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Unit 1: Basics of measurements

07 Hours
Necessity of measurements-direct and indirect methods, basic terminology, dynamic characteristics of
an instrument, generalized electronic measurement system, Errors–gross, systematic and random errors,
sources of errors. Statistical analysis–problems involving arithmetic mean, deviation, average deviation,
standard deviation. Limiting errors and probable errors. Standards-primary, secondary, working and
IEEE standards. Comparison of AC and DC bridges. Principle of Wheatstone bridge and mention its
applications.

1.1 Necessity of measurements

Measurements play a very important role in every branch of scientific research and engineering. The
whole area of automation is based on measurements. The very concept of control is based on the
comparison of the actual condition and the desired performance. The measurement confirms the validity
of a theory and also adds to its understanding. This eventually leads to new discoveries. Through
measurement a product can be designed or a process be operated with maximum efficiency, minimum
cost and with desired degree of reliability and maintainability.

1.1.1 Methods of Measurement

Measurement of any quantity involves two parameters, the magnitude of the value and unit of
measurement. For example if we have to measure voltage we can say it is 10volts. Here “10” is the
magnitude and “volts” is the unit of measurement.
There are two methods of measurement:

1. Direct comparison method

2. Indirect comparison method

Direct Comparison method:

In the direct comparison method of measurement, we compare the quantity directly with the
primary or secondary standard. For example, if we have to measure the height of a person, we do it with
the help of the measuring tape or scale that acts as the secondary standard. Here we are comparing the
quantity to be measured (height) directly with the standard.

Indirect comparison method:

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In the indirect comparison method of measurement, the quantity to be measured is not measured
directly but other parameters related to the quantity are measured. For example if you want to measure
power we find voltage (V) and current (I) first and then calculate power using formula P=V*I.

1.1.2 Basic terminology

Instrument: It is defined as a device for determining the value or magnitude of a quantity or variable.

Accuracy: It is defined as the closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true value of
the quantity being measured.

Precision: It is defined as how exactly the result is determined. i.e given a fixed value of the quantity,
precision is a measure of the degree of agreement within a group of measurements.

Sensitivity: It is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of output signal to the input signal or response of
measuring system to the quantity being measured.

Resolution: It is defined as the smallest change in measured quantity that causes a visible change in its
output.

1.1.3 Dynamic characteristics of an instrument

Dynamic characteristics of a measuring instrument refer to the case where the measured quantity
changes rapidly with time.

The dynamic characteristics of any measurement system are:

1. Speed of response
2. Measuring Lag
3. Fidelity
4. Dynamic error

Speed of Response (desirable): It is defined as the speed with which an instrument or measurement
system responds to changes in measured quantity.

Response Time (desirable): It is the time required by instrument or system to settle to its final steady
position after the application of the input.

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Measuring lag: It is the delay in the response of a measurement system to changes in measured quantity.
It is of two types,
i) Retardation type: In this type of measuring lag the response begins immediately after a
change in measured quantity has occurred.
ii) Time delay: In this type of measuring lag the response of the measurement system begins after
a dead zone after the application of the input.

Fidelity: Fidelity of a system is defined as the ability of the system to reproduce the output in the same
form as the input. It is the degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in the measured
quantity without any dynamic error.

Dynamic error: It is difference between the true value of the quantity changing with time and the value
indicated by the measurement system if no static error is assumed.

**Note: Static error is the difference between the true value and the measured value of a quantity.

1.1.4 Generalized electronic measurement system

The measurement of a given quantity is the result of comparison between the quantity (whose
magnitude is unknown) & a predefined Standard. Since two quantities are compared, the result is
expressed in numerical values.

Figure 1. Shows a generalised measurement system with different elements.

Figure 1.1.4.1 Generalised measurement system

Primary sensing element:

The unknown quantity under measurement makes its first contact with the primary sensing
element of a measurement system. The sensing elements sense the condition, state or value by taking out
a small part of energy from the measured (the unknown quantity which is to be measured), and then
produce an output.

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Variable conversion element:

The output from the primary sensing element may require to be converted to a more suitable form
while saving its information contents. This conversion is performed by the variable conversion element
called transducer.

Variable manipulation element:

The function of this element is to manipulate the signal presented to it preserving the original
nature of the signal. Some non-linear processes like modulation, detection, sampling, filtering, etc., are
performed on the signal to bring it to the desired form to be accepted by the next stage of measurement
system.

Data transmission element:

This element transmits the signal from one location to another without changing the physical
nature of the variable.

Data Presentation element:

This element presents a display record or indication of the output from the manipulation elements to
the person handling the instrument.

1.2 Errors

Error is defined as the difference between the actual value of a quantity and the value obtained by a
measurement.

A study of errors is the first step in finding ways to reduce them. Errors may arise from different
sources and they are mainly classified as shown below,

1.2.1 Gross errors

This type of error occurs due to human mistakes, while reading, recording and calculating
measurement results. For example the observer due to an oversight, may read the temperature as 30.50C
while the actual reading may be 30.20 C, there is 0.30C error in the reading.

Gross errors may be of any amount and therefore their mathematical analysis is impossible. But, the
following precautions can be taken to avoid such errors. They are:

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1. Proper care should be taken while reading and recording the data.

2. More than one reading should be taken for the quantity under measurement preferably by

different observers.

1.2.2 Systematic errors

Systematic errors occur usually from the measuring instruments. They may occur because there is
something wrong with the instrument or its data handling system, or because the instrument is wrongly
used by the experimenter.
These errors can be found by conducting repeated measurements under different conditions or with
different equipment and if possible by entirely different method.
These errors are further classified as follows,
Instrumental errors:
These errors arise due to following reasons:
1. Due to inbuilt shortcomings in the instruments.
2. Due to misuse of the instruments.
3. Due to loading affects the instruments.
These errors can be minimised by using the following methods,
1. Measurement procedure must be carefully planned.
2. Correction factors should be adopted after finding the instrumental errors.
3. Instrument must be re-calibrated carefully.
Environmental errors:
These errors arise due to conditions external to the measuring device (e.g. effects of temperature,
pressure, humidity, dust etc.)
These errors can be minimised by using the following methods,
1. Temperature controlled enclosure can be used to avoid temperature variations.
2. The effect of humidity, dust etc. Can be entirely eliminated by sealing the equipment in an
airtight container.
3. By providing shields the instrument can be protected against external magnetic and electrostatic
fields.
Observational errors:
These errors arise due wrong observations. The Observational errors arise due to following
reasons:

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1. Parallax error occurs on account of the pointer and the scale not being in the same plane (shown
in figure 1.2.2.1.
2. Wrong scale reading and wrong recording of data.
3. Incorrect conversion of units in between consecutive readings.
These errors can be eliminated by using digital display systems.

Figure 1.2.2.1 Parallax error

1.2.3 Random errors

Random errors are accidental, small and independent. These errors arise due to following reasons:

1. Parallax: when an observer reads a scale from an incorrect direction

2. Variation in environmental conditions

3. Friction in instrument movement

4. Mechanical vibrations

These errors can be minimised by using the following methods,

1. Taking repeated readings to obtain an average value.

2. Maintaining good experimental technique (e.g. reading from a correct position).

1.2.4 Sources of errors

1. Insufficient knowledge of process parameters and design conditions.

2. Selection of improper instrument for measurement.

3. Poor design.

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4. Human error caused by person operating the instrument.

1.3 Statistical analysis

Statistical analysis of measurement is a procedure of collection, analysis, interpretation,
presentation, and organization of data.

Arithmetic mean:
It is the ratio of sum of readings taken to the total no. of readings.
Arithmetic Mean = (Sum of readings)/ (Number of readings)

Where 1, 2, .... n are the readings taken, N is the no. of readings,

̅ is the symbol of the arithmetic mean.

Deviation:

Deviation is the departure of the given reading from the arithmetic mean of the group of readings.
Let the deviation of the first reading 1 be d1 and that of second reading 2 be d2 and so on.
Then the deviation from the mean is expressed as

Average deviation:
It is the ratio of sum of the absolute values of deviations to the no. of readings.

Where d1, d2, d3...................... dN are the deviations of readings 1, 2,.........................xN

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Standard deviation:
The standard deviation also called as mean square deviation of N no. of data is defined as the
square root of the sum of individual deviations squared(d12, d22, ..................... dN2) divided by the no. of
readings(N).

Limiting errors:
Limiting error is used to indicate the accuracy of an instrument. The limiting error (or guarantee error) is
given by the manufacturer to define the maximum limit of the error that may occur in the instrument. For example,
if the resistance of a resistor is given as 50Ω ± 5%, it means that the resistance value falls between the limits 45Ω
and 55Ω.In other words the manufacturer of the resistor guarantees its value lie between 45 Ω to 55 Ω.

Probable errors:

It defines the half-range of an interval about a central point for the distribution, such that half of
the values from the distribution will lie within the interval and half outside. Thus it is equivalent to half
the interquartile range, or the median absolute deviation. The probable error can also be expressed as a
multiple of standard deviation σ,

i.e. Probable error ϒ= 0.675x σ

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Figure 1.3.1 Guassian distribution curve

Variance:
The square of the standard deviation is called variance.
i.e. V= (standard deviation)2
V = σ2

Problem 1:
A circuit was tuned for resonance by eight different students and the values of resonance
frequency in KHz were recorded as 532,548,543,535,546,531,543 and 536. Calculate the arithmetic
mean, average deviation, standard deviation and variance.

SI.NO RESONANT DEVIATION(d)

FREQUENCIES(RF) d=xi-̅
1 532(x1) d1= x1- ̅ = -7.25
2 548(x2) d2= x2- ̅ = 8.75
3 543(x3) d3= x3- ̅ = 3.75
4 535(x4) d4= x4- ̅ = -4.25
5 546(x5) d5= x5- ̅ = 6.75
6 531(x6) d6= x6- ̅ = -8.25
7 543(x7) d7= x7- ̅ = 3.75
8 536(x8) d8= x8- ̅ = -3.25
∑RF=4314

**Note N =no. of resosonant frequencies=8

1. Arithmetic mean ( ̅ ) =532+548+543+535+546+531+543+536

8

=4314
8

= 539.25
2. Average deviation ( ̅ ) = d1+d2+d3+d4+d5+d6+d7+d8
8
=
=5.75KHZ

3. Standard deviation (σ) =

N-1
= d1+d2+d3+d4+d5+d6+d7+d8)2
8-1
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=
7
=6.54KHZ

4. Variance (V) = σ2
= (6.54)2
=42.77KHZ

1.4 Standards

A standard is a physical representation of unit of measurement. Standards have been developed for all the
fundamental units as well as some of the derived mechanical and electrical units.

Standards are classified as follows:

1. Primary standards:

Primary standards are standards of such high accuracy which can be used as ultimate reference
standards. These standards are maintained by national standard laboratories in different parts of the world.

2. Secondary standards:

Secondary standards are basic reference standards used by measurement and calibration
laboratories. It is obtained by comparing with primary standard. For measurement of a quantity using
secondary standard instrument, pre-calibration is required. Calibration of a secondary standard is made by
comparing the results with a primary standard instrument or with an instrument having high accuracy or
with a known input source.

3. Working standards:

These standards are used to check and calibrate general laboratory instrument for their accuracy
and performance. Working standards are checked against the secondary standards.

4. International standards:

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Standards Association (IEEE) is an

organization within IEEE that develops global standards in a broad range of industries,
including: power and energy, biomedical and healthcare, information
technology and robotics, telecommunication etc.

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These standards are not physical items that are available for comparison and checking of
secondary standards but are standard procedure, nomenclature, definitions etc. These standards have been
kept updated and some of the IEEE standards have been adopted by other organizations as standards.

One of the most important standards is the IEEE 4888 digits interface for programmable
instrumentation for test and other equipment standardising.

1.5 Comparison of AC and DC bridges

AC BRIDGES DC BRIDGES
The AC bridges are used to The DC bridges are used to
measure the impedances measure resistances.
consisting of capacitance and
inductances.
The AC bridges use the The DC bridges use the DC voltage
alternating voltage as the as exciting voltage.
exciting voltage.
The four arms of bridge The four arms of bridge consists of
consists of resistors, inductors, pure resistors.
capacitors or their
combinations.
The balancing equation for AC The balancing equation for DC
bridges are bridges is
1. Z1Z4=Z2Z3, for magnitude R1R4=R2R3
balance.
2. ɸ1+ɸ3= ɸ2+ɸ4, for phase
angle balance
Examples of AC bridges are, Examples of AC bridges are,
Maxwell’s bridge, Wein Wheatstone bridge, Kelvin bridge,
bridge, etc,. etc,.

1.6 Wheatstone bridge

The Wheatstone bridge was developed by Charles Wheatstone to measure unknown resistance. A
schematic of a Wheatstone bridge is shown below:

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Figure 1.6.1 Wheatstone bridge

The bridge has four arms together with a source of EMF (V0) and a null detector i.e galvanometer
(G). The unknown resistor is Rx, the resistor Rk is known value, and the resistors R1 and R2 have a
known ratio R2/R1.A galvanometer (G) measures voltage difference VAB between points A and B.

When VAB=0 the bridge is said to be “balanced” and no current flows through the galvanometer (G).

Since VAB=0, the voltage drop from C to A must be equal to the voltage drop from C to B.VCA =
VCB. Likewise, we must have VAD = VBD. So we can write,

(1)

(2) .

Dividing (2) by (1), we have

(3) .

Thus, the unknown resistance Rx can be computed from the known resistance Rk and the known
ratio R2/R1. The resistors R1 and Rk are called Ratio arms, while the resistor R2 is called standard arm of
the bridge.

Applications of Wheatstone bridge:

1. To measure very low resistance values accurately.

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2. Along with operational amplifiers it is used to measure physical parameters like temperature,

strain, light etc.

3. It is used by telephone companies to locate cable faults.

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Unit 2: Transducers

08 Hours
Necessity of electrical transducers, selection of a transducer, active, passive, analog and digital
transducers. Strain gauge-principle, gauge factor, features of bonded, unbonded, wire and foil type strain
gauges, load cell. Principle of working & features of capacitive transducer, Hall effect type, LVDT,
thermistor, thermocouple, piezoelectric, proximity sensors, digital optical encoders & PIR sensors.

2.1 Necessity of electrical transducers

In a measurement system all the quantities being measured, could not be displayed. In such
situation, the accurate measurement of a quantity is usually done by converting the related information or
signal to another form which is more conveniently or accurately displayed. This is achieved with the help
of a device which is known as transducer.

Definition: It is a device which converts the energy of one form to another.

OR
It is a device which converts non electrical quantity (e.g. sound, light, heat) into an electrical
quantity (Voltage, current or frequency).

Non electrical quantity Electrical quantity

Transducer

Figure 2.1.1 Transducer

Benefits of electrical transducer:

1. Electrical amplification and attenuation can be done easily that too using static device.
2. The effect of friction is minimised.
3. The electric or electronic system can be controlled with a very small electrical power.
4. The power can be easily used, transmitted and processed for purpose of measurement.
2.2 Selection criteria of a transducer
1. Operating principle: The transducers are so many times selected on the basis of operating principle
used by them. The operating principles used in transducer may be resistive, inductive, capacitive, opto-
electronic, and so on.

2. Sensitivity: The transducer should give a sufficient output signal per unit of measured input in order
to yield meaningful data.

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3. Operating range: The transducer should maintain the range requirements and have a better resolution
over its entire range.

4. Accuracy: High degree of accuracy is necessary for measurement.

It should not alter the quantity to be measured.

5. Stability and reliability: The transducer should exhibit a high degree of stability during its operation
and storage life. Reliability should be assured so that the instrument continues uninterrupted.

6. Insensitivity to unwanted signals: The transducer should be minimally sensitive to unwanted signal
and highly sensitive to wanted signal.

7. Cost: The transducer should be easily available at reasonable prices.

8. Loading Effects: To avoid loading effect, it is necessary that a transducer has high input impedance
and low output impedance.

9. Physical Environment: The transducer selected should be able to withstand any change in
environmental conditions and maintain its output-input relationship.

2.3 Active and passive transducers

On the basis of methods of energy conversion used the transducers are classified into following two
categories:

A transducer, which develops its output in the form of electrical current or voltage without any
auxiliary source, is called active transducer. The energy required for this is absorbed from the physical
quantity which is being measured. Therefore, active transducers are also called as self generating type
transducers.

Examples are thermocouples, piezo-electric transducers, photovoltaic cell etc.

A transducer, which derives the power required for energy conversion from an external power
source is called as a passive transducer. Therefore, passive transducers are also called as externally
powered transducers.

Examples are Resistance thermometers and thermistors, photoemission cell etc.

2.4 Analog transducers and digital transducers

On the basis of type of output, the transducers are classified into following two categories:

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A transducer which converts the input physical quantity into an analog output which is a
continuous function of time is known as analog transducers.

Examples are linear variable differential transformer (LVDT), thermo-couple, strain gauge,
thermistor etc.

A transducer which converts the input physical quantity into an digital output which is in the form
of pulses is known as digital transducers.

Examples are digital tachometers, digital optical encoders etc.

2.5 Strain gauge

2.5.1 Principle
Strain Gauge is a passive transducer. It is a type of sensor whose resistance varies with applied
force. It converts force, pressure, tension etc., into a change in electrical resistance which can be
measured.

The basic principle of operation of a strain gauge is simple: when strain is applied to a thin metallic
wire, its dimension changes, thus changing the resistance of the wire. The value of resistivity of conductor
also changes.When it is strained its property is called piezo-resistance. Therefore, resistance strain gauges
are also known as piezo-resistive gauges.

2.5.2 Gauge factor

It is defined as the ratio of per unit change in resistance to per unit change in length.

Gauge factor (Gf) = ⁄

Where, R = change in resistance R,

= change in length per unit length L.

The resistance of the wire of strain gauge, R is given by

R=

Where, ρ = Resistivity of the material of wire ( of strain gauge ),

L = Length of the wire.

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A = Cross-sectional area of the wire.

Problem 1:
A strain gauge has an unstrained length of 10cm and resistance of 100KΩ. When its length
reduces to 9.9cm, the resistance decreases to 98KΩ. Estimate its gauge factor.
Solution: R= Initial Resistance = 100KΩ.
L= Initial length=10Cm
ΔR= change in initial resistance
=100x103-98x103
=2KΩ
ΔL = The change in length
= 10-9.9 = 0.1 cm

Therefore, gauge factor = Gf =

= = 20

2.5.3 Bonded resistance strain gauge

These strain gauges are directly bonded (that is, pasted) onto the surface of the structure under
study. Hence they are termed as bonded strain gauges.

Figure 2.5.3.1 Bonded type strain gauge

Features of bonded resistance strain gauge:

1. They are reasonably inexpensive.
2. They can pull off overall accuracy of better than +/-0.10%.
3. They are available in a short gauge length and have small physical size.
4. These strain gauges are only moderately affected by temperature changes.

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5. They are extremely sensitive and have low mass.
6. Bonded resistance strain gages can be employed to measure both static and dynamic strain.
7. These types of strain gauges are appropriate for a wide variety of environmental conditions.
2.5.4 Unbonded strain gauge
These strain gauges are not directly bonded (that is, pasted) onto the surface of the structure under
study. Hence they are termed as unbonded strain gauges.

Figure 2.5.4.1 Unbonded type strain gauge

Features of unbounded strain gauge:

1. They are able to measure strains of ±1μm/m.

2. They are small in size and light in weight.
3. They are able to respond to high frequency signals.
4. They have wide range of frequency response.
5. They have stable calibration constant (gauge factor).
6. They are flexible in use and are used in wide range of applications.
7. They are low in cost.

2.5.5 Wire type strain gauge

These strain gauges consists of grid of fine resistance wire of about 0.025mm in diameter or
less directly bonded (that is, pasted) onto the surface of the structure under study.

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Figure 2.5.5.1 Wire type strain gauge

Features of wire type strain gauges:

1. The wire type strain gauge should have a high value of gauge factor.

2. The resistance of wire type strain gauge should be as high as possible.

3. The wire type strain gauge should have a low resistance temperature coefficient.

4. The wire type strain gauge should not have any hysteresis effect in its response.

5. The wire type strain gauge should have linear characteristics.

6. The wire type strain gauge should have a good frequency response.

2.5.6 Foil type strain gauge

Foil type strain gauges use similar materials to wire strain gauges but have greater heat dissipation
capacity on account of greater surface area. Due to this reason they can be employed for higher operating
temperature range.

Features of foil type strain gauge:

The features of foil type strain gauge are similar to those of wire wound strain gauges except
resistance value of foil gauge are available in between 50 and 1000ohms, and maximum gauge current is
about 30mamps.

2.6 Load cells

Load cell is a passive transducer or sensor which converts applied force or load into electric
signals. These electric signals can be voltage change, current change or frequency change depending on
the type of load or circuit used.

Strain gauge load cells:

Figure shows a strain gauge load cell. It consists of a steel cylinder, on which four identical strain
gauges. The gauges R1 and Rg are along the direction of applied load and the gauges R2 and R3 are
attached circumferentially to gauges R1 and Rg. All the four gauges are connected electrically to the four
limbs of a wheat stone bridge circuit.

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Figure 2.6.1 Load cell

When there is no load on the cell, all the four gauges have the same resistance
(R1=R2=R3=Rg).under these conditions the A and B terminals are at the same potential, the bridge is
balanced and the output voltage is zero.

Applications:

1. Road vehicle weighing devices.

2. Draw bar and tool-force dynamometers.
3. Crane load monitoring.
2.7 Capacitive transducers
Capacitive transducers are passive transducers with a variable capacitance. These are mainly
used for the measurement of displacement, pressure etc,.

The capacitive transducer comprises of two parallel metal plates that are separated by a dielectric
material.

2.7.1 Principle of working

The principle of operation of capacitive transducers is based upon the equation for capacitance of
a parallel plate capacitor.

Where, A = Overlapping area of plates; m2,

d = Distance between two plates; m,

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 = 0rPermittivity (dielectric constant); F/m.
0 = Permittivity of free space=8.854*10-12F/m.
r = Relative Permittivity.
Capacitive transducers using change in Area of the plates:
Figure (a) shows a capacitive transducer, where capacitance changes due to change in area (A) of
the plates. Since capacitance is directly proportional to the effective area of the plates, response of such
system is linear.

Capacitive transducers using change in distance of the plates:

Figure (b) shows a capacitive transducer, where capacitance changes due to change in distance(D)
between the plates. Here, one is a fixed plate and another is a movable plate. The displacement to be
measured is applied to the movable plate. Since the capacitance varies inversely as the distance between
the plates the response of the transducer is not linear.

Capacitive transducers using change in dielectric medium:

Figure (c) shows, if the area (A) and the distance (D) between the plates of a capacitor remain
constant, capacitance will vary only as a function of the dielectric constant (e) of the substance filling the
gap between the plates. Physical variables such as displacement, force or pressure can cause the
movement of dielectric material in the capacitor plates, resulting in changes in the effective dielectric
constant which in turn will change the capacitance.

Figure 2.7.1.1 Capacitive transducers

2.7.2 Features of capacitive transducer

1. Accuracy - provide accuracies as high as ±0.02% Full Scale (FS).

2. Minimal mechanical motion.
3. Range capabilities.
4. Long term stability.
5. High-level output.
6. Electromagnetic compatibility.

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7. Resistant to harsh environments.
2.7.3 Advantages of capacitive transducer

1. Requires extremely small force for operation.

2. Requires small power for operation.
3. Frequency response is good.
4. A resolution of the order of 2.5*10-3.
5. Higher input impedance. Therefore loading effects are minimum.
2.7.4 Disadvantages of capacitive transducer

1. Sensitivity to temperature variations.

2. The possibility of erratic or distortion signals due to long lead length.
3. They show nonlinear behavior on account of Edge effects. This can be eliminated using guard
rings.
2.7.5 Applications

1. As frequency modulator in RF oscillator.

2. In capacitance microphone.
3. Use the capacitance transducer in an ac bridge circuit.
4. To measure force and pressure.
5. To measure humidity in gases.
2.8 Hall effect transducers
2.8.1Hall effect

When a magnetic field is applied at right angles to the direction of electric current, an electric field
is setup which is perpendicular to both the direction of electric current and the applied magnetic field.
This phenomenon is called Hall effect.

Fig 2.8.1.1 Current carrying semiconductor bar subject to transverse magnetic field

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In the above figure, A thin sheet of semiconductor bar (called Hall element) is carrying a current (I)
and is placed into a magnetic field (B) which is perpendicular to the direction of current flow. Due to the
presence of force, the distribution of current is no more uniform across the Hall element and therefore a
potential difference is created across its edges perpendicular to the directions of both the current and the
field. This voltage is known Hall voltage and its typical value is in the order of few microvolts. The Hall
voltage is directly proportional to the magnitudes of I and B. So if one of them (I and B) is known, then
the observed Hall voltage can be used to estimate the other.

VH

VH =
Where, RH = Hall co-efficient.

B = Magnetic field strength.

I = Current carried by the semiconductor bar.

B = width of the specimen along the magnetic field.

The Hall effect may be used:

To find whether semiconductor is N-type or P-type.

To determine charge carrier concentration.

Hall effect transducer:

These are transducers in which “Hall Effect” is used to measure various electrical and non-electrical
quantities.

The following are the applications of Hall effect transducers:

2.8.2 Hall effect displacement transducer

Hall effect element may be used for measuring a linear displacement.

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Figure 2.8.2.1 Hall effect displacement transducer

The Hall Effect element is located in the gap, adjacent to the permanent magnet and the field
strength produced in the gap, due to the permanent magnet, is changed by changing the position of the
ferromagnetic plate. The voltage output of the Hall effect element is proportional to the field strength of
the gap which is a function of the position of ferromagnetic plate with respect to the structure.Thus
displacement can be measured by the Hall effect transducer. Very small displacements (as small as 0.025
mm) can be measured by this method.

2.8.3 Current measurement

Hall effect transducer is used to measure current in a conductor, without disturbing the circuit and
without making electrical connection between the conductor circuit and the meter.

Figure 2.8.3.1 Measurement of current using Hall effect

In the above figure when a DC or AC current flows through the conductor wound around a core it
sets up a magnetic field. This magnetic field is proportional to the current. A Hall effect sensor is placed
in the slot which acts as a magnetic concentrator. The voltage produced at the output terminals is
proportional to the magnetic field strength and hence is proportional to the current, flowing through the
conductor.This method is used to measure current from less than a mA to thousands of amperes.
2.8.4 Fluid level measurement
The below figure shows how a Hall effect transducer can be used to measure fluid(fuel) level in an
automobile fuel tank.

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Figure 2.8.4.1 Measurement of fluid level using Hall effect

A fuel level indication can be obtained with a Hall-effect sensor by attaching a magnet to the float
assembly. As the float moves up and down with the fuel level, the gap between the magnet and the Hall
element will change. The gap changes the Hall-effect and thus the output voltage.

2.9 LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transducer)

LVDT works under the principle of mutual induction. It is used to translate the linear motion into
electrical signals.

2.9.1 Construction

Figure 2.9.1.1 shows the construction of LVDT. LVDT consists of a cylindrical former where it is
surrounded by one primary winding in the centre of the former and the two secondary windings at the
sides. The number of turns in both the secondary windings are equal, but they are opposite to each other,
i.e., if the left secondary windings is in the clockwise direction, the right secondary windings will be in
the anti-clockwise direction, hence the net output voltages will be the difference in voltages between the
two secondary coil. The two secondary coils are represented as S1 and S2. An iron core is placed in the
centre of the cylindrical former which can move in to and fro motion as shown in the figure. The AC
excitation voltage is 5 to 12V and the operating frequency is given by 50 to 400 HZ.

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Figure 2.9.1.1 LVDT construction and circuit

2.9.2 Working of LVDT

As shown in the above figure, an ac voltage with a frequency between (50-400Hz) is supplied to the
primary winding. Thus, two voltages VS1 and VS2 are obtained at the two secondary windings S1 and S2
respectively. The output voltage will be the difference between the two voltages (VS1-VS2) as they are
combined in series. Let us consider three different positions of the soft iron core inside the former.

Null Position - This is also called the central position as the soft iron core will remain in the exact
center of the former. Thus the linking magnetic flux produced in the two secondary windings will be
equal. The voltage induced because of them will also be equal. Thus the resulting voltage VS1-VS2 = 0.
Right of Null Position - In this position, the linking flux at the winding S2 has a value more than
the linking flux at the winding S1. Thus, the resulting voltage VS1-VS2 will be in phase with VS2.
Left of Null Position - In this position, the linking flux at the winding S2 has a value less than the
linking flux at the winding S1. Thus, the resulting voltage VS1-VS2 will be in phase with VS1.
From the working it is clear that the difference in voltage, VS1-VS2 will depend on the right or left
shift of the core from the null position. Also, the resulting voltage is in phase with the primary winding
voltage for the change of the arm in one direction, and is 180 degrees out of phase for the change of the
arm position in the other direction.

The magnitude and displacement can be easily calculated or plotted by calculating the magnitude
and phase of the resulting voltage.

2.9.3 Advantages of LVDT

1.High resolution.

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2. High output.
3. High sensitivity.
4. Very good linearity.
5. Ruggedness.
6. Less friction.
7. Low hysteresis.
8. Low power consumption.
2.9.4 Disadvantages of LVDT
1. Very high displacement is required for generating high voltages.
2. Shielding is required since it is sensitive to magnetic field.
3. The performance of the transducer gets affected by vibrations
4. It is greatly affected by temperature changes.
2.9.5 Applications of LVDT

LVDT is used to measure displacement ranging from fraction millimetre to centimetre. Acting as a
secondary transducer, LVDT can be used as a device to measure force, weight and pressure, etc,.

Multiple LVDT‟s are used for measurement of pressure or weight applied by liquid in a tank.

2.10 Thermistors

Thermistors are transducers which are thermally sensitive variable resistance made of
semiconducting materials. A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance is dependent on temperature.
It exhibits high negative temperature coefficient of resistance.

Figure 2.10.1 Types of thermistors

2.10.1 Applications of thermistors

1. Measurement of temperature.
2. Measurements of level, flow and pressure of liquids.

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3. Voltage Regulation.
4. Circuit Protection.
5. Volume Control.
6. Time Delay.
2.11 Thermocouple
A Thermocouple is a sensor used to measure temperature. Thermocouples consist of two wire legs
made from different metals. The wires legs are welded together at one end, creating a junction. This
junction is where the temperature is measured. When the junction experiences a change in temperature, a
voltage is created.

Figure 2.11.1 Thermocouple

The thermocouple works on the principle of Seebeck effect. Seebeck effect is the phenomenon in
which a voltage difference is produced between two dissimilar electrical conductors or semiconductors
due to temperature difference between the two substances. When heat is applied to one of the two
conductors or semiconductors, heated electrons flow towards the cooler one. Direct current will flow
through an electric circuit, if the pair is connected through it. Seebeck effect usually produces small
voltages that are a few microvolts per kelvin of temperature difference at junction.

2.11.1 Advantages

1. Low cost.
2. Small size.
3. Robust.
4. Wide range of operation.
5. Provide fast response.
6. Accurate for large temperature changes.

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2.11.2 Disdvantages

1. Very weak output.

2. Limited accuracy for small temperature.
3. Sensitive to electrical noise.
2.11.3 Applications

1. Temperature measurement for kilns, gas turbine exhaust, diesel engines.

2. Steel industry.
3. Heating appliance safety.
4. Power production in thermoelectric generation.
5. Thermoelectric cooling.
2.12 Piezoelectric Transducers
Piezoelectric transducer is based on principle of piezoelectric effect

Piezoelectric effect:

Piezoelectric effect states that when mechanical stress or forces are applied on quartz, crystal,
produce electrical charges on quartz crystal surface. The rate of charge produced will be proportional to
rate of change of mechanical stress applied on it. Higher will be stress higher will be voltage. Certain
crystals namely Quartz, Rochelle salt and tourmaline, which exhibits piezoelectric effect are called
piezoelectric crystals.

There are two main groups of piezoelectric crystals,

Natural crystals: Quartz and tourmaline.

Synthetic crystals: Rochelle salt, lithium sulphate etc.

Working of piezoelectric transducer:

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In the above figure, Piezo electric crystal is used for measuring varying force applied to a simple
plate. The magnitude and polarity of the induced charge on the crystal surface is proportional to
magnitude and direction of applied force.

The charge at the electrode gives rise to voltage (E) is given by,

E=
= gtP

Where, g = Voltage sensitivity

T = Thickness of the crystal
F = Force in Newton
A = Area of the crystal

P = pressure =

2.12.1 Advantages

1. No need of external force.

2. Easy to handle due to small size.
3. High frequency response.
4. High output.
5. They can be cut into variety of shapes and sizes.
2.12.2 Disadvantages
1. It is not suitable for measurement in static condition.
2. It is affected by temperatures.
2.12.3 Applications
1. Microphones.
2. Medical diagnostics.
3. It is used in electric lighter used in kitchens.
4. They are used for studying high speed shock waves and blast waves.
5. Used in Inkjet printers.
6. It is also used in restaurants or airports where when a person steps near the door the door opens
automatically. In this the concept used is when person is near the door a pressure is exerted
persons weight on the sensors due to which the electric effect is produced and the door opens
automatically.
7. Under water detection system.

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2.13 Proximity sensors
A proximity sensor is a sensor able to detect the presence of nearby objects without any physical
contact. The object being sensed is often referred to as the proximity sensor's target. The maximum
distance that this sensor can detect is defined "nominal range".

Types of proximity sensors:

The Eddy current proximity sensor:

This uses the effect of eddy (circular) currents to sense the proximity of non-magnetic but
conductive materials. A typical eddy current transducer contains two coils: an active coil (main coil) and
a reference coil. When a coil is supplied with an alternating current, an alternating magnetic field is
produced. If there is metal object in close proximity to this alternating magnetic field, then eddy currents
are induced in it.Therefore impedance of the coil changes thereby changing the amplitude of the
alternating current.

Figure 2.13.1 Eddy current proximity sensor

Advantages of Eddy current proximity sensor:

1. Non-contacting measurement.
2. High resolution.
3. High frequency response.
Disadvantages of Eddy current proximity sensor:

1. Effective distance is limited to close range.

2. The relationship between the distance and the impedance of the coil is nonlinear and
temperature dependent.

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3. Only works on conductive materials with sufficient thickness.
Capacitance proximity sensors:

Figure 2.13.2 below shows capacitance proximity sensor. Capacitive Proximity Sensors detect
changes in the capacitance between the sensing object and the sensor. The amount of capacitance varies
depending on the size and distance of the sensing object. An ordinary capacitive proximity sensor is
similar to a capacitor with two parallel plates, where the capacity of the two plates is detected. One of the
plates is the object being measured (with an imaginary ground), and the other is the Sensor's sensing
surface. The changes in the capacity generated between these two poles are detected. The objects that can
be detected depend on their dielectric constant.

Figure 2.13.2 Capacitive proximity sensor

Inductive proximity sensors:

In the below figure a coil is wound around a core. When the end of a inductive coil is close to a
metal object its inductance changes. This change can be monitored by its effect on a oscillator circuit, and
this change is used to trigger a switch.

Figure 2.13.3 Inductive proximity sensor

Pneumatic sensors:

Pneumatic sensors are used to measure displacement, as well as sense the objects close to it. The
displacement and proximity are transformed into change in air pressure. Figure below shows a schematic
of such a sensor. It comprises of three ports. Low pressure air is allowed to escape through port A. In the
absence of any obstacle / object, this low pressure air escapes and in doing so, reduces the pressure in the
port B. However, when an object obstructs the low pressure air (Port A), there is rise in pressure in output
port B. This rise in pressure is calibrated to measure the displacement.

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Figure 2.13.4 Pneumatic sensor

2.14 Digital optical encoder

A digital optical encoder is a device that converts motion into a sequence of digital pulses. By
counting a single bit or by decoding a set of bits, the pulses can be converted to relative or absolute
position measurements.

Encoders have both linear and rotary configurations, but the most common type is rotary.

Rotary encoders are manufactured in two basic forms:

Absolute encoder where a unique digital word corresponds to each rotational position of the shaft,

The incremental encoder, which produces digital pulses as the shaft rotates, allowing
measurement of relative position of shaft. Most rotary encoders are composed of a glass or plastic code
disk with a photographically deposited radial pattern organized in tracks. As radial lines in each track
interrupt the beam between a photo emitter-detector pair, digital pulses are produced.

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Figure 2.14.1 Digital optical encoder

Figure above shows the construction of an optical encoder. It comprises of a disc with three
concentric tracks of equally spaced holes. Three light sensors are employed to detect the light passing
through the holes. These sensors produce electric pulses which give the angular displacement of the
mechanical element e.g. shaft on which the Optical encoder is mounted. The inner track has just one hole
which is used locate the „home' position of the disc. The holes on the middle track offset from the holes of
the outer track by one-half of the width of the hole. This arrangement provides the direction of rotation to
be determined. When the disc rotates in clockwise direction, the pulses in the outer track lead those in the
inner; in counter clockwise direction they lag behind.

2.15 PIR sensors

All objects with a temperature above absolute zero emit heat energy in the form of radiation.
Usually this radiation isn't visible to the human eye because it radiates at infrared wavelengths, but it can
be detected by electronic devices designed for such a purpose. A passive infrared sensor (PIR sensor) is
an electronic sensor that measures infrared (IR) light radiating from objects in its field of view. They are
often referred to as PIR, "Passive Infrared", "Pyroelectric", or "IR motion" sensors.

PIRs are basically made of a pyroelectric sensor (which is shown in figure below as the round metal
can, with a rectangular crystal in the centre), which can detect levels of infrared radiation. The PIR sensor
itself has two slots in it, each slot is made of a special material that is sensitive to IR. The lens used here
consists of two slots that can 'see' out past some distance. When the sensor is idle, both slots detect the
same amount of IR. When a warm body like a human or animal passes by, it first intercepts one half of
the PIR sensor, which causes a positive differential change between the two halves. When the warm body

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leaves the sensing area, the reverse happens, whereby the sensor generates a negative differential change.
These change pulses are what is detected.

Figure 2.15.1 PIR sensors

2.15.1 Applications

1. All outdoor Lights.

2. Lift Lobby.
3. Multi Apartment Complexes.
4. Common staircases.
5. For Basement or Covered Parking Area.
6. Shopping Malls.

2.15.2 Features

1. Low Noise and High Sensitivity.

2. Supply Voltage – 5V.
3. Delay Time Adjustable.
4. Standard TTL Output.

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Unit 3: Analog meters
11 Hours
Principle of PMMC meters, DC ammeters and voltmeters using PMMC. Shunt and series resistors, multi
range voltmeters/ammeters, loading effect and voltmeter sensitivity, problems on extending range.
Working of electrodynamometer type voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter.

Electronic voltmeters: Pros and cons, working of FET input, chopper type DC amplifier voltmeter,
solid-state voltmeter using op-amp, AC voltmeter using full-wave rectifier, Peak responding and true
RMS voltmeters. Ohmmeters series and shunt type. Concept of Calibration of meters.

3. ANALOG METERS:
An instrument which measures and indicates values by means of a continuous scale and a movable
pointer are called analog meters.
“Ammeters”, are connected in series in the circuit whose current is to be measured. “Voltmeters”
are connected in parallel with the circuit whose voltage is to be measured. “Ohmmeters” are used for
measurement of resistance.
3.1 PMMC meters

Figure 3.1.1 PMMC meter and D’Arsonval movement

Principle of PMMC meters:

When current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a mechanical force acts on the
conductor, if it is attached to a moving system, with the coil movement, the pointer moves over the scale.
Thereby, the basic PMMC movement is called as D‟Arsonal movement. It can be used for D.C
measurements.

Construction:

It consists of a permanent horse shoe magnet with soft iron pole pieces attached to it.

A cylinder shaped soft iron core, is placed in between two pole pieces around which a coil of fine
wire moves wound on a light metal frame. A light pointer attached to the moving coil moves up-scale as

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the coil rotates when the current is passed through it. The rotating coil is prevented from continuous
rotation by a spring which provides restoring torque.

Working:

This meter movement works on “MOTOR PRINCIPLE” (when a current carrying conductor is
placed in a magnetic field, it is acted upon by a force which tends to move it to one side and out of the
field).When the instrument is connected in the circuit to measure current or voltage, the operating current
flows through the coil. Since the current carrying coil is placed in the magnetic field of the permanent
magnet, a mechanical torque acts on it. As a result of this torque, the pointer attached to the moving
system moves in clockwise direction over the graduated scale to indicate the value of current or voltage
being measured.
The deflecting torque is given by,
Td = NBldI
where N is number of turns,
B is magnetic flux density in air gap,
l is the length of moving coil, d is the width of the moving coil,
I is the electric current.
Thus, Td α I
The instrument is spring controlled so that,
Tc α θ
The pointer will comes to rest at a position, where
Td =Tc
Therefore, θ α I
Thus, the deflection is directly proportional to the operating current. Hence, such instruments have
uniform scale.
Advantages:
1. Uniform scale.ie, evenly divided scale.
2. Very effective eddy current damping.
3. High efficiency.
4. Require little power for their operation.
5. No hysteresis loss (as the magnetic field is constant).
6. Very accurate and reliable.
Disadvantages:
1. Cannot be used for a.c measurements.

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2.More expensive (about 50%) than the moving iron instruments because of their accurate design.
3. Some errors are caused due to variations (with time or temperature) either in the strength of
permanent magnet or in the control spring.
Applications:

1. In the measurement of direct currents and voltages.

2. In DC galvanometers to detect small currents.

3.2 DC ammeters and voltmeters using PMMC

3.2.1 DC Ammeters

The basic movement of DC ammeter is the PMMC D‟Arsonal movement. Since the coil winding
in PMMC meter is small and light, they can carry only small currents (μA-1mA). Measurement of large
current requires a shunt external resistor to connect with the meter movement, so only a fraction of the
total current will passes through the meter.

Figure 3.2.1.1 DC ammeters

Let, Rm=Internel resistance of the meter

Rsh=shunt resistance

Im= current through the meter

Ish= shunt current

I=Current of the circuit to be measured.

Thus, I= Im+Ish

Since voltage drop across the shunt and the meter is same,

Vsh=Vm

Ish*Rh=Im*Rm
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Therefore,

3.2.2 D.C Voltmeter

A voltmeter is always connect in parallel with the element being measured, and measures the
voltage between the points across which it is connected. Most d.c voltmeter use PMMC meter with series
resistor as shown in figure below. The series resistance should be much larger than the impedance of the
circuit being measured, and they are usually much larger than Rm.

Figure 3.2.2.1 DC voltmeter

Let, Rm=Internel resistance of the meter

Rs=series resistance
Im= current through the meter
V=Voltage of the circuit to be measured
Now, V=Im*(Rs+Rm)

Rs =

Therefore,
Rs=

3.3 Multirange ammeters

The current range of the DC ammeter can be extended by a number of shunts selected by a
switch(S).Such meter is called multirange ammeters.

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Figure 3.3.1 Multirange ammeters

Let, Rm = Internel resistance of the meter

R1, R2, R3, R4 = shunt resistors
Im = current through the meter
I1, I2, I3, I4 = shunt currents
I = Current of the circuit to be measured.
We know that, Rsh =
Ish=I-Im
We can write, Rsh =

- 1=

But, = m = multiplying power,

Therefore, Rsh =
Let m1, m2, m3, m4 be the shunt multiplying powers for current I1, I2, I3, I4.

R1=

R2=

R3=

R4=

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3.3.1 Multirange DC ammeter using universal shunt (Ayrton shunt)
The universal shunt or the Ayrton shunt eliminates the possibility of having the meter in the
circuit without shunt.

Figure 3.3.1.1 Aryton shunt

The selector switch S, selects the appropriate shunt required to change the range of the meter.
When the position of the switch is '1' then the resistance R1 is in parallel with the series combination
of R2 , R3 and Rm. Hence current through the shunt is more than the current through the
meter, thus protecting the basic meter.
When the switch is in the position '2', then the series resistance of R1 and R2, is in parallel with the
series combination of R3 and Rm. The current through the meter is more than through the shunt in this
position.
When the switch is in the position '3', the resistances R1 , R2 and R3 are in series and acts as the
shunt. In this position, the maximum current flows through the meter. This increases the sensitivity of the
meter.
The voltage drop across the two parallel branches is always equal.
Thus, Ish Rsh = Im Rm
But in position 1, R1 is in parallel with R2 + R3 + Rm

Where, I1 is the first range required.

In position 2, R1 + R2 is in parallel with R3 + Rm .

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where I2 is the second range required.

In position 3, R1 + R2 + R3 is in parallel with Rm .

where I3 is the third range required.

The current range I3 is the minimum while I1 is maximum range possible. Solving the equations
(1), (2) and (3) the required Ayrton shunt can be designed.
3.3.2 Multirange DC voltmeter

A DC voltmeter is converted into a multirange voltmeter by connecting a number of resistors

(multipliers) in series with the meter movement.

Figure 3.3.2.1 Multirange DC voltmeter

In the above figure, the multipliers are connected in series with the meter. The selector switch is
used to select the required voltage range.
When the switch S is at position V1, R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 acts as a multiplier resistance. While when the
switch S is at position V4 then the resistance R4 only acts as multiplier resistance. The V4 is
the lowest voltage range while V1 is the maximum voltage range.
The multiplier resistances can be calculated as :
In position V4, the multiplier is R4 only. The total resistance of the circuit is say RT.

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In position V3, the multiplier is R3 + R4.

In position V2, the multiplier is R2 + R3 + R4.

In position V1, the multiplier is R1 + R2 + R3 + R4.

Using equations (1), (2), (3) and (4) multipliers can be designed.

3.3.3 Loading effect and voltmeter sensitivity

Loading effect:

When selecting a meter for certain voltage measurement it is important to consider the sensitivity
of a DC voltmeter. A low sensitivity meter may give a correct reading if the circuit resistance is low but it

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will produce defective readings in a high resistance circuit because the meter acts as a shunt which in turn
reduces the total equivalent circuit. Than the meter indicates low readings. This is called loading effect.

Voltmeter sensitivity:
In a, the ratio of the total resistance RT to the voltage range remains same. This ratio is nothing but
the reciprocal of the full scale deflection current of the meter i.e. 1/Im. This value is called sensitivity of
voltmeter.
Thus the sensitivity of voltmeter is defined as,

S= Ω/V

The sensitivity range is specified on the meter dial and it indicates the resistance of the meter for a
one volt range.
Where, S=sensitivity of the voltmeter (Ω/V)
V=Voltage rang, as set by the range switch
Rm=internal resistance of the meter
Rs=Resistance of the multiplier
RT=Total circuit resistance

RT = ------------------------------------------------------------(1)

S= ---------------------------------------------------------------(2)

Sub (2) in (1)

RT = S*V-------------------------------------------------------------(3)
Since Rs and Rm are in series, RT=Rs+Rm---------------------(4)
Sub (4) in (3), Rs+Rm = S*V ------------------------------------(5)
Solving eq (5) for Rs,
Rs=(S*V)-Rm

3.4 Electrodynamometer

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Electrodynamometer type instruments are used as AC voltmeters and ammeters both in the range
of power frequencies and lower part of the audio frequency range. In order that the instrument should be
able to read a.c. quantities, the magnetic field in the air gap must change along with the change in current.
This principle is used in the electrodynamometer type instrument.

Figure 3.4.1 Electrodynamometer

Construction:
The necessary field required for the operation of the instrument is produced by the fixed coils. A
uniform field is obtained near the centre of coil due to division of coil in two sections. These coils are air
cored. Fixed coils are wound with fine wire for using as voltmeter, while for ammeters and wattmeter‟s it
is wound with heavy wire. Ceramic is usually used for mounting supports. If metal parts would have been
used then it would weaken the field of the fixed coil. The moving coil is wound either as a self-sustaining
coil or else on a non-metallic former. If metallic former is used, then it would induce eddy currents in it.
The construction of moving coil is made light as well as rigid. It is air cored. The moving coil is mounted
on a aluminium spindle. The moving system carries a pointer.
The electrodynamometer is used as Ac voltmeter, ammeter and with a slight modification it can
also be used as a wattmeter, power factor meter, frequency meter.
3.4.1 Electrodynamometer type ammeter

Figure 3.4.1.1 Electrodynamometer type ammeter

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In the above circuit arrangement, when the instrument is used as an ammeter, fixed coils and
moving coil are connected in series and therefore carry the same current
i.e.I1=I2=I
Hence, angular deflection, ɵ
To measure heavy currents shunt is used to limit current through the moving coil. For small currents
shunt is not needed.

3.4.2 Electrodynamometer type voltmeter

Figure 3.4.2.1 Electrodynamometer type voltmeter

In the above circuit arrangement, when the instrument is used as an voltmeter, fixed coils and
moving coil are connected in series along with a high resistance.
i.e I1=I2=I

I= in DC circuits

And I = in AC circuits

Hence, angular deflection, ɵ

ɵ V2

3.4.3 Electrodynamometer type wattmeter

Figure 3.4.3.1 electrodynamometer type wattmeter

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The fixed coils are connected in series with the circuit, while the moving coil is connected
in parallel. Also, on analog wattmeters, the moving coil carries a needle that moves over a scale to
indicate the measurement. A current flowing through the fixed coil generates an electromagnetic
field around the coil. The strength of this field is proportional to the line current and in phase with it.

For a dc circuit the deflection of the needle is proportional to both current(I) and the voltage(V).

Thus power, P=VI

For an ac circuit the deflection is proportional to the average instantaneous product of voltage and
current,

Thus power, P=VI cos φ. Here, cosφ represents the power factor.

Advantages of electrodynamic instruments:

1. As the coils are air cored, these instruments are free from hysteresis and eddy current losses. These
instruments can be used on both a.c. and d.c.
2. Electrodynamometer voltmeters are very useful where accurate r.m.s values of voltage, irrespective
of waveforms, are required.
3. Low power consumption
4. Light in weight.
Disadvantages of electrodynamic instruments:
1. These instruments have a low sensitivity also it introduces increased frictional losses. To get
accurate results, these errors must be minimized.
2. They are more expensive than other type of instruments.
3. These instruments are sensitive to overload and mechanical impacts.
4. The operation current of these instruments is large due to the fact that they have weak magnetic
field.
3.5 Electronic voltmeters
Pros:
1. Low level signal detection.
2. Low power consumption.
3. Less loading effect.
4. High sensitivity and high input impedence.
5. High frequency response.

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6. Parallax error is eliminated.
Cons:
1. Special circuits are needed to convert analog to digital
2. These are expensive.
3. Effected by temperature changes
4. Large bandwidth is required

3.5.1 FET voltmeter using differential amplifier

Figure 3.5.1.1 FET voltmeter using differential amplifier

FET Voltmeter using differential amplifier is as shown in figure above. It consists of two identical
FET‟s Q1 and Q2. Increase in the current of one FET is offset by corresponding decrease in source current
of the other. The two FET‟s form the lower arms of the balanced bridge circuit where as the two drain
resistors RD form the upper arms.
The circuit is balanced under zero input voltage condition provided the tw FET‟s are identical.
Under such conditions there would be no current through the PMMC meter. Current flows through the
meter when positive voltage is applied to the gate of FET Q1. The magnitude of this current is found to be
proportional to the voltage being measured.

3.5.2 Chopper type DC amplifier voltmeter

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Figure 3.5.2.1 Chopper type DC amplifiervoltmeter

Figure above shows the circuit diagram of a Chopper type DC amplifier voltmeter.
Two photo diodes are used in input stage which acts as half-wave modulators because of its
alternate switching action by the neon lamps at the frequency of oscillator.
In dc voltmeter circuit two neon lamps are used, these are supplied by an oscillator for alternate half
cycles. Output of chopper modulator is a square wave voltage (proportional to the input signal) which is
supplied to the ac amplifier through a capacitor and the amplified output is again passed through a
capacitor and then fed to chopper demodulator. The capacitor is used to smooth the output from the
amplifier.
The Chopper demodulator gives a dc output voltage (proportional to the input voltage) which is
passed through the low pass filter to remove any residual ac component and this dc output voltage is
supplied to the PMMC meter for measurement of input voltage.
Advantages:
1. It has very high input impedance of the order of 10MΩ.
2. It allows input signal in the range of 0.01mV.

3.5.3 Solid-state voltmeter using op-amp

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Figure 3.5.3.1 Solid state voltmeter using op-amp

Figure above shows an electronic voltmeter using op-amp 741. This is directly coupled very high
gain amplifier. The gain can be adjusted to any suitable value by providing appropriate resistance
between its output terminal, Pin No.6, and inverting input pin No.2, to provide negative feedback. The
ratio R2/R1 determines the gain. The 0.1μF capacitor across the 100KΩ resistance R2 is used for stability
under stray pickups.
A 10KΩ potentiometer is connected between the offset null terminal 1 and 5 with its centre tap
connected to -5V supply for adjusting zero output for zero input conditions. The two diodes used are for
IC protection. If an excessive voltage say more than 100mV appears across them then depending on the
polarity of the voltage one of the diode conducts and protects the IC. A μA scale 50-1000μA full scale
deflection can be used as an indicator. R4 is adjusted to get maximum full scale deflection.

3.5.4 AC voltmeter using full-wave rectifier

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Figure 3.5.4.1 AC voltmeter using full-wave rectifier

A full wave rectifier type AC voltmeter consists of four diodes and a PMMC meter as shown in
above fig. The current through the moving coil instrument flows in the same direction for both cycles of
the input voltage. The indication of instrument depends upon the mean value of the current flowing
through it.
Here, the meter reading would be 90% RMS i.e., 90% of the DC value. When the input is positive
D1 and D3 conducts, and the current flows through the meter from top to bottom. When the input is
negative D2 and D4 conducts through the meter from top to bottom. In both the cycles of the input
voltage current flows in same direction.
Advantages:
1. The frequency range extends from about 20Hz to high audio frequencies.
2. They have much lower operating current.
3. They have practically uniform scale for most ranges.

3.5.5 AC voltmeter using peak responding voltmeter

Figure 3.5.5.1 DC and AC coupled peak voltmeter respectively

Figure3.5.5.1 shows the two most common types of peak responding voltmeters. The capacitor
charges through the diode to the peak value of the applied voltage.
In both the circuits, the capacitor discharges very slowly through the high impedance input of DC
amplifiers, so that a negligible small amount of current supplied by the circuit under test keeps the
capacitor charged to the peak AC voltage. In DC coupled peak voltmeter the reading of the meter is
affected by the presence of DC with AC voltage.
Advantages:
The rectifying diode and the storage capacitor may be taken out of the instrument and placed in
probe when no pre-amplification is needed. The measured AC signal then travels no further than the
diode. The meter is then able to measure frequencies upto hundreds of MHz with a minimum of circuit
loading.
Disadvantages:

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1. Error caused due to harmonic distortion.
2. Limited sensitivity.

3.5.6 True RMS reading voltmeter

Figure 3.5.6.1 Block diagram of true RMS reading voltmeter

Figure above shows the block diagram of a RMS Reading Voltmeter. It consists of two
thermocouples called main thermocouple (MT) and balancing thermocouple (BT). BT is used in the
feedback loop to cancel out the non-linear effects of the MT.
The unknown A.C voltage is amplified and fed to the heating element of the main thermocouple.
The heat produced by the wire is sensed by the measuring thermocouple which produces a proportional
DC voltage. This DC voltage upsets the bridge balance. The unbalance voltage is amplified by the DC
amplifier and fed back to the heating element of the balancing thermocouple.
Bridge balance is reestablished when the two thermocouples produce the same output voltages. At
this point the DC current in the heating element of the feedback thermocouple is proportional to the AC
current in the input thermocouple i.e., the DC is proportional to the rms value of the input AC signal. This
DC value is indicated by the meter movement in the output circuit.
Advantages:

1. Sensitivities in the mV range is possible.

2. The non-linear behaviour is avoided.

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3. Complex waveforms are accurately measured.

Disadvantages:

1. The overall meter response is not good.

2. The cost of meter is high.

3. In case of highly non-linear waveforms, the crest factor puts the limitation on the meter reading.

3.6 Ohmmeter
An ohmmeter is an electrical instrument that measures electrical resistance.

3.6.1 Series Type Ohmmeter

A circuit of series type ohmmeter is shown in figure below. It consists of basic D‟Arsonval
movement connected in parallel with a shunting resistor R2. This parallel circuit is in series with
resistance R1 and a battery of emf (E). The series circuit is connected to the terminals A and B of
unknown resistor Rx.

Figure 3.6.1.1 Series type ohmmeter

For the figure,

R1 = current limiting resistor,
R2 = zero adjusting resistor,
E = emf of internal battery,
Rm = internal resistance of d‟Arsonval movement,
Rx=unknown resistance
When the unknown resistance Rx = 0 (terminals A and B shorted) maximum current flows through
the meter. Under this condition resistor R2 is adjusted until the basic movement meter indicates full scale
current Ifs. The full scale current position of the pointer is marked “0Ω” on the scale.

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Similarly when Rx is removed from circuit Rx = ∞ (that is when terminal A and B are open), the
current in the meter drops to the zero and the movement indicates zero current which is the marked
“∞”.Thus the meter will read infinite resistance at the zero current position and zero resistance at full
scale current position. Since zero resistance is indicated when current in the meter is the maximum and
hence the pointer goes to the top mark.
When the unknown resistance is inserted at terminal A, B the current through the meter is reduced
and hence pointer drops lower on the scale. Therefore the meter has “0” at extreme right and “∞” at the
extreme left. Intermediate scale marking may be placed on the scale by different known values of the
resistance Rx to the instrument.

3.6.2 Shunt Type ohmmeter

A circuit of shunt type ohmmeter is shown in figure below. In this type of meters a battery source
and an adjustable resistor is connected in series. The meter is in parallel to the resistance which is to be
measured.

Figure 3.6.2.1 Shunt type ohmmeter

A switch is used to turn on and off the circuit. The switch is opened when it is not in use.
For the figure,
Rse = zero adjusting resistor,
E = emf of internal battery,
Rm = internal resistance of D‟Arsonval movement,
R=unknown resistance.

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When the unknown resistance Rx = 0 (terminals A and B shorted) no current flows through the
meter. Under this condition resistor Rse is adjusted until the basic movement meter indicates zero current.
The full scale current position of the pointer is marked “0Ω” on the scale.
Similarly when Rx is removed from circuit Rx = ∞ (that is when terminal A and B are open),
maximum current flows through the meter. Under this condition resistor R2 is adjusted until the basic
movement meter indicates full scale current Ifs. The full scale current position of the pointer is marked
“∞Ω” on the scale. Therefore the meter has “0” at extreme left and “∞” at the extreme right. Intermediate
scale marking may be placed on the scale by different known values of the resistance Rx to the
instrument.

3.7 Calibration
In measurement technology calibration is the comparison of measurement values delivered by
an instrument under test with those of a standard instrument of known accuracy.

3.7.1 Calibration of DC voltmeters

Figure 3.7.1.1 Calibration of DC voltmeters

Figure above shows calibration of DC voltmeter. The test voltmeter reading „V‟ is compared to the
voltage reading obtained by the standard instrument „M‟. Several points on the voltmeter scale can be
calibrated. A voltmeter tested with this method can be calibrated with an accuracy of + 0.01

3.7.2 Calibration of DC ammeters

Calibration of a Dc ammeter can be performed by the arrangement shown below.

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Figure 3.7.2.1 Calibration of DC ammeters

The value of the current through the meter to be calibrated is determined by measuring the potential
difference across a standard resistor by the voltmeter and then calculating the current by Ohm‟s law.
The result of this calculation is compared to the actual reading of the ammeter under the calibration
inserted in the circuit. A rheostat is placed in the circuit to control the current to any desired value, so that
different points on the meter scale can be calibrated.

Problem - 1:
A basic D‟Arsonal movement with internal resistance, Rm=50Ω, and full scale deflection current
Ifsd=2mA, is to be converted into a multirange dc voltmeter with voltage range of 0-1V, 10V, 100V, and
250V. Draw the necessary circuit arrangement and find values of suitable multipliers.
Solution:

Multirange DC voltmeter

For 0-1V range (V4 position of range switch) the total circuit resistance.
RT = = 500Ω

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R4 = (RT-Rm) = 500Ω - 50 Ω =450 Ω

ii) For 10V range (V3 is the position of switch)

RT= =5000 Ω

R3= RT-(R4+Rm)
= 5000 -(450+50)
=5000-500=4500
R3=4.5K Ω
ii) For 100V range (V2 is the position of switch)
RT= =50 KΩ

R2= RT-(R3+R4+Rm)
= 50K -(4500+450+50)
=50K-5K=45KΩ
R2=45K Ω
ii) For 250V range (V1 is the position of switch)
R1 = =125K Ω

R1= RT-(R2+R3+R4+Rm)
= 125K -(45K+4.5K+450+50)
=125K-50K
R1=75K Ω

Problem - 1:
Design an Ayrton shunt to provide an ammeter with current ranges of 1A, 5A and 10A. A
D‟Arsonal movement with an internal resistance Rm=50 Ω and full scale deflection current of 1mA is
used in the configuration.

Solution: We know that, Rsh =

But, Ish = I-Im
We can write, Rsh =

Therefore, -1=

 = 1+
 Multiplying factor= m = = 1+
 Rsh =

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Thus from above figure, m1= = 1000, m2 = =5000, m3= =10000

Thus, R1 = = = 0.05 Ω

R2 = = = 0.01 Ω

R3 = = = 0.005 Ω

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Unit 4: Testing instruments

10 Hours

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope - block diagram, working of CRT, concept of dual tracing.CRO probes: direct,
high impedance, active and current probes. Applications of CRO-simple problems on voltage and frequency
measurements. DSO: block diagram, advantages and applications. Sampling oscilloscope: advantages and
applications. Function generator: block diagram, features and applications. Features of standard RF signal
generator and sweep frequency generator. Features of distortion analyzer, wave analyzers, and spectrum
analyzers.

4.1 Cathode ray oscilloscope

The cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is an instrument which we use in laboratory to display, measure
and analyze various wave forms of various electrical and electronic circuits.

CRO is a very fast X-Y plotter that can display an input signal versus time or other signal.

Figure 4.1.1 Cathode ray oscilloscope

Using CRO the wave shapes of alternating currents and voltages can be studied. It can also be used for
measuring voltage, current, power, frequency and phase shift.

4.1.1 Block diagram of CRO

Cathode ray oscilloscope uses luminous spot which is produced by striking the beam of electrons and
this luminous spot moves in response variation in the input quantity. CRT is the heart of oscilloscope.

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Figure 4.1.1.1 Block diagram of CRO

The main blocks of CRO are

1. CRT
2. Vertical amplifier
3. Delay Line
4. Trigger Circuit
5. Time base Generator
6. Horizontal amplifier
7. Power Supply
1. CRT: Cathode Ray Tube is the heart of the oscilloscope. When the electrons emitted by the electron gun
strikes the phosphor screen of the CRT, a visual signal is displayed on the CRT.

2. Vertical Amplifier: In Vertical Amplifier, the input signals are amplified by the vertical amplifier which
is a wide band amplifier which passes the entire band of frequencies.

3. Delay Line: This circuit is used to delay the signal for a period of time in the vertical section of CRT. The
delay Line retards the arrival of the input waveform at the vertical deflection plates until the trigger and time
base circuits start the sweep of the beam.

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4. Trigger circuit: A sample of the input waveform is fed to a trigger circuit which produces a trigger pulse
at some selected point on the input waveform. This trigger pulse is used to start the time base generator
which then starts the horizontal sweep of CRT spot from left hand side of the screen.

5. Time Base Generator: It uses a uni junction transistor, which is used to produce the sweep. The saw tooth
voltage produced by the time base generator is required to deflect the beam in the horizontal section. The
spot is deflected by the saw tooth voltage at a constant time dependent rate.

6. Horizontal amplifier: The saw tooth voltage produce by the time base circuit is amplified by the
horizontal amplifier before it is applied to horizontal deflection plates

7. Power supply: A high voltage section is used to operate CRT and a low voltage section is used to supply
electronic circuitry of the oscilloscope such as horizontal amplifier, vertical amplifier, sweep generator etc,.

4.1.2 Working of CRO

The CRT generates the electron beam which are accelerated to a high velocity and brought to focus on
a fluorescent screen which produces a visible spot where the electron beam strikes. By deflecting the beam
over the screen in response to the electrical signal, the electrons can be made to act as an electrical pencil of
light which produces a spot of light wherever it strikes.

Low voltage supply is required for the heater of the electron gun to generate the electron beam and high
voltage is required for the cathode ray tube to accelerate the beam. Normal voltage supply is required for
other control units of the oscilloscope. All these various powers are provided by power supply.

Horizontal and vertical deflection plates are fitted between the electron gun and the screen so that these
can deflect the beam according to the input signal.

To deflect the electron beam on the screen in horizontal direction i.e. X-axis with constant time
dependent rate, a time base generator is provided in the oscilloscope. The signal to be viewed is supplied to
the vertical deflection plate through the vertical amplifier, so that it can amplify the signal to a level that will
provide usable deflection of the electron beam. As the electron beam is deflected in X-axis as well as Y-axis,
a triggering circuit is provided for synchronizing these two types of deflections so that horizontal deflection
starts at the same point of the input vertical signal each time it sweeps. When the deflected electron beam
strikes the screen, the image is obtained as a spot of light.

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4.1.3 Significance of Delay line

Figure 4.1.3.1 Delay line

The diagram shows that when delay line is not used, the initial part of the signal is lost and only part of
the signal is displayed. To counteract this disadvantage the signal is not passed directly to the vertical plates
but is passed through delay line circuit.

This gives time for sweep to start at the horizontal plates before the signal has reached the vertical
plates.

The trigger pulse is picked off at a t0 after the signal has passed through the main amplifier. The sweep
generator delivers the sweep to the horizontal amplifier and sweep starts at the HDP(horizontal deflection
plates) at time t0+80 ns. Hence sweep starts well in time, since the signal arrives at the VDP(vertical
deflection plates) at time t0+200 ns.

4.1.4 Working of CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)

The main part of cathode ray oscilloscope is cathode ray tube which is also known as the heart of
cathode ray oscilloscope. The cathode ray tube or CRT is a vacuum tube of special geometrical shape which
converts an electrical signal into a visual one.

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A CRT provides large number of electrons which are accelerated to high velocity and are brought to
focus on a fluorescent screen where it produces a spot when strikes it. The electron beam is deflected during
its journey in response to the applied electrical signal. As a result, the electrical signal waveform is displayed
visually.

Figure 4.1.4.1 Internal structure of CRT

Figure 4.1.4.2 Block diagram of CRT

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Working of four main parts of the cathode ray tube are as follows:

1. Electron gun

2. Deflection plate system

3. Fluorescent screen

4. Glass envelope

1. Electron Gun

The electron gun assembly consists of an indirectly heated cathode, a control grid, a focusing anode
and an accelerating anode and it is used to produce a focused beam of electrons.

A layer of barium oxide is deposited on cathode end which is indirectly heated at moderate temperature
for high emission of electrons, these electrons are then passed to control gird made up of nickel controls the
intensity of electrons emitted from cathode. The electrons are then accelerated by pre-accelerating and
accelerating anodes which are connected to common positive potential of 1500V. Focusing anode focuses the
electron beam produced. There are two methods of focusing. a) Electrostatic focusing b) Electromagnetic
focusing.

2. Deflection Plate system

It consists of two sets of deflecting plates and is used for the deflection of the beam. a) Vertical
deflection plates b) Horizontal deflection plates.

The vertical deflection plates are mounted horizontally in the tube. On application of proper potential to
these plates, the electron beam can be made to move up and down vertically on the screen.

The horizontal deflection plates are mounted vertically in the tube. On application of proper potential to
these plates, the electron beam can be made to move right and left horizontally on the screen.

3. Fluorescent screen

The screen is coated with some fluorescent materials such as zinc orthosilicate, zinc oxide etc, and is the
inside face of the tube. When high velocity electron beam strikes the screen, a spot of light appears at the
point of impact. The colour of the spot depends upon the nature of fluorescent material.

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4. Glass Envelope

It is a conical highly evacuated glass housing which maintains vacuum inside it and supports various
electrodes. The inner wall of CRT between the neck and screen is coated with a conducting material known
as aquadag, which is electrically connected to the accelerating anode so that the electrons which accidentally
strike the walls are returned to the anode. This prevents the walls from charging to a high negative potential.

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https://youtu.be/U1amW7S1fcI

4.1.5 Concept of Dual Tracing

Dual-trace operation allows to view two independent signal sources as a dual display on a single CRT.
This operation allows an accurate means of making amplitude, phase, time displacement, or frequency
comparisons and measurements between two signals.

There are two separate vertical input channels A and B. These use two separate attenuators and pre-
amplifiers stages. Therefore the amplitude of each input as viewed on the oscilloscope can be individually
controlled. After pre-amplification the two channels meet at an electronic switch. This has the ability to pass
one channel at time into the vertical amplifier, via the delay line.

Switch S2 allows the circuit to be triggered on either the A or B channel waveforms, or on line
frequency, or on an external signal. The horizontal amplifier can be fed from the sweep generator or the B
channel via switch S1. This is the X - Y mode and the oscilloscope operates from channel A as the vertical
signal and channel B as the horizontal signal, giving very accurate X - Y measurements.

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Figure 4.1.5.1 Block diagram of dual trace oscilloscope

The dual trace oscilloscope is operated in two modes a) alternate mode b) chop mode. The operating
modes are selected form the instrument front panel.

Alternate mode: In case of alternate mode, electronic switch alternately connects the main vertical amplifier
to channel A and B and adds a different D.C. component to each signal. Due to this D.C. component the
beam alternately goes to the upper and lower half of the screen. Switching is carried out at the start of each
new sweep of the time base generator.

Figure 4.1.5.2 Waveform of DTO in alternate mode

To obtain the cathode ray tube spot it traces the channel A signal on one sweep and the channel B
signal on the succeeding sweep. The switching rate of the electronic switch is synchronized to the sweep rate.
The alternate mode cannot be used for displaying very low frequency signals.

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Chopped mode: In chop mode electronic switch runs at a very high frequency of the order of 100-500 kHz.
This results in connecting small segment of waveform A and waveform B, alternately to vertical amplifier to
display it on the screen. The display will be a continuous line for each channel when chopping rate much
faster than horizontal sweep rate. In case when the chopping rate is slow the continuity of the display is lost
hence it is preferable to use alternate mode of operation.

Figure 4.1.5.3 Wave form of DTO in Chop mode

4.1.6 CRO probes

The function of Probe is to connect the test circuit to the oscilloscope without altering, loading or
disturbing the test circuit.

Types of probes are

1. Direct probe
2. High impedance probe
3. Active probe
4. Current probe

1. Direct probe

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It is the simplest of all probes and uses a shielded co-axial cable. It avoids the stray pick-ups which
may create problems when low level signals are being measured. It is usually used for low frequency or low
impedance circuits.

Figure 4.1.6.1 Direct probe

When direct probes are used the stray capacitance of probe adds with capacitance of oscilloscope.
Hence at high frequencies, the total input reactance becomes low. This decreases the input impedance and
causes a sensitive circuit to break into oscillations. This effect is dominant at high frequencies, hence such
probes are used only at low frequencies. These are also known as 1X probe.

2. High impedance probe or 10:1 probe

These probes are used to increase the input resistance and reduce the effective input capacitance of an
oscilloscope. The capacitance is adjusted so that the elements of the bridge are balanced.

Figure 4.1.6.2 High impedance (10X) probe

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Figure 4.1.6.3 Equivalent circuit of 10:1 probe

Figure 4.1.6.4 High impedance probe

Under condition of balance R1X(Cin +C2)=RinX(C1) or R1/(ω(Cin+C2))= Rin/(ωC1) or R1C1= Rin

(Cin+C2).

Therefore, X and Y are equipotential and the effect of the probe is equivalent to placing a potential
divider consisting of R1 and Rin across the input circuit. The attenuation of signal is 10:1 i.e, (R1+Rin)/Rin =
10:1 over a wide frequency range. Hence the name compensated 10:1 probe. Capacitor C 1 is adjusted by
connecting the probe tip to a square wave of 1KHz and observing the CRT display. When the CRT display
has optimum response the value of C1 is deemed to be appropriate. Then, Vout = 0.1Vin = ( Vin x Rin)/
(R1+Rin).

3. Active Probe

These probes are designed to provide an efficient method of coupling high frequency, fast rise time
signals to CRO input. They have very high input impedance with less attenuation than passive probes. These

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probes are more expensive and bulky than passive probes, but they are useful for small signal measurements
because their attenuation is less.

Figure 4.1.6.5 Block diagram of active probe

Figure 4.1.6.6 Active probe

Figure 4.1.6.7 Circuit diagram of FET probe

The FET is used as the active element to amplify the input signal. The voltage gain of FET follower
circuit is unity but it provides a power gain so that input impedance can be increased.

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The FET must be mounted directly in the voltage probe tip, so that the capacitance of inter connecting
cable can be eliminated. This requires that the power for the FET be supplied from the oscilloscope to the
FET in the probe tip. The FET voltage follower drives a coaxial cable but instead of cable connecting directly
to the high input impedance of the oscilloscope it is terminated in its characteristic impedance. Active probes
have limited use because the FET probe effectively becomes an attenuator probe, hence the oscilloscopes are
typically used with 10:1 attenuator probe.

4. Current Probe

This probe can be clamped around a wire carrying current without any physical contact to the probe
and the magnitude of current with frequency from 0(DC) to 50Hz can be measured in oscilloscope.

Figure 4.1.6.8 Current probe using Hall effect

Figure 4.1.6.9 Current probe

The current sensor consists of two parts: A conventional transformer for transforming alternating
current to voltage, and Hall effect device for converting direct current to a voltage.

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Hall Effect is the generation of emf across the breadth of conductor when a current flow along the
length and magnetic field is applied at right angles to both these directions.

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bes/Probes-Lab.pdf

4.1.7 Applications of CRO

(A) In radio work

1. To trace and measure a signal throughout the RF, IF and AF channels of radio and television receivers.

2. It provides the only effective way of adjusting FM receivers, broadband high frequency RF amplifiers

and automatic frequency control circuits.

3. To test AF circuits for different types of distortions and other spurious oscillations

4. To give visual display of wave shapes such as sine waves, square waves and their many different

combinations.

5. To trace transistor curves.

6. To visually show the composite synchronized TV signal.

7. To display the response of tuned circuits.

(B) In scientific and engineering applications

1. Measurement of ac/dc voltages.

2. Finding B/H curves for hysteresis loop.

3. For engine pressure analysis.

4. For study of stress, strain, torque, acceleration etc,.

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5. Frequency and phase determination by using Lissajous figures.

6. Radiation patterns of antenna.

7. Amplifier Gain.

8. Modulation percentage.

9. Complex wave forms as a shortcut for Fourier analysis.

10. Standing waves in Transmission lines.

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4.1.8 Simple Problems on Voltage and Frequency measurements

Figure 4.1.8.1 Sine wave

Figure 4.1.8.2 Volts/Div knob and Times/Div knob in CRO

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Measurement of voltage:

Peak and Peak to Peak Value (Vpp): - The maximum value, +ve or –ve of the alternating quantity is
known as its peak value. It is also called maximum value or amplitude of the alternating quantity. The total
voltage measured from –ve peak to +ve peak is called the Peak to Peak voltage. Measure the number of
divisions on the voltage axis and multiply it by the value indicated by the Volts/Div knob on the CRO. This
gives the Vpp value.

RMS Value (Root Mean Square Value) (Vrms): It is given by the steady dc current which when flowing
through a given circuit for a given time produces the same heat as produced by the alternating current which
when flowing through the same circuit for the same time. RMS value of alternating voltage is related to its
peak value by the relation Vrms= Vp/√2 where Vp = Vpp/2.

Measurement of frequency:

Measure the number of divisions for a single cycle on the time axis and multiply it by the value
indicated by the Times/Div knob on the CRO. This gives the Time Period of the alternating voltage.The
number of cycles completed in one second is called the frequency of the alternating voltage. Its unit is Hertz.
Frequency is given by the reciprocal of Time period T.

Example - 1:

Figure 4.1.8.3 Example - 1

Here Peak to peak voltage in CRO is 4 blocks and the Volts /Div knob is in 2V position.

Therefore, Total Vpp = 4x2=8V.

Vp = Vpp/2 =8/2= 4V.

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Vrms = Vp/√2= 4/√2 = 2.83V.

Here Time period in CRO is 4 blocks and the Times/ Div Knob is in 2μs.

Therefore Time Period T=4x2μ=8μs.

Frequency F= 1/T = 1/(8μ)=0.126MHz = 125KHz.

Vpp = 8V , Vp= 4V , Vrms= 2.83V and F=125KHz.

Example - 2:

Figure 4.1.8.4 Example - 2

Here Peak to peak voltage in CRO is 4.4 blocks and Volts/Div knob is at 5V position.

Therefore Total Vpp = 5x4.4 =22V

Vp = Vpp/2 = 22/2= 11V.

Vrms = Vp/√2 = 11/√2 = 7.78V.

Here Time period in CRO is 2 blocks and Times/Div knob is in 20μs.

Therefore Time period T= 2x20μs= 40μs

Frequency F= 1/T= 1/(40μ)= 0.25MHz = 25KHz.

Vpp = 22V , Vp = 11V , Vrms= 7.78V and F=25KHz.

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4.2 Digital storage oscilloscope (DSO)

A digital storage oscilloscope (DSO) is an oscilloscope which stores and analyses the signal digitally
rather than using analog techniques. It is now the most common type of oscilloscope in use because of its
advanced trigger, storage, display and measurement features.

A digital oscilloscope is an instrument which stores a digital copy of the waveform in the digital
memory which it analyses further using digital signal processing techniques rather than using analogue
techniques.

Figure 4.2.1 Digital storage oscilloscope

4.2.1 Block Diagram of DSO

In DSO, the waveform to be stored is digitized, stored in a digital memory, and retrieved for display
on the storage oscilloscope.

DSO consists of three main blocks

1. Data acquisition

2. Storage

3. Data display

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Data acquisition is earned out with the help of both analog to digital and digital to analog converters,
which is used for digitizing, storing and displaying analog waveforms. Overall operation is controlled by
control circuit which is usually consists of microprocessor.

Figure 4.2.1.1 Block diagram of DSO

Data acquisition portion of the system consist of a Sample-and-Hold (S/H) circuit and an analog to
digital converter (ADC) which continuously samples and digitizes the input signal at a rate determined by the
sample clock and transmit the digitized data to memory for storage. The control circuit determines whether
the successive data points are stored in successive memory location or not, which is done by continuously
updating the memories.

When the memory is full, the next data point from the ADC is stored in the first memory location
writing over the old data. The data acquisition and the storage process is continues till the control circuit
receive a trigger signal from either the input waveform or an external trigger source. When the triggering
occurs, the system stops and enters into the display mode of operation in which all or some part of the
memory data is repetitively displayed on the cathode ray tube.

In display operation, two DACs are used which gives horizontal and vertical deflection voltage for the
CRT Data from the memory gives the vertical deflection of the electron beam, while the time base counter
gives the horizontal deflection in the form of staircase sweep signal. The screen display consist of discrete
dots representing the various data points but the number of dot is very large as 1000 or more that they tend to
blend together and appear to be a smooth continuous waveform. The display operation ends when the
operator presses a front-panel button and commands the digital storage oscilloscope to begin a new data
acquisition cycle.

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Digital storage oscilloscopes work in various modes

1. Roll Mode - It is the most basic mode of operation which is similar to that of a general purpose CRO.

When an input is applied, its trace is displayed on the screen. A user can use this mode to keep an eye on

the waveform and its various characteristics.

2. Refresh Mode - It is used when the sample rate of a waveform becomes too high, and when the waveform

of interest is repetitive or nearly so. The DSO produces a stale, triggered display with a higher sweep time.

3. Single Shot Mode - The DSO is in an inactive state in this mode, displaying the last trace captured, until a

given sequence of events take place.

4. Equivalent Time Mode - It basically arranges the ADC to work on limited sweeps, so as to allow

particular signals to sync properly and give out a clearer trace.

4.2.2 Advantages of DSO

1. It can store the given signal indefinitely as long as the small amount of power is supplied to the

memory.

2. It always collects the data and stops when triggered.

3. It employs normal CRT, hence the cost of the tube is much cheaper than the storage tube used in

ASO (Analog Signal Oscilloscope).

4. It can produce bright image even for high frequency signals.

5. In this oscilloscope, time base is generated, by a crystal clock.

6. It has higher resolution than ASO.

7. It has less operating speed than ASO.

8. Because of aliasing effect the useful storage ' bandwidth is limited.

9. The digital storage oscilloscope is also able to operate in a babysitting mode. When the scope is

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triggered it prints out the stored results onto a hard copy recorder (or disc storage), and then re-

arms itself ready for another reading.

4.2.3 Applications of DSO

1. To Take cursor and pulse width readings.

2. Measuring rise time and propagation delay.

3. Implementing math functions like subtraction and addition.

4. Acting as a simple signal tracer, a DSO enables technicians to probe electronic device’s individual

connections and components, to determine the malfunctioning part.

5. In measuring the functions of the individual component of the device, the DSO locates where an

expected signal is incorrect or absent.

6. The DSO can also measure components’ minor variations in operations and alert the technician of

the need for fine-tuning or replacement.

7. To prevent erroneous replacement of parts, the DSO also helps technicians identify the parts that

are still working.

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4.3 Sampling oscilloscope

The sampling oscilloscope is a special type of digital sampling oscilloscope which is used to examine a
very fast signal. It works on the principle of stroboscopic light in which sample is taken at different portions
of the waveform, over successive cycles, and then the total picture is stretched, amplified by relatively low
bandwidth amplifiers, and display as the continuous wave on the screen.

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Figure 4.3.1 Sampling oscilloscope

4.3.1 Block diagram of sampling oscilloscope

An ordinary oscilloscope has a bandwidth of 10 MHz the HF performance can be improved by means
of sampling the input waveform and reconstructing its shape from the sample, i.e. the signal to be observed is
sampled and after a few cycles sampling point is advanced and another sample is taken.

The shape of the wave form is reconstructed by joining the sample levels together. The sampling
frequency may be as low as 1/10th of the input signal frequency (if the input signal frequency is 100 MHz,
the bandwidth of the CRO vertical amplifier can be as low as 10 MHz). As many as 1000 samples are used to
reconstruct the original waveform.

Figure 4.3.1.1 Block diagram of sampling oscilloscope

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Figure 4.3.1.2 Various wave forms at each block of oscilloscope

The input is applied to the sampling gate. The input waveform is sampled whenever a sampling pulse
opens the sampling gate. The sampling must be synchronized with the input signal frequency. The signal is
delayed in the vertical amplifier, allowing the horizontal sweep to be initiated by the input signal. The
waveforms are shown in fig 4.3.1.2. At the beginning of each sampling cycle, the trigger pulse activates an
oscillator and a linear ramp voltage is generated. This ramp voltage is applied to a voltage comparator which
compares the ramp voltage to a staircase generate-When the two voltages are equal in amplitude, the
staircase advances one step and a sampling pulse is generated, which opens the sampling gate for a sample of
input voltage. The resolution of the final image depends upon the size of the steps of the staircase generator.
The smaller the size of the steps the larger the number of samples and higher the resolution of the image.

4.3.2 Advantages of sampling oscilloscope

1. The digital sampling oscilloscope is intended for very high frequency operation.

2. They are used for looking at repetitive signals which have a higher frequency than the sample rate of

the scope.

3. They achieve their performance by collecting samples from several successive waveforms, and then

assembling them together to build up a picture of the waveform. This technique allows these digital

sampling oscilloscopes to view signals at frequencies up to 50 GHz and more.

4. The dynamic range of this instrument is low (max voltage peat to peak is 3V ) but they are able to

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display extraordinarily high frequencies.

5. Controlling the size of steps of the staircase generator, the number of samples and hence resolution

can be controlled.

6. A clear display is produced.

7. The technique used in sampling oscilloscope allows the design of oscilloscope with wide band width,

high sensitivity even for low duty cycle pulses.

4.3.3 Applications of sampling oscilloscope

1. High speed electrical signals can be analyzed.

2. Used to view signals at frequencies up to 50 GHz and more.

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4.4 Function generator

A function generator is a electronic test equipment or software used to generate different types of
electrical wave forms over a wide range of frequencies. The most common wave forms produced by the
function generator are the sine, square, triangular and saw tooth shapes.

Figure 4.4.1 Analog function generator

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Figure 4.4.2 Function generator waveforms

4.4.1 Block diagram

A function generator is a signal source that has the capability of producing different types of
waveforms as its output signal.

In this instrument the frequency is controlled by varying the magnitude of current that drives the
integrator. This instrument provides different types of waveforms (such as sinusoidal, triangular and square
waves) as its output signal with a frequency range of 0.01 Hz to 100 kHz.

The frequency controlled voltage regulates two current supply sources. Current supply source 1 supplies
constant current to the integrator whose output voltage rises linearly with time. Current supply source 2
supplies constant reverse current to the integrator whose output voltage falls linearly with time.

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Figure 4.4.1.1 Block diagram of function generator

1
C 
According to output equation of integrator Vout  idt an increase or decrease in the current

increases or reduces the slope of the output voltage and thus controls the frequency.

The voltage comparator multivibrator changes state at a predetermined maximum level, of the integrator
output voltage. This change cuts-off the current supply from supply source 1 and switches to the supply
source 2. The current supply source 2 supplies a reverse current to the integrator so that its output drops
linearly with time. When the output attains a predetermined level, the voltage comparator again changes state
and switches on to the current supply source 1. The comparator output provides a square wave of the same
frequency as output.

The output of the integrator is a triangular wave whose frequency depends on the current supplied by
the constant current supply sources.

The resistance diode network changes the slope of the triangular wave as its amplitude changes and
produces a sinusoidal wave with less than 1% distortion.

The out put amplifiers provide impedance matching and control the output signal level. The out put
amplifier is a adjustable gain wide band amplifier.

4.4.2 Features

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1. The function generators produce a wide variety of waveforms ( sine, square, triangular,

sawtooth). Arbitrary waveform generators can produce waves of any shape.

2. It can generate a wide range of frequencies. For example, the Tektronix FG 502 (ca 1974)

covers 0.1 Hz to 11 MHz.

3. Frequency stability of 0.1 percent per hour for analog generators[4] or 500 ppm for a digital

generator.

4. Maximum sine wave distortion of about 1% (accuracy of diode shaping network) for analog

generators. Arbitrary waveform generators may have distortion less than -55 dB below 50

kHz and less than -40 dB above 50 kHz.

5. Produces Output amplitude up to 10 V peak-to-peak and some generators provide a DC offset

voltage, e.g. adjustable between -5V to +5V.

6. Has an output impedance of 50 Ω.

7. Amplitude can be modified, usually by a calibrated attenuator with decade steps and

continuous adjustment within each decade.

8. Many function generators are also capable of generating two different waveforms

simultaneously (from different output terminals, of course). This can be a useful feature when

two generated signals are required for particular application.

9. A function generator has several high-quality waveforms with accurate, stable frequency and is

a convenient source of time-varying electrical signals with an established amplitude, frequency,

and waveform.

4.4.3 Applications

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1. The triangular-wave and sawtooth wave outputs of function generators are used for applications which

need a signal that increases (or reduces) at a specific linear rate. They are used for driving sweep

oscillators in oscilloscopes and the X-axis of X-Y recorders.

2. It is used to test the band width of audio frequency amplifiers.

3. It acts as source for alignment of receivers.

4. Their common uses are in the field of education, repairing electrical and electronic equipment

and stimulus testing.

5. Used in laboratory to measure frequency response of filters, measuring the ESR (Equivalent

Series Resistance) of a capacitor in circuit.

6. Response testing by sweeping, square waves, pulses, and noise.

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4.4.4 Features of standard RF signal generator and sweep frequency generator

4.4.4.1 RF signal generator

RF signal Generator is used to generate RF or radio frequency signals. Radio frequency signal
generators (RF signal generators) are a particularly useful item of test equipment widely used in RF
microwave design and test applications.

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Figure 4.4.4.1.1 Radio frequency signal generator

Features:

1. Frequency range: RF signal generators typically range from a few kHz to 6 GHz, while microwave signal

generators cover a much wider frequency range, from less than 1 MHz to at least 20 GHz

2. Output level: The output range for an RF and microwave signal generator is controlled to a relatively

high degree of accuracy. The output within the generator itself is maintained at a constant level and then

passed through a high grade variable attenuator.

3. Built in attenuator: common feature is a built-in attenuator which makes it possible to vary the signal’s

output power, Depending upon manufacturer model output powers can range from -135 to +30 dBm.

4. Modulation: Some RF or microwave signal generators have inbuilt oscillators that can apply modulation

to the output signal. Others also have the ability to apply modulation from an external source. Signal

generators that support complex modulation are often referred to as vector signal generators.

5. Sweep: On some RF signal generators it is necessary to sweep the signal over a range. Some generators

offer this capability.

6. Control: They may have front panel control or remote control option for controlling RF and microwave

signal generators.

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7. Modules: RF signal generators are available as benchtop instruments, rackmount instruments, embeddable

modules and in card-level formats.

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https://youtu.be/YxCTicf3QVA

4.4.4.2 Sweep frequency generator:

A sweep frequency generator is a signal generator which can automatically vary its frequency smoothly
and continuously over an entire frequency range and maintains a constant amplitude. Sweep frequency
generators are commonly used to test the frequency response of electronic filter circuits.

Figure 4.4.4.2.1 Automatic sweep frequency signal generator

Features:

1. A sweep frequency generator is a type of signal generator that is used to generate a sinusoidal output.

Such an output will have its frequency automatically varied or swept between two selected frequencies.

One complete cycle of the frequency variation is called a sweep. depending on the design of a particular

instrument, either linear or logarithmic variations can be introduced to the frequency rate. However, over

the entire frequency range of the sweep, the amplitude of the signal output is designed to remain constant.

2. Sweep-frequency generators are primarily used for measuring the responses of amplifiers, filters, and

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electrical components over various frequency bands.

3. The frequency range of a sweep-frequency generator usually extends over three bands, 0.001 Hz – 100

kHz (low frequency to audio), 100 kHz – 1,500 MHz (RF range), and 1-200 GHz (microwave range).

4. Independent master oscillator frequency control is possible.

5. The automatic level controller keeps power constant avoiding the source mismatch and loading effect.

Applications:

1. They are used to display the response curve of the various stages of frequency of television or radio

receivers.

2. They are used to determine the characteristics of a device over a wide range of frequencies

3. Sweep generators may also be employed for checking and repairing of amplifiers used in TV and radar

receivers.

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4.5 Features of distortion analyzer, wave analyzer and spectrum

The different instruments which are used for signal analysis are wave analyzers, distortion analyzers,
spectrum analyzers, audio analyzers and modulation analyzers. All signal analysis instruments measure the
basic frequency properties of a signal, but they use different techniques .

A spectrum analyzer sweeps the signal frequency band and displays a plot of amplitude versus frequency.
It has an operating range of about 0.02 Hz-250 GHz.

A wave analyzer is a voltmeter which can be accurately tuned to measure the amplitude of a single
frequency, within a band of about 10 Hz - 40 MHz.

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Distortion analyzers operate over a range of 5 Hz – 1 MHz and give a measure of the energy present in a
signal outside a specified frequency band. They therefore tune out the fundamental signal and give an
indication of the harmonics.

An audio analyzer is similar to a distortion analyzer but can measure additional functions, such as noise.
Modulation analyzers tune to the required signal and recover the whole amplitude modulated (a.m.),
frequency modulated (FM) or phase modulation (PM) envelope for display or analysis.

4.5.1 Distortion analyzer

Figure 4.5.1.1 Distortion analyzer

Distortion analyzer measures the total harmonic power present in the test wave rather than the
distortion caused by each component. The simplest method is to suppress the fundamental frequency by
means of a high pass filter whose cut off frequency is a little above the fundamental frequency. This high
pass allows only the harmonics to pass and the total harmonic distortion can then be measured. A
Fundamental suppression distortion analyzer is used to measure distortion factor (THD).

It has the following advantages

1. The harmonic distortion generated within the instrument which affect THD measurement is very small

and can be neglected.

2. The selectivity requirement is not severe because only fundamental component is to be suppressed.

3. There are different types of distortion analyzer Fundamental suppression distortion analyzer, Heterodyne

Harmonic distortion analyzer, Distortion factor meter.

Applications:

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1. It calculates the total harmonic content of a sine wave with some distortion.

2. To determine THD ( total harmonic distortion) of an amplifier by using very low distortion sine wave

input and examine output.

3. It is used in measurement of effectiveness of electronic filter with extremely narrow pass band such as

notch filter in parametric equalizer.

4. The distortion factor meter is useful to measure total distortion.

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4.5.2 Wave analyzer

Figure 4.5.2.1 Heterodyne wave analyzer

It is an instrument designed to measure relative amplitudes of single frequency Components in a

complex waveform. The instrument acts as a frequency selective voltmeter which is tuned to the frequency of
one signal while rejecting all other signal components.

There are two types of wave analyzers, depending upon the frequency ranges used,

1. Frequency Selective wave analyzer: This is used in measurements of audio frequency range (20Hz to

20kHz). This analyzer has a filter section with very narrow pass band which can be tuned to frequency of

interest. The band width of instrument is very narrow

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2. Heterodyne wave analyzer: This is RF range analyzer works on the principle of mixing i.e.,

heterodyning. This is used in measurements of frequency range 10kHz to 18MHz.

Applications:

1. The wave analyzers have very important application in the fields of a) Electrical measurements b)

Sound measurements c) Vibration measurements.

2. The wave analyzers are applied industrially in the field of reduction of sound and vibrations generated

by rotating electrical machines and apparatus.

3. To measure the harmonic distortion of an amplifier.

4. It can be used to separate and display about 50 harmonics.

5. To measure relative amplitudes of single frequency components in a complex waveform.

6. To carry out complete harmonic analysis.

7. To measure signal energy with well defined bandwidth.

8. To measure amplitude in the presence of noise and other interfering signals.

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http://www.myclassbook.org/heterodyne-wave-analyser/
https://prashanthrejintala.wordpress.com/2014/09/11/heterodyne-wave-analyzer/
http://www.slideshare.net/sumeetpatel21/lab-equipments-40835876
https://youtu.be/zc3HtEAjODM

4.5.3 Spectrum analyzer

A spectrum analyzer measures the magnitude of an input signal versus frequency within the full
frequency range of the instrument. The primary use is to measure the power of the spectrum of known and
unknown signals. The input signal that a spectrum analyzer measures is electrical.

Note: This is only Basic Information for students. Please refer

“Reference Books” prescribed as per syllabus
 DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION E-CONTENT

Figure 4.5.3.1 Spectrum analyzer

Spectrum analysis of a signal gives the following information by displaying signal in frequency domain.

1. Measurement of frequency and its response,

2. The component level.

3. Band width.

4. Frequency stability.

5. Harmonic and inter modulation distortion.

6. Spectral purity.

7. Modulation index and attenuation.

8. Spurious signal generation.

There are two types of spectrum analyzer based on instrumentation frequency limitations

Audio Frequency Spectrum analyzer: It covers audio frequency range of 20Hz to 20KHz

Radio Frequency Spectrum analyzer: It covers frequency range of 10MHz to 40GHz

There are two types of Spectrum analyzer based on operating technique used.

a) Scanning type: These analyzers use swept technique.

b) Non scanning type: These are real time spectrum analyzers

Applications:
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 DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION E-CONTENT
1. In the Fields of biomedical electronics, geological surveying and oceanography, it is used to analyze

the air and water pollution.

2. It is used to measure antenna pattern.

3. It is used for tuning a parametric amplifier.

4. It is used to examine the vibration signals from automobiles, airplanes, space vehicles, bridges etc

5. It finds applications in the field of electronic testing related to troubleshooting and quality control.

6. Used in examining pulse modulation, noise measurement, Harmonic distortion measurement,

Frequency stability, modulation measurement.

For more information, visit

https://youtu.be/WnKK11UEvVE
https://youtu.be/nFaRZKNeSFU

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 DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION E-CONTENT

Unit 5: Digital meters

10 Hours

Digital instruments - pros and cons, working of ramp and successive approximation type digital
voltmeters. Automatization in digital meters-mechanism of automatic zeroing, polarity indication and
auto ranging. Electronic counters-decade counters as an electronic counter, totalizing, frequency mode,
ratio mode, period mode and time interval mode. Digital meters: digital frequency meter, time interval
measurement, digital LCR meter, digital multimeter, microprocessor-based instruments, IEEE 488 GPIB
instruments.

5.1 Digital instruments

Digital instruments are those which use logical circuits and methods to get measurements of
quantities and display it in numerals (such as alphabets from A to Z, numerals from 0 to 9, punctuation
mark and other symbols common in use) which can be generated using Light Emitting Diodes (LED),
Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD), hot filament tubes and numerical indicator tubes (NIT). The information
in the display device is presented as a series of digits on the tubes, screen or printed on a piece of paper.

5.1.1 Pros and cons (Advantages and Disadvantages)

Pros (Advantages):

1. Accuracy and precision is higher than analog instruments.

2. Easy to design.
3. Very easy to read.
4. Requires smaller power.
5. Easy to store information.
6. Operation can be programmable.
7. Compact and light weight.
8. These are free from observational errors such as parallax error and approximation errors.
9. The digital instruments indicate the reading directly in decimal numbers.
10. Its output is in digital form, so it is directly fed into the memory devices like the tape recorder,
printers, floppy discs, and digital computers, etc.
11. Electronic items used tend to be cheaper than the mechanical items.
12. The data from the instruments can be recorded for future reference.
Cons (Disadvantages):

1. Sometimes they tend to indicate erratic values due to faulty electronic circuit or damaged

Note: This is only Basic Information for students. Please refer

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 DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION E-CONTENT
display.
2. In case of high humidity and corrosive atmosphere the internal parts may get damaged and
indicate the faulty values.
3. Sometimes these instruments show some readings even though there is no applied measurable .
parameter.
4. The LCD display depends on a battery or external power source. When the battery is low, the
display will be dim, making it difficult to read.
5. In case of fluctuations or transients, it can record an error.
6. Warming of the meter during its use can change its properties leading to errors in measured
value.
7. The A/D converter has a limitation on word length which can cause quantization noise giving
rise to error in measured value.
8. Digital meters have limitations. If it is increased beyond the limit, the meter will be damaged.
9. The digital nature makes it unsuitable for adjusting tuning circuits or peaking tunable responses.
10. They are expensive due to high manufacturing cost.

5.1.2 Comparison of analog and digital meters

Analog Meters Digital Meters

1. Use a needle and calibrated 1. Display the values on a digital

scale to indicate values. display.

2. Difficult to read values. 2. Simpler to read values.

3. Low input impedance. 3. High input impedance.

4. Less accurate. 4. More accurate.

5. Less sensitive. 5. More sensitive.

6. Low resolution. 6. High resolution.

7. Less reliable. 7. Highly reliable.

Note: This is only Basic Information for students. Please refer

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 DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION E-CONTENT

8. These are usually larger 8. These are smaller integrated

circuits and occupy more area. circuits and occupy lesser area.
9. These are delicate and harms 9. These are stronger and harms
are more in case of falls and are less in case of falls and
drops. drops.
10. They have low voltage setting
10. They can turn on or bias
which will not bias
semiconductors.
semiconductors.
11. No parallax and human errors
11. Possibility of parallax and
because the output is in the form
human errors.
of numerals.
12. Less user friendly and more 12. User friendly and less time
time consuming. consuming.
13. Unable to represent the
13. Able to measure low frequency fluctuations, instead it either
fluctuations. records an error or calculates
one reading.

For more information, visit

http://www.slideshare.net/bapikumar144/advantages-of-digital-meters-over-analog-meters

5.2 Digital voltmeters (DVM)

A digital voltmeter (DVM) is a device which measures an unknown AC or DC input voltage and
converts the input analog voltage to a digital value and then displays the voltage in numeral form. DVMs
have high accuracy, high resolution, high stability and they are smaller in size and low cost. DVM
reduces human mistakes in reading and eliminate parallax error.

The DVMs are broadly classified as follows:

1. Ramp-type DVM
2. Dual slope integrating type DVM
3. Integrating type DVM (Voltage to frequency conversion)
4. Successive-approximation DVM

Figure 5.2.1 Digital voltmeter

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Courtesy: http://www.enertechdevices.com/products/digital_voltmeter_48_X_96.php

5.2.1 Working of ramp type digital voltmeters (Voltage to time conversion)

Principle: The time taken for a linear ramp voltage to rise from 0 V to input voltage level, or to decrease
from the input voltage level to 0 V is measured with an electronic time-interval counter, and the count is
displayed as a number of digits on electronic indicating tubes (display).

Figure 5.2.1.1 Block diagram of Ramp type DVM

At the start of measurement, a ramp voltage is initiated and this can be negative-going or positive-
going. As shown in figure 5.2.1.2, the negative-going ramp is continuously compared with the unknown
input voltage. At the instant that the ramp voltage equals the unknown voltage, a coincidence circuit, C1 (
input comparator) generates a pulse which opens a gate. The ramp voltage continues to decrease with
time and when it reaches 0 V (or ground potential), a second comparator (zero crossing detector), C2
generates an output pulse which closes the gate.
A clock oscillator generates clock pulses which are allowed to pass through the gate to a number
of decade counting units (DCUs) which totalise the number of pulses passed through the gate. The
decimal number, displayed by the display associated with the DCUs, is a measure of the magnitude of the
input voltage.
The sample-rate multivibrator determines the rate at which the measurement cycles are initiated
and this is connected to ramp generator which provides an initiating pulse for the ramp generator to start
next ramp voltage for the next measurement. It is also used to reset the counter before generating the next
ramp voltage.

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Figure 5.2.1.2 Voltage to time conversion using gated clock pulse

Merits:

1. Low cost.
2. Simple and easy to design.
3. Long distance transmission of output pulse is possible.

Demerits:

1. Accuracy of output greatly depends on linearity of the ramp.

2. Input filter are needed for filtering noise from input signal.

For more information, visit

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4nD4JqikrNM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L5K7qjA5r3M
http://www.slideshare.net/vmspraneeth/u-4-ramp-digital-voltmeter
5.2.2 Working of successive approximation type digital voltmeters

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Figure 5.2.2.1 Successive approximation DVM

DAC is used to provide the estimates. The "equal to or greater than" or "less than" decision is
made by a comparator. DAC provides the estimate and is compared to the analog input signal. A special
shift register called a successive-approximation register (SAR) is used to control DAC and the estimates.
At the beginning of the conversion all the outputs from the SAR are at logic zero. If the estimate
generated by DAC is greater than the input, the comparator output is high and the first SAR output
reverses state and the second output changes to logic 1. If the estimate generated by DAC is lower than
the input, the comparator output is low, the first output remains in the logic one state and the second
output assumes the logic state one. This continues to all the states until the conversion is complete.
For an N-bit conversion after N clocks, the actual value of input is known. The LSB is the state of
the comparator.
Merits:

1. Less expensive.
2. More effective type.
3. Good ratio of speed to power.

5.3 Automatization in digital meters-mechanism of automatic zeroing, polarity

indication and auto ranging
Automatic zeroing:

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TO overcome zero error and obtain optimum accuracy, zero adjustment is needed. Before taking
real measurements, zero error is measured is stored as an analog signal.

Figure 5.3.1 Automatic zeroing circuit

Before taking real measurements, switch S3 is closed for grounding the input, switch S4 is also
closed to provide a short RC time to integrator and switch S5 is closed to connect output of comparator to
capacitor. Then the capacitor is charged to total offset voltage which is equivalent to zero error. Now
switches S3, S4 and S5 are opened to take the real measurements by considering the offset voltage stored
in capacitor.

Automatic polarity indication:

The polarity indication is obtained from the information in ADC. In integrating ADCs, the
polarity is measured at the very end of integration period. Counting the number of clock pulses, the
length of the integration period is determined. Polarity flip flop is set by using the output of integrator
which is stored in memory till next measurement is made.

Figure 5.3.2 Automatic polarity indication

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Automatic ranging:

It is used to obtain reading with optimum resolution in all conditions and to prevent overload and
reverse polarity connection. For example 150mV should be displayed as 150.0V and not as 0.150V. If
the value to be measured is within a certain limit, more sensitive range is selected and if higher value is to
be measured, the next less sensitive range is selected.

Figure 5.3.3 31/2 digit display

Consider an example of 3 ½ digit display. 149mV is displayed as 149.0. Any higher value than
150mV is displayed with less resolution as 151mV is read as 0.151. Small fluctuations around 150mV are
displayed successively as 149.9, 0.150 and 0.151 which is confusing. This can be avoided by setting
lower limit less than 150mV (say 120). All values are displayed in the same range as 0.149, 0.150 and
0.151. Values around lower limit gives stable display.

5.4 Electronic counters

5.4.1 Decade counters as an electronic counter

Principle: Giving the input frequency to the counter for a predetermined time.

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Figure 5.4.1.1 Block diagram of decade counter

Figure 5.4.1.2 Timing diagram

To one input of AND gate, a pulse with known period is applied. Till the Gate signal is at logic
“1” the output of AND gate is same as unknown input. When the gate signal becomes logic “0”, the
output of AND gate is zero. Counters are cleared using reset signal. For every input pulse counter
increments. Strobe signal is applied at the end of counting and counted value is displayed on a display
device.

Counter operates in the following modes:

5.4.2 Totalizing mode

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As long as the switch is closed, the decade counter counts the input pulses. If the input pulses
count exceeds the decade counter capacity, it activates overflow indicator and then the counting starts
again.

Figure 5.4.2.1 Totalizing mode

5.4.3 Frequency mode

By applying a rectangular pulse of known duration to the AND gate, accurate control of time
interval is achieved. If the time interval in which the pulses are being totalized is accurately controlled,
the counter operates in frequency mode.

Figure 5.4.3.1 Frequency mode

The frequency of input signal is given by

F= Hertz

Where, F = Frequency of input signal

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n = Number of pulses counted

T = Duration of gate pulse

5.4.4 Ratio mode

Figure 5.4.4.1 Ratio mode

Numerical value of the ratio of the frequencies of two signals is displayed in this mode. To
provide gate pulse, a low frequency signal is used instead of clock. During gate pulse, decade counter
counts the number of cycles of high frequency signal and is directly read as ratio of the frequencies.

5.4.5 Period mode

By giving input signal as a gating pulse and counting the clock pulses, period can be easily
measured. Period is reciprocal of frequency. From the number of pulses of known frequency, period of
input signal is determined.

Figure 5.4.5.1 Period mode

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The period of input signal is given by

T=

Where, T = Period of input signal

n = Number of pulses counted

F = Frequency of clock pulse

5.4.6 Time interval mode

Figure 5.4.6.1 Time interval mode

Elapsed time between two events is measured in this mode. The start and stop inputs controls the
gate independently. Start input enables gate and stop disables gate and pulses are counted between the
time interval of start and stop inputs.

5.5 Digital meters

5.5.1 Digital frequency meter

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Figure 5.5.1.1 Digital frequency meter

Courtesy: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_counter
Courtesy: http://www.kusamelectrical.com/digital_frequency_counter_popup.gif
Courtesy: http://www.radiomuseum.org/images/radio/hiradastechnika/25_mhz_digital_frequency_meter_tr_793930.jpg

Frequency counters measure the number of oscillations or pulses during a given interval of time in a
repetitive electronic signal. As the preset period gets completed, the value in the counter display on the
screen and the counter reset to zero. For measuring low frequencies, the deflection type meters are widely
used.

A frequency counter is an electronic instrument, which is used for measuring pulse repetition
frequency of unknown signal.

Principle:

The input signal is converted into trigger pulses and applied continuously to one input of AND
gate. A pulse of required duration (say 1 sec) is applied to the other terminal and number of pulses
counted during this period indicates the frequency.

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Figure 5.5.1.2 Block diagram of Digital frequency meter

When the input signal of unknown frequency enters the frequency counter, it is fed into input signal
conditioning circuit where the signal is amplified and then it is converted into square wave by Schmitt
trigger circuit. Due to the presence of Schmitt trigger circuit, noise does not cause spurious edges that
would give rise to additional pulses that would be counted. The output from Schmitt trigger is a train of
pulses, one pulse for each cycle of the signal. The square wave is differentiated and clipped to produce a
train of positive pulses.

A crystal oscillator is used to provide an accurately timed gate signal that will allow through pulses
from the incoming signal. This is generated from the clock by dividing the clock signal by decade
dividers. The timebase selector output obtained from oscillator is passed through another Schmitt trigger
circuit to produce square output and then it is fed to frequency dividers connected in cascade. Thus a train
of pulses are obtained after each frequency divider section.

The frequency divider output is then differentiated and clipped to produce a train of positive pulses.
These pulses are applied to clock input of T flip-flop. This flip-flop changes its output state on the
application of each pulse. The first pulse sets the gate control flip-flop and provides an enable signal to
AND gate. When gate is enabled, the input pulses pass through it and fed directly to electronic counter
and counting starts. The second pulse resets the control flip-flop and removes the enable signal from the
AND gate. When the gate is disabled, the counter stops counting. The number of pulses counted between
the time interval of enabling and disabling of AND gate indicates the unknown frequency of the input

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signal. These counter outputs are then used to drive the display unit. The final display is proportional to
the unknown frequency of the input signal.

Advantages:

1. Frequency counters are very easy to use.

2. The accuracy of any frequency counter measurement used can be improved and false readings
can be minimised by using the correct techniques.
3. Able to measure time intervals as well as frequency.

Uses:

1. For testing radio equipment

2. Measuring the temperature, pressure, and other physical values.
3. Measuring vibration, strain
4. Measuring transducers

For more information, visit

http://www.slideshare.net/amitparcha/digital-frequency-meter
5.5.1.2 Time interval measurement

Figure 5.5.1.2.1 Time interval measurement

Time interval is the reciprocal of frequency. As a result it is possible to make timer interval
measurements using a frequency counter timer by simply reconfiguring some of the circuitry from those
used for frequency measurements.

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Two inputs input 1 and input 2 are used to provide start and stop pulses at the beginning and ending
of time period of the counting respectively. The internal frequency pulses generated by oscillator reaches
the output only during the period when the gate control flip-flop is set. The AND gate is enabled with the
external input 1 applied and at this instant, counting of pulses starts. The AND gate is disabled with the
input 2 applied and at this instant, counting stops. The counter takes the incoming pulses from the gate. It
has a set of divide-by-10 stages as a decimal based display is required. The number of stages within the
overall counter is equal to the number of display digits minus 1. As the counters are chained the first stage
is the input divided by ten, the next is the input divided by 10 x 10 (100) as it has been divided by two
stages, and so forth. Thus pulses are counted in the time interval (say T) between the application of inputs
1 and 2 and it is displayed in display unit.

5.5.2 Digital LCR meter

An LCR meter is a type of electronic test equipment used to measure
the inductance (L), capacitance (C), and resistance (R) of an electronic component. The required function
can be selected by using rotary switch.

Figure 5.5.2.1 Digital LCR meter Figure 5.5.2.2 Hand held digital LCR meter
Courtesy: aliexpress.com Courtesy: embeddedlab.com

Principle:

Measuring the voltage across and the current through the Component Under Test (CUT) when the

test signal is fed to the component.

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Figure 5.5.2.3 Block diagram of digital LCR meter

Operation:

The operation of LCR meter is explained with the help of the block diagram of LCR meter as
shown in figure 5.5.2.3. The processed voltage and current signals are fed to digital integrator which
enables a display unit to provide the value of test component.

An oscillator applies the measuring test signal to test component through a source resistor, R S with
a typical test frequency of 1 KHz. The signal current then flows through current to voltage converter
which is an op-amp with range resistor, RR connected in the feedback path. The op-amp drives the
junction of component and RR to virtual ground and hence RR does not change the current through the
component which develops a voltage E2 proportional to current through the component.

The voltages E1 and E2 are the vector quantities which defines the characteristics of component at
a particular test frequency and signal level.

Mathematically,

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Therefore,

The above ratios are adopted in measurement modes. For inductance measurements, a series
equivalent of an inductor is assumed and for capacitance measurements, a parallel equivalent circuit of
capacitor is assumed.

The value of RS and RR are selected based on the impedance of the unknown component. For
inductance measurements, the component impedance is low and hence RS is chosen much higher. This
provides a constant current drive to the test component. The RS decides the value of current. For
capacitance measurements, the component impedance is high and hence R S is chosen much lower. The RS
decides the value of current. This provides a constant voltage drive to the test component.

The voltage E1 is fed as one of the input to differential amplifier and then it is fed to a control
switch along with E2. Greater of the two voltages is fed to Average Voltage Detector (AVD) and lesser is
fed to the the Phase Sensitive Detector (PSD) (phase sensitive selector).

The signal given to AVD is also given to phase locked loop (PLL) and Voltage Controlled
Oscillator (VCO). PLL and VCO produce clock signals which are locked in phase with the reference
signal. Then the clock signal is divided into phase shifted 90 and 270 signals. These signals are given to
PSD which detects the phase angle.

The DC voltage outputs from AVD and PSD are given to digital integrator and finally to digital
display unit where it displays the component value.

Features:
1. High accuracy.
2. Multipoint measurement techniques.
3. Hold function which is used for selecting the components within a specified range.
4. High frequency range.
5. Auto-computing facility and auto ranging facility.
6. Series or parallel modes of operation.

Applications:

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 DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION E-CONTENT
1. Used to determine unknown values of inductance (L), capacitance (C), resistance (R),
Conductance and Dissipation factor.
2. An LCR meter can be used to judge the inductance variation with respect to the rotor position
in permanent magnet machines.

For more information, visit

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7zZX01PEo54

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-rNttPtL1ME

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5.5.3 Digital multimeter (DMM)

A digital multimeter or VOM (Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter) is an electronic measuring instrument that

combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical multimeter can measure electrical
quantities such as voltage, current, resistance, temperature, capacitance and time period. Digital
multimeters have a numeric display, and may also show a graphical bar representing the measured value.
Digital multimeters are more common now due to their low cost and higher precision.

Figure 5.5.3.1 Digital multimeter Figure 5.5.3.2 Digital multimeter

Coutesy: electrosciececlub.weebly.com

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Figure 5.5.3.3 Block diagram of digital multimeter

Digital multimeter consists of the following blocks with their specific functions as follows:

1. Constant current source

Constant current source is used to supply constant current through the resistance which needs to be
measured and then measuring the voltage across resistance which is directly proportional to resistance
and displayed in ohms.

2. Buffer amplifier

A buffer amplifier is used to unaffect the constant current source with whatever voltages that the
load may produce.

3. Calibrated attenuator

Calibrated attenuator is used for measuring both DC and AC voltages. After measuring AC voltage,
it is passed through rectifier circuit to convert it in to DC voltage.
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4. Current to voltage converter

Current to voltage converter is used for current measurements (both AC and DC). After measuring
AC current, it is passed through rectifier circuit to convert it in to DC current.

5. Rectifier circuit

For AC measurements, the rectifier circuit converts input AC voltage or current to DC voltage or
current respectively.

6. Analog to digital converter

DMM is commonly used for the measurement of analog quantities. Hence the conversion from
analog to digital is done with the help of analog to digital converter.

7. Display unit

The output from analog to digital converter is displayed as numerals in the display unit. LCD or
LED displays can be used.

Features:

1. Data storage and logging.

2. Auto-ranging.

3. dB readings.

4. Data acquisitions.

5. Removable data storage.

Advantages:

1. High resolution.

2. Automatic operation.

3. Parallax and observational errors are eliminated.

4. High accuracy.

5. Increased speed.

Applications:

1. Used to measure DC and AC voltages.

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2. Used to measure DC and AC currents.

3. Used to measure resistance, capacitance, temperature, frequency and time period.

4. Used to check diode and transistors.

5. Used for continuity check.

6. It is a hand-held device used for basic fault finding and field service work

7. It can be used to troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and household

devices such as electronic equipment, motor controls, domestic appliances, power supplies, and

wiring systems.

For more information, visit

http://www.slideshare.net/vivekpathak5686/digital-multimeter

http://www.slideshare.net/bapikumar144/digital-multimeters

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zb7WHaL_dz8

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AEq1wNIcWJM

5.6 Microprocessor-based instruments

Figure 5.6.1 Block diagram of microprocessor based instrument

As shown in the block diagram, microprocessor based instrument uses IEEE 488 bus to interface with
the instruments to control and to make measurements available to a external computer system.

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The frequency division of oscillator signal provides the timing clock signal and the AC test signal.

The front end circuit applies the test signal to the unknown impedance and the standard impedance
provides an output signal proportional to the voltage across each, to the phase sensitive detector (PSD).

PSD which is controlled by microprocessor converts the AC inputs of impedance in vector form to
DC output.

The digital data given by analog to digital converter (A/D) is used by microprocessor to obtain the
value of unknown impedance and then it is displayed on a CRT or sent to IEEE 488 bus.

5.7 IEEE 488 GPIB instruments

GPIB (General Purpose Interface Bus) was developed in 1960s by Hewlett-Packard to control and
connect programmable instruments. In 1975, the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE)
published the standard IEEE-488 for the GPIB interface, which contains the electrical, mechanical, and
functional specifications of an interfacing system.

Figure 5.7.1 IEEE 488 GPIB card, GPIB cable and GPIB connector

GPIB interface is a parallel 24 conductor bus. It includes eight data lines for control messages that are
ASCCI encoded, and various management and handshake lines (Handshaking is used to transfer
messages between the PC and the instrument being controlled). This bus is called by three names:

1. General Purpose Interface Bus (GPIB)

2. Hewlett-Packard Interface Bus (HP-IB)
3. IEEE 488 Bus
Two basic configurations for IEEE 488 GPIB system are Linear or daisy chain (Tap-off to the
next instrument is taken from previous one in series) and Star (Instruments are connected from a
central point).

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Figure 5.7.2 Daisy chain connection and Star connection

Basic structure:

Figure 5.7.3 Basic structure of IEEE 488 GPIB system

The basic structure of IEEE 488 GPIB system has four different devices, namely computer, frequency
counter, signal generator and digital multimeter.

It has three major buses namely GIM, DIO and DBT and their functions are as follows:

GIM bus co-ordinates the whole system and ensures an orderly flow of data over DIO bus.

DIO bus which is bi-directional 8-bit data bus that carries data interface messages and device-
dependent messages between controllers, talkers and listeners. Asynchronous sending is performed in
byte serial format.

DBT bus controls the sending of data along DIO bus.

The equipments connected to IEEE 488 GPIB system falls into three categories, although items can
fulfil more than one function:

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Controller - which controls the operation of the bus. It is usually a computer and it signals that
instruments are to perform the various functions. It communicates the device address and other inface
buses to instrument in the system.

Listener - A listener accepts commands from other instruments and acts on the commands but it does not
send any data back to controller.

Talker - Responds to the message sent to it by controller.

Features:

Parameter Details

1. Width of data bus 8 lines

2. Maximum length of bus 20 meters

3. Handshake lines 3

4. Bus management lines 5

5. Maximum individual
2 meters average, 4 meters
distance between
maximum
instruments

6. Connector 24 - pin Amphenol

7. Maximum number of
devices that can be 15
connected

8. Maximum data rate 1Mbyte/sec

Advantages:

1. Improved performance.
2. High reliability.
3. Increased productivity.
4. GPIB cards are relatively cheap.
5. Simple & standard hardware interface.
6. Interface present on many bench instruments.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION E-CONTENT
7. Rugged connectors & connectors used (although some insulation displacement cables appear
occasionally).
8. Possible to connect multiple instruments to a single controller.
9. GPIB uses a bus interface and piggyback connectors which make connecting and configuring
devices easy.
10. Highly reliable data transfer because of handshake communication.
11. Different communication speed devices can be connected.
12. Consistency of measurement.
Disadvantages:

1. Connectors are bulky.

2. Cable reliability poor - often as a result of the bulky cables.
3. Low bandwidth - slow compared to more modern interfaces.
4. Basic IEEE 422 does not mandate a command language (SCPI used in later implementations
but not included on all instruments.
For more information, visit
http://www.powershow.com/view/114a08-
ODRjZ/GPIB_Introduction_powerpoint_ppt_presentation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A5u5iZSm484
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hNc4pcu9sPc

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 DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION E-CONTENT
Unit 6: Instrument maintenance
06 Hours
Concepts and need of electrical grounding and shielding, shielding of cabinets, precautions in instrument
usage, precautions for instrument safety. Interference - nature, causes, effects and prevention.
Generalized trouble shooting.

6.1 Concepts and need of electrical grounding

Grounding or earthing means connecting exposed metal parts of equipments to ground (earth)
through a low resistance wire to prevent user contact with dangerous voltage when electrical
insulation fails OR
It is a collection of measures and precautions taken to prevent stray currents entering sensitive parts
of equipment by connecting appropriate part of the circuit to ground.

Figure 6.1.1 Earthing electrode

Courtesy: Wikipedia.com

Earthing is needed to provide safety to the operator.

It prevents entering dangerous potentials on the equipment even during electrical faults and also
ensures proper operation of equipment during fault conditions. Grounding minimizes the susceptibility of
equipment to interference and also eliminates electrostatic buildup that can damage system components.
Grounding has the ability to absorb or dissipate an unlimited amount of electrical charge.
If grounding is not performed in equipments, then it may result in Stray voltages or earth potential
rise effects, which may create noise in signals or if large enough will produce an electric shock hazard.

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Figure 6.1.2 Grounded system

By considering a measuring system as shown in figure, in which two points are connected to
ground. Transducer and measuring instrument are connected by long cables of resistances R1 and R2
which creates a ground loop. An imaginary common mode voltage source, Vcm forms due to stray
currents in earth and soil resistance causing flow of current in R1 and R2. Current in R2 is higher than in
R1 due to high input impedance, Zi of measuring instrument. Hence unequal series voltages are developed
across R1 and R2.
Series mode voltage error is introduced when common mode voltage is converted into
differential mode voltage.

For more information, visit

http://www.powershow.com/view2a/44da39-MTZhM/Grounding_powerpoint_ppt_presentation
6.2Concepts and need of electrical shielding

Shielding means placing sensitive electronic parts and components in a metal casing to prevent
electric and magnetic fields entering that casing. OR

Shielding provides reduction or elimination of incident fields that can affect sensitive circuits as
well as to prevent the emission of components of the system from radiating outside the boundaries limited
by the shield.

Electromagnetic shielding blocks radio frequency electromagnetic radiation, reduce

the coupling of radio waves, electromagnetic fields and electrostatic fields. The amount of reduction
depends very much upon the material used, its thickness, the size of the shielded volume and the
frequency of the fields of interest and the size, shape and orientation of apertures in a shield to an incident
electromagnetic field. The shielding effectiveness (S) in dB, can basically be calculated as the sum of
three components, namely, reflection loss (R), absorption loss (A) and a correction factor (B) used in
special cases to consider multiple reflections in the shield.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION E-CONTENT
S=A+R+B

Figure 6.2.1 Shielding cages

Courtesy: lairdtech.com, Wikipedia.com

Figure 6.2.2 Non - inverting amplifier placed in shielding cabinet (a) with parasitic feedback
and (b) without parasitic feedback
Consider a non-inverting amplifier placed in shielding cabinet as shown in figure (a). C1, C2 and C3
are the three parasitic capacitances between the terminals a, b and common terminal respectively and
shield. C1 and C2 are in the feedback path which results in undesired oscillators. This feedback path can
be eliminated by connecting the shield to common terminal and short circuiting C3 as shown in figure (b).

6.3 Shielding of cabinets

To isolate electrical devices from electromagnetic interference from external source, shielding of
cabinets (enclosures) which contain instruments is done.
Cabinet shielding reduce the coupling of radio waves, electromagnetic fields and electrostatic fields
An enclosure used to block electrostatic fields which is formed by conductive material or by a mesh
of such materials called Faraday cage is used.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION E-CONTENT

Figure 6.3.1 Faraday cage

The amount of reduction depends upon the material used, its thickness, the frequency of the
interfering fields, etc,.
In case of plastic cabinets, inner surface is coated with a metallic ink and electrically connected to
ground. RF shielding cabinets are used in computers, electrical switching rooms, CAT scanning and MRI
scanning.

6.4Precautions in instrument usage

1. Do not wear loose or flappy clothing.

2. Do not work alone.
3. Wear rubber gloves.
4. Flammable articles such as celluloid cap visors should not be worn.
5. Ensure the equipment is properly grounded before energizing.
6. Ensure proper insulation from ground by a rubber mat or layers of dry canvas or wood.
7. First aid for electrical shock should be readily available.
8. The equipment should be immediately de-energized in case of an emergency.
9. Ensure adequate lighting for performing the job safely and properly.
10. Use of thin-soled shoes and shoes with metal plates or hobnails is prohibited.
11. De-energize equipment before attaching alligator clips to any circuit.
12. To check voltage, use only approved meters and other indicating devices.
13. Remove all rings, bracelets, wristwatches and any metal items before working with the
equipment and ensure clothing does not contain exposed metal fasteners such as zipper, snap

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 DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION E-CONTENT
buttons and pins.
14. There is a presence of voltage when working with circuits having high capacitance, even after
disconnecting the circuit from the power source.
15. For discharging capacitors and cathode ray tubes, an approved type of shorting probe should
be used.
16. Hearing protection when using high pressure equipment e.g. air guns.
17. Cuts and skin abrasions are covered with a waterproof dressing and should be examined by a
medical practitioner before commencement/returning to work in the reprocessing area.
6.5Precautions for instrument safety

Precautions to be taken to prevent instrument damage during servicing are

1. Never open secondaries of current transformers when the primary is energized.

2. Never short circuit secondaries of potential transformers when the primary is energized.
3. Never leave an instrument connected with its pointer off- scale or deflected in the wrong
direction.
4. Ensure that meters in motor circuits can handle the motor starting current.
5. Never attempt to measure internal resistance of meter movement with an ohmmeter since the
movement may be damaged by the current output from ohmmeter.
6. Before measuring resistance, always discharge any capacitors in the circuit.
7. Always disconnect voltmeters from field or highly inductive circuits before opening the circuit.
8. Never increase the intensity of an oscilloscope to a position that causes an excessively bright
spot on the screen.
9. Never allow sharply focussed spot to remain stationary for any period of time. This results in
burn spots on the face of CRT.
10. In checking electron tubes with tube tester always make short test first. If the tube is shorted,
no further test should be made.
6.6 Interference
Interference can be defined as any kind of physical influence on a given system which reduces the
quality and performance of that system.

6.6.1 Nature and causes of interference

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The interference is observed by the system sources which are capable of producing electromagnetic
field. The interference can also be caused by sources having mechanical and or thermal influences on the
system.

1. Instruments get operating power from AC mains supply, the line voltage is the most common source of
interference. The AC mains supply includes voltage as parasitic capacitors are coupled with the system
or AC main source itself.
2. The temperature is one of the important physical parameter. It plays a vital role in electronic circuits
build with semiconductor devices. The temperature gradient can easily affect the biasing of active
elements used in electronic circuits.
3. The dry or poorly soldered electronic components on the PCB (printed circuit board) are considerably
affected by the mechanical shocks.
4. The ignition systems used in two wheelers and four wheelers can produce low or high frequency spikes
which greatly influence other electronic equipments in operation in the premises.
5. In digital equipments, short pulses called spikes can cause serious interference.
6. The components like thyristors, controlled rectifiers acting as switches in power distribution systems
are one of the sources of interference. Large pulses produced by such switches in system where number
of switches are to be controlled and activated simultaneously cause major part of interference.
7. In mechanical switches,a collector of ac series electrometer acting as fast switch are the sources of
interference due to mechanical influence.
8. A periodic discharge of gas discharge lamp is another source of interference.
9. The high magnitude voltages produce corona effect which finally results in interference.

For more information, visit

https://youtu.be/rIhF410L2SU

6.6.2 Effects of interference

1. Power quality problems with electronic equipment such as voltage drops, equipment failure, resets, etc.
2. Inaccurate readings and data from signal noise can negatively affect whole process or research, and
might not notice the errors if weren’t aware there was a signal problem in the first place. This symptom
is especially a threat to industrial processes given the sensitivity of newer electrical equipment.
6.6.3 Prevention of interference

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1. Grounding: It is the collective measures and precautions taken to prevent stray currents flowing
through electric or electronic sensitive circuits by electrically joining corresponding circuit to earth or
ground.

2. Shielding: It is defined as method of placing electronic circuits or systems in a protective metal casing
such that the electrostatic and/or electromagnetic fields cannot interfere the sensitive components of
electronic or electrical circuits or systems.

3. By using isolation transformer: An isolation transformer is a transformer used to transfer electrical

power from a source of alternating current (AC) power to some equipment or device while isolating the
powered device from the power source, usually for safety reasons. Isolation transformers provide galvanic
isolation and are used to protect against electric shock, to suppress electrical noise in sensitive devices, or
to transfer power between two circuits which must not be connected. An isolation transformer is built
with special insulation between primary and secondary, and is specified to withstand a high voltage
between windings.

For more information on shielding and grounding refer 6.1 and 6.2.

6.6.4 Additional information on functional block diagram

A functional block diagram in systems engineering and software engineering is a block diagram that
describes the functions and interrelationships of a system.

The functional block diagram can picture:

1. Functions of a system pictured by blocks

2. Input and output elements of a block pictured with lines

3. The relationships between the functions, and

4. The functional sequences and paths for matter and or signals.

The block diagram can use additional schematic symbols to show particular properties.

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Figure 6.6.4.1 FBD of altitude control and maneuvering electronics system of gemini space craft

6.7 Generalized trouble shooting

Troubleshooting is a step-by-step procedure whose purpose is to quickly and easily identify a
problem in a system or process. Proper test instruments make the process smoother and make it possible
to more easily identify secondary problems where they exist.

Trouble shooting procedure must always start with preliminary analysis of the trouble symptoms,
from which various possibilities of malfunctions are deduced.

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Figure 6.7.1 Generalized trouble shooting flow chart

To troubleshoot a system, process, or equipment, start by collecting technical records from relevant
sources. These include the OEMs, suppliers, contractors, operators, and maintenance departments.

They are analyzed in order of probability and various checks are usually made to estimate or variety
mutual deduction. Figure 6.7.1shows the summary of generalized trouble shooting procedure.

Example 1: An electrician is troubleshooting a faulty light circuit, where the power source and light bulb
are far removed from one another:

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There are several terminal blocks (“TB”) through which electrical power is routed to the light bulb.
These terminal blocks provide convenient connection points to join wires together, enabling sections of
wire to be removed and replaced if necessary, without removing and replacing all the wiring.

Figure 6.7.2 Trouble shooting the fault between source and light
The electrician uses a voltmeter to check for the presence of voltage between pairs of terminals in
the circuit. Based on the voltage indications electrician can determine the location of the circuit fault.

Example 2:

Figure 6.7.3 Troubleshooting fault in voltage divider circuit

In this Voltage divider circuit when no load connected, the voltage across the lower resistor would
be precisely 6 volts. With the load connected, the parallel combination of load and 1 kΩ resistor results in
an effective resistance of less than 1 kΩ on the lower half of the divider, resulting in a voltage of less than
half the total supply voltage.

Suppose that something goes wrong in this voltage divider circuit, and the load voltage suddenly
falls to zero. A technician following the “divide-and-conquer” troubleshooting strategy begins by
measuring voltage across the lower resistor (finding 0 volts), then measuring voltage across both resistors
(finding 12 volts).

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Fig: 6.7.4 Fault identification based on readings in voltmeter

Based on these measurements, the technician can conclude that the upper resistor must be failed
open.

For more information visit,

http://www.interstates.com/newsletters/newsletters-detail/106/7_Steps_for_Electrical_Troubleshooting

https://www.myodesie.com/wiki/index/returnEntry/id/2956

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