UNIT 1.

FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF THERMODYNAMICS

Overview

This unit deals with the definition of thermodynamics and its importance in the field
of engineering. This will introduce the basic thermodynamic terms and thermodynamic
concepts such as the laws of thermodynamics and other prevailing concepts. Review of
dimensions and units is also included in preparation for problem solving, and system
fundamental and secondary properties.

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this unit, I am expected to

1. define thermodynamics;
2. discuss the importance of thermodynamics and its application in
engineering;
3. explain the macroscopic and microscopic approaches;
4. explain the concepts of a continuum, system, surroundings, and universe;
5. explain thermodynamic equilibrium;
6. state and explain the laws of thermodynamics;
7. identify and explain the different types of thermodynamic system;
8. explain the concepts of phase, path, process, cycle and quasi-static
process;
9. differentiate point function and path function;
10. identify explain the base properties;
11. enumerate and define secondary properties; and
12. convert units of properties from one system to another.

Setting Up

Name: __________________________________________ Date: ___________________

Course/Year/Section: ________________________

Direction: Write your assessment on the following situations:

1. Imagine a cup of hot coffee in a table. If you will touch the cup, what will you feel?
If you will touch the coffee, what will you feel? After half an hour, if you touch
again the cup then the coffee, do you think there are changes? Cite any principle
or theory that relates to the changes you noticed.
2. If you have a glass of ice and a glass of hot water, then put them together, what do
you think will happen? What will happen if you check your mixture after say 10
minutes? Explain any theory or principle behind these changes.

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 3. If you boil water in a whistling kettle, the kettle whistle when the water reached
its boiling point. Why? What can you say about the water molecules?
4. What is the difference between a mass and a weight? Explain by giving examples.
5. What is the difference between a unit and a dimension? Explain by giving
examples.

Lesson Proper

1.1 Definition

Thermodynamics is study of the relationships among heat, work and other forms of
energy. This is a branch of physics that is particularly concerned with how thermal energy
is converted into other forms of energy. It deals with the macroscopic properties of
system that are at least in equilibrium. It gives details of the state of the system and
changes in the state of the system.
The word thermodynamics came from the Greek words “therme”, meaning heat, and
“dynamis” meaning motion. Therefore, it literally means heat in motion.

1.2 Thermodynamics Applications

Thermodynamics is present almost everywhere in our daily life. In our house, many
of our appliances use the principles of thermodynamics. Examples are the refrigerator,
air conditioner, heater, pressure cooker, kettle, electric iron and many more.
In the field of engineering, the role of thermodynamics is crucial since it is involved
in the design of engines for vehicles, such as jet engines and automobile engines. In power
plants, thermodynamics is essential in the design of turbine, pumps, compressors and
other components. Almost all engineering devices relates to the principles and laws of
thermodynamics.

1.3 Macroscopic vs. Microscopic Approach

Macroscopic approach studies a certain measurable amount of matter on the

average scale without considering the behavior of its molecules, thus it takes only few
properties to describe the system. This approach takes the overall behavior of matter and
not its individual molecules; hence it requires simple mathematical formulae. The
changes in the matter can be perceived by our senses. This is called classical
thermodynamics.
Microscopic approach considers every individual molecules in a matter. Each
individual molecules have different velocities and energies that are constantly varying
with time. The number of molecules is very large so to give a reason for the changes in
the system; complex statistical and mathematical methods are required. These properties
of molecules cannot be felt by our senses and so these cannot be measured by

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 instruments. This approach is complicated since huge amount of variables are needed to
describe the system. This is called statistical thermodynamics.

1.4 Thermodynamic Systems

The initial step in applying thermodynamics is to choose an appropriate portion of

the space that we want to consider. This portion of the universe is called the system.
The system is a macroscopically specified group of matter that we wish to study or
we want to take into account (eg: piston-cylinder assembly or the turbine in a steam
power plant). It distinguishes the subject of the analysis by identifying a boundary.
The only layer which is separates the system and its surroundings, close enough to
the system is called the boundary of the system.
The rest of the space outside the system close enough to the system to have some
distinguishable effect on the system is called the surroundings.
The boundary is generally just as significant as the system itself. Particularly, it is
crucial to assert if the boundary will allow thermal interaction or an exchange of heat
energy with the surroundings.
An adiabatic boundary does not permit any exchange of energy between the system
and the surroundings. A thermodynamic system surrounded by an adiabatic boundary is
said to be thermally isolated.
A diathermal boundary allows the exchange of energy between the system and the
surroundings. A thermodynamic system within a diathermal boundary is said to be
thermally interacting.

Credit: provenmech.com
Figure 1.1: Thermodynamic System

The system boundary may be real or imaginary, and may change in shape as well as
in size over time, i.e., increase or decrease.

Credit: expertsmind.com
Figure 1.2: The real and imaginary boundaries

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 The combination system + boundary + surroundings is called the universe. The
Universe is a thermodynamic system without a boundary.

1.5 Thermodynamic Equilibrium

A system is in equilibrium if its physical properties do no change with time. A stirred

cup of coffee continues to swirl for a while after we stop stirring. A hot cup of coffee cools
and takes on the temperature of its surroundings regardless of its initial temperature.
The final macro states of such systems are called equilibrium states, which are
characterized by their time independence, history independence, and relative simplicity.
Example: Imagine that a certain quantity of gas, initially confined to a small portion
of a box, is allowed to slowly fill the entire box by flowing through a porous membrane.
As long as the gas flows from the small chamber into the larger box, the system is not in
equilibrium. Eventually, of course, the gas will uniformly fill the box, and the macroscopic
flow will stop.

Credit: equilibriumthermodynamics.weebly.com
Figure 1.3: Illustrating Thermodynamic Equilibrium

Thus, for attaining a state of thermodynamic equilibrium, the following three types of
equilibrium states must be achieved:

1. Thermal equilibrium. The temperature of the system does not change with time
and has same value at all points of the system.
2. Mechanical equilibrium. There are no unbalanced forces within the system or
between the surroundings. The pressure in the system is same at all points and
does not change with respect to time.
3. Chemical equilibrium. No chemical reaction takes place in the system and the
chemical composition, which is same throughout the system, does not vary with
time.
We actually never totally achieve equilibrium, we only approximate it. It takes infinite
time to achieve final equilibrium.
Between the system and surroundings, if there is no difference in

1. Pressure Mechanical equilibrium

2. Potential Electrical equilibrium
3. Concentration of species Species equilibrium
4. Temperature Thermal equilibrium
5. Chemical potential Chemical equilibrium

Equilibrium can easily be broken: If the system is heated, for example, the liquid will
vaporize, and the proportions will change (the amount of liquid will decrease, while the
amount of vapor will increase).

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1.6 Laws of Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics fundamentally encompasses of four laws: the Zeroth Law, the First
Law, the Second Law and the Third Law.

1. The Zeroth Law of thermodynamics explains thermal equilibrium and bring about
the concept of temperature.

Example: We have a cup of hot coffee and a cup of iced coffee on the coffee
table inside a room. After some time, the hot coffee will become cold and the ice
in the cold coffee will melt. After some more time, both the hot coffee and the iced
coffee will be equal to the room temperature, which means that all these three
systems are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

= Environment =
Credit: abcnews.go.com Credit: nestleprofessional.us
Figure 1.4: Illustration of the Zeroth Law

2. The First Law of thermodynamics refers to the statement of the law of

conservation of energy and bring in the concept of internal energy

Credit: crediblehulk.org
(a) (b)
Figure 1.5: Conservation of Energy Principle – The First Law of
Thermodynamics

3. The Second Law of thermodynamics throws light on the concept of entropy.

1. A hot coffee will cool down naturally without any process involved but it
will not be heated again by itself.
2. An iced coffee will be warmed up by itself without any process involved
but cannot be cooled again by itself.
3. A balloon leaks its helium by itself but the helium will not enter again the
balloon by itself.

Example:

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 Credit: Pinterest.com
Figure 1.6: Entropy - Melting ice

Credit: isaacson.info
Figure 1.7: Entropy – Disorder

4. The Third Law of thermodynamics describes absolute zero entropy.

Credit: www.shutterstock.com
Figure 1.8: Illustration of the Third Law

1.7 Types of Thermodynamic System

1.7.1 Closed System

A closed system refers to a fixed quantity of matter, whereas a control

volume is a region of space through which mass may flow.

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 A close system is also called as control mass because in it there is no way
from which the mass enters or leave the system
Mass remains constant
regardless of variation
of boundaries

Credit: d24cdstip7q8pz.cloudfront.net
Figure 1.9: Closed System

Examples:

1. Car battery, Electric supply takes place from and to the battery but
there is no material transfer.
2. Teakettle, Heat is supplied to the kettle but mass of water remains
constant.
3. Piston – cylinder assembly.

1.7.2 Isolated System

Isolated System is a system that does not interact at all with the
surroundings, e.g., no heat transfer across system boundary. The internal
energy and mass of such a system are conserved.
The physical universe is an isolated system; a closed thermos bottle is
essentially an isolated system (though its insulation is not perfect).

Credit: expertsmind.com
Figure 1.10: Isolated System

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1.7.3 Open System

It is often called as control volume because it is a selected region over

space from which the quantity of mass enters or leaves the system but the
selected region over space remains same. Most of the engineering devices are
open system.

Credit: thermopressbooks.com
Figure 1.11: Open System

Examples:

1. Water Pump: Water enters at low level and pumped to a higher level,
pump being driven by an electric motor. The mass (water) and energy
(electricity) cross the boundary of the system (pump and motor).
2. Boilers, turbines, heat exchangers. Fluid flow through them and heat or
work is taken out or supplied to them.

1.7.4 Adiabatic System

A system with adiabatic walls can only exchange work and not heat with
the surrounding. All adiabatic systems are thermally insulated from their
surroundings. Example is Thermos flask containing a liquid.
Insulated Turbines, throttle valves, water pumps, water turbines,
insulated heat exchangers, etc., are some examples of adiabatic systems.

1.7.5 Difference Between Closed and Open Systems

Closed System Open System

1. It is also called non-flow system. It is also called a flow system
2. A certain quantity of matter called a
A certain region called a control
control mass is considered for study.
volume is considered for study
3. The system is enclosed by a real The system is surrounded by a
boundary, which maybe fixed or control surface, which is a
movable. combination of real and imaginary
boundaries.
4. No mass can cross the boundary, Both mass and energy can enter or
while energy can enter or leave the leave the control surface of the
system boundary system.

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 5. If energy transfer does not take If heat transfer does not take place
place across the boundary, then it is across the control surface, then it is
called an isolated system. called an adiabatic system.
6. Examples are pressure cooker and Examples are scooter engine, air
refrigerator compressor and gas turbine

1.7.6 Difference Between Isolated and Adiabatic Systems

Isolated System Adiabatic System

1. 1. It is a special type of closed system. It is a special type of open system.
2. 2. Mass and energy do not cross the Mass and energy except heat energy,
boundary of the system. can cross the boundary of the
system.
3. 3. It is a closed system, which is It is an open system, which is
insulated at its boundaries, thus it insulated at ts real boundaries, thus
becomes isolated from its heat cannot cross it.
surroundings.
4. 4. Some examples are ice box and Some examples are throttle valve
thermos flask. and water pump.

1.7.7 Homogeneous System

A system, which consists of a single phase, is termed as homogeneous

system. It is treated as one constituent for analysis. For example, Mixture of
air and water vapor, water plus nitric acid and octane plus heptane.

1.7.8 Heterogeneous System

A system, which consists of two or more phase, is termed as

heterogeneous system. For example, Water plus steam, Ice plus water and
water plus oil.
1.8 Working Fluid

The matter contained within the system boundaries is called working fluid. It is used
in thermodynamic devices as a medium for energy transport between the system and
surroundings, while undergoing a thermodynamic process or cycle. The working fluids
frequently absorb, store or release energy. Examples are water vapor in a steam power
plant and refrigerant in a refrigerator.

1.9 Continuum

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 In macroscopic approach of thermodynamics the substance is considered to be
continuous whereas every matter actually comprises of large number of molecules with
intermolecular spacing amongst them.
In statistical thermodynamics this microscopic approach is followed, although it is
often too cumbersome for practical calculations.

1.10 Thermodynamic Properties of a System

A thermodynamic system is characterized by its properties.

System Properties – macroscopic characteristics of a system to which a numerical

value can be assigned at a given time without knowledge of the history of the system, e.g.,
mass, volume, pressure

The significant features of a thermodynamic property are the following:

a. A property is a measurable characteristic.

b. It has a definite value.
c. It helps distinguish one system from another.
d. The magnitude of a property depends on the state of the system, and it is
independent of the path followed by a system during the process.
e. A property is an exact differential.

1.10.1 Intrinsic Properties

Intrinsic properties (also called intensive) are those which are

independent of the quantity of matter present. For example, the density of
gold is the same no matter how much gold you have to measure. Common
intrinsic properties are density and specific gravity.

1.10.2 Extrinsic Properties

An extrinsic property is not essential or inherent to the subject that is

being characterized. For example, mass is an intrinsic property of any
physical object, whereas weight is an extrinsic property that depends on the
strength of the gravitational field in which the object is placed.

1.10.3 Extensive Property

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 The properties which depend on the size (i.e., mass) or extent of a system,
e.g., mass, volume, energy. If mass is increased, the value of extensive property
also increases.

1.10.4 Intensive Property

It is the property which is independent of system size (value may vary

throughout the system), e.g., pressure, temperature

1.10.5 Specific Property

The ratio of an extensive property to the mass or the property per unit
mass (or mole). It is a special case of an intensive property.

1.11 State, Phase, Path, Process and Cycle

1.11.1 State

The condition of a system as defined by the values of all its properties is

the state of the system. It gives a complete description of the system.
Alternatively, each unique condition of a system is called a state.
Any operation in which one or more properties of a system change is
called a change of state.

1.11.2 Phase

A quantity of mass that is homogeneous throughout in chemical

composition and physical structure e.g.: solid, liquid, vapor, gas, is called
phase. Phase consisting of more than one phase is known as heterogeneous
system.
Phase boundary is the interfaces between different phases.
An example of a single phase is ice. A glass of ice water is a two-phase
mixture with the phase boundaries at the edge of each ice cube.

Change of Phase

Solid to Liquid - Melting or Fusion

Liquid to Solid - Solidification or Freezing
Liquid to Gas - Evaporation or Vaporization
Gas to Liquid - Condensation of Liquefaction
Solid to Gas - Sublimation

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1.11.3 Path

The succession of states passed through during a change of state is called

the path of the system.
It completes the cycle by regaining the initial state.
Certain common processes are given special names, based on the Greek,
isos, meaning “equal”.

Credit: crescent.education
Figure 1.12: Process Path

1.11.4 Process

The change of a thermodynamic system from one thermodynamic state to

another is called a process. Processes are classified as follows:

1. A process where fluid is undergoing in a closed system is called non-

flow process.
2. A process where fluid is undergoing in an open system is called flow
process.
3. When a process continues in such a way that the system stays almost
infinitesimally close to equilibrium, this is called quasi-static
process.
4. if a process once taken place between two states can be reversed and
system returns to its initial condition without any effect on the
surroundings, this is called reversible process.
5. If a process cannot be reversed by the same path, and follows one
direction only, it is called irreversible process. An irreversible
process passes through series of non-equilibrium states.
6. When a system undergoes a process while enclosed in an ideal
insulator, the system does not undergo heat transfer from the system
to the surroundings, the process is called adiabatic process.

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 Other types of processes are the following:

1. Isobaric process – a process that the pressure remains constant.

2. Isochoric or isometric process – a process where the volume remains
constant.
3. Isothermal process – a process where the temperature remains
constant.
4. Isentropic process – a process where the entropy remains constant.
5. Isenthalpic process – a process where the enthalpy remains constant.

1.11.5 Cycle

Any process or series of processes whose end states are identical is

termed a cycle. Fig. 1.13 shows such a cycle in which a system commencing
at condition ‘1’ changes in pressure and volume through a path 123 and
returns to its initial condition ‘1’.
The cycle is a thermodynamic “round trip.”

Credit: researchgate.net
Figure 1.13: A cyclic process

1.12 Point Function and Path Function

When two properties locate a point on the graph (co-ordinate axes) then those
properties are called as point function.

Examples. Pressure, temperature, volume etc.

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∫ dV = V − V (an exact differential).
2 1
1
There are certain quantities, which cannot be located on a graph by a point but
are given by the area or so, on that graph. Such quantities are called path functions.

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 Examples. Heat, work etc.

Heat and work are inexact differentials. Their change cannot be written as
difference between their end states.

Thus

∫2 δQ ≠ Q – Q and is shown as Q or Q
1
2 1 1 2 1–2

∫
1
Similarly 2 δW ≠ W2 – W1, and is shown as 1W2 or W1–2
Note. The operator δ is used to denote inexact differentials and operator d is used
to denote exact differentials.

1.13 Quasi-static process

A thermodynamic process that happens slowly enough for the system to remain
in internal equilibrium. An example of this is quasi-static compression, where the
volume of a system changes at a slow rate enough to allow the pressure to remain
uniform and constant throughout the system.
Quasi means ‘as if’. This process is a succession of equilibrium states and infinite
slowness is its characteristic feature.
Only in quasi-static process can we define intensive quantities (like Pressure,
Temperature, Specific volume, Specific entropy) of the system at every instant during
the whole process; otherwise, since no internal equilibrium is established, different
parts of the system would have different values of these quantities.
Any reversible process is a quasi-static one.

1.14 Dimensions and Units

A dimension is a measure of a physical variable (without numerical values), while a

unit is a way to assign a number or measurement to that dimension.
For example, length is a dimension, but it is measured in units of feet (ft) or meters
(m).

1.14.1 Basic unit systems

1. the International System of Units (SI units, from Le Systeme International

d’Unites, more commonly simply called metric units)
2. the English Engineering System of Units (commonly called English units)
3. the British Gravitational System of Units (BG)

The latter two are similar, except for the choice of primary mass unit and use of
the degree symbol. They are called American Engineering System (AE).

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 Primary (sometimes called basic) dimensions are defined as independent or
fundamental dimensions, from which other dimensions can be obtained.

Credit: researchgate.net
Table 1.1: Base quantities

1.14.2 Basic Dimensions and Systems of Units

Basic Symbol SI unit BG unit English unit

Dimension
mass m (sometimes kg slug lbm (pound-
M) (kilogram) mass)
length L (sometimes m (meter) ft (foot) ft (foot)
l)
time t (sometimes s (second) s (second) s (second)
T)
temperature T K (Kelvin) oR(degree R (Rankine)
(sometimes q ) Rankine)
electric I (sometimes A (ampere) A (ampere) A (ampere)
current i)
amount of C (sometimes c (candela) c (candela) c (candela)
light ℓ)
(luminous
intensity)
amount of n or N mol (mole) mol (mole) mol (mole)
matter (sometimes )
Source: engineersnote.com
Table 1.2: Base dimensions and system of units

1. mass
- kilogram (kg): a mass equal to the mass of the international prototype of the
kilogram (a platinum-iridium bar stored in Paris), roughly equal to the mass
of one liter of water at standard temperature and pressure, and
- pound mass (lbm)
2. length
– meter (m): the length of the path traveled by light in vacuum during a time
interval of 1/299792458 of a second, and

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 – foot (ft)
3. time
– second: (s) the duration of 9192631770 periods of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the
ground state of the cesium 133 atom, and
– second (s) English time units are identical to those of SI

1.14.3

Terms that are equal to each other must also have the same dimensions.
Equations for which both of these statements are true are said to be
dimensionally homogeneous.
All valid equations must be dimensionally homogeneous, but not all
dimensionally homogeneous equations are valid!
Dimensions can be expresses in MLT or FLT systems
MLT – mass-length-time
FLT – force-length-time

Example: Determine the dimensions of kinetic energy

m V2
KE =
2
m has dimensions of mass or [M]
v has dimensions of length per time or [L] / [T]

M L2
KE = = ML2T –2 (MLT system)
T2

F. T 2 L2
KE = = F L (FLT system)
L T2
1.15 Temperature

The temperature of a body is proportional to the stored molecular energy i.e., the
average molecular kinetic energy of the molecules in a system.
More fundamental than common units such as oF and oC are so-called absolute
temperature units:
– Kelvin: (K) the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple
point of water, and
– Rankine: (◦R).
The temperatures measured with absolute zero as basis are called absolute
temperatures. Absolute temperature is stated in degrees centigrade. The point of
absolute temperature is found to occur at 273.15°C below the freezing point of water.
The Kelvin scale is an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale that provides a
continuous definition of temperature, valid over all ranges of temperature.

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 1. The reference temperature in the original Kelvin scale was the ice point,
273.15 K, which is the temperature at which water freezes (or ice melts).
2. The reference point was changed to a much more precisely reproducible
point, the triple point of water (the state at which all three phases of water
coexist in equilibrium), which is assigned the value 273.16 K.

Instruments for measuring ordinary temperatures are known as thermometers and

those for measuring high temperatures are known as pyrometers.
It is stated here that:

1. The triple point represents an equilibrium state between solid, liquid and vapor
phases of a substance.
2. Normal boiling point is the temperature at which the substance boils at
standard atmospheric pressure of 760 mm Hg.
3. Normal freezing point is the solidification or the melting point temperature of
the substance at standard atmospheric pressure.

Credit: pinterest.com
Figure 1.14: Temperature Scales

Example 1.1: A new scale N of temperature is divided in such a way that the
freezing point of ice is 100°N and the boiling point is 400°N. What is the
temperature reading on this new scale when the temperature is 150°C? At
what temperature both the Celsius and the new temperature scale reading
would be the same?

Solution:

150o C N

100o C 400o N
0o C 100o N

150 – 0 = N – 100
100 – 0 400 – 100
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 N = 550o N

At xo, N = C

C–0 = N – 100
100 – 0 400 – 100

x = x – 100
100 300
300 x = 100 (x – 100)
3x = x – 100

3x – x = – 100
2 x = – 100
x = - 50

1.16 Secondary Variables

Secondary variables are called derived quantities and the units and dimensions are also
called derived units and derived dimensions

1.16.1 Force

This unit is defined from Newton’s second law, F = ma.

– Newton: (N), 1 N = 1 kgm m /s2, 1 N is the force required to accelerate a 1 kg

object at a rate of 1 m/s2

– pound force: (lbf). 1 lbf =32.2 lbm ft/sec2,1 lbf is the force required to accelerate
a 1 lbm object at a rate of 32.2 ft/s2

– poundal: 1 lbm ft/sec2, 1 poundal is the force required to accelerate a 1 lbm object
at a rate of 1 ft/s2

Force is straightforward in SI units. It is more confusing in English units, where

the so-called gravitational constant gc is often introduced. In SI units, gc = 1. However
in English units, the law for force is better stated as 1 – 2
mg
F=
gc

1.16.2 Newton’s Second Law of Motion

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 The acceleration of a certain body is directly proportional to the resultant force
acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass.

Credit: physicstutorials.org
Figure 1.15: Newton’s Second Law

a∞ F a = gc F
m m

F = mg gc = 1 kgm – m = 32.2 lbm – ft

gc N – s2 lbf – s2

1.16.3 Weight

Weight is the force of gravity acting on a body.

W = mg; g – gravitational acceleration

= 9.807 m/s2 (metric/SI)
= 9807 cm/s2 (CGS)
= 32.174 ft/s2 (FPS/English)

Example 1.2: If the local gravitational acceleration is 32.0 ft/s 2, what is the weight W
of an object with mass of m= 1000 lbm?
1 1
W=F= mg = x 1000 lbm (32.0 ft/s2) = 994.59 lbf
gc 32.2 lbm – ft
lbf – s2

1.16.4 Energy

Energy, roughly speaking, the ability to do work, found from the product of force
and distance.
– Joule: (J), 1 J = 1 (N m), and
– foot-pound force: (ft lbf).

1.16.5 Specific Volume

Specific volume is the volume per unit mass, known as v = V/m. (Note that specific
volume is reciprocal of density).
– m3/ kg, and
– ft3/ lbm

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 1.16.6 Density

Density the mass per unit volume, the inverse of specific volume ρ = m/V.
– kgm/ m3, and
– lbm/ ft3

Note also that

v = 1/ ρ and ρ = 1/ v

1.17 Mass Fundamentals

Law of Conservation of mass states that mass is indestructible, provided that there is no
nuclear process involved.

min = Δm + mout and if Δm = 0; min = mout

For fluid passing through a given section;

Q=AV ṁ = Q/ѵ = AV/ѵ = ρAV
where:
Q = volume flow rate, m3/s
A = cross-sectional area of given section, m2
V = velocity (average speed) of fluid, m/s
ṁ = mass flow rate, kg/s
ѵ= specific volume, m3/kg
ρ = density, kg/m3

Example 1.3: A pump discharges a liquid into a drum at the rate of 0.032 m3/s. The drum,
1.50 m in diameter and 4.20 m in length, can hold 3000 kg of the liquid. Find the density of
the liquid and the mass flow rate of the liquid handled by the pump.

Solution:

Volume of drum = (πd2/4) h

= π x ((1.50 m) 2/4) x (4.20 m) lbf –sec2/ft
= 7.422 m3
mass 3000 kg
ρ= volume = 7.422 m3 = 404.203 kg/m3

ṁ = ρQ = (404.203 kg/m3) (0.032 m3/s)

ṁ = 12.93 kg/s

Example 1.4: Density and velocity of a fluid is given as 920kg/m 3 and 5m/s, this fluid is
flowing through an area of 25cm2. Calculate the mass flow rate.

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 Solution:

ṁ = ρAV
= 920kg/m3 x (25cm2) (1 m/100 cm)2 x 5m/s = 1150kg/s

1.18 Pressure

Pressure is defined as a force per unit area. Gases, vapors and liquids exert pressures. A
pressure of absolute zero can exist only in complete vacuum. Any pressure measured above
the absolute zero of pressure is termed an ‘absolute pressure’.
In thermodynamics, we are usually concerned with the absolute pressure as opposed to
the gauge pressure. The two are related via the formula:

Pgauge = Pabsolute − Patm

We nearly always interpret P as an absolute pressure, so we could also say

Pgauge = P − Patm

– Pascal: (Pa), 1 Pa = 1 N/m2; note other common units are 1 bar = 105 Pa,
1 atm = 1.01325 × 105 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 0.101325 MPa, and

– (psia): 1 psia = 1 lbf/in2. 1 atm = 14.696 psia. The “a” denotes the “absolute” pressure
as opposed to the “gauge” pressure. The unit psig refer to a gauge pressure.

Vacuum is defined as the absence of pressure. A perfect vacuum is obtained when

absolute pressure is zero; at this instant molecular momentum is zero.

1.18.1 Absolute, Atmospheric and Gage Pressures

Absolute pressure, Pabs, measured relative to a perfect vacuum.

Gauge pressure, Pg, measured relative to the local atmospheric pressure, Patm.

Atmospheric pressure, Patm, sometimes also called barometric pressure or ambient

pressure, is the pressure exerted by the weight of air in the atmosphere of Earth (or that of
another planet).
The surface of the earth is at the bottom of an atmospheric sea. The standard atmospheric
pressure is measured in various units:

1 atm = 1.01325 bar = 101.3 kPa = 14.696 psi (lbf/in2)= 760 mmHg =10.33 mH2O = 760
torr = 29.92 inHg = 1013 mbar = 1.0332 kgf/cm2 = 33.90 ftH2O

21
Credit: slideplayer.com
Figure 1.16: Relations among absolute, gage and atmospheric pressures

Example1.5: Steam at gauge pressure of 1.5Mpa is supplied to a steam turbine, which

rejects it to a condenser at a vacuum of 710mm Hg after expansion. Find the inlet and
exhaust steam pressure in Pascal, assuming barometer pressure as 76cm of Hg and
density of Hg as 13.6×103 kg/m3.

Solution:

Pgauge = 1.5 × 106 N/m2

Pvacc = 710 mm of Hg
Patm = 76 cm of Hg = 101.3 × 103 N/m2

Pinlet = Pabs = Pgauge(inlet)+ Patm

= 1.5 × 106 + 101.3 × 103
Pinlet = 1.601 × 106 Pa

Since discharge is at vacuum i.e.

Pexhaust = Pabs = Patm – Pvacc

= = 101.3 × 103 – (13.6 × 103 × 9.81 × 710/1000)
Pexhaust = 6.66 × 106 Pa

Example 1.6: Calculate the height of a column of water equivalent to atmospheric

pressure of 1bar if the water is at 150C. What is the height if the water is replaced by
Mercury?

Solution:

Patm = ρgh , for water equivalent P = 1bar = 105N/m2

105N/m2 = 1000 kg/m3 × 9.81 m/s2 × h
h = 10.19m

Patm = ρgh , for Hg

105N/m2 = 13.6 × 103 kg/m3 × 9.81 m/s2 × h
h = 0.749m

22
1.18.2 Pressure Measurement

Let us consider a pipe containing fluid at pressure P and density ρ (Fig. 1.17)has a
small tube with cross sectional area A connecting it to the outside atmosphere at a
different pressure Patm. The length h is easily measured. The gravitational acceleration is
g and is in the negative y direction. Because P > Patm, the manometer fluid is pushed up.
However, it finds a mechanical equilibrium where the weight of the manometer fluid
balances the net force induced by the pressure differential.

mg = ρV g = ρAh g
h

Credit: slideshare.net
Figure 1.17: Pressure on Manometers

The figure includes a cutaway with a free body diagram. The interior fluid exerts a
positive force of PA on the manometer fluid in the cutaway. The atmosphere exerts
another force of PatmA in the negative direction. The third force is the weight of the fluid:
mg. Thus, Newton’s second law tells us

a = PA − PatmA − mg.

Now, we are concerned with cases which are static, in which case the acceleration a =
0. Thus, we require a force balance, i.e. mechanical equilibrium, which is achieved when

0 = PA − PatmA − mg
PA = PatmA + mg

Now, mg = ρV g, (ρ = m/V, m = ρV) from where V is the volume of the fluid in the
cutaway. Obviously from the geometry, we have V = AH, so mg = ρAHg. Thus,
PA = PatmA + ρAhg

P = Patm + ρgh
Or
P = P − Patm = Pgauge = ρgh = ωh

1.18.3 Manometers

23
 Low pressures are generally determined by manometers, which employ liquid
columns. Their use is, therefore, restricted to low pressures only, and for such
purposes, they are quite accurate.
The liquids commonly employed for manometers are mercury and water.

Credit: chbe241.github.io
Figure 1.18: Pressure Measurement

From the figure shown, the one in the middle is an open-ended manometer, where
one end is connected to a line or system and the other end is exposed to atmosphere.
This measures gage pressure.
The one on the left is a differential manometer wherein both ends are connected
to a line. This type is used to measure pressure drops on line or difference in pressure
between two systems.
The one on the right is a sealed end manometer wherein one end is connected to
a line and the other end is sealed to the near vacuum. This type of manometer is used
to measure absolute pressure.
Inclined tube manometer is consisting of a tube slanted at an angle of about 10 o
to improve the sensitivity of the device. It is used to measure very small pressure
difference.

Credit: en.wikiversity.org
Figure 1.19: Inclined Manometer

pA + γ1 h1 – γ2 ℓ2 sinƟ – γ3h3 = pB
PA – pB = γ2 ℓ2 sinƟ + γ3h3 – γ1 h1

where the pressure difference between points (1) and (2) is due to the vertical
distance between the points, which can be expressed as ℓ2 sinƟ.

1.18.4 Bourdon Gage

24
 Bourdon gauges are the most common mechanical devices used to measure
pressure. A bourdon gauge is a hollow metal tube that is closed at one end and bent
into a C configuration. The open end is exposed to the fluid whose pressure is being
measured. As the pressure increases, the tube tends to straighten to equalize the
pressure in the tube. This straightening causes gears to turn which in turn will cause
a pointer to rotate which will inform you on its pressure.

Credit: imgbin.com
Figure 1.20: Bourdon gage

Piezometer is the simplest form of manometer, which consist of a vertical tube

where one end is connected to a line and one end is open to atmosphere.

Credit: clariflix, youtube.com

Figure 1.21: Piezometer

1.18.5 Barometer

A barometer measures atmospheric pressure. The air in the atmosphere exerts a

force called pressure that constantly changes due to moving weather systems.
An aneroid barometer measures atmospheric pressure. The name aneroid means
“without water”.

25
 Credit: alarmy stock photo Credit: wisegeek.com
Figure 1.22: Mercury Barometer Figure 1.23: Aneroid Barometer

Example 1.7: The pressure of steam flowing in a pipeline is measured with a mercury
manometer, shown in Figure 1.18. Some steam condenses into water. Estimate the
steam pressure in kPa. Take the density of mercury as 13.6 ×10 3kg/m3, density of
water as 103 kg/m3, the barometer reading as 76.1 cmHg, and g as 9.806 m/s 2.

Figure E1.1: Manometer for Example 1.7

Solution:

Po = atmospheric pressure = 76.1 cmHg = 0.761 mHg =

P = steam pressure
hwater = 3 cm = 0.03 m
hHg = 50 cm = 0.50 m

Po + ρHg × g x hHg = 0.03 × ρHg × g + P

Po + 0.50 × ρHg × g = 0.03 × ρw × g + P

P = Po + 0.50 × ρHg × g – 0.03 × ρw × g

P = 13.6x103 kg/m3 x 9.81 m/s2 x 0.761 mHg + 13.6x103 kg/m3 x 9.81 m/s2 ×
0.50mHg – 1x103 kg/m3 × 9.81 m/s2 × 0.03mH2O

P =167.875 kPa

Example 1.8: A manometer gives a reading of H = 2 ft in a region where local g = 32.2

ft/s2. The working fluid has specific volume v = 0.0164 ft 3/lbm. The atmospheric
pressure is Patm = 14.42 lbf/in2 =14.42 psia. Find the fluid pressure.

26
Solution:

P = Patm + ρgh

In terms of specific volume, recalling that ρ = 1/v, we have

P = Patm + gh /v
32.2 ft/s2 (2 ft) (1lbf – s2) 1 ft2
P = 14.42 lbf/in2 + x x
0.0164 ft3/lbm 32.2 lbm -ft 144 in2
P = 15.27 lbf / in2 = 15.27 psi

27
Assessing Learning

Activity 1

Name: __________________________________ Score: __________________

Course/Year/Section: ________________ Date: ____________________

A. Classify each of the following systems into open, closed or isolated systems. Briefly
explain. Write your answer on the space provided.

1. Refrigerator
__________________________________________________________________________________
2. Electric Fan
___________________________________________________________________________________
3. Pressure Cooker
____________________________________________________________________________________
4. Microwave Oven
____________________________________________________________________________________
5. Thermometer in the mouth
____________________________________________________________________________________
6. Radiator of an automobile
____________________________________________________________________________________
7. Air conditioner
____________________________________________________________________________________
8. Air compressor
_____________________________________________________________________________________
9. Water pump
_____________________________________________________________________________________
10. Rice cooker
______________________________________________________________________________________

B. Classify the following into intensive, extensive or specific properties.

1. Pressure _____________
2. Temperature _____________
3. Density _____________
4. Specific Gravity _____________
5. Specific Volume _____________
6. Weight _____________
7. Momentum _____________
8. Specific Weight _____________
9. Force _____________
10. Energy _____________

28
Assessing Learning

Activity 2

Name: __________________________________ Score: __________________

Course/Year/Section: ________________ Date: ____________________

A. Direction: Identify the following properties through their given units and convert them
to SI units. Show your solution on the space provided.

1. 650 miles/sec 6. 6250 ft/sec

2. 190 lbf /ft3 7. 500 dynes

3. 190 lbm /in3 8. 577 slugs

4. 90 ft3/lbm 9. 100 slugs/sec

5. 100 cm3 10. 360 ft3/min

B. Five masses in a region where the acceleration due to gravity is 30. 5 ft/s2 are as follows:
m1 is- 500 g of mass, m2 weighs 800 gmf, m3 weighs 15 poundals; m4 weighs 3 lbf and
m5 is 0.10 slug of mass. What is the total mass expressed (a) in grams, b) in pounds, and
(c) in slugs. Show your solutions on the space provided. Use extra sheet when needed.

29
Assessing Learning

Activity 3

Name: __________________________________ Score: __________________

Course/Year/Section: ________________ Date: ____________________

Direction: Express the following properties into MLT and FLT forms. Show your answers on
the space provided. You may express each property in any unit.

Property Unit MLT FLT

1. Momentum

2. Power

3. Force

4. Specific Gravity

5. Specific Weight

6. Kinetic energy

7. Velocity

8. Acceleration

9. Density

10. Specific volume

30
Assessing Learning

Activity 4

Name: __________________________________ Score: __________________

Course/Year/Section: ________________ Date: ____________________

Direction: Solve each problem showing the most logical units. Use extra sheet when needed.

1. A curious astronaut took her bathroom scale (a spring scale) and a beam scale (compares
masses) to the moon. On Earth, she determined that her mass was 124 lbm. The
gravitational acceleration on the moon is a = 5.3 ft/s 2.When she reaches the moon:
a.) What will she weigh on the spring scale?
b.) What will the beam scale indicate for her mass?

2. In the future, we may encounter a civilization from another planet. They will not use the
SI or AE systems of units. Suppose we meet aliens who use the Zerf as a unit of mass and
the Spund as a unit of force. One Spund is the weight of a mass of one Zerf on the surface
of Mars. The gravitational acceleration on Mars is 3.7 m/s 2.
a. What is gc in the alien system of units? Be sure to include the numerical value and the
units.
b. How much would a 350 Zerf object weigh on the surface of Mars, in Spunds?
c. How much would a 350 Zerf object weigh on the surface of the Earth, in Spunds?
d. To which system of units is the Zerf-Spund system most similar, SI or AE?

31
Assessing Learning

Activity 5

Name: __________________________________ Score: __________________

Course/Year/Section: ________________ Date: ____________________

Direction: Solve each problem showing the most logical units. Use extra sheet when needed.

1. Note that the gravity acceleration at equatorial sea level is g = 32.088 fps 2 and that its
variation is - 0.003 fps2 per 1000 ft ascent. Find the height in miles above this point for
which (a)the gravitational acceleration becomes 30.504 fps 2, (b) the given weight of a
man is decreased by 5%, (c) What is the weight of a 180 lbm man atop the 29,131-ft, Mt.
Everest in Tibet, relative to this point?

2. Consider the following equation. All three of the terms in parentheses are dimensionless
groups. Because kC is difficult to determine directly, the other variables are measured and
kC is calculated from the given equation.
kC D μ d v ρ 0.8
= 0.023 [ ]1/3 [ P ]
DAB ρ DAB μ

What is the estimated value of kC? What are the units of kC? Show your work.
The following values were measured:
D = 8.0 mm, DAB = 0.475 cm2/s, μ = 1.12 x 10–3 N-s/m2, ρ = 1.00 x 10–3 g/cm3, v = 15.0 m/s.

32
Assessing Learning

Activity 6

Name: __________________________________ Score: __________________

Course/Year/Section: ________________ Date: ____________________

Direction: Solve each problem showing the most logical units. Use extra sheet when needed.

1. Two liquids of different densities (ρ1 = 1500 kg/m3 and ρ2 = 500 kg/m3) are poured
together into a 100 L tank, filling it. If the resulting density of the mixture is 800 kg/m 3,
find the respective quantities of liquids used. Also find the weights of the mixture.

2. A piston-cylinder contains 2 lbm of water. The initial volume is 0.1 ft 3. The piston rises,
causing the volume to double. Determine the final specific volume of the water.

3. Convert the following readings of pressure to kPa assuming that barometer reads 760
mm of Hg.
a. 80 cm of Hg
b. 30 cm Hg vacuum
c. 1.35 m H2O gauge
d. 4.2 bar.

4. A skin diver wants to determine the pressure exerted by the water on her body after a
descent of 35 m to a sunken ship. The specific gravity of sea water is 1.02 times that of
pure water. What is the pressure?

5. A U-tube mercury manometer with one arm open to atmosphere is used to measure
pressure in a steam pipe. The level of mercury in open arm is 97.5 mm greater than that
in the arm connected to the pipe. Some of steam in the pipe condenses in the manometer
arm connected to the pipe. The height of this column is 34 mm. The atmospheric pressure
is 760 mm of Hg. Find the absolute pressure of steam.

Figure P1.1

33
Assessing Learning

Supplementary Problems

6. A tank contains a mixture of 20 kg of nitrogen and 20 kg of carbon monoxide. The total

tank volume is 20 m3. Determine the density and specific volume of the mixture.
7. A cylindrical tank is 50 in. Long, has a diameter of 16 in., and contains 1.65 lb water.
Calculate the specific volume and density of water.
8. A beer barrel has a mass of 10 kg and a volume of 20 liters. Assuming the density of beer
is 1000 kg/m3, determine the total mass and weight of the barrel when it is filled with
beer.
9. The gas used in a gas engine trial was tested. The pressure of gas supply is 10cm of water
column. Find absolute pressure of the gas if the barometric pressure is 760mm of Hg.
10. A hiker is carrying a barometer that measures 101.3 KPa at the base of the mountain. The
barometer reads 85 KPa at the top of the mountain. The average air density is 1.21 kg/m 3.
Determine the height of the mountain.
11. A vertical frictionless piston cylinder contains air at a pressure of 300 KPa with
atmospheric pressure of 100 KPa. The diameter of the piston is 0.25m, and g = 9.8m/s2.
Determine the piston’s mass.
12. A diver descends 100 m to a sunken ship. A container is found with a pressure gage
reading of 100 KPa (gage). Atmospheric pressure is 100 Kpa. What is the absolute
pressure of the gas in the container? (The density of water is 1000 kg/m 3).
13. A manometer gives a reading of h = 2 ft in a region where local g = 32.2 ft/s2. The working
fluid has specific volume v = 0.0164 ft3/lbm. The atmospheric pressure is Patm = 14.42
lbf/in2 = 14.42 psia. Find the fluid pressure.
14. A manometer shows a vacuum of 260 mm Hg. What will be the value of this pressure in
N/ m2 in the form of absolute pressure and what will be absolute pressure (N/m 2), if the
gauge pressure is 260 mm of Hg. Explain the difference between these two pressures.
15. An aerostat balloon is filled with hydrogen. It has a volume of 1000m3 at constant air
temperature of 270C and pressure of 0.98bar. Determine the load that can be lifted with
the air of aerostat.
16. A pump discharges into a 3-m-per-side cubical tank. The flow rate is 300 liters/min, and
the fluid has a density 1.2 times that of water. Determine (a) the flow rate in kg/s; (b) the
time it takes to fill the tank.
17. A pressure cooker operates by cooking food at a higher pressure and temperature than
is possible at atmospheric condition. Steam is contained in the sealed pot, with a small
vent hole in the middle of the cover, allowing steam to escape. The pressure is regulated
by covering the vent hole with a small weight, which is displaced slightly by the escaping
steam. Atmospheric pressure is 100 Kpa, the vent hole area is 7mm2, and the pressure
inside is 250 Kpa. What is the mass of the weight?
18. Two gaseous streams enter a combining tube and leave as a single mixture. These data
apply at the entrance section. Find the speed at section 2, the flow rate and area at section
A1 = 75 in2, V1 = 500 fps, ѵ1 = 10 ft3/lb ; A2 = 50 in2, ṁ2 = 16.67 lb/s, ρ2 = 0.12 lb/ft3
At exit: V3 = 350 fps, ѵ3 = 7 ft3/lb
19. Estimate the mass of a piston that can be supported by a gas entrapped under the piston
in a 200 mm diameter vertical cylinder when a manometer indicates a difference of 117
mm of Hg column for the gas pressure.
20. A U-tube manometer is connected to a gas pipe. The level of the liquid in the manometer
arm open to the atmosphere is 170 mm lower than the level of the liquid in the arm

34
 connected to the gas pipe. The liquid in the manometer has specific gravity of 0.8. Find
the absolute pressure of the gas if the manometer reads 760 mm of Hg.

Figure P1.2
21. In a pipe line the pressure of gas is measured with a mercury manometer having one limb
open to the atmosphere (Fig. PS1.3). If the difference in the height of mercury in the two
limbs is 550 mm, calculate the gas pressure.

Figure P1.3
22. A vessel of cylindrical shape is 50 cm in diameter and 75 cm high. It contains 4 kg of a gas.
The pressure measured with manometer indicates 620 mm of Hg above atmosphere
when barometer reads 760 mm of Hg. Determine :
a. The absolute pressure of the gas in the vessel in bar.
b. Specific volume and density of the gas.
23. A vacuum recorded in the condenser of a steam power plant is 740 mm of Hg. Find the
absolute pressure in the condenser in Pa. The barometric reading is 760 mm of Hg.
24. A tube contains an oil of specific gravity 0.9 to a depth of 120 cm. Find the gauge pressure
at this depth (in kN/m2).
25. On a piston of 10 cm diameter, a force of 1000 N is uniformly applied. Find the pressure
on the piston.

35