Petroleum Seminar Spring 2011

Section 1
Coring Techniques & Applications

1.1 Introduction

Since the early days of the oil industry, efforts have been made to find improved
methods for obtaining information about subsurface formations penetrated during
drilling operations. Early techniques included examining:

 Well cutting from bit action

 Solid pieces of formation from cores, and
 Circulating fluid returned from the wellbore for possible oil and gas shows.

Subsequently, a variety of techniques of formation logging were made available to

the industry, such as : Electric logging, Radioactive logging, Sonic logging, Mud
logging …etc.

In this section, we will discuss several topics pertaining to the subject of coring
techniques and applications as follows :

1. Various types of coring techniques now used by the oil industry

2. Application of coring to geologic problems
3. Coring in relation to production work
4. Correlation between coring and mechanical logging
5. Limitations of coring techniques and applications to some geologic problems

1.2 Types of Coring

In rotary drilling, a bit is attached to the drill pipe and lowered to the formation to be
drilled; bit-cutting action is obtained by rotating the drill pipe. A suitable circulating
system is employed to pump fluid down the pipe, through the bit, and back to the
surface. Formation cuttings are continuously removed from the hole by fluid
circulation.
Conventional cores range in diameter from 2 3/8 to 3 9/16 inches. Diamond cores from
2 7/8 to 4 7/8 inches. Wireline cores range from 1 to 1 3/16 inches and side-wall cores
from ½ to 1 ½ inches. Reverse-circulation cores usually are in the same range as
conventional and diamond cores depending on the size of drill string. The maximum
length of cores varies from the 1 ¼ inch length, obtained in side wall coring, to 90-ft.
length in diamond coring.

1.2.1 Conventional Coring

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Petroleum Seminar Spring 2011

The complete core-barrel assembly, made up on the bottom of the drill string,
consists of a cutter head, an outer barrel, a floating inner barrel, and a finger type
“catcher” which retains the core in the barrel when the assembly is retrieved from the
hole. Mud circulates from the drill pipe between the two barrels to the cutter head.
Either drag-type or roller type bits may be used, depending on the character of the
formation. Ordinarily, the conventional barrel will accommodate a 20-ft. core, though
sometimes cores of shorter lengths are cut because of special conditions or
requirements. Weight on the bit, rotary speed, and circulation rate depend on local
situations. To recover a coreDIAMOND CORING
with the conventional barrel, the entire drill string must
be hoisted.
Advantages of this type of coring include:

 Obtaining a large diameter core

 Maximum percentage of recovery of formation cored
 Adaptability to all except the most abrasive types of formations
 Usual requirements of no additional surface drilling equipment.
Disadvantages include:

 Limitation of cutting only a 20 ft. core during a run, and

 Necessity of pulling the drill pipe from the hole after cutting the core

1.2.2 Diamond Coring

The core barrel is a two tube assembly similar to conventional barrels. The inner tube
is supported on two open ball bearings so that it can swivel freely inside the outer
barrel and will remain stationary while the core is cut. Circulation can be made freely
through the inner Diamond
tube to flushCore
and remove
Headscuttings from the bottom before coring.
When ready to start coring, a ball is dropped from surface and, when seated, will
direct the flow of mud through the annulus between the inner and outer barrel and
out through the core head. The inner barrel is connected with the outer barrel by
means of a safety joint which is easily made up and backed off when extracting core.
It also serves the purpose of removing the inner barrel (with the core) should the core
barrel become stuck in the hole.
The barrel usually comes in 30-ft. sections. Therefore it is possible to make up and
run core barrels which are 30 ft (single core barrel) or multiples of it. The usual
practice is to run no more than a double core barrel (60 ft core) at a time. However,
cores up to 90 feet in length can be cut during a single run when the proper barrel
design is used.

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Conventional &
Diamond Core Barrel
Petroleum Seminar Spring 2011

Diamond core heads are made up of two parts; the crown and the hub. The crown is
made by placing diamonds in a powdered metal, usually a tungsten alloy, in a mold
of desired shape and size. The matrix under heat and pressure forms a solid mass
with diamonds exposed at the surface. Core heads are carefully designed to give
optimum performance in specific types of formation. This covers the basic design and
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Petroleum Seminar Spring 2011
shape of the bit, the profile of the diamond set surfaces and the fluid course
configurations in the bit face.
Techniques employed in diamond coring require little weight on the bit, low pump
pressure, and normal to high rotating speeds. The diamonds drill by abrasion, and,
since increased weight on the bit may increase drilling rates slightly, excessive
weights tend to fracture the diamonds. Pump pressures and fluid velocities are
reduced to prevent washing of the core and to minimize erosion of the bit matrix
metal. Since the cutting rate of the diamond should increase with its linear velocity,
high rotating speeds favor diamond coring. In actual practice, however, rotating
speeds are limited by the type of drilling equipment. Experience has also shown that
removal of junk iron from the wellbore before coring is absolutely essential.
Advantages of diamond coring include :

 In areas where formations are abrasive and sufficiently hard, coring may
sometimes be more economical than drilling.
 Usually longer bit life
 Possibility of cutting up to 90 feet of core at one run
 High percentage of recovery

Disadvantages of diamond coring are :

 High initial expense for barrels and bits

 Requirements of proper operating conditions
 Necessity for strict supervision by one specializing in diamond-core operations
 Generally higher cost compared to other types of coring

1.2.3 Wire line Coring

Advances in the development of coring apparatus have resulted in the wireline core
barrel which eliminates pulling the drill pipe from the hole to recover each core. In
wireline coring, a suitable hoisting assembly, including a wireline reel, a wireline, a
prime mover, and a sheave, is needed in addition to the usual surface drilling
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Petroleum Seminar Spring 2011
equipment. Additional subsurface equipment includes a special core-drill collar and
bit, a core barrel and bit, a wireline guide, and overshot.
The drill collar and bit are lowered into the well on the bottom of the drill pipe.
Routine drilling may be done by dropping a bit plug inside the drill pipe to shut off
the main core-barrel passage through the bit and drilling the formation in the centre
of the hole. When a core is desired, the bit plug is removed by means of an overshot
run inside the drill pipe on a wireline. The core barrel, with cutter head and core
catcher assembly on the bottom, is then dropped inside the drill pipe and
automatically latched into place WIRELINE
in the drill collar.
CORING After the core has been cut in
lengths up to 20 feet, the core barrel and core are removed with the overshot, and
wireline used to recover the bit plug. Consecutive cores may be cut until the core bit
is dulled. Weight on the bit, rotary speed, and circulation rate are varied from those
used during routine drilling.
Advantages of wireline coring include :

 Consecutive cores may be cut until the core bit has been dulled, without
pulling the drill pipe from the hole to recover each core.
 Coring and drilling may be done intermittently until the bit is dulled, without
making a round trip with the drill pipe.
 Lower coring cost.
Disadvantages include :

 Requirement of additional surface equipment

 Limited to coring relatively soft formation
 Cores are relatively smaller than conventional and diamond-cut cores
 Usually lower core recovery than in conventional and diamond coring

Soft Formation
Core Bit

8
Left: Plug Bit Assembly
Right: Fishing Tool Assembly Wireline Core Barrel
Petroleum Seminar Spring 2011

Each gun normally has 30 or more

barrels. Intervals to be cored are
usually selected from electric log
data and accurate core depths are
obtained by correlating logs with SP
or Gamma Ray on the core gun.

Sidewall cores from medium to

high porosity formations are
usually large enough for a full
quantitative analysis. In very high
porosity and permeability sands
some compacting of the core may
lower measured permeabilities
slightly. In hard friable formations
some fracturing is possible, thus
increasing measured values of
porosity and permeability. In either
case, the lithological description and
residual hydrocarbon saturations
still provide much useful
information.
1.2.4 Side-Wall Coring

Side-wall coring techniques were developed to obtain at desired depths, a sample

from the wall of a previously drilled hole. In general, no surface equipment is
required in addition to that used in other coring methods, except electrically
motivated devices which require a regular logging truck. The electrically driven
devices are lowered into the open hole on an electric-logging line. Core tubes
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Petroleum Seminar Spring 2011
(barrels) are generally driven into the formation by an electrically detonated powder
charge. The barrel containing the core is retrieved with cables attached to the barrel
and to the body of the core gun. See figure.

Advantages of side-wall sampling techniques are:

 Samples are obtained from any desired depth interval of a previously drilled hole
 The method can be a valuable aid in confirming electric-log interpretations
Disadvantages are:
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Petroleum Seminar Spring 2011

 Samples are usually too small for ordinary laboratory core analysis
 Samples have been subjected to considerable flushing action of drilling mud
filtrate.
In ordinary coring it is important to have a circulating fluid in the hole that has
favorable physical characteristics that minimize flushing of the cored section by mud
filtrate. The treatment of water-base mud to filtration-rate-values in the low ranges
and the use of oil-base mud have contributed to increasing the quality of data
obtained from core analysis and have probably resulted in increased core recovery.
Tracers placed in the circulating fluid help determine the extent of mud-filtrate
flushing of cores.

1.3 Coring Applications

1. Application of Coring to Geologic and Development Problems :
Coring aids in the solution of many problems in the geology and development of oil
fields. Many geologic problems result from a well condition in which a desired tool
or method cannot be used. For example, it may be desired to obtain an electric log of
a well, but the circulating fluid may be of such nature that the logging instrument
fails to function properly, or, because of sloughing formations or other hindrances.
Also, in many areas, the geologist prepares a formation-sample log from data
obtained by examination of cuttings. At times, these cuttings are unsatisfactory
because :
1. Mud circulation rates may be too low to bring them to the surface without
their being pulverized
2. Presence of caving or sloughing formation may mask the drilled cuttings
3. Formation cuttings may be so soft that disintegration occurs before reaching
the surface
In such circumstances, coring, even though possibly less desirable, would provide a
means of obtaining substitute data for geologic or engineering use.
In exploratory geologic work, the geologist uses cores and core-analysis data to :
1. Obtain detailed formation description of the strata penetrated
2. Determine dip and direction of dip of strata, and
3. Determine probable fluid content of prospective pay section

After a core has been removed from the well, it is laid out in the same linear position
as in the core barrel ; by visual examination and measurement, a detailed description
is made of the formation composition, texture, geologic age, dip, fracture, and
probable fluid content. If there are indications that the core contains oil or gas, further
field and laboratory tests are made. Should a core contain oil or gas, visual
examination can usually determine what section may be potentially productive.
2. Coring in Relation to Production Work :
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Coring and core data are often very helpful in production operations and petroleum-
engineering work, and in helping the geologist with various problems. The greatest
use of coring in production work is determining zones that should be formation-or
production-tested and for delineating, if possible, gas-oil and water-oil contacts. Also
at times in production operations, it may be desirable to make an open-hole
completion; that is, one in which the oil-string casing is set above the pay section to
be tested and produced. Coring aids in determining the presence of undesirable
upper sloughing shales and water bearing zones immediately above and below the
pay interval. The casing seat may then be picked at a point that would shut off
undesirable formations and yet allow the entire desired section to be tested.
Information concerning the permeability of the formation in a prospective pay zone
usually aids in picking the most desirable type of completion method. At times,
diamond coring assists in operations in areas where hard and abrasive formations are
encountered, because coring may be more economical than conventional drilling.
Certain petroleum-engineering work is aided by core analysis data. Understanding of
formation characteristics may lead to location of :

 Oil zones that subsequently might be overlooked, and

 Impermeable zones that may aid in workover operations to shut off
undesirable water or free gas.
Cores are also very useful in conducting laboratory studies of water-flooding and
pressure maintenance projects. The data obtained from cores are also very valuable
and provide basic information for reservoir analysis studies.
3. Correlation Between Coring and Electric Logging :
The examination of cores, either in the field or in the laboratory, provide direct
information concerning the physical properties for the drilled formation and that
these data are the basis of electric and other mechanical log interpretations. An
examination of formation cuttings and use of other logging devices may substantiate
core analysis data, but, individually, these methods are usually subject to variable
factors and broad interpretations. When the geologist uses core data for correlation,
he is more certain of lithologic identity; once the reaction of an electric log in a
particular formation has been substantiated by core-data interpretations, the log
becomes more dependable.

Likewise, formation tests are necessary to determine electric-log characteristics with

respect to the type of fluid in the formation. It has been found that interpretation of
electric logs of certain holes is often misleading; however, these logs are valuable in
determining tops and thicknesses of sections when used in conjunction with core and
cutting data.
Since electric logs are influenced by the type of drilling mud and the fluid chemistry
of the section logged, core logs are often the only means of formation interpretation.
Sometimes a correlation between an electric log and a core log of producing

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formations results in finding measurement errors which may cause subsequent
completion difficulty.

Section 2
Conventional and Special Core Analysis

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Petroleum Seminar Spring 2011
2.1 Introduction
Core analysis is the laboratory measurement of petrophysical properties of core
samples recovered from geologic formations and is the cornerstone on which certain
formation evaluations rest. Other evaluation tools are available, and make important
contributions; however, core analysis is a technique that allows visual examination of
a portion of the formation and direct measurements of several important
characteristics of the rock.
Core data play an important role in exploration programs, well completion and
workover operations, and in well reservoir evaluation.
Basic core data are furnished by conventional core analysis which yields the
following :
 Residual fluid saturation
 Formation lithology
 Storage capacity for reservoir fluids (porosity)
 Flow capacity (permeability)
Supplementary test data may include :

 Formation water chloride content

 Formation grain density
 Natural gamma ray characteristics
Important interpretations to be made from conventional core analysis include the
following :

 Prediction of type of fluid to be produced (gas, oil, water)

 Definition of fluid contacts (gas-oil, oil-water, etc.), and selection
of completion intervals.

Conventional core analysis data, supplementary tests, and their use are summarized
in the following table:

Core Analysis Data and Use

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Routine Data

DATA USE
1 Porosity Define storage capacity
2 Permeability (horizontal) Define flow capacity, permeability distribution
and profile
3 Saturations Define (1) Presence of hydrocarbon (net pay
and contacts)
(2) Type of hydrocarbon (gas or oil)
(3) Connate water if oil-base mud used
Define rock type and characteristics of core
(fractures, vugular, laminated, etc.).
Supplementary Tests

DATA USE
1 Vertical permeability Define coning probability and gravity drainage
potential
2 Core-gamma log Define lost core and depth relation of core with
down-hole logs (requires down-hole gamma-
ray)
3 Grain density Define density log calculations
4 Water chloride Define connate water salinity in oil-base and
degree of flushing in water-base cores.
5 Oil gravity Estimate reservoir gravity from correlations
based on retort oil gravity
Interpretation from Core Analysis
1 Prediction of fluid production (gas, condensate, oil or water).
2 Definition of gas-oil, gas-water, oil-water contacts and transition zones
3 Possibility of gas or water coning
4 Completion intervals

Special core analysis is in extension of conventional core analysis, and yields more
detailed rock property data; time required for such analysis is a major factor that
differentiates the two. Conventional data is completed and available for use within
hours after core recovery, whereas, special core tests sometimes take 8 weeks or
longer to complete. Special core analysis furnishes analysis furnishes knowledge in
the following areas :
 Initial distribution and quantity of hydrocarbons
 Rock properties when gas, oil & water flow concurrently
 Quantity of residual hydrocarbons that remain at reservoir abandonment
 Electrical and acoustical properties of the rock (yields data that enhances
downhole log interpretation.

2.2 Conventional (plug) Analysis

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Plug analysis is the most commonly used. It is normally restricted to homogeneous
formations that can be characterized by plug-size samples 1 inch in diameter and 1 ¼
inches long. Samples are taken from the core centre at selected vertical intervals.
Core sampling is a basic and important step, since characterization of the rock is no
better than the samples analyzed. Samples for plug analysis should be representative
of the interval and are normally taken at 1 foot spacing if lithology appears similar.
Laminated formations require sampling on more frequent intervals and any major
change in lithology should be analyzed.
Core Cleaning is done by one of the following methods :

 Refluxing in a Dean Stark or Soxhlet apparatus (which is slow but gentle)

 Flushing in a centrifuge. This method fast but limited to plug size cores and
requires core mechanical strength
 Repeated pressure cycling of carbon dioxide and Toluene. This is also fast but
not suitable for poorly consolidated sand or chalky limestone
 Pressure flushing of solvent through the core (slow).
 Vapor soaking with condensed dripping on the core
Drying of the plugs can be done by heating in an oven to a temperature of 240 °F
without damaging the cores.

2.2.1 Porosity
Porosity is a measure of reservoir storage capacity. It is reported as a fraction or
percent, and often varies from 10 to 40 percent in sandstone, and from 5 to 25 percent
in limestone and dolomite. Pore spaces vary in size from microscopic in sandstones
and inter-granular limestone, to vugs, caverns, or fractures normally introduced by
secondary processes.
Porosity is defined as the ratio of pore volume to bulk volume. Its’ determination
requires measurement of two of three variables of pore volume (PV), bulk volume
(BV), and grain volume (GV); the latter refers to nonporous solids comprising the
rock matrix, and when combined with pore volume yields the bulk volume.

The measurement technique selected depends on rock type analyzed and time
requirement for availability of the data. A proper technique yields porosity values
within 0.5 porosity percent of true value.

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Petroleum Seminar Spring 2011
Total and effective porosity exist as theoretical possibilities but practical experience
has shown differences are normally of little concern. Total pore space is defined as all
pore space, whether it exists as an isolated pore sealed by secondary deposition, or
connected to other pores. Effective pore space is composed of interconnected pores.
Only the latter contributes to production, but certain down-hole logs sense the total
porosity. Laboratory techniques are available to evaluate both types of porosity when
required.

2.2.2 Pore Volume Measurement

Pore volume may be directly measured on a cleaned and dried core by re-saturation
of void space. Techniques include evacuation and pressure saturation with liquid, or
pressure saturation of non-evacuated pore space with helium. The helium technique,
which employs Boyle’s law, is an excellent method. Helium has advantages over
other gases because:
1.Its small molecule rapidly penetrates small pores, and
2.It is inert and not adsorbed on rock surfaces as air may be.

2.2.3 Bulk Volume Measurement

Bulk volume can be determined by callipering and applying appropriate

mathematical formulas. This technique is rapid, but suffers from inability to arrive at
a valid average diameter by callipering when cores are not right cylinders. Small plug
volumes often are determined in a calibrated mercury pump. Archimedes’ principle
may be used for cores containing no surface vugs and it yields accurate volumes- but
the technique requires the core to be 100% liquid saturated. When pore volumes have
been determined directly by helium injection, the sum of pore and grain volume may
be used to compute bulk volume.

2.2.4 Grain Volume Measurement

Grain
Core volume
AnalysisinPorosity
whole-core analysis is sometimes
versus 1.0 calculated from dry sample weight A
and knowledge
Reservoir of average grain density. Formations of varying lithology, and,B
Porosity:
hence, grain density, limit applicability of this technique. Boyle’s law may be used
0.8
with helium as the
atgas to determine grain volume; the technique is fairly rapid and is
Porosity : Fraction Of Original

Rocks analyzed surface C

valid on clean,
conditions dry
have samples.
been relieved of
downhole confining pressures. 0.6
Porosity changes are negligible in
compact rocks except for very
deep, normally pressured 0.4
reservoirs where compressibility
Initial Porosity Description PV/PV/PSI
values are usually high. Poorly A 24% Well Cemented 3  10
6

consolidated formations taken in a 0.2

B 28% Friable 15  10
6

rubber sleeve are more sensitive to C 33% Unconsolidated 40  10

6

overburden, and porosity changes

0.1
are more dramatic. The figure 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
shows porosity reduction with Net Overburden Pressure - PSI
increasing net overburden 17
pressure. Porosity reduction with overburden pressure
Petroleum Seminar Spring 2011

2.2.5 Permeability

The capacity of a formation to transmit fluids is termed “permeability” ; its unit is the
darcy. The millidarcy (one thousandth of a darcy) is used in core analysis. One darcy
is defined as that permeability permitting a fluid of 1 centipoise viscosity to flow at a
rate of 1 cubic centimeter per second through a cross-sectional area of square
centimeter when the pressure gradient is 1 atmosphere per centimeter. The following
equation is written in basic units for flow of a non-compressible fluid such as oil :

= Rate of flow, cc/sec.

= Pressure Differential, Atmospheres
= Area, cm2
= Fluid viscosity, Centipoise
= Length, cm
= Permeability, Darcies

Measured values using standard equipment range from a low of 0.01 md to as high
as 20,000 md. Data accuracy declines at high and low permeability values and is
within percent of a true value otherwise. Permeability is a constant when :
 No reaction between the rock and flowing fluid occurs

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Petroleum Seminar Spring 2011
 Laminar flow exists
 One fluid completely saturates the core
These conditions exist during conventional core analysis measurement which yield
specific (absolute) permeability.
Permeability is related to rock textural properties. Fine-grained sandstones and inter-
crystalline limestones have small pores and low permeability. Coarse-grained
sandstones, fractured limestones, and oolitic limestones have large pore channels and
high permeability. Combinations of low matrix permeability with high fracture
permeability can yield prolific reservoirs.
Determination of permeability requires :

 A means of measuring gas flows at the downstream end of a clean, dry core of
known dimensions
 Knowledge of upstream and downstream pressures, and
 A core holder to prevent gas bypassing of the sample.
Dry gas has been selected as the standard fluid for use in permeability determination
to minimize fluid-rock reaction and for ease of measurement. Equipment is available
to determine air permeability in both horizontal and vertical directions on plug-size
and full-diameter cores.
Klinkenberg (Gas Slippage) Correction:
Gas flow through porous media was investigated by Klinkenberg (1941) who found
permeability varied with the gas used as well as the mean pressure existing in the
core at time of measurement. 1.0
KA KL Sw Net Overburden

A plot of gas permeability versus the md

.28
md
-
%PV
0
PSI
200
reciprocal of the mean pressure forms a 0.08
.051
.003
.035
.003
53
53
200
6000
Gas Permeability : Millidarcies

straight line and can be extrapolated to Net OB: PSI

infinite mean pressure; this extrapolated 0.06
permeability is lower than the measured KL
value and is comparable to that obtained
0.04
if the core were saturated with non-
reactive liquid such as oil. An example
for low permeability was measured at a 0.02

series of net overburden pressures 4000

representing various depths of burial and 6000

hence pore compression-each of which 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

Reciprocal Mean Pressure : (ATM)-1
1.0

yielded an equivalent liquid value Kl . Permeability reduction due to gas slippage,

irreducible water, and overburden pressure.

Correlations relating the laboratory-measured air permeabilities to equivalent liquid

(Klinkenberg) permeabilities are available and yield values of sufficient accuracy for
sandstone and intergranular limestone.

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Reservoirs exist at high mean pressure compared to those existing in the core sample
in the laboratory, and Klinkenberg corrected values are more representative of the
reservoir value. The correction factor is a much larger percentage of the laboratory
value in low permeability cores. It is important that the engineer or geologist know if
this correction has been made when data are received from several analytical
laboratories and permeability is the basis for selection of net pay. Typical corrections
found for sandstone are given in the following table:

Air Klinkenberg
Permeability (md) Permeability (md) Ratio of
KA KL KL/ KA
0.18 0.12 0.66
1.00 0.68 0.68
10.00 7.80 0.78
100.00 8.80 0.88
1,000.00 950.00 0.95

Reservoir permeability is influenced by:

 Net overburden pressure, and

 Presence of more than a single fluid in the reservoir pore spaces (relative
permeability effect).
Both tend to reduce reservoir permeability below core analysis values.
In some low permeability gas reservoirs, high interstitial water results in a
considerable reduction in permeability, which is further reduced by the effects of
overburden pressure. The figure above shows non-mobile interstitial water of 53%
pore space reduced air permeability from 0.28 to 0.051 millidarcies when a low net
overburden pressure of 200 psi was maintained. Increase in the net overburden to
6000 psi resulted in a permeability decrease to 0.003 millidarcies.

2.2.6 Residual Fluid Saturations

Fluid saturations are reported as a percent of the pore volume, and their magnitude
reflects initial reservoir fluid content as well as various conditions imposed during
core recovery.
Methods commonly used for fluid saturation determinations include:

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Petroleum Seminar Spring 2011
 Vacuum distillation where high vacuum and 450F are used to recover oil and
water.
 Distillation extraction where water is distilled and oil extracted by appropriate
solvents; and
 The retort method at atmospheric pressure and temperatures up to 1200F.
The most common method is the distillation extraction technique which is normally
called the “Dean Stark” method. The method requires the following:

 The total weight loss before and after cleaning the sample.
 The measured water volumes determined during distillation.
The solvent used must have a higher boiling point than water, and be less dense than,
and immiscible with, water; toluene is commonly used. Oil saturation is determined
indirectly by difference. The technique requires knowledge of oil gravity so weight
loss can be converted to oil volume. Low permeability whole cores may require
weeks to complete.

2.2.7 Interstitial Water Determination

Water saturations determined on cores from above the oil-water transition zone that
were cut with oil-base mud represent reservoir values if samples have been properly
handled and analyzed with suitable techniques. Pore volume minus water volume
yields hydrocarbon storage capacity, but does not differentiate whether the
hydrocarbon is gas or oil.

2.3 Core Analysis Report

Core analysis results are reported in a variety of graphic and tabular forms. The
following figure shows one such core graph. In addition to factual data determined
on each sample, gas- oil and water – oil contacts are defined, and production
predictions have been made from study of residual saturation values.

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Core analysis graph
Petroleum Seminar Spring 2011

In some instances, the core data are summarized to yield average values of
permeability, porosity, residual oil, and total water saturations. These summaries
normally are made of core samples considered to be net pay, and often cores below a
selected porosity, permeability, or residual oil saturation range are excluded from the
averages.
Interstitial water is determined during the analysis of cores with oil-base mud (if
above the transition zone), or otherwise it is calculated from the measured rock
properties and total water saturation of cores cut with water-base mud. This
calculated saturation then is used to estimate initial hydrocarbons in place, and

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Petroleum Seminar Spring 2011
recovery expected from solution gas drive and water drive. These recovery estimates
are computed as hydrocarbon recovery per acre-foot of reservoir, and can be used
with reservoir total volumes to yield estimated field recoveries. The recovery
estimates represent theoretical maximum values and are optimistic since they assume
operating conditions that are not normally encountered in the field. They are useful
for comparative purposes, but are not intended to replace detailed engineering
studies that incorporate overall reservoir characteristics and economic factors.

2.4 Interpretations from Core Analysis Data

The prediction of fluid production and location of fluid contacts is dependent on
several basic premises:
1. Gas overlies oil and oil overlies water due to difference in fluid density in a
continuous section.
2. Experience with a formation in a given area allows limits of minimum oil and
maximum water saturations representative of gas, oil, and water production.
3. Abrupt changes in these limiting saturations of the fluids indicate a fluid
contact – unless the saturation change can be related to changes in rock textural
properties.
No all-purpose limits of oil or water saturations exist for interpretative purposes,
because of changes in rock properties, as well as changes in oil gravity and viscosity
with depth and aerial location. The type of cores taken also influences residual
saturations, as cores of smaller diameter often show greater flushing and higher
water saturations. Despite these limitations, average crudes of 25 to 35 °API often
have core analysis residual oil values of 15 to 25 percent pore space. Dry gas zones
contain no measurable residual oil at the surface, whereas, condensate zones typically
show less than 4 percent pore space retrograde oil saturation. Surface residual oil
saturations typically increase as oil gravity decreases and may exceed 50 percent pore
space.

The core analysis graph (shown above) shows typical oil saturations corresponding
to condensate, oil, and water production from a sand cored with water-base mud.
Sharp fluid level contacts are observed below depths of 6442.5 and 6456.5 feet. The
upper few samples contain high water saturations. Textural properties of the rock
core are related to the quantity of water that may be present and still not produce.
Low permeability and shaly samples typically have small pore spaces with great
water retentive forces that hold high immobile water saturations. Penetration of the
gas-oil contact is accompanied by increase in oil saturation, and the water-oil contact
illustrates loss of oil saturation and increase in water values. Oil and water
saturations do not total to 100% pore space, even in the water zone-nor should they
since release of gas in solution results in a measurable gas saturation in the core at
surface conditions.

23
Petroleum Seminar Spring 2011

Gamma Ray of Cored Section

A surface core-gamma log can be

made and included in the core
analysis report. The core is
passed at a constant rate under a
gamma-ray detection device,
resulting in a continuous log
comparable to that measured
down-hole. The opposite figure
shows such a curve measured on
a carbonate formation and gives
an indication of its similarity to
the downhole measurement. In
addition to assistance in depth
alignment, it aids in
determination of formation top
and bottom, and in location of
unrecovered core (normally
assigned to the bottom of the
cored section).

Surface Core vs. Downhole Gamma Ray

2.5 Special Core Analysis

Accurate representation of reservoir rock and fluid characteristics is necessary for
reliable reservoir engineering calculations. It is therefore essential that core recovered
from the formation be tested to define the following :
1. Capillary pressure.
2. Electrical and acoustical properties.
3. Multiphase flow characteristics.
4. Residual hydrocarbons.

2.5.1 Capillary Pressure :

Water is retained in the reservoir by capillary forces as hydrocarbons accumulate.
This interstitial water, in water-wet reservoirs, lies next to sand or carbonate surfaces.
24
Petroleum Seminar Spring 2011
Retentive forces are proportional to fluid interfacial tension, the affinity of water for
the rock, and inversely proportional to pore size. Low permeability formations
composed of very small pore spaces have high water retentive forces, and often
contain high immobile water saturations.

Laboratory capillary pressure 40 80

curves developed on formation
samples are used to define initial

Height Above Free Water Level: Feet

Capillary Pressure: PSIG (Air-Water)
32 64
water saturation as a function of 3650 md 105 md 1.5md
28.4% 26.7% 22.8%
height above the hydrocarbon-
water contact. Example curves are 24 48
shown as a function of
permeability in the opposite Permeability and Porosity

figure. At a common height, 16 32

water saturation is shown to be

higher in the lower permeability
8 16
rock, resulting in less
hydrocarbon storage space.
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Water Saturation: Percent Pore Space

Capillary pressure curves

These data are used with conventional core analysis knowledge of each sample’s
depth, permeability, and porosity, and then combined with the depth of the oil-
water contact to assign water saturations on a foot-by-foot basis for calculation of oil-
in-place.

2.5.2 Relative Permeability

Relative permeability
Drainage curves applyisduring
a dimensionless
the term that has importance when two or more
100
fluidswater
time migrate throughfrom
is draining the reservoir
the – for example, gas and water. Water-WetSpecific
Drainage
(Decreasing Sw)
permeability
reservoir and is the permeability
hydrocarbons are to one fluid at 100 percent saturation; effective
Water-Wet Imbibition
permeability is the resulting
accumulating. Once a sample has permeability to each
80 phase when a second
(Increasing or third fluid
Sw)
Relative Permeability:Percent

is introduced.
attained The ratiowater
an irreducible of effective to specific permeability defines relative
permeability
saturation values
value and as a function
this water is of saturation. Krg
subsequently increased by natural 60
water influx or introduction of coring
Krw
fluids, a different set of relative 40
permeability characteristics prevails;
these latter are called “imbibition”
curves. Such data are required in 20
many reservoir engineering
calculations, and the laboratory tests
0
that develop them should follow the 0 20 40 60 80 100
same saturation history as that in the 25 Water Saturation: Percent Pore Space
reservoir.
Gas-water relative permeability curves
Petroleum Seminar Spring 2011

2.5.3 Electrical Properties

1000 1000
These measurements define,RI for 
1.0 a given formation, parameters used in electric
F
1.0
( Archielog
2. 0 ) 2.0
S 
calculations1.of porosity and water saturation. They refine log calculations and
w

0 1.0

Formation Factor (F): Ro/Rw

RI  n F m
remove the Snecessity
w of relyingn=2.2on constants presented in the literature. Measured
Resistivity Index (RI): Rt/Ro

M=2.4
relationships
100 relating formation factor to porosity yield the cementation exponent
100
“m”. Tests relatingn =1.7
resistivity index to water saturation in the M=1.7 pore space yields the
saturation exponent “n”.
Rock properties that influence the calculated water saturation are illustrated in the
10
following equations : 10
Effect of “m” on Formation
Factor and porosity
Effect of “n” on Water Saturation
At RI = 30, Sw Varies From
For  = 15%
12% to 21% Pore Space Formation Factor Varies from 25 to 95
For F = 45
 Varies From 10% to 21%
1
0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0
1
Water Saturation (Sw) Fraction 0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0
Porosity () : Fraction
Range of resistivity index vs. water saturation Range of formation factor vs. porosity

2.5.4 Water Permeability

The calculation of saturation becomes very sensitive to “m” as porosity decreases,
Reaction between
and use of reservoir
an incorrect “m”rock and
value will yield
1000
water saturation errors of 50% pore
fluid introduced can decrease
space- which is significant.
permeability and cause excessive well
The following
damage. Damagetwocan
figures
occurshow the range of “m” and “n” values observed.
during
Water Permeability : Millidarcies

coring or drilling where an

100
incompatible mud filtrate exists, or
during water-flood injection 50,000 PPM

operations. Damage is related to clay Fresh Water

type and distribution, as well as water

composition. Fresh water, 10

montmorillonite clays, and decrease in

pore size normally yield increased
formation damage. The opposite
figure shows the reduction in water
1
permeability as water salinity 1.0 10 100 1000
Air Permeability:Millidarcies
decreases. Selection of the best water Variation in water permeability with
available, and addition of calcium, salinity and air permeability
potassium, or other ions to retard clay 26
reaction can be evaluated.
Petroleum Seminar Spring 2011

27