Class 11 Chemistry Term-I Evaluation Scheme

A. Basic Laboratory Techniques

1. Cutting glass tube and glass rod

2. Bending a glass tube

3. Drawing out a glass jet

4. Boring a cork

B. Characterization of Chemical Substances (2 Marks)

1. Determination of melting point of an organic compound.

2. Determination of boiling point of an organic compound.

C. Quantitative Estimation (8 Marks)

i) Using a chemical balance.

ii) Preparation of standard solution of Oxalic acid.

iii) Determination of strength of a given solution of Sodium Hydroxide by titrating it

against standard solution of Oxalic acid.

iv) Preparation of standard solution of Sodium Carbonate.

v) Determination of strength of a given solution of Hydrochloric acid by titrating it against

standard Sodium Carbonate solution.
 Class 11 Chemistry Practical Term II Evaluation Scheme
A. Qualitative Analysis (8 marks)
a) Determination of one anion and one cation in a given salt

Cations – Pb2+, Cu2+, Al3+, Fe3+, Mn2+, Ni2+, Zn2+, Co2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Mg2+, NH4+

Anions – (CO3)2‒, S2‒, NO2–, SO32‒, SO42‒, NO3‒, Cl‒, Br‒, I‒, PO43‒, C2O42‒, CH3COO‒

b) Detection of ‐ Nitrogen, Sulphur, Chlorine in organic compounds.

B. Crystallization of impure sample of any one of the following:

Alum, Copper Sulphate, Benzoic Acid. (2 marks)
PROJECTS- scientific investigations involving laboratory testing and collecting
information from other sources.
A few suggested Projects
Bending Water with Static Electricity
How do Increased CO2 Levels Affect Plant Growth?
Floting Soap Bubbles
Super Slurper - Waterlock (Sodium polyacrylate
Do detergents affect plant grouth ?
The Effect Of Different Liquids On Teeth
What Color Candle Burns The Fastest
which milk spoils fastest
Fingerprints
The Effect of Different Liquids On Plant Growth
Measuring Surface Tension of Water with a Penny
How to Make the Boldest, Brightest Tie Dye!
What Anti-Freeze Is Most Biologically Safe
110-How To Make a Yeast
How Dense Is the Incredible Edible Egg
Do Oranges Lose or Gain Vitamin C After Being Picked
114-Chemistry of Ice-Cream Making Lowering the Freezing Point of Water
115-How To Make Bubble Solution
116-Make Your Own Markers
117-Which Metal Is the Most Resistant to Corrosion
Do different types of orange juice contain the same amount of vitamin C?
Science Fair Projects - How much water is in an orange-13
15-Absorption of Pollutants in Different Soil Types.
15-The Effect of Dissolved Salt and Sugar on the Melting Rate of Ice
18-Tensile Strength and Water Vapor Transmission of Plastic Food Bags
19-E-Potato Power
19-The Effect of Fabric Type on Ignition Time and Burning Rate
20-Comparison of pH Levels in Municipal Drinking Water vs. Domestic Well Water

21-The Effect of Temperature on the Water Solubility of Alum, Baking Soda, Epsom Salt,
and Salt
23-Which Species of Wood Will Produce the Most Thermal Energy When Combusted
24-The Effect of Laundary Detergent on Stain Removal
25-Cabbage Chemistry
25-Cabbage Juice - pH indicator
27-To determine the sugar composition of various brand name apple juices
28-The Effect of Voltage on Copper Electroplating
29-The Effect of Different Kinds of Wood on How Fast it Bums
30-The Dissolution Rate Of Ibuprofen Pills
32-The Effect of Cooking Methods on Vitamin C in Potatoes
33-Effect of Mold Growth on Various Types of Cheese
34-The Effectiveness of Various Toothpastes on the Bacteria on teeth
34-the influence of heat on thermal coagulation of egg proteins
35-Heat Output of Diesel, Kerosene and Biodiesel in Smudge Pots
35-Which Household Items Lubricate Metal The Best
38-The Effect of Wind Speed, Air Humidity, and Air Temperature on Evaporation Rate
39-The Effect of Candle Wax Hardness on the Burning Time of a Candle
40-Densities of Various Solutions
42-The Effect of Various Carpet Cleaners on Stains
44-Bacterial Content of Water Bottles
44The Effect of Shampoos on the Tensile Strength of Hair
44-Which body lotion will keep the most moisture from evaporating
45-greenhouse
4-Dissolution Rate of Lactase Pills
53- Energy Ozone detection strips
54-Air We Breath Experiment #2 Car Exhaust
55-The Chemistry of Hair Highlights
56-The Viscosity of Motor Oil
57-Small Scale Production of Biodiesel
58-Lab #7 Polymers Experiment 3 Sodium Polyacrylate
70-POPCORN-what causes some corn kernels to POP when heated.
72-Which Is the Better Insulation Material
75-Does Chemical Lightening Affect the Structure of Human Hair
76-Bacterial Resistant Materials and the Best Disinfectant
77-Burning Calories How Much Energy is Stored in Different Types of Food
79-How Are Antibodies Used for Blood Typing
81-Does supplementary vitamin C prevent colds
81-Lab #5 Testing Soil
86-heating methods for rate of cooking and for impact on final product quality
87- Peanut Power
9-The Effect of Different Detergents on Pea Growth.
7Which Brand of AA Battery Lasts the Longest?
19The Effect of Fabric Type on Ignition Time and Burning Rate
37-The Effect of Various Antioxidants on Apple Browning
40-Densities of Various Solutions vs. Plastic Separation
48-The Effect of Mouthwash on Alpha Streptococcus
• Checking the bacterial contamination in drinking water by testing sulphide
ion.
• Study of the methods of purification of water.
• Testing the hardness, presence of Iron, fluoride, Chloride, etc., depending
upon the regional variation in drinking water and study of causes of
presence of these ions above permissible limit (if any).
• Investigation of the foaming capacity of different washing soaps and the
effect of addition of Sodium Carbonate on it.
• Study the acidity of different samples of tea leaves.
• Determination of the rate of evaporation of different liquids.
• Study the effect of acids and bases on the tensile strength of fibers.
• Study of acidity of fruit and vegetable juices.
 Class 11 Chemistry Practical Term I

A. Basic Laboratory Techniques

1. Cutting glass tube and glass rod

Glass is a delicate material which is used in manufacturing various things. There are two types
of glass like Soda-lime glass and Borosilicate glass. Soda-lime glass can be melted easily at
300-400°C and Borosilicate glass cannot be easily melted and it requires 700-800°C to soften it.
Hence Borosilicate glass is used in manufacturing glass apparatus used for laboratory purpose.

Aim:
To know the basic techniques of cutting glass tube and glass rod using a simple process.

Materials Required:
 15 cm long Soda-glass tube
 15 cm long Soda-glass rod
 Triangular file
 Bunsen Burner

Experimental setup:
Procedure:
 Place the rod or glass tube on the table.
 Mark the glass tube or rod with triangular file keeping.
 Keep the triangular file perpendicular to rod or tube and pull it towards you so that a
single deep scratch is made.
 Hold the glass rod or tube with the help of thumbs as shown in the figure
 Now apply pressure in the direction away from you and try breaking the glass rod or
tube.
 Note: if the glass rod or tube does not break, make a deeper scratch using the triangular
file on the mark done earlier.
 If you see any jagged edge, Trim it by striking with a wire gauge.
 Gently hold the cut edge of the glass rod or tube in the flame to give a good finish.
 For fire polishing, hold the edge of glass rod or tube in the bunsen burner and then
rotate it back till both the ends get a good finish (smooth and round).
2. Bending A Glass Tube Experiments
Glass is an amorphous crystalline solid material mainly used for decorative
purposes. Glass is made into various shapes and can be bent as per the requirement
too. The bending of the glass tube needs the knowledge of handling the glass
against the bunsenn burner. Let us know the process of bending the glass tube.

Aim:
To know the basic techniques of bending glass tubes using a simple process.

Materials Required:
 20-25 cm long Soda-glass
glass tube
 Bunsen Burner

Experimental setup:

Procedure:
 Hold the tube withh both the hands horizontally, in flame from the bunsen burner.
 Get the point of bending of the glass with flame.
 Keep rotating the glass tube with the help of thumbs and fingers while heating so that
th
the tube is heated and softened uniformly.
 Determine in which direction you want to bend the glass tube.
 Continuously keep the glass tube in the flame till it becomes red hot.
 Apply the gentle pressure on the glass tube where it is softened (red hot) and
an bend the
glass tube in the desired angle.
 Remove from the flame when the desired angle is formed and the glass tube is bent.
  Cool it by placing on a glazed tile
 Glass tube can be bent into various angles as shown in the figure below.
 Proper and improper bend is also shown in the figure below.

Precautions to be taken during the experiment:

 Heat at least 4-55 cm length of the tube at the point of bending.
 Keep your face far and hold the glass tube away.
 Never bend the glass tube by force. Doing so can brea
break the tube.

Viva Voce:

1. Why glass tube in red hot condition bent slowly? The glass will soften after heating,
hence gentle pressure must be applied while bending.
2. Why is the glass tube rotated while heating? To ensure uniform heating glass tube is
rotated
3. Give
ive an example where bent glass is used Bent glass is used in the distillation process
4. What is the composition of soda glass? Na2SiO3 . CaSiO3 . 4SiO2
5. Can we heat apparatus made up of soda glass? No, it breaks on heating
3. Drawing Out A Glass Jet
Glass is a material which softness on heating and can be made into the
desired shape. Glass is used in manufacturing laboratory equipment, marbles,
paperweights, mirrors, decorative articles, windows and TV screens. Glass is a
transparent material which acquires various colors by the addition of electrically
charged ions that are distributed evenly. Let us learn how the glass in drawn into a
jet shape.

Aim:
To know the basic techniques of drawing a glass tube into a jet shape.

Materials Required:

 20-25 cm long glass tube

 Triangular file
 Bunsen Burner
 Sandpaper

Procedure:
 Select a glass tube of your desire with appropriate diameter for drawing
into a jet.
 Cut the glass tube to the required length with the help of a triangular file.
 Using the hottest portion of the Bunsen burner flame heat the tube by
holding it at both the ends as shown in the figure above.
 Gently rotate the tube until the portion which is in contact with the flame
becomes red hot and softens.
 Remove the glass tube from the flame and pull the ends apart slowly and
smoothly until it becomes narrow in the middle and then stretches into a
fine jet.
 Cut the tube in the middle as shown in the figure and rub the ends using
sandpaper and by fire polishing till the end are smooth.

Precautions to be taken during the experiment:

 Gently pull the soften part of the glass tube so that it is evenly thin.
 Do not touch the red hot portion of the tube since it will be too hot and
might cause injury.
Also Read: Boring a Cork
Frequently Asked Questions on Drawing Out A Glass Jet
Why is it required to round off the freshly cut edges of the glass tube or the glass rod ?
The rough edges might cause injury while handling, hence for the safety and look
edges of glass tube or rod is rounded off.

Mention the various steps which are involved in the drawing a glass tube into a jet ?

 Selecting the ideal tube

 Heating the center of the glass tube
 Breaking
 filing
 Cooling

What type of glass is preferred for drawing out a jet ?

Soda lime glass is used in drawing out a jet

Why is the glass tube of small diameter chosen for drawing out a jet ?
Since larger diameter tube has to be stretched too far, the glass tube of small
diameter is chosen.

Which type of glass is preferred in this process ?

Soda lime glass
4. Boring a cork
Cork is a small and useful laboratory device mainly used along with flasks
or test tubes. They are made of rubber and is of various sizes. Cork softens when it
comes in contact with water. Cork is bored in order to fit in the glass tubes for
various lab purpose. Let us know the process of boring a cork.

Aim:
To know the basic techniques of boring a cork and fitting the glass tubes.

Materials Required:

 Cork
 Borer
 Glass tube

Procedure:
 Take the cork and place it on the table
 Mark the rubber cork on both sides where you exactly want to drill the hole
 Select a cork borer of a smaller size than the diameter of the tube that has
to be inserted in the cork.
 Place the cork as shown in the figure. Keep the smaller end on the table
and bigger end facing up.
 Hold the cork firmly in the left hand and place the cork borer on the
marked area of the bore.
 Note: dip the borer in water or glycerine before placing on the cork
 Push the borer vertically in the downward direction.
 Apply gentle pressure and drill the hole by rotating the borer
simultaneously and moving downwards.
 After boring one side of the cork halfway, drill out the other side of the cork
too. Start to bore the other side until a hole is drilled.
 Now the cork is ready to be inserted with the glass tube.

Precautions to be taken during the experiment:

 Make a mark on both sides of the cork exactly since it cannot be adjusted
after the process is done.
  To obtain a smooth hole, drill half the hole from one side and a half from
another side of the cork.

Frequently Asked Questions on Boring a cork

What are the steps involved in this process ?

 Marking the cork

 Bore half the cork on one side
 Bore the remaining half on another side
 Insert the tube in the hole drilled

What is the role of glycerine in the process of boring ?

Glycerine makes the cork flexible and smooth so that cork can be bored easily.

Why should the diameter of the borer be less than the diameter of the glass tube that
has to be inserted in the hole drilled ?
To hold the inserted the tube firmly, the diameter of the borer should be less.

What is the use of the borer in this process ?

Borer is used in drilling the hole of the required diameter.

Can the cork get hard over time ?

Yes
B. Characterization of Chemical Substances (2 Marks)

1. Determination of melting point of an organic compound.

Chemical compounds which contain carbon is known as an organic
compound. Study of manufacturing and synthesis of chemical compounds is
known as organic chemistry. The temperature at which the chemical compound
changes its state from solid to liquid is said to be the melting point of the
compound. Let us learn to determine the melting point of organic compounds like
naphthalene and benzoic acid.

Aim:
To determine the melting point of organic compounds like Naphthalene and
benzoic acid.

Materials Required:
Naphthalene, benzoic acid, the aluminium block, stand with clamp, capillary tube,
tripod, thermometer, and kerosene burner

Experimental setup:

Procedure to determine the melting point of Naphthalene:

1. Take a capillary tube and close its one end by heating the end in the flame
for 2-3 minutes while continuously rotating it.
2. Take naphthalene on a tile and crush it into a fine powder.
3. As shown in the figure below, firmly hold the closed end of the capillary
tube between your finger and thumb.
4. Dip the open end of the capillary tube in the finely powdered naphthalene.
5. Gently tap the capillary tube on the table to fill the compound in the
capillary tube to about a length of 1–2 cm.
Figure (a)

1. With the help of a thread, attach the capillary tube to a thermometer as

shown in the figure below.

Figure (b)
1. Place the capillary tube in the groove of the aluminium block.
2. Double check that the capillary tube holding the naphthalene is in the
middle of the groove.
3. Place the Aluminium block on a tripod stand above the kerosene burner
and start heating the block with the bu
burner.
4. Keep continuous watch of the temperature and note the temperature as
soon as the substance starts to melt.
 5. Make note of the temperature (t1) as soon as the compound begins to
melt.
6. Make note of the temperature (t2) as soon as the compound is melted
completely.
7. The average of the two readings gives the correct melting point of the
substance.

Procedure to determine the melting point of Benzoic Acid:

1. Take Benzoic acid on a tile and crush it into a fine powder.

2. Take a capillary tube and by heating one end close the end of the tube.
3. Hold the closed end of the capillary tube between your finger and thumb as
shown in figure (a) above.
4. Dip the open end of the capillary tube in the finely powdered Benzoic acid.
5. Fill the compound in the capillary tube to about a length of 1–2 cm by
gently tapping the capillary.
6. Attach the thermometer to a capillary tube using a thread as shown in the
figure (b) above.
7. Place the capillary tube in the groove of the aluminium block.
8. Check if the capillary tube holding the benzoic acid is exactly in the middle
of the groove.
9. Place the Aluminium block on a tripod stand above the kerosene burner
and start heating the block with the burner.
10.Keep continuous watch of the temperature and note the temperature as
soon as the substance starts to melt.
11.Note the temperature (t1) as the substance begins to melt.
12.Make a note of the temperature (t2) when the substance has completely
melted.
13.The average temperature of the substance is determined.

Precautions to be taken during the experiment:

 Make sure the sample of Naphthalene and Benzoic acid are dry and
powdered.
 Keep the capillary tube and the thermometer at a similar level.
 Tightly pack the powder into the capillary tube without any air gaps.

Observation

Temperature observation of Naphthalene

Temperature t1

Temperature t2

The melting point of Naphthalene (t1 + t2 / 2 )

Temperature observation of Benzoic acid

Temperature t1

Temperature t2

The melting point of Benzoic acid (t1 + t2 / 2 )

Frequently Asked Questions on Determination Of Melting Point Of An

Organic Compound
What is the temperature at which a substance changes from solid state to liquid state
called ?
Melting point

Why benzoic acid or Naphthalene needs to be crushed ?

Since by nature Naphthalene and benzoic acid are crystalline in nature, to get the fine power these
compounds need to be crushed.

How is the melting point of the compound determined ?

The average temperature readings give the correct melting point of the substance.

What is a sharp melting point ?

If the melting point of the substance is within a range of 1-degree Celsius.

Due to the high melting point which element is used as filaments in the light bulb ?
Tungsten
2. Determination Of Boiling Point Of An Organic Compound
Organic chemistry is a branch of chemistry th
that
at deals with learning of composition
and synthesis of organic chemical compounds. Organic compounds refer to the
compounds which contain carbon in its composition. Let us learn to determine the
boiling point of organic compounds like Benzene and Benzaldeh
Benzaldehyde.
yde.

Aim:
To determine the boiling point of organic compounds like Benzene and
Benzaldehyde.

Materials Required:
Benzene, Benzaldehyde, the aluminum block, fusion tube, stand with clamp,
capillary tube, tripod, thermometer, and kerosene burner

Experimental setup:
Procedure to determine the boiling point of Benzene:

1. Take a capillary tube and close its one end by holding the end in the flame
and rotate it for 2-3 minutes.
2. Transfer a few mL of benzene in the fusion tube.
3. Dip the capillary tube into the liquid in the fusion tube keeping the sealed
end up.
4. Insert the tube in one of the holes of aluminum block and insert the
thermometer in the other hole.
5. Make sure that the liquid is visible in the fusion tube after it is put in the
hole.
6. Place the Aluminium block on the tripod.
7. Start heating the block with the help of kerosene burner.
8. Note down the temperature soon as the regular streams of bubbles are
seen out of liquid in the fusion tube.

Procedure to determine the boiling point of Benzaldehyde:

1. Close one end of the capillary tube by holding one end in the flame and
rotate it for 2-3 minutes.
2. Transfer a few drops of Benzaldehyde in the fusion tube.
3. Dip the capillary tube into the Benzaldehyde liquid filled in the fusion tube
keeping the sealed end up.
4. Insert the thermometer in one hole of aluminum block and insert the tube
in one of the holes.
5. Make sure that the Benzaldehyde liquid is visible in the fusion tube after it
is put in the hole.
6. Place the Aluminium block on the tripod and begin heating of the block
with the help of kerosene burner.
7. Note down the temperature soon as the regular streams of bubbles are
seen out of liquid in the fusion tube.

Precautions to be taken during the experiment:

 Ensure that the capillary tube is properly sealed.
 The seal point of the capillary tube should be well within the liquid.

Observation
Temperature observation of Benzene
Temperature t1

Temperature t2

The Boiling point of Benzene (t1 + t2 / 2 )

Temperature observation of Benzaldehyde

Temperature t1

Temperature t2

The boiling point of Benzaldehyde (t1 + t2 / 2 )

Viva Voice:

1. What is the boiling point of water?The boiling point of water = 100 degrees
Celsius
2. What is the boiling point of benzene?The boiling point of benzene is 78
degrees Celsius
3. What is the boiling point of Benzaldehyde?The boiling point of
Benzaldehyde is 178 degrees Celsius
4. Why Carboxylic acids have higher boiling point than
hydrocarbons?Carboxylic acids have the capability of forming hydrogen
bonding and these bonds stabilize the molecule, enabling the organic chain
to form additional bonds by dispersion forces.
5. What is the boiling point of water in hilly regions?It is less than 100 degree
celsius.
 C. Quantitative Estimation
1.Using a Chemical Balance
Chemical balance is a delicate instrument which is used to weigh small
amounts of substances accurately up to the fourth place of decimal. It is necessary
in volumetric analysis as the substances used to prepare standard solutions are
weighed.

Aim:
To set the chemical balance for the preparation of standard solutions (oxalic acid
and sodium carbonate) in qualitative analysis.

Theory:
The laboratory instrument built for measuring weight is called the balance. The
name is derived from mechanical devices that utilize known weights to balance the
object to be weighed across a fulcrum. Quantitative analysis involves weighing
with great accuracy. Analytical balance in quantitative analysis can be used for
weighing substances not heavier than 200g. The least count is 0.0002g.
An electronic balance is one that uses an electromagnet to balance the object to be
weighed on a single pan. A chemical can be conveniently weighed on a piece of
weighing paper without having to determine the weight of the paper. Taring means
that the balance is simply zeroed with the weighing paper on the pan.
The balance is enclosed in a glass case which protects it from dust, air movements
etc. The base of the balance rests on screws whereby the edges and agate plates on
which they rest are brought into horizontal position by means of plumb bob
attached to the balance column. The balance pans are made of light metal coated
with nickel to prevent oxidation. Substances should not be placed on pans directly.
It should be weighed on watch glasses or in weighing bottles.
A balance that is used to obtain four or five digits to the right of the decimal point
in the analytical laboratory is called the analytical balance. The modern laboratory
utilizes single pan electronic analytical balance almost exclusively for precision. In
the weight box weights are arranged in the order of 50, 20, 20, 10, 5, 2, 2, 1 and it
also has a rider made of thin wire. The weight of rider is 0.0002g. The rider is
placed on the beam with the help of a hook which is fitted with the balance.

Materials Required:

1. Chemical balance
2. Weight box
3. Weight tube
 4. Substance to be weighed
5. Watch glass

Apparatus Setup:

Procedure:

1. Raise the beam slowly and note that the pointer swings equal decisions on
both sides of the zero mark.
 2. Adjust the balance before taking weights on the pan.
3. Always take the weight of permitted load and never overload the balance.
4. If the weighing substance are wet use watch glass or weighing bottle. Do
not place wet substance directly on the pan.
5. Do not weigh if the substance is hot.
6. While weighing only use side doors of the balance.
7. The weights, fractional weights or rider should not be touched directly with
finger.
8. Always use the same balance for weighing different substances to reduce
error.

Rider:
The riders are the sliding pointers positioned on top of the beams to show the pan
and beam weight in grams. It is a loop of a small aluminium wire and usually
weighs 10 mg. It can be easily seated on the balance beam.

Result:
The chemical balance has been set to weigh the given substance whose standard
solution has to be prepared.

Precautions:

1. Never near the thumb of the pipette. Close the index finger to it.
2. Do not knock out the solution’s last drop from the pipette’s glass jet end.
3. Always hold the pipette’s lower end in the liquid while being sucked.
4. Fill the burette with the solution carefully and see that the stopcock is not
leaking.
5. Carefully handle appliances and chemicals.
6. To read, position the eye precisely on the solution’s meniscus level.

Frequently Asked Questions on Using a Chemical Balance

What is the difference between physical and chemical balance?
Chemical balance is more sensitive than physical balance. It can weight upto 4
places of decimals.

What is rider? What is its weight?

Rider used to determine the masses of objects or samples, or in other words the
quantity of things in them. The equilibrium is a tool of comparison. It compares
normal or known weights on the left panel to unknown specimens or items on the
right panel. A rider weight 10mg.

Why are substance nor directly weighed on the chemical balance?

An analytical balance is so vulnerable that a single grain mass of a chemical
substance can be detected. Therefore, if a direct weighing technique is used, the
material should be added to the tared container that holds it, NEVER straight to the
pan or even weighing paper on the pan.

Why is the front door of the balance is closed during weighing?

Close the balancing door while weighing an item to avoid disturbing reading by air
currents. In order to avoid dust and dirt from entering the equilibrium, the operator
should close the balance gate when completed.

What is standard solution?

A standard solution in analytical chemistry is a solution that contains an accurately
recognized concentration of an element or a substance. To create a particular
quantity, a known solvent weight is dissolved. It is prepared using a standard
substance, such as a primary standard.
 2. Preparation of Standard Solution of Oxalic Acid
A standard of oxalic acid is a known high purity substance that can be dissolved to
give a primary standard solution in a known volume of solvent. To prepare a
particular quantity, a known solvent weight is dissolved. It is ready using a
standard, such as a primary standard substance.

Aim:
To prepare the standard solution M/10 of oxalic acids.
Theory:
Hydrated oxalic acid = C H O .2H O
2 2 4 2

Molecular mass of Oxalic Acid = 126.

12.6 g of oxalic acid per litre of the solution should be dissolved to
prepare M/10 oxalic acid solution.
On the other hand,
12.6 /4 = 3.15 g of crystals of oxalic acid should be dissolved in water
and precisely 250 ml of the solution should be produced.
Materials Required:

1. Chemical balance
2. Watch glass
3. Weight box
4. 250ml beaker
5. Glass rod
6. 250ml measuring flask
7. Wash bottle
8. Weighing tube
9. Oxalic acid
10.Funnel
11.Funnel stand
12.Distilled water

Apparatus Setup:
 Step by Step Laboratory Preparation of Standard Solution of Oxalic Acid

Procedure:

1. Take a watch glass, wash it with distilled water and dry it.
2. Weigh the exact amount of clean and dried watch glass and record its
weight in the notebook.
3. Weigh correctly on the watch glass 3.15 g of oxalic acid and record this
weight in the notebook.
4. Using a funnel, transfer oxalic acid ssoftly
oftly and carefully from the watch glass
into a clean and dry measuring flask.
 5. Wash the watch glass with distilled water to move the particles that stick to
it into the foam with the assistance of a wash bottle.
6. For this purpose, the volume of distilled water should not exceed 50 ml.
7. Wash funnels several times with distilled water to move the sticking
particles into the measuring flask using a wash bottle. Add water in tiny
quantities while washing the funnel. The distilled water quantity used for
this purpose should not exceed 50 mL.
8. Using a wash bottle, wash the funnel carefully with distilled water to pass
the solution attached to the funnel into the measuring flask
9. Turn the flask of measurement until the oxalic acid dissolves.
10.Using a wash bottle, thoroughly add enough distilled water to the
measuring flask just below the etched mark on it.
11.Add the last few mL of distilled water drop into the measuring flask until
the reduced meniscus level just touches the mark.
12.Put the stopper on the mouth of the flask and shake softly to make the
entire solution uniform. Calculate it as a solution of oxalic acid M/10.

Observation:
Weight of the watch glass W1g

Weight of the watch glass + Oxalic acid W1 + 3.15g

Weight of Oxalic acid 3.150g

Volume of distilled water 250cm3

Results:
250cm of decimolar or (M/10) solution of oxalic acid is prepared.
3

Precautions:

1. Weighing of oxalic acid crystals need weights of 2g + 1g + 100mg + 5mg.

2. Wash the watch glass carefully so that even a single crystal of oxalic acid is
not left on the watch glass.
3. Last few drops should be added using a pipette to avoid extra addition of
distilled water above the mark on the neck of the measuring cylinder.
 4. If it is necessary to titrate oxalic acid or oxalate, add the required dilute
H2SO4 amount and heat the flask to 60 °-70 ° C.

Frequently Asked Questions on Preparation of Standard Solution of Oxalic

Acid
What technique is used to determine the strength of a given solution?
Strength determination is based on the equivalent law. Under this legislation, the
amount of material equivalence to be titrated is equivalent to the amount of titrant
equivalence used.

What is the standard solution?

The standard solution is called a solution of known concentration. A normal
solution can be prepared by dissolving in a certain volume of the solvent a known
amount of the substance.

What do you mean by “concordant readings”?

The reading in the volumetric analysis which differs by less than 0.05ml is known
as concordant readings.

What is the difference between endpoint and equivalence point?

A titration equivalence point relates to a point where the added titrant is chemically
equal to the sample analyte. On the other side, Endpoint is a point where the colour
of the indicator changes.

What is normal solution in the quantitative analysis?

A standard solution includes one solution equal per litre of solution. An
appropriate for acid-base reactions is the quantity of a reactant that can generate or
eat a mole of hydrogen ions using the concept of Brønsted-Lowry.
 3. Titration of Oxalic Acid against Sodium Hydroxide
The determination of the strength of a solution of an acid by titration with a
standard solution of a base is called acidimetry, whereas when the strength of a
solution of an alkali is determined by means of titration with standard solution of
an acid, it is termed as alkalimetry.

Aim
To determine the strength of a given solution of sodium hydroxide solution by
titrating it against a standard solution of oxalic acid.

Theory
This estimation involves titration of a weak acid that is oxalic acid against a strong
base sodium hydroxide and phenolphthalein is the indicator of choice. The reaction
between oxalic acid and sodium hydroxide is
(COOH) + 2NaOH → (COONa) + 2H O
2 2 2

Since sodium hydroxide is not a primary standard a standard solution of oxalic acid
is prepared and used for standardisation of sodium hydroxide.
In acid base titration at the end point the amount of acid becomes chemically
equivalent to the amount of base present. In case of strong acid and strong base
titration at the end point of solution the solution become neutral.
Materials Required

1. Burette
2. Pipette
3. Conical flask
4. Burette stand
5. Funnel
6. Stirrer
7. White glazed tile
8. Measuring flask
9. Oxalic acid (solid)
10.Oxalic acid (as per needed)
11.Sodium hydroxide solution (as per needed)
12.Phenolphthalein indicator (as per needed)
Procedure
(a) Preparation of 0.1M Standard Oxalic Acid Solution

1. Take a watch glass, wash it with distilled water and dry it.
2. Weigh the exact amount of clean and dried watch glass and record its
weight in the notebook.
3. Weigh correctly on the watch glass 3.15 g of oxalic acid and record this
weight in the notebook.
4. Using a funnel, transfer oxalic acid softly and carefully from the watch glass
into a clean and dry measuring flask.
5. Wash the watch glass with distilled water to move the particles that stick to
it into the foam with the assistance of a wash bottle.
6. For this purpose, the volume of distilled water should not exceed 50 ml.
7. Wash funnel several times with distilled water to move the sticking
particles into the measuring flask using a wash bottle. Add water in tiny
quantities while washing the funnel. The distilled water quantity used for
this purpose should not exceed 50 mL.
8. Using a wash bottle, wash the funnel carefully with distilled water to pass
the solution attached to the funnel into the measuring flask
9. Turn the flask of measurement until the oxalic acid dissolves.
10.Using a wash bottle, thoroughly add enough distilled water to the
measuring flask just below the etched mark on it.
11.Add the last few mL of distilled water drop into the measuring flask until
the reduced meniscus level just touches the mark.
12.Put the stopper on the mouth of the flask and shake softly to make the
entire solution uniform. Calculate it as a solution of oxalic acid M/10.

(b) Titration of Sodium Hydroxide and Oxalic Acid Solution

1. Rinse the burette with the standard oxalic acid solution.

2. Take 10cm3 of oxalic acid solution in a titration flask. Fill the burette with
sodium hydroxide solution.
3. Remove the air gap if any, from the burette by running the solution
forcefully from the burette nozzle and note the initial reading
4. Pipette out 20ml of NaOH solution is a conical flask. Add 2-3 drops of
phenolphthalein indicator to it.
5. Titrate the base with oxalic acid solution until pink colour disappears.
6. Repeat the titration till three concordant readings are obtained.
Observations

1. Molarity of oxalic acid solution = M/10

2. Molarity of sodium hydroxide solution = x
3. Volume of oxalic acid solution = 10cm3
4. Indicator = Phenolphthalein
5. End point = Light pink colour

S.No Initial Reading of Final Reading of Volume of NaOH Concordant

the Burette the Burette solution used Reading

1 a cm3 b cm3 (b-a) cm3 V cm3

2 b cm3 c cm3 (c-b) cm3 V cm3

3 c cm3 d cm3 (d-c) cm3 V cm3

Calculations
Results and Discussion
The strength of the given sodium hydroxide solution is _______ g/L.

Precautions

1. Weighing of oxalic acid crystals need weights of 2g + 1g + 100mg + 50mg.

2. While weighing do not spill the substance on balance pan.
3. Rotate the knob of balance gently.
4. Keep the weights in weights box at proper places after weighing
5. Wash the watch glass carefully so that even a single crystal is not left on the
watch glass.
6. Bring the watch glass close to funnel while transferring weighed substance
and transfer it gently. Wash it repeatedly with distilled water.
7. Wash the burette with water after titration is over.
8. The last few drops should be added using pipette to avoid extra addition of
distilled water above the mark on the neck of the measuring cylinder.

Frequently Asked Questions on Titration of Oxalic Acid against Sodium

Hydroxide
What is a standard solution?
Any solution whose strength is known is called a standard solution.
What is a molar solution?
Molar solution is one that contains 1 mole of solute in one litre of
solution.
What is acidimetry ?
The method used to determine the strength of an acid by titrating it
against a standard alkali solution using suitable indicator is known as
acidimetry.
What type of reaction is an acid-alkali titration?
Neutralization titration.
One should not force out the last drop in pipette by blowing. Why?
The volume written on the pipette is the volume of the liquid that falls
freely. The last drop need not be forced out.
 4. Preparation of Standard Solution of Sodium Carbonate
A standard solution is a solution whose concentration has been accurately
determined. Standard solutions are prepared from highly pure chemicals and the
exact concentration is determined by a process called standardization. The
substance available for standardization of a solution is highly pure is called a
primary standard.

Aim
To prepare the 250 cm of N/10 standard solution of sodium carbonate.
3

Theory
Sodium carbonate is essentially insoluble in nearly saturated sodium hydroxide.
The insoluble sodium carbonate will settle to the bottom of the container after the
saturated NaOH has equilibrated for a couple of days. The supernatant can be
withdrawn carefully to prepare diluted NaOH solution free of sodium carbonate.
The water for preparing NaOH standard solution should be boiled to remove any
dissolved CO , because dissolved CO can cause a titration error. To prepare the
2 2

standard solution of sodium carbonate, The equivalent weight of sodium carbonate

= Molecular weight2=1062=53Molecular weight2=1062=53 1000cm of normal sodium
3

carbonate solution requires 53g of sodium carbonate. Therefore,

250cm of N10N10 sodium carbonate requires 531000×25010=1.325g531000×25010=1.325g
3

Materials Required

1. Chemical balance
2. Watch glass
3. Weight box
4. 250ml beaker
5. Glass rod
6. 250ml measuring flask
7. Wash bottle
8. Weighing tube
9. Sodium Carbonate
10. Funnel
11. Funnel stand
12. Distilled water
Apparatus Setup

Procedure

1. Take a watch glass, wash it with distilled water and dry it.
2. Weigh the exact amount of clean and dried watch glass and record its
weight in the notebook.
3. Weigh correctly on the watch glass 1.325 g of sodium carbonate and record
this weight in the notebook.
4. Using a funnel, transfer sodium carbonate softly and carefully from the
watch glass into a clean and dry measuring flask.
 5. Wash the watch glass with distilled water to move the particles that stick to
it into the foam with the assistance of a wash bottle.
6. For this purpose, the volume of distilled water should not exceed 50 ml.
7. Wash funnels several times with distilled water to move the sticking
particles into the measuring flask using a wash bottle. Add water in tiny
quantities while washing the funnel. The distilled water quantity used for
this purpose should not exceed 50 mL.
8. Using a wash bottle, wash the funnel carefully with distilled water to pass
the solution attached to the funnel into the measuring flask
9. Turn the flask of measurement until the sodium carbonate dissolves.
10.Using a wash bottle, thoroughly add enough distilled water to the
measuring flask just below the etched mark on it.
11.Add the last few mL of distilled water drop into the measuring flask until
the reduced meniscus level just touches the mark.
12.Put the stopper on the mouth of the flask and shake softly to make the
entire solution uniform. Calculate it as a solution of sodium carbonate
N/10.

Observations
Weight of the watch glass W1g

Weight of the watch glass + Sodium carbonate W1 + 1.325 g

Weight of Sodium carbonate 1.325 g

Volume of distilled water 250 cm3

Results and Discussion

250cm of decimolar or N/10 standard solution of sodium carbonate is
3

prepared.
Precautions

1. While weighing do not spill the substance on balance pan

2. While preparing the laboratory reagent apron should be used.
3. Bases are highly corrosive so it should be handled with extreme care.
4. Watch glass must be dry.
 5. Funnel should be washed thoroughly several times.
6. Shaking of solution should be done thoroughly so that it may become
uniform.
7. While making solution the solvent should be added such that the lower
meniscus of the solvent must be on the mark of the measuring flask.
8. Last few drops should be added using a pipette to avoid extra addition of
distilled water above the mark on the neck of the measuring cylinder.

Frequently Asked Questions on

Which indicator is used while titrating strong acid against strong base ?
Methyl orange or phenolphthalein.

Differentiate between molarity and molality.

Molarity of a solution is the number of moles of the solute present per litre of the
solution, whereas molality is the number of moles of the solute present per kg of
solvent.

What is acidimetry ?
The method used to determine the strength of an acid by titrating it against a
standard alkali solution using suitable indicator is known as acidimetry.

What is the basicity of an acid ?

Basicity of an acid is the number of replaceable hydrogen atoms present per
molecule of acid.

Why is standard solution of NaOH cannot be prepared ?

NaOH is a hygroscopic substance. It absorbs moisture, therefore, it cannot be
weighed and that is why its standard solution cannot be prepared directly.
 5. Titration of Hydrochloric Acid against Standard Sodium
Carbonate

Acid-base titration methods based on the dissolution of a sample in excess of

standard acid, followed by back titration with a standard base. The hydrochloric
acid solutions were standardized against pure sodium carbonate using
bromophenol blue as an indicator.

Aim
Determination of strength of a given solution of dilute Hydrochloric acid by
titrating it against standard solution of Sodium Carbonate solution (M/10).

Theory
Hydrochloric acid solution may be titrated against sodium carbonate solution using
methyl orange indicator. When weak base is titrated with a strong acid solution is
slightly acidic at end point. If a weak acid is titrated with a strong base the solution
is slightly basic because the salt formed will be hydrolysed to a certain extent.
The chemical reactions involved in this titration is given below.
Na CO (aq) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + CO (g) + H O(l)
2 3 2 2

CO (aq) + 2H (aq) → CO (g) + H O(l)

3
2- +
2 2

In acid base titrations at the end point the amount of the acid becomes chemically
equivalent to the amount of base present. In case of a strong acid and a strong base
titration at the end point of solution the solution becomes neutral.

Materials Required

1. Burette
2. Pipette
3. Conical flask
4. Burette stand
5. Funnel
6. Stirrer
7. White glazed tile
8. Measuring flask
9. Hydrochloric acid
10.Sodium carbonate
11.Methyl orange
12.Watch glass
Apparatus Setup

Procedure
(a) Preparation of standard solution of sodium carbonate

1. Molecular weight of sodium carbonate = 106

2. Amount of sodium carbonate required to prepare solution of 250ml = 1.325g
3. Dissolve 1.325g of sodium carbonate in distilled water and prepare the standard
solution in 250ml of measuring flask by adding the required amount of water.

(b) Titration of hydrochloric acid and sodium carbonate solution

1. Wash, rinse and fill the burette with M/10 Na CO solution. Note the initial reading.
2 3

2. Take 10cm3 of HCl solution with the help of a pipette and transfer it into a clean washed
titration flask.
3. Add 2 drops of methyl orange into the titration flask.
4. Add M/10 sodium carbonate solution to the titration flask till the colour changes to the
light pink.
5. Note the final reading and find out the volume of sodium carbonate solution used to
neutralize HCl solution.
6. Repeat the experiment till you get concordant readings.

Observations
Volume of HCl solution = 10cm 3

Volume of sodium carbonate solution used = V cm 3

S.No Initial reading of the Final reading of the Volume of Sodium carbonate solution
burette burette used.

1 a cm3 b cm3 (b-a) cm3

2 b cm3 c cm3 (c-b) cm3

3 c cm3 d cm3 (d-c) cm3

Calculations
Results and Discussion
The strength of hydrochloric acid solution is ________ g/L.

Precautions

1. While weighing do not spill the substance on balance pan.

2. Rotate the knob of balance gently.
3. Keep the weights in weights box at proper places after weighing
4. Wash the watch glass carefully so that even a single crystal is not left on the
watch glass.
5. Bring the watch glass close to funnel while transferring weighed substance
and transfer it gently. Wash it repeatedly with distilled water.
6. Wash the burette with water after titration is over.
7. Last few drops should be added using pipette to avoid extra addition of
distilled water above the mark on the neck of the measuring cylinder.

Frequently Asked Questions on Titration of Hydrochloric Acid against

Standard Sodium Carbonate
What is normality ?
Normality is defined as number of gram equivalents dissolved per litre of
solution. N=Strength of solution in g/LEquivalent weight of solute in gramsN=Strength of solution in g/LEquiv
alent weight of solute in grams

What is the burette used for ?

Burette is a glass apparatus used for titration. It is used for delivering out any
volume of a liquid under controlled conditions between a certain range.

What is the end point ?

The stage during titration at which the reaction is just complete is known as end
point. At the end point the chemical reaction is said to be completed. Indicators are
used to find out the end point accurately.

Why is it necessary to rinse the burette or pipette with the liquid it is filled ?
It is to be washed with water and then with distilled water only and it is not to be
rinsed.

Name few common indicators.

Phenolphthalein, methyl orange, starch etc are some common indicators used to
find out the endpoint in volumetric analysis.