm
max =
16T 16 (12 ) 1000
=
(2
)
D3 (
 113.983 )
max = 41.27 MPa
Power Transmitted by the Shaft

A shaft rotating with a constant angular velocity ω (in radians per second) is being acted by a
twisting moment T. The power transmitted by the shaft is
P = T = T2f
where T is the torque in N·m, f is the number of revolutions per second, and P is the power in
watts.
Example 3:
A steel marine propeller shaft 14 in. in diameter and 18 ft long is used to transmit 5000 hp at
189 rpm. If G = 12 × 106 psi, determine the maximum shearing stress.
P 5000 ( 396000 )
T= =
2f 2 (189 )
T = 1,667,337.50 lb − in
16T 16 (1,667,337.50 )
max = =
D3 (
 143 )
max = 3,094.60 psi

29
ACTIVITY MARCH 21, 2022

Exercises:
1. A solid steel shaft 5 m long is stressed at 80 MPa when twisted through 4°. Using G =
83 GPa, compute the shaft diameter. What power can be transmitted by the shaft at 20
Hz?
Answers: D = 138 mm; P = 5.19 MW
2. A 2-in-diameter steel shaft rotates at 240 rpm. If the shearing stress is limited to 12 ksi,
determine the maximum horsepower that can be transmitted.
Answer: P = 71.78 hp
3. A steel propeller shaft is to transmit 4.5 MW at 3 Hz without exceeding a shearing stress

of 50 MPa or twisting through more than 1° in a length of 26 diameters. Compute the
proper diameter if G = 83 GPa.
Answer; D = 352 mm
4. A flexible shaft consists of a 0.20-in-diameter steel wire encased in a stationary tube
that fits closely enough to impose a frictional torque of 0.50 lb·in/in. Determine the
maximum length of the shaft if the shearing stress is not to exceed 20 ksi. What will be
the angular deformation of one end relative to the other end? G = 12 × 106 psi.
Answer: θ = 0.5234 rad = 30º
5. Determine the maximum torque that can be applied to a hollow circular steel shaft of
100-mm outside diameter and an 80-mm inside diameter without exceeding a shearing
stress of 60 MPa or a twist of 0.5 deg/m. Use G = 83 GPa.
Answer; T = 4,198.28 N·m.

30
Flanged Bolt Couplings

In shaft connection called flanged bolt couplings (see figure), the torque is transmitted by the
shearing force P created in the bolts that is assumed to be uniformly distributed. For any
number of bolts n, the torque capacity of the coupling is
d2
T = PRn = Rn
4
If a coupling has two concentric rows of bolts, the torque capacity is
T = PR
1 1n1 + P2R2n2
where the subscript 1 refer to bolts on the outer circle and subscript 2 refer to bolts on the
inner circle. See figure.
For rigid flanges, the shear deformations in the bolts are proportional to their radial distances
from the shaft axis. The shearing strains are related by
1  2
=
R1 R2

Using Hooke's law for shear, G = , we have


31
P1 P2
1  A1 = A 2
= 2 or
G1R1 G2R2 G1R1 G2R2
If the bolts on the two circles have the same area, A1 = A2, and if the bolts are made of the
same material, G1 = G2, the relation between P1 and P2 reduces to
P1 P2
=
R1 R2
Example 1:
A flanged bolt coupling consists of ten 20-mm-diameter bolts spaced evenly around a bolt
circle 400 mm in diameter. Determine the torque capacity of the coupling if the allowable
shearing stress in the bolts is 40 MPa.
d2
T = PRn = ARn = Rn
4
 ( 20 )
2
T= ( 40 )( 200 )(10 )
4
T = 8 x 106  N  mm
T = 8 kN  m = 25.13 kN  m
Example 2: A flanged bolt coupling consists of ten steel ½-in.-diameter bolts spaced evenly
around a bolt circle 14 in. in diameter. Determine the torque capacity of the coupling if the
allowable shearing stress in the bolts is 6000 psi.
d2
T = PRn = ARn = Rn
4
 ( 0.5 )
2
T= ( 6000 )( 7 )(10 )
4
T = 26,250 lbF  in
T = 6,872.23 lbF  ft
Example 3:
A flanged bolt coupling consists of eight 10-mm-diameter steel bolts on a bolt circle 400 mm in
diameter, and six 10-mm-diameter steel bolts on a concentric bolt circle 300 mm in diameter,
as shown in Fig. 3-7. What torque can be applied without exceeding a shearing stress of 60
MPa in the bolts?

32
For one bolt in the outer circle:

 (10 )
2
P1 = A = ( 60 )
4
P1 = 1500 N
For one bolt in the inner circle:

P1 P2
=
R1 R2
1500 P2
=
200 150
P2 = 1125 N
T = PR
1 1n1 + P2R 2n2
T = 1500 ( 200 )( 8 ) + 1125 (150 )( 6 )

T = 10.72 kN  m
Helical Springs
When close-coiled helical spring, composed of a wire of round rod of diameter d wound into a
helix of mean radius R with n number of turns, is subjected to an axial load P produces the
following stresses and elongation:
P
The maximum shearing stress is the sum of the direct shearing stress 1 = and the torsional
A
Tr
shearing stress 2 = , with T = PR .
J

33
 = 1 + 2
P 16PR
= +
d2 d3
4
Equation 1
16PR  d 
= 1+
d  4R 
3 
This formula neglects the curvature of the spring. This is used for light spring where the ratio
d/4R is small.
For heavy springs and considering the curvature of the spring, A.M. Wahl formula a more
precise, it is given by: Equation 2
16PR  4m − 1 0.615 
= +
d3  4m − 4 m 
where m is called the spring index or the ratio of the mean diameter of the spring to the
D 2R
diameter of the spring wire, m = = , and ( 4m − 1)( 4m − 4 ) is the Wahl Factor.
d d
The elongation of the bar is

64PR3n
=
Gd4
Notice that the deformation δ is directly proportional to the applied load P. The ratio of P to δ is
called the spring constant k and is equal to
P Gd4
k= = N / mm
 64R3n
Springs in Series
For two or more springs with spring laid in series, the resulting spring constant k is given by

34
From Hooke' s Law : F = kx or P = k
Ptotal = P1 = P2 = ...
total = 1 + 2 + ....
1 1 1
= + + ...
k effective k1 k 2
where k1, k2,... are the spring constants for different springs.
Springs in Parallel
For two or more springs in parallel, the resulting spring constant is
Ptotal = P1 + P2 + ...
 total = 1 = 2 = ....
k effective = k1 + k 2 + ...
Example 1:
A helical spring is fabricated by wrapping wire 3/4 in. in diameter around a forming cylinder 8
in. in diameter. Compute the number of turns required to permit an elongation of 4 in. without
exceeding a shearing stress of 18 ksi. Use equation 1 and G = 12 × 106 psi.
16PR  d 
max = 1+
d  4R 
3 
16P ( 4 )  0.75 
18000 = 3 
1+ 
 ( 0.75 )  4 ( 4 ) 
P = 356.07 lb
64PR3n
=
Gd4
64 ( 356.07 )( 4 ) n
3
4=
(12x10 ) (0.75 )
6 4
n = 10.41 say 10 turns

35
Example 2:
Determine the maximum shearing stress and elongation in a helical steel spring composed of
20 turns of 20-mm-diameter wire on a mean radius of 90 mm when the spring is supporting a
load of 1.5 kN. Use Equation 2 and G = 83 GPa.
16PR  4m − 1 0.615 
max = +
d3  4m − 4 m 
where :
P = 1500 N
R = 90 mm
d = 20mm
n = 20 turns
2R 2 ( 90 )
m= = =9
d ( 20 )
16 (1500 )( 90 )  4 ( 9 ) − 1 0.615 
max =  + 
 ( 20 )
3
 4 (9) − 4 9 
max = 99.87 MPa
64PR3n 64 (1500 )( 90 ) ( 20 )
3
= =
( 83000 )( 20 )
4
Gd4
 = 105.44 mm

36
Lesson 4: Shear and Moment in Beams and Deflections
Shear and Moment Diagrams: Consider a simple beam shown of length L that carries a
uniform load of w (N/m) throughout its length and is held in equilibrium by reactions R 1 and R2.
Assume that the beam is cut at point C a distance of x from the left support and the portion of
the beam to the right of C be removed. The portion removed must then be replaced by vertical
shearing force V together with a couple M to hold the left portion of the bar in equilibrium under
the action of R1 and wx
The couple M is called the resisting moment or moment and the force V is called the resisting
shear or shear. The sign of V and M are taken to be positive if they have the senses indicated
above.
Example:
For the beam loaded as shown. Draw the shear and moment diagrams.

37
From the load diagram
MB = 0
5RD + 1( 30 ) = 3 ( 50 )
RD = 24 kN
FV = 0
RB + RD − 80 = 0
RB + 24 = 80
RB = 56 kN
Segment AB
VAB = −30 kN
MAB = −30x kN  m
Segment BC
VBC = −30 + 56 = 26
MBC = −30x + 56 ( x − 1) = 26x − 56
Segment CD
VCD = −30 + 56 − 50 = −24

MCD = −30x + 56 ( x − 1) − 50 ( x − 4 ) = −24x + 144

38
To draw the Shear Diagram

1. In segment AB, the shear is uniformly distributed over the segment at a magnitude of
−30 kN.
2. In segment BC, the shear is uniformly distributed at a magnitude of 26 kN.
3. In segment CD, the shear is uniformly distributed at a magnitude of −24 kN.
To draw the Moment Diagram

1. The equation MAB = −30x is linear,
at x = 0, MAB = 0 and
at x = 1 m, MAB = −30 kN·m.
2. MBC = 26x − 56 is also linear.
At x = 1 m, MBC = −30 kN·m;
at x = 4 m, MBC = 48 kN·m.
When MBC = 0, x = 2.154 m, thus the moment is zero at 1.154 m from B.
3. MCD = −24x + 144 is again linear.
At x = 4 m, MCD = 48 kN·m;
at x = 6 m, MCD = 0.

39
Exercises:
For each beam, draw the shear and moment diagrams.
1. Beam loaded as shown
4. Cantilever beam carrying the uniformly varying load: let wo = 100 lb/ft and L= 10 ft

40
Summary of shearing force and bending moment diagrams
1. At zero shearing force (V = 0), bending moment is either at minimum or maximum

value.
Shearing forces are unaligned forces pushing one part of a body in one direction,
and another part of the body in the opposite direction. When the forces are
aligned into each other, they are called compression forces.
2. Point of contra-flexure is the point at which bending moment is zero or at which “no
bending occurs”.
3. Literal meaning of contra-flexure = contra (opposite) + flexure (bending)
4. At point of contra-flexure, bending moment changes its sign from negative to positive or
vice versa. So in a structure or beam, reinforcement shall be provided in both sides (i.e.
lower or upper) for the safety of a structure.
5. Positive bending moment or “sagging” bending moment.

6. Negative bending moment or “hogging” bending moment.
7. Definition of Bending Moment
Bending Moment is the measure of internal stress produced by the external force or
moment causing the element to bend.

41
Beam Deflections
Deflection of Beams: The deformation of a beam is usually expressed in terms of its

deflection from the original unloaded position. The deflection is measured from the original
neutral surface of the beam to the neutral surface of the deformed beam. The configuration
assumed by the deformed neutral surface is known as the elastic curve of the beam.

42
Methods of Determining Beam Deflections
Numerous methods are available for the determination of beam deflections. These methods
include:
1. Double-integration method
2. Area-moment method
3. Strain-energy method (Castigliano's Theorem)
4. Conjugate-beam method
5. Method of superposition
Of these methods, the first two are the ones that are commonly used.
Double-integration method
The double integration method is a powerful tool in solving deflection and slope of a beam at
any point because we will be able to get the equation of the elastic curve.
In calculus, the radius of curvature of a curve y = f(x) is given by
3
  dy 2  2
1 +   
3
1 + ( y ' )2  2
  dx  
=  =  
d2 y y"
dx 2
In the derivation of flexure formula, the radius of curvature of a beam is given as
EI
=
M
Deflection of beams is so small, such that the slope of the elastic curve dy/dx is very small,
and squaring this expression the value becomes practically negligible, hence
1
=
d2 y
dx 2
EI 1
Thus, =
M y"

43
M
y" =
EI
If EI is constant, the equation may be written as:
EIy " = M
where x and y are the coordinates shown in the figure of the elastic curve of the beam under
load, y is the deflection of the beam at any distance x. E is the modulus of elasticity of the
beam, I represent the moment of inertia about the neutral axis, and M represents the bending
moment at a distance x from the end of the beam. The product EI is called the flexural
rigidity of the beam.
The first integration y' yields the slope of the elastic curve and the second integration y gives
the deflection of the beam at any distance x. The resulting solution must contain two constants
of integration since EI y" = M is of second order. These two constants must be evaluated from
known conditions concerning the slope deflection at certain points of the beam. For instance,
in the case of a simply supported beam with rigid supports, at x = 0 and x = L, the deflection y
= 0, and in locating the point of maximum deflection, we simply set the slope of the elastic
curve y' to zero.
Example:
Compute the value of EI δ at midspan for the beam loaded as shown. If E = 10 GPa, what
value of I is required to limit the midspan deflection to 1/360 of the span?

44
MR2 = 0
4R1 − 300 ( 2 )( 3 ) = 0
R1 = 450 N
FV = 0
450 + R 2 − 300 ( 2 ) = 0
R 2 = 150 N
EIy " = M
x  x −2
EIy " = 450x − 300x   + 300 ( x − 2 )  
2  2 
2
EIy " = 450x − 150x 2 + 150 x − 2
3
EIy ' = 225x 2 − 50x 3 + 50 x − 2 + c1
4
EIy = 75x 3 − 12.5x 4 + 12.5 x − 2 + c1x + c 2
Note : 1. That the term x − 2 is neglected for values of x less than 2.
2. That the terms between point ed brackets do not exist for negative values.
3. That the general moment equation is written u sing the definition M = ML ,
which means that we consider the effects of loads lying only to the left of an
exploratory sec tion.
At x = 0,y = 0
c2 = 0
At x = 4 m,y = 0
c1 = −450 N  m2
EIy = 75x 3 − 12.5x 4 + 12.5 ( x − 2 ) − 450x
4

45
At x = 2 m (midspan)
EIy midspan = 75 ( 2 ) − 12.5 ( 2 ) + 12.5 ( 2 − 2 ) − 450 ( 2 )
3 4 4
EIy midspan = −500 N  m3

EImidspan = 500 N  m3
Maximum midspan deflection

1 1 1
midspan = L= ( 4) = m
360 360 90
100
midspan = mm
9
Thus,
 100 
10,000 (I)  = 500 (1000 )
3

 9 
I = 4.50x106 mm4
Exercises:
1. Compute the midspan value of EI δ for the beam loaded as shown.
EImidspan = 6962.5 N  m3
2. For the beam loaded as shown, calculate the slope of the elastic curve over the right
support.
1040
y' = − lb  ft 2
3EI

46
3. Compute the value of EIy at the right end of the overhanging beam shown.
EIy = −2850 lb  ft 3
Moment Diagram by Parts
The moment-area method of finding the deflection of a beam will demand the accurate
computation of the area of a moment diagram, as well as the moment of such area about any
axis. To pave its way, this section will deal on how to draw moment diagram by parts and to
calculate the moment of such diagrams about a specified axis.
Basic Principles
1. The bending moment caused by all forces to the left or to the right of any section is
equal to the respective algebraic sum of the bending moments at that section caused by
each load acting separately.
M = ( M)L = ( M)R
2. The moment of a load about a specified axis is always defined by the equation of a
spandrel.
y = kxn
where n is the degree of power of x.
The graph of the above equation is as shown below

47
and the area and location of centroid are defined as follows.

bh
A=
n +1
b
x=
n+2
Cantilever Loadings
A = area of moment diagram
Mx = moment about a section of distance x
x = location of centoid
n = degree power of the moment diagram
Couple or Moment Load

A = −CL
Mx = −C
1
x= L
2
Degree : zero
Concentrated Load
1
A = − PL2
2
Mx = −Px
1
x= L
3
Degree : first
Uniformly Distributed Load

48
1
A = − w oL3
6
1
Mx = − w o x 2
2
1
x= L
4
Degree : sec ond
Uniformly Varying Load
1
A=− w oL3
24
1
Mx = − w o x2
6L
1
x= L
5
Degree : third
Example: For the beam loaded as shown, compute the moment of area of the M diagrams
between the reactions about both the left and the right reaction.
Solution: R1 = 400 N R2 = 600 N
Moment diagram by parts can be drawn in different ways; three are shown below.
1st solution: 2nd solution: 3rd solution:

49
Answer:
( A AB ) x A = 11,733 N  m3
( A AB ) xB = 9,867 N  m3

50
Area-Moment Method
Another method of determining the slopes and deflections in beams is the area-moment
method, which involves the area of the moment diagram.
Theorems of Area-Moment Method
Theorem I
The change in slope between the tangents drawn to the elastic curve at any two points A and
B is equal to the product of 1/EI multiplied by the area of the moment diagram between these
two points.
1
AB = ( AreaAB )
EI
Theorem II
The deviation of any point B relative to the tangent drawn to the elastic curve at any other point
A, in a direction perpendicular to the original position of the beam, is equal to the product of
1/EI multiplied by the moment of an area about B of that part of the moment diagram between
points A and B.
1
tB/ A = ( AreaAB )  XB
EI
and
1
t A /B = ( AreaAB )  X A
EI

51
Rules of Sign
1. The deviation at any point is positive if the point lies above the tangent, negative if the
point is below the tangent.
2. Measured from left tangent, if θ is counterclockwise, the change of slope is positive,
negative if θ is clockwise.
Deflections in Simply Supported Beams

The deflection  at some point B of a simply supported beam can be obtained by the following
steps:
1
1. Compute t C/ A = ( AreaAC )  XC
EI
1
2. Compute tB/ A = ( AreaAB )  XB
EI
3. Solve  by ratio and proportion (see figure above).
 + tB/A tC/A
=
x L

52
Example: Compute the midspan value of EI for the beam shown. (Hint: Draw the M
diagram by parts, starting from midspan toward the ends. Also take advantage of symmetry to
note that the tangent drawn to the elastic curve at midspan is horizontal.)
R1 = R2 = 1,200 N
3350
t A /B =
EI
EI = 3,350 N  m3

53
Exercies:
1. For the beam loaded as shown, compute the moment of area of the M diagrams
between the reactions about both the left and the right reaction. (Hint: Draw the moment
diagram by parts from right to left.)
R1 = 1000 N
R2 = 700 N
( A AB ) x A = 5,450 N  m3
( A AB ) xB = 7,750 N  m3
2. For the beam as shown, find the value of EI at 2 ft from R2. (Hint: Draw the reference
tangent to the elastic curve at R2.)
640
R1 = N
3
320
R2 = N
3
2,560
EIB = lb  ft 3
3

54
Deflection of Cantilever Beams | Area-Moment Method
Generally, the tangential deviation t is not equal to the beam deflection. In cantilever beams,
however, the tangent drawn to the elastic curve at the wall is horizontal and coincidence
therefore with the neutral axis of the beam. The tangential deviation in this case is equal to the
deflection of the beam as shown below.
From the figure above, the deflection at B denoted as B is equal to the deviation of B from a
tangent line through A denoted as tB/A. This is because the tangent line through A lies with the
neutral axis of the beam.
Example: The cantilever beam shown in Fig. P-636 has a rectangular cross-section 50 mm
wide by h mm high. Find the height h if the maximum deflection is not to exceed 10 mm. Use E
= 10 GPa.
Solution

55
1
t A /B = ( A AB ) x A
EI
320  1  10  1 8 
−10 =  − ( 2 )( 4 )   − ( 4 )(16 )    1000 4
 50h   2
3
 3  2 3
10,000  
 12 
h = 618.67mm
Exercises: For the beam loaded as shown, determine the deflection 6 ft from the wall. Use E =
1.5 × 106 psi and I = 40 in4.
B = tB/C = 0.7980 in.
1. For the cantilever beam shown, determine the value of EI at the left end. Is this
deflection upward or downward?
EI = 6.67 kN  m3 upward

56
Lesson 5: Moving Loads
From the previous section, we see that the maximum moment occurs at a point of zero shears.
For beams loaded with concentrated loads, the point of zero shears usually occurs under a
concentrated load and so the maximum moment.
Beams and girders such as in a bridge or an overhead crane are subject to moving
concentrated loads, which are at fixed distance with each other. The problem here is to
determine the moment under each load when each load is in a position to cause a maximum
moment. The largest value of these moments governs the design of the beam.
Single Moving Load

For a single moving load, the maximum moment occurs when the load is at the midspan and
the maximum shear occurs when the load is very near the support (usually assumed to lie over
the support).
Two Moving Loads

For two moving loads, the maximum shear occurs at the reaction when the larger load is over
that support. The maximum moment is given by
where Ps is the smaller load, Pb is the bigger load, and P is the total load (P = Ps + Pb).

57
Three or more moving loads

In general, the bending moment under a particular load is a maximum when the center of the
beam is midway between that load and the resultant of all the loads then on the span. With this
rule, we compute the maximum moment under each load, and use the biggest of the moments
for the design. Usually, the biggest of these moments occurs under the biggest load.
The maximum shear occurs at the reaction where the resultant load is nearest. Usually, it
happens if the biggest load is over that support and as many a possible of the remaining loads
are still on the span.
In determining the largest moment and shear, it is sometimes necessary to check the condition
when the bigger loads are on the span and the rest of the smaller loads are outside.
Example:
A truck with axle loads of 40 kN and 60 kN on a wheel base of 5 m rolls across a 10-m span.
Compute the maximum bending moment and the maximum shearing force.
For maximum moment under 40 kN wheel:

58
For maximum moment under 60 kN wheel:
Thus, answer
The maximum shear will occur when the 60

kN is over a support.
Thus, answer
Exercises:
1. Repeat Illustrative Example using axle loads of 30 kN and 50 kN on a wheel base of 4
m crossing an 8-m span.
Answers: Mmax = 105.63 kN-m; Vmax = 65 kN
2. A tractor weighing 3000 lb, with a wheel base of 9 ft, carries 1800 lb of its load on the
rear wheels. Compute the maximum moment and maximum shear when crossing a 14
ft-span.
Answers: Mmax = 6300 lb-ft; Vmax = 2228.57 lb

59
Lesson 6: Flexure Formula
Stresses caused by the bending moment are known as flexural or bending stresses. Consider
a beam to be loaded as shown.
Consider a fiber at a distance from the neutral axis, because of the beam's curvature, as the
effect of bending moment, the fiber is stretched by an amount of . Since the curvature of the
beam is very small, and are considered as similar triangles. The strain on this fiber is
By Hooke's law, , then
which means that the stress is proportional to the distance from the neutral axis.

60
For this section, the notation will be used instead of .
Considering a differential area at a distance from N.A., the force acting over the area is
The resultant of all the elemental moment about N.A. must be equal to the bending moment on
the section.
but , then
substituting
then

61
and
The bending stress due to beams curvature is
The beam curvature is:
where is the radius of curvature of the beam in mm (in), is the bending moment in N·mm
(lb·in), is the flexural stress in MPa (psi), is the centroidal moment of inertia in mm4 (in4),
and is the distance from the neutral axis to the outermost fiber in mm (in).
In the formula
the ratio is called the section modulus and is

usually denoted by with units of mm3 (in3). The
maximum bending stress may then be written as
This form is convenient because the values of

are available in handbooks for a wide range of
standard structural shapes.
Example: A
simply supported beam, 2 in wide by 4 in high and
12 ft long is subjected to a concentrated load of
2000 lb at a point 3 ft from one of the
supports. Determine the maximum fiber stress and
the stress in a fiber located 0.5 in from the top of the
beam at midspan.

62
Maximum fiber stress:
answer

63
Stress in a fiber located 0.5 in from the top of the beam at midspan:
answer

64

65

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University of Cebu Main Campus

Expanded Tertiary Education Equivalency Accreditation Program

Course Code: Mech 30A

1. Understand the concepts of stress and strain;

In contrast to mechanics, strength of materials deals with the relations between

Three Basic Classification of Loading

Mech 30A Mechanics of Deformable Bodies`

Three Types of Simple Stress

Mech 30A Mechanics of Deformable Bodies`

Cross-sectional area of each bar:

Table 1: Properties of Common Materials

Mech 30A Mechanics of Deformable Bodies`

Mech 30A Mechanics of Deformable Bodies`

2. Double Shear: A bolt resists two cross-sectional areas.

Mech 30A Mechanics of Deformable Bodies`

3. A circular slug is about to be punched out of a plate.

Mech 30A Mechanics of Deformable Bodies`

Mech 30A Mechanics of Deformable Bodies`

P P Projected area of rivet hole

Mech 30A Mechanics of Deformable Bodies`

Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels

Mech 30A Mechanics of Deformable Bodies`

Tangential Stress (or Circumferential Stress or Hoop Stress)

Mech 30A Mechanics of Deformable Bodies`

Longitudinal Stress (or Axial Stress)

Based on tangential stress : Based on longitudinal stress :

Mech 30A Mechanics of Deformable Bodies`

For longitudinal joint (tangential stress):

Mech 30A Mechanics of Deformable Bodies`

Answers: (a) 45 MPa, 22.5 MPa (b) 12 MPa

Answer: 208.33 psi

Answer: 1.40 inch

Mech 30A Mechanics of Deformable Bodies`

ri2pi − ro2po ri ro (pi − po )

ri2pi − ro2po ri2pi − ro2po ri ro (pi − po )

2. The circumferential stress on the inside layer (186.67 MPa)

Lesson 2: Simple Strain

Stress-Strain Diagram: Suppose that a metal specimen be placed in a tension-compression-

Mech 30A Mechanics of Deformable Bodies`

Mech 30A Mechanics of Deformable Bodies`

Greek Small Letter Symbol

Mech 30A Mechanics of Deformable Bodies`

Mech 30A Mechanics of Deformable Bodies`

Mech 30A Mechanics of Deformable Bodies`

Statically Indeterminate Members

m + r = 2j statically det er minate

Statically Determinate Members

Statically Indeterminate Members

Mech 30A Mechanics of Deformable Bodies`

Mech 30A Mechanics of Deformable Bodies`

Mech 30A Mechanics of Deformable Bodies`

Ans: 86.22 MPa; 36.20 MPa; 135.33 MPa

Ans: 0.1368 in.

Mech 30A Mechanics of Deformable Bodies`

The internal stress created is termed as thermal stress.

deformation due to temperature changes:

deformation due to equivalent axial stress:

Mech 30A Mechanics of Deformable Bodies`

3. Steel railroad reels 10 m long are laid with a clearance of 3 mm at a temperature of