Raymond A.

Serway
Chris Vuille

Chapter 1
Introduction
 Theories and Experiments
• The goal of physics is to develop theories based on
experiments
• A physical theory, usually expressed mathematically,
describes how a given system works
• The theory makes predictions about how a system
should work
• Experiments check the theories’ predictions
• Every theory is a work in progress

Introduction
 Fundamental Quantities and Their
Dimension
• Mechanics uses three fundamental quantities
– Length [L]
– Mass [M]
– Time [T]
• Other physical quantities can be constructed
from these three

Introduction
 Units
• To communicate the result of a measurement
for a quantity, a unit must be defined
• Defining units allows everyone to relate to the
same fundamental amount

Section 1.1
 SI System of Measurement
• SI – Systéme International
– Agreed to in 1960 by an international committee
– Main system used in this text

Section 1.1
 Length
• Units
– meter, m
• The meter is currently defined in terms of the
distance traveled by light in a vacuum during a
given time
– Also establishes the value for the speed of light in
a vacuum

Section 1.1
 Mass
• Units
– kilogram, kg
• The kilogram is currently defined as the mass
of a specific cylinder kept at the International
Bureau of Weights and Measures

Section 1.1
Standard Kilogram

Section 1.1
 Time
• Units
– seconds, s
• The second is currently defined in terms of the
oscillation of radiation from a cesium atom

Section 1.1
 Approximate Values
• Various tables in the text show approximate
values for length, mass, and time
– Note the wide range of values
– Lengths – Table 1.1
– Masses – Table 1.2
– Time intervals – Table 1.3

Section 1.1
 Other Systems of Measurements
• cgs – Gaussian system
– Named for the first letters of the units it uses for
fundamental quantities
• US Customary
– Everyday units
– Often uses weight, in pounds, instead of mass as a
fundamental quantity

Section 1.1
 Units in Various Systems

System Length Mass Time

SI meter kilogram second
cgs centimeter gram second
US
foot slug second
Customary

Section 1.1
 Prefixes
• Prefixes correspond to powers of 10
• Each prefix has a specific name
• Each prefix has a specific abbreviation
• See table 1.4

Section 1.1
 Expressing Numbers
• Numbers with more than three digits are
written in groups of three digits separated by
spaces
– Groups appear on both sides of the decimal point
• 10 000 instead of 10,000
• 3.141 592 65

Section 1.1
 Structure of Matter
• Matter is made up of molecules
– The smallest division that is identifiable as a
substance
• Molecules are made up of atoms
– Correspond to elements

Section 1.2
 More structure of matter
• Atoms are made up of
– Nucleus, very dense, contains
• Protons, positively charged, “heavy”
• Neutrons, no charge, about same mass as protons
– Protons and neutrons are made up of quarks
– Orbited by
• Electrons, negatively charges, “light”
– Fundamental particle, no structure

Section 1.2
Structure of Matter

Section 1.2
 Dimensional Analysis
• Technique to check the correctness of an
equation
• Dimensions (length, mass, time,
combinations) can be treated as algebraic
quantities
– Add, subtract, multiply, divide
• Both sides of equation must have the same
dimensions

Section 1.3
 Dimensional Analysis, cont.
• Cannot give numerical factors: this is its
limitation
• Dimensions of some common quantities are
listed in Table 1.5
• Allows a check for calculations which can
show up in the units

Section 1.3
 Uncertainty in Measurements
• There is uncertainty in every measurement, this
uncertainty carries over through the calculations
– Need a technique to account for this uncertainty
• We will use rules for significant figures to
approximate the uncertainty in results of calculations

Section 1.4
 Significant Figures
• A significant figure is a reliably known digit
• All non-zero digits are significant
• Zeros are not significant when they only locate the
decimal point
– Using scientific notion to indicate the number of significant
figures removes ambiguity when the possibility of
misinterpretation is present

Section 1.4
Operations with Significant Figures
• When multiplying or dividing two or more
quantities, the number of significant figures in
the final result is the same as the number of
significant figures in the least accurate of the
factors being combined
– Least accurate means having the lowest number of
significant figures
• When adding or subtracting, round the result
to the smallest number of decimal places of
any term in the sum (or difference)
Section 1.4
 Rounding
• Calculators will generally report many more digits
than are significant
– Be sure to properly round your results
• Slight discrepancies may be introduced by both
the rounding process and the algebraic order in
which the steps are carried out
– Minor discrepancies are to be expected and are not a
problem in the problem-solving process
• In experimental work, more rigorous methods
would be needed
Section 1.4
 Conversions
• When units are not consistent, you may need to
convert to appropriate ones
• See the inside of the front cover for an extensive list
of conversion factors
• Units can be treated like algebraic quantities that can
“cancel” each other
• Example:

Section 1.5
 Estimates
• Can yield useful approximate answers
– An exact answer may be difficult or impossible
• Mathematical reasons
• Limited information available
• Can serve as a partial check for exact
calculations

Section 1.6
 Order of Magnitude
• Approximation based on a number of
assumptions
– May need to modify assumptions if more precise
results are needed
• Order of magnitude is the power of 10 that
applies

Section 1.6
 Coordinate Systems
• Used to describe the position of a point in
space
• Coordinate system consists of
– A fixed reference point called the origin, O
– Specified axes with scales and labels
– Instructions on how to label a point relative to the
origin and the axes

Section 1.7
 Types of Coordinate Systems
• Cartesian (rectangular)
• Plane polar

Section 1.7
 Cartesian coordinate system
• x- and y- axes
• Points are labeled (x,y)
• Positive x is usually
selected to be to the
right of the origin
• Positive y is usually
selected to be to
upward from the origin

Section 1.7
 Plane polar coordinate system
• Origin and reference line
are noted
• Point is distance r from
the origin in the direction
of angle 
• Positive angles are
measured ccw from
reference line
• Points are labeled (r,)
• The standard reference
line is usually selected to
be the positive x axis

Section 1.7
Trigonometry Review

Section 1.8
 More Trigonometry
• Pythagorean Theorem
– r2 = x2 + y2
• To find an angle, you need the inverse trig
function
– For example,  = sin-1 0.707 = 45°

Section 1.8
 Degrees vs. Radians
• Be sure your calculator is set for the
appropriate angular units for the problem
• For example:
– tan -1 0.5774 = 30.0°
– tan -1 0.5774 = 0.5236 rad

Section 1.8
 Rectangular  Polar
• Rectangular to polar
– Given x and y, use Pythagorean theorem to find r
– Use x and y and the inverse tangent to find angle
• Polar to rectangular
– x = r cos 
– y = r sin 

Section 1.8
Problem Solving Strategy

Section 1.9
 Problem Solving Strategy
• Problem
– Read the problem
• Read at least twice
• Identify the nature of the problem
– Draw a diagram
• Some types of problems require very specific types of
diagrams

Section 1.9
 Problem Solving cont.
• Problem, cont.
– Label the physical quantities
• Can label on the diagram
• Use letters that remind you of the quantity
– Many quantities have specific letters
• Choose a coordinate system and label it
• Strategy
– Identify principles and list data
• Identify the principle involved
• List the known(s) (given information)
• Indicate the unknown(s) (what you are looking for)
– May want to circle the unknowns

Section 1.9
 Problem Solving, cont.
• Strategy, cont.
– Choose equation(s)
• Based on the principle, choose an equation or set of
equations to apply to the problem
• Solution
– Solve for the unknown quantity
– Substitute into the equation(s)
• Substitute the data into the equation
• Obtain a result
• Include units

Section 1.9
 Problem Solving, final
• Check
– Check the answer
• Do the units match?
– Are the units correct for the quantity being found?
• Does the answer seem reasonable?
– Check order of magnitude
• Are signs appropriate and meaningful?

Section 1.9
 Problem Solving Summary
• Equations are the tools of physics
– Understand what the equations mean and how to
use them
• Carry through the algebra as far as possible
– Substitute numbers at the end
• Be organized

Section 1.9
 Raymond A. Serway
Chris Vuille

Chapter 2
Motion in One Dimension
 Dynamics
• The branch of physics involving the motion of
an object and the relationship between that
motion and other physics concepts
• Kinematics is a part of dynamics
– In kinematics, you are interested in the description
of motion
– Not concerned with the cause of the motion

Introduction
 Quantities in Motion
• Any motion involves three concepts
– Displacement
– Velocity
– Acceleration
• These concepts can be used to study objects
in motion

Introduction
 Brief History of Motion
• Sumaria and Egypt
– Mainly motion of heavenly bodies
• Greeks
– Also to understand the motion of heavenly bodies
– Systematic and detailed studies
– Geocentric model

Introduction
 “Modern” Ideas of Motion
• Copernicus
– Developed the heliocentric system
• Galileo
– Made astronomical observations with a telescope
– Experimental evidence for description of motion
– Quantitative study of motion

Introduction
 Position
• Defined in terms of a frame of reference
– A choice of coordinate axes
– Defines a starting point for measuring the motion
• Or any other quantity
– One dimensional, so generally the x- or y-axis

Section 2.1
 Displacement
• Defined as the change in position
– x  xf  xi
• f stands for final and i stands for initial
– Units are meters (m) in SI

Section 2.1
 Displacement Examples
• From A to B
– xi = 30 m
– xf = 52 m
– x = 22 m
– The displacement is positive,
indicating the motion was in
the positive x direction
• From C to F
– xi = 38 m
– xf = -53 m
– x = -91 m
– The displacement is negative,
indicating the motion was in
the negative x direction

Section 2.1
Displacement, Graphical

Section 2.1
 Vector and Scalar Quantities
• Vector quantities need both magnitude (size)
and direction to completely describe them
– Generally denoted by boldfaced type and an
arrow over the letter
– + or – sign is sufficient for this chapter
• Scalar quantities are completely described by
magnitude only

Section 2.1
 Displacement Isn’t Distance
• The displacement of an object is not the same
as the distance it travels
– Example: Throw a ball straight up and then catch it
at the same point you released it
• The distance is twice the height
• The displacement is zero

Section 2.1
 Speed
• The average speed of an object is defined as the
total distance traveled divided by the total time
elapsed
path length
Average speed 
elapsed time
d
v 
t
– Speed is a scalar quantity

Section 2.2
 Speed, cont
• Average speed totally ignores any variations in
the object’s actual motion during the trip
• The path length and the total time are all that
is important
– Both will be positive, so speed will be positive
• SI units are m/s

Section 2.2
 Path Length vs. Distance
• Distance depends only on the endpoints

– The distance does not depend on what happens

between the endpoints
– Is the magnitude of the displacement
• Path length will depend on the actual route
taken
Section 2.2
 Velocity
• It takes time for an object to undergo a displacement
• The average velocity is rate at which the
displacement occurs

• Velocity can be positive or negative

– t is always positive
• Average speed is not the same as the average
velocity
Section 2.2
 Velocity continued
• Direction will be the same as the direction of the
displacement, + or - is sufficient in one-dimensional
motion
• Units of velocity are m/s (SI)
– Other units may be given in a problem, but generally will
need to be converted to these
– In other systems:
• US Customary: ft/s
• cgs: cm/s

Section 2.2
 Speed vs. Velocity

• Cars on both paths have the same average velocity since

they had the same displacement in the same time interval
• The car on the blue path will have a greater average speed
since the path length it traveled is larger

Section 2.2
Graphical Interpretation of Velocity
• Velocity can be determined from a position-
time graph
• Average velocity equals the slope of the line
joining the initial and final points on the graph
• An object moving with a constant velocity will
have a graph that is a straight line

Section 2.2
 Average Velocity, Constant
• The straight line
indicates constant
velocity
• The slope of the line is
the value of the average
velocity

Section 2.2
 Notes on Slopes
• The general equation for the slope of any line
is

– The meaning of a specific slope will depend on the

physical data being graphed
• Slope carries units

Section 2.2
 Average Velocity, Non Constant
• The motion is non-
constant velocity
• The average velocity is
the slope of the straight
line joining the initial
and final points

Section 2.2
 Instantaneous Velocity
• The limit of the average velocity as the time interval
becomes infinitesimally short, or as the time interval
approaches zero

• The instantaneous velocity indicates what is

happening at every point of time
– The magnitude of the instantaneous velocity is what you
read on a car’s speedometer

Section 2.2
Instantaneous Velocity on a Graph
• The slope of the line tangent to the position
vs. time graph is defined to be the
instantaneous velocity at that time
– The instantaneous speed is defined as the
magnitude of the instantaneous velocity

Section 2.2
 Graphical Instantaneous Velocity
• Average velocities are
the blue lines
• The green line (tangent)
is the instantaneous
velocity

Section 2.2
 Acceleration
• Changing velocity means an acceleration is
present
• Acceleration is the rate of change of the
velocity

• Units are m/s² (SI), cm/s² (cgs), and ft/s² (US

Cust)
Section 2.3
 Average Acceleration
• Vector quantity
• When the object’s velocity and acceleration
are in the same direction (either positive or
negative), then the speed of the object
increases with time
• When the object’s velocity and acceleration
are in the opposite directions, the speed of
the object decreases with time

Section 2.3
 Negative Acceleration
• A negative acceleration does not necessarily
mean the object is slowing down
• If the acceleration and velocity are both
negative, the object is speeding up
• “Deceleration” means a decrease in speed,
not a negative acceleration

Section 2.3
 Instantaneous and Uniform Acceleration

• The limit of the average acceleration as the

time interval goes to zero

• When the instantaneous accelerations are

always the same, the acceleration will be
uniform
– The instantaneous accelerations will all be equal
to the average acceleration

Section 2.3
 Graphical Interpretation of Acceleration

• Average acceleration is the slope of the line

connecting the initial and final velocities on a
velocity vs. time graph
• Instantaneous acceleration is the slope of the
tangent to the curve of the velocity-time
graph

Section 2.3
Average Acceleration – Graphical
Example

Section 2.3
Relationship Between Acceleration
and Velocity

• Uniform velocity (shown by red arrows

maintaining the same size)
• Acceleration equals zero

Section 2.4
 Relationship Between Velocity and
Acceleration

• Velocity and acceleration are in the same direction

• Acceleration is uniform (violet arrows maintain the
same length)
• Velocity is increasing (red arrows are getting longer)
• Positive velocity and positive acceleration
Section 2.4
 Relationship Between Velocity and
Acceleration

• Acceleration and velocity are in opposite directions

• Acceleration is uniform (violet arrows maintain the same
length)
• Velocity is decreasing (red arrows are getting shorter)
• Velocity is positive and acceleration is negative

Section 2.4
Motion Diagram Summary

Section 2.4
 Equations for Constant
Acceleration
• These equations are used in situations with
uniform acceleration

Section 2.5
 Notes on the equations

• Gives displacement as a function of velocity

and time
• Use when you don’t know and aren’t asked
for the acceleration

Section 2.5
 Notes on the equations

• Shows velocity as a function of acceleration

and time
• Use when you don’t know and aren’t asked to
find the displacement

Section 2.5
Graphical Interpretation of the
Equation

Section 2.5
 Notes on the equations

• Gives displacement as a function of time,

velocity and acceleration
• Use when you don’t know and aren’t asked to
find the final velocity
• The area under the graph of v vs. t for any
object is equal to the displacement of the
object Section 2.5
 Notes on the equations

• Gives velocity as a function of acceleration

and displacement
• Use when you don’t know and aren’t asked for
the time

Section 2.5
 Problem-Solving Hints
• Read the problem
• Draw a diagram
– Choose a coordinate system
– Label initial and final points
– Indicate a positive direction for velocities and accelerations
• Label all quantities, be sure all the units are
consistent
– Convert if necessary
• Choose the appropriate kinematic equation

Section 2.5
 Problem-Solving Hints, cont
• Solve for the unknowns
– You may have to solve two equations for two
unknowns
• Check your results
– Estimate and compare
– Check units

Section 2.5
 Galileo Galilei
• 1564 - 1642
• Galileo formulated the laws
that govern the motion of
objects in free fall
• Also looked at:
– Inclined planes
– Relative motion
– Thermometers
– Pendulum
Section 2.6
 Free Fall
• A freely falling object is any object moving freely
under the influence of gravity alone
– Free fall does not depend on the object’s original motion
• All objects falling near the earth’s surface fall with a
constant acceleration
• The acceleration is called the acceleration due to
gravity, and indicated by g

Section 2.6
 Acceleration due to Gravity
• Symbolized by g
• g = 9.80 m/s²
– When estimating, use g 10 m/s2
• g is always directed downward
– Toward the center of the earth
• Ignoring air resistance and assuming g doesn’t vary
with altitude over short vertical distances, free fall is
constantly accelerated motion

Section 2.6
 Free Fall – an object dropped

• Initial velocity is zero

• Let up be positive
– Conventional
vo= 0
• Use the kinematic
a=g
equations
– Generally use y instead of
x since vertical
• Acceleration is g = -9.80
m/s2

Section 2.6
 Free Fall – an object thrown
downward

• a = g = -9.80 m/s2
• Initial velocity  0
– With upward being
positive, initial velocity will
be negative

Section 2.6
 Free Fall – object thrown upward

• Initial velocity is upward, so v=0

positive
• The instantaneous velocity at
Actually straight
the maximum height is zero back down
• a = g = -9.80 m/s2 everywhere
in the motion

Section 2.6
 Thrown upward, cont.
• The motion may be symmetrical
– Then tup = tdown
– Then v = -vo
• The motion may not be symmetrical
– Break the motion into various parts
• Generally up and down

Section 2.6
Non-symmetrical Free Fall Example
• Need to divide the motion
into segments
• Possibilities include
– Upward and downward
portions
– The symmetrical portion back
to the release point and then
the non-symmetrical portion

Section 2.6
Combination Motions

Section 2.6
 Raymond A. Serway
Chris Vuille

Chapter 3
Vectors and
Two-Dimensional Motion
 Vectors and Motion
• In one-dimensional motion, vectors were used
to a limited extent
• For more complex motion, manipulating
vectors will be more important

Introduction
 Vector vs. Scalar Review
• All physical quantities encountered in this text
will be either a scalar or a vector
• A vector quantity has both magnitude (size)
and direction
• A scalar is completely specified by only a
magnitude (size)

Section 3.1
 Vector Notation
• When handwritten, use an arrow:
• When printed, will be in bold print with an
arrow:
• When dealing with just the magnitude of a
vector in print, an italic letter will be used: A
– Italics will also be used to represent scalars

Section 3.1
 Properties of Vectors
• Equality of Two Vectors
– Two vectors are equal if
they have the same
magnitude and the same
direction
• Movement of vectors in
a diagram
– Any vector can be
moved parallel to itself
without being affected

Section 3.1
 Adding Vectors
• When adding vectors, their directions must be
taken into account
• Units must be the same
• Geometric Methods
– Use scale drawings
• Algebraic Methods
• The resultant vector (sum) is denoted as

Section 3.1
 Adding Vectors Geometrically (Triangle or
Polygon Method)
• Choose a scale
• Draw the first vector with the appropriate length and
in the direction specified, with respect to a
coordinate system
• Draw the next vector using the same scale with the
appropriate length and in the direction specified,
with respect to a coordinate system whose origin is
the end of the first vector and parallel to the
ordinate system used for the first vector

Section 3.1
 Graphically Adding Vectors, cont.
• Continue drawing the
vectors “tip-to-tail”
• The resultant is drawn from
the origin of the first vector
to the end of the last vector
• Measure the length of the
resultant and its angle
– Use the scale factor to
convert length to actual
magnitude
• This method is called the
triangle method

Section 3.1
 Notes about Vector Addition

• Vectors obey the Commutative Law of Addition

– The order in which the vectors are added doesn’t affect the
result
–

Section 3.1
 Graphically Adding Vectors, cont.
• When you have many
vectors, just keep repeating
the “tip-to-tail” process
until all are included
• The resultant is still drawn
from the origin of the first
vector to the end of the last
vector

Section 3.1
 More Properties of Vectors
• Negative Vectors
– The negative of the vector is defined as the vector
that gives zero when added to the original vector
– Two vectors are negative if they have the same
magnitude but are 180° apart (opposite
directions)
–

Section 3.1
 Vector Subtraction
• Special case of vector
addition
– Add the negative of the
subtracted vector
•
• Continue with standard
vector addition
procedure

Section 3.1
Multiplying or Dividing a Vector by a Scalar

• The result of the multiplication or division is a vector

• The magnitude of the vector is multiplied or divided
by the scalar
• If the scalar is positive, the direction of the result is
the same as of the original vector
• If the scalar is negative, the direction of the result is
opposite that of the original vector

Section 3.1
 Components of a Vector
• It is useful to use
rectangular
components to add
vectors
– These are the
projections of the vector
along the x- and y-axes

Section 3.2
 Components of a Vector, cont.
• The x-component of a vector is the projection
along the x-axis
–
• The y-component of a vector is the projection
along the y-axis
–
• Then,

Section 3.2
 More About Components of a Vector
• The previous equations are valid only if Θ is
measured with respect to the x-axis
• The components can be positive or negative
and will have the same units as the original
vector

Section 3.2
 More About Components, cont.
• The components are the legs of the right triangle
whose hypotenuse is

– May still have to find θ with respect to the positive x-axis

– The value will be correct only if the angle lies in the first or
fourth quadrant
– In the second or third quadrant, add 180°

Section 3.2
 Other Coordinate Systems
• It may be convenient to use
a coordinate system other
than horizontal and vertical
• Choose axes that are
perpendicular to each other
• Adjust the components
accordingly

Section 3.2
 Adding Vectors Algebraically
• Choose a coordinate system and sketch the
vectors
• Find the x- and y-components of all the
vectors
• Add all the x-components
– This gives Rx:

Section 3.2
Adding Vectors Algebraically, cont.
• Add all the y-components
– This gives Ry:
• Use the Pythagorean Theorem to find the
magnitude of the resultant:
• Use the inverse tangent function to find the
direction of R:

Section 3.2
 Motion in Two Dimensions
• Using + or – signs is not always sufficient to
fully describe motion in more than one
dimension
– Vectors can be used to more fully describe motion
• Still interested in displacement, velocity, and
acceleration

Section 3.3
 Displacement
• The position of an object is
described by its position
vector,
• The displacement of the
object is defined as the
change in its position
–
– SI unit: meter (m)

Section 3.3
 Velocity
• The average velocity is the ratio of the displacement
to the time interval for the displacement

• The instantaneous velocity is the limit of the average

velocity as Δt approaches zero
– The direction of the instantaneous velocity is along a line
that is tangent to the path of the particle and in the
direction of motion
• SI unit: meter per second (m/s)

Section 3.3
 Acceleration
• The average acceleration is defined as the rate
at which the velocity changes

• The instantaneous acceleration is the limit of

the average acceleration as Δt approaches
zero
• SI unit: meter per second squared (m/s²)

Section 3.3
 Unit Summary (SI)
• Displacement
–m
• Average velocity and instantaneous velocity
– m/s
• Average acceleration and instantaneous
acceleration
– m/s2

Section 3.3
 Ways an Object Might Accelerate
• The magnitude of the velocity (the speed) may
change with time
• The direction of the velocity may change with
time
– Even though the magnitude is constant
• Both the magnitude and the direction may
change with time
 Projectile Motion
• An object may move in both the x and y
directions simultaneously
– It moves in two dimensions
• The form of two dimensional motion we will
deal with is an important special case called
projectile motion

Section 3.4
 Assumptions of Projectile Motion
• We may ignore air friction
• We may ignore the rotation of the earth
• With these assumptions, an object in
projectile motion will follow a parabolic path

Section 3.4
 Rules of Projectile Motion
• The x- and y-directions of motion are completely
independent of each other
• The x-direction is uniform motion
– ax = 0
• The y-direction is free fall
– ay = -g
• The initial velocity can be broken down into its x- and
y-components
–

Section 3.4
Projectile Motion

Section 3.4
 Projectile Motion at Various Initial Angles

• Complementary values
of the initial angle result
in the same range
– The heights will be
different
• The maximum range
occurs at a projection
angle of 45o

Section 3.4
 Some Details About the Rules
• x-direction
– ax = 0
–
– x = voxt
• This is the only operative equation in the x-direction
since there is uniform velocity in that direction

Section 3.4
 More Details About the Rules
• y-direction
–
– Free fall problem
• a = -g
– Take the positive direction as upward
– Uniformly accelerated motion, so the motion
equations all hold

Section 3.4
 Velocity of the Projectile
• The velocity of the projectile at any point of its
motion is the vector sum of its x and y
components at that point

– Remember to be careful about the angle’s

quadrant

Section 3.4
 Projectile Motion Summary
• Provided air resistance is negligible, the
horizontal component of the velocity remains
constant
– Since ax = 0
• The vertical component of the acceleration is
equal to the free fall acceleration –g
– The acceleration in the y-direction is not zero at
the top of the projectile’s trajectory

Section 3.4
 Projectile Motion Summary, cont
• The vertical component of the velocity vy and
the displacement in the y-direction are
identical to those of a freely falling body
• Projectile motion can be described as a
superposition of two independent motions in
the x- and y-directions

Section 3.4
 Problem-Solving Strategy
• Select a coordinate system and sketch the
path of the projectile
– Include initial and final positions, velocities, and
accelerations
• Resolve the initial velocity into x- and y-
components
• Treat the horizontal and vertical motions
independently

Section 3.4
 Problem-Solving Strategy, cont
• Follow the techniques for solving problems
with constant velocity to analyze the
horizontal motion of the projectile
• Follow the techniques for solving problems
with constant acceleration to analyze the
vertical motion of the projectile

Section 3.4
 Some Variations of Projectile Motion
• An object may be fired
horizontally
• The initial velocity is all
in the x-direction
– vo = vx and vy = 0
• All the general rules of
projectile motion apply

Section 3.4
Non-Symmetrical Projectile Motion
• Follow the general rules for
projectile motion
• Break the y-direction into
parts
– up and down
– symmetrical back to initial
height and then the rest of
the height

Section 3.4
 Special Equations
• The motion equations can be combined
algebraically and solved for the range and
maximum height

Section 3.4
 Relative Velocity
• Relative velocity is about relating the measurements
of two different observers
• It may be useful to use a moving frame of reference
instead of a stationary one
• It is important to specify the frame of reference,
since the motion may be different in different frames
of reference
• There are no specific equations to learn to solve
relative velocity problems

Section 3.5
 Relative Velocity Notation
• The pattern of subscripts can be useful in
solving relative velocity problems
• Assume the following notation:
– E is an observer, stationary with respect to the
earth
– A and B are two moving cars

Section 3.5
 Relative Position Equations
• is the position of car A as measured by E
• is the position of car B as measured by E
• is the position of car A as measured by car
B
•

Section 3.5
 Relative Position
• The position of car A
relative to car B is given
by the vector
subtraction equation

Section 3.5
 Relative Velocity Equations
• The rate of change of the displacements gives
the relationship for the velocities

Section 3.5
Problem-Solving Strategy: Relative Velocity

• Label all the objects with a descriptive letter

• Look for phrases such as “velocity of A relative
to B”
– Write the velocity variables with appropriate
notation
– If there is something not explicitly noted as being
relative to something else, it is probably relative to
the earth

Section 3.5
Problem-Solving Strategy: Relative Velocity,
cont
• Take the velocities and put them into an
equation
– Keep the subscripts in an order analogous to the
standard equation
• Solve for the unknown(s)

Section 3.5
 Relative Velocity, Example
• Need velocities
– Boat relative to river
– River relative to the
Earth
– Boat with respect to the
Earth (observer)
• Equation
–

Section 3.5
 Raymond A. Serway
Chris Vuille

Chapter 4
The Laws of Motion
 Classical Mechanics
• Describes the relationship between the
motion of objects in our everyday world and
the forces acting on them
• Conditions when Classical Mechanics does not
apply
– Very tiny objects (< atomic sizes)
– Objects moving near the speed of light

Introduction
 Newton’s Laws
• This chapter will look at an introduction to
Newton’s three laws of motion and his law of
gravity
• These laws are considered among the greatest
achievements of the human mind

Introduction
 Forces
• Commonly imagined as a push or pull on some
object
• Vector quantity
• May be a contact force or a field force
– Contact forces result from physical contact between two
objects
– Field forces act between disconnected objects

Section 4.1
Contact and Field Forces

Section 4.1
 Fundamental Forces
• Types
– Strong nuclear force
– Electromagnetic force
– Weak nuclear force
– Gravity
• Characteristics
– All field forces
– Listed in order of decreasing strength
– Only gravity and electromagnetic in mechanics

Section 4.1
 Sir Isaac Newton
• 1642 – 1727
• Formulated basic
concepts and laws of
mechanics
• Universal Gravitation
• Calculus
• Light and optics

Section 4.2
 Newton’s First Law
• An object moves with a velocity that is
constant in magnitude and direction, unless
acted on by a nonzero net force
– The net force is defined as the vector sum of all
the external forces exerted on the object

Section 4.2
 External and Internal Forces
• External force
– Any force that results from the interaction
between the object and its environment
• Internal forces
– Forces that originate within the object itself
– They cannot change the object’s velocity

Section 4.2
 Inertia
• Is the tendency of an object to continue in its
original motion
– In the absence of a force
• Thought experiment
– Hit a golf ball
– Hit a bowling ball with the same force
– The golf ball will travel farther
– Both resist changes in their motion

Section 4.2
 Mass
• A measure of the resistance of an object to
changes in its motion due to a force
– The larger the mass, the less it accelerates under
the action of a given force
• SI units are kg
• Scalar quantity

Section 4.2
 Newton’s Second Law
• The acceleration of an object is directly
proportional to the net force acting on it and
inversely proportional to its mass.

• Can also be applied three-dimensionally

Section 4.3
 Units of Force
• SI unit of force is a Newton (N)

• US Customary unit of force is a pound (lb)

– 1 N = 0.225 lb
• See table 4.1 for a summary of units

Section 4.3
 Some Notes About Forces
• Forces cause changes in motion
– Motion can occur in the absence of forces
• All the forces acting on an object are added as
vectors to find the net force acting on the object
– m is not a force itself
• Newton’s Second Law is a vector equation

Section 4.3
 Gravitational Force
• Mutual force of attraction between any two
objects
• Expressed by Newton’s Law of Universal
Gravitation:
– Every particle in the Universe attracts every other particle
with a force that is directly proportional to the product of
the masses of the particles and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them

Section 4.3
 Weight
• The magnitude of the gravitational force
acting on an object of mass m near the Earth’s
surface is called the weight w of the object
– w = m g is a special case of Newton’s Second Law
• g is the acceleration due to gravity
• g can also be found from the Law of Universal
Gravitation

Section 4.3
 More about weight
• Weight is not an inherent property of an
object
– Mass is an inherent property
• Weight depends upon location

Section 4.3
 Newton’s Third Law
• If object 1 and object 2 interact, the force
exerted by object 1 on object 2 is equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction to the
force exerted by object 2 on object 1.
–
– Equivalent to saying a single isolated force cannot
exist

Section 4.4
 Newton’s Third Law cont.
• F12 may be called the action
force and F21 the reaction
force
– Actually, either force can be
the action or the reaction
force
• The action and reaction
forces act on different
objects

Section 4.4
 Some Action-Reaction Pairs
•
– is the normal force, the
force the table exerts on the
monitor.
– is always perpendicular to
the surface
– is the reaction: the monitor
on the table
–

Section 4.4
 More Action-Reaction pairs
•
– is the force the Earth
exerts on the object
– is the force the object
exerts on the earth
–

Section 4.4
 Forces Acting on an Object
• Newton’s Law uses the
forces acting on an
object
• are acting on
the object
• are acting on
other objects

Section 4.4
 Applications of Newton’s Laws
• Assumptions
– Objects behave as particles
• Can ignore rotational motion (for now)
– Masses of strings or ropes are negligible
– Interested only in the forces acting on the object
• Can neglect reaction forces

Section 4.5
 More Assumptions – Ropes

• Ignore any frictional effects of the rope

• Ignore the mass of the rope
• The magnitude of the force exerted along the rope is called the
tension
• The tension is the same at all points in the rope
Section 4.5
 Free-Body Diagram
• A diagram of the forces acting on an object
• Must identify all the forces acting on the
object of interest
• Choose an appropriate coordinate system
• If the free body diagram is incorrect, the
solution will likely be incorrect

Section 4.5
 Free-Body Diagram, Example

• The magnitude of force T is

the tension acting on the
box
– The tension is the same at all
points along the rope
• are the forces
exerted by the earth and
the ground

Section 4.5
 Free-Body Diagram, final
• Only forces acting directly on the object are
included in the free body diagram
– Reaction forces act on other objects and so are
not included
– The reaction forces do not directly influence the
object’s motion

Section 4.5
 Solving Newton’s Second Law Problems

• Read the problem at least once

• Draw a picture of the system
– Identify the object of primary interest
– Indicate forces with arrows
• Label each force
– Use labels that bring to mind the physical quantity
involved

Section 4.5
 Solving Newton’s Second Law Problems,
cont
• Draw a free body diagram
– If additional objects are involved, draw separate free body
diagrams for each object
– Choose a convenient coordinate system for each object
• Apply Newton’s Second Law
– The x- and y-components should be taken from the vector
equation and written separately
• Solve for the unknown(s)

Section 4.5
 Equilibrium
• An object either at rest or moving with a
constant velocity is said to be in equilibrium
• The net force acting on the object is zero
(since the acceleration is zero)

Section 4.5
 Equilibrium cont.
• Easier to work with the equation in terms of its
components:

• This could be extended to three dimensions

• A zero net force does not mean the object is not
moving, but that it is not accelerating

Section 4.5
Equilibrium Example – Free Body Diagrams

Section 4.5
 Inclined Planes
• Choose the coordinate
system with x along the
incline and y
perpendicular to the
incline
• Replace the force of
gravity with its
components

Section 4.5
 Multiple Objects – Example
• When you have more than one object, the
problem-solving strategy is applied to each
object
• Draw free body diagrams for each object
• Apply Newton’s Laws to each object
• Solve the equations

Section 4.5
Multiple Objects – Example, cont.

Section 4.5
 Forces of Friction
• When an object is in motion on a surface or
through a viscous medium, there will be a
resistance to the motion
– This is due to the interactions between the object
and its environment
• This is resistance is called friction

Section 4.6
 More About Friction
• Friction is proportional to the normal force
• The force of static friction is generally greater than
the force of kinetic friction
• The coefficient of friction (µ) depends on the
surfaces in contact
• The direction of the frictional force is opposite the
direction of motion
• The coefficients of friction are nearly independent of
the area of contact

Section 4.5
 Static Friction, ƒs
• Static friction acts to
keep the object from
moving
• If F increases, so does ƒs
• If F decreases, so does ƒs
• ƒs  µs n
– Use = sign for impending
motion only

Section 4.5
 Kinetic Friction, ƒk
• The force of kinetic
friction acts when the
object is in motion
• ƒk = µk n
– Variations of the
coefficient with speed
will be ignored

Section 4.5
 Friction, final
• Adjust the force and see
where you are on the
graph
• Note especially where ƒ
= Fs

Section 4.5
Some Coefficients of Friction

Section 4.5
 Block on a Ramp, Example with
Friction
• Axes are rotated as usual on
an incline
• The direction of impending
motion would be down the
plane
• Friction acts up the plane
– Opposes the motion
• Apply Newton’s Laws and
solve equations

Section 4.5
 Connected Objects
• Apply Newton’s Laws
separately to each object
• The magnitude of the
acceleration of both objects
will be the same
• The tension is the same in
each diagram
• Solve the simultaneous
equations

Section 4.5
 Connected Objects – System
Approach
• Treating the system as one object allows an
alternative method or a check
– Use only external forces
• Not the tension – it’s internal
– The mass is the mass of the system
• Doesn’t tell you anything about any internal
forces

Section 4.5
 Other Types of Friction
• Friction between the
moving car’s wheels
and the road is static
friction
– Unless the car is skidding
• Also have the air
resistance,

Section 4.5
Raymond A. Serway
Chris Vuille

Chapter 5
Energy
 Forms of Energy
• Mechanical
– Focus for now
– May be kinetic (associated with motion) or
potential (associated with position)
• Chemical
• Electromagnetic
• Nuclear
• Contained in mass

Introduction
 Some Energy Considerations
• Energy can be transformed from one form to another
– The total amount of energy in the Universe never changes
– Essential to the study of physics, chemistry, biology,
geology, astronomy
• Can be used in place of Newton’s laws to solve
certain problems more simply
• Work provides a link between force and energy

Introduction
 Work
• Work has a different meaning in physics than
it does in everyday usage
• The work, W, done by a constant force during
a linear displacement along the x-axis is
W = Fx Δx
• Fx is the x-component of the force and Δx is
the object’s displacement

Section 5.1
 Work
• W = F x
– This equation applies
when the force is in the
same direction as the
displacement
– are in the same
direction

Section 5.1
 Work, cont.
• This gives no information about
– The time it took for the displacement to occur
– The velocity or acceleration of the object
• Work is a scalar quantity
– So there is no direction associated with it

Section 5.1
 Units of Work
• SI
– Newton • meter = Joule
• N•m=J
• J = kg • m2 / s2
• US Customary
– foot • pound
• ft • lb
– no special name

Section 5.1
 Work General
• W = (F cos )x
– F is the magnitude of the
force
– Δ x is the magnitude of
the object’s
displacement
–  is the angle between

Section 5.1
 More About Work
• The work done by a force is zero when the
force is perpendicular to the displacement
– cos 90° = 0
• If there are multiple forces acting on an
object, the total work done is the algebraic
sum of the amount of work done by each
force

Section 5.1
 More About Work, cont.
• Work can be positive or negative
– Positive if the force and the displacement are in
the same direction
– Negative if the force and the displacement are in
the opposite direction

Section 5.1
 When Work is Zero
• Displacement is
horizontal
• Force is vertical
• cos 90° = 0
• W=0

Section 5.1
 Work Can Be Positive or Negative
• Work is positive when
lifting the box
• Work would be negative
if lowering the box
– The force would still be
upward, but the
displacement would be
downward

Section 5.1
 Work, Final
• Work doesn’t happen by itself
• Work is done by something in the
environment, on the object of interest
• The forces are constant in the equations used
so far
– Varying force will be discussed later

Section 5.1
 Kinetic Energy
• Energy associated with the motion of an
object of mass m moving with a speed v
•
• Scalar quantity with the same units as work
• Work is related to kinetic energy

Section 5.2
 Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem
• When work is done by a net force on an object and
the only change in the object is its speed, the work
done is equal to the change in the object’s kinetic
energy
•
– Speed will increase if the net work is positive
– Speed will decrease if the net work is negative

Section 5.2
 Work and Kinetic Energy
• An object’s kinetic energy
can also be thought of as
the amount of work the
moving object could do in
coming to rest
– The moving hammer has
kinetic energy and can do
work on the nail

Section 5.2
 Types of Forces
• There are two general kinds of forces
– Conservative
• Work and energy associated with the force can be
recovered
– Nonconservative
• The forces are generally dissipative and work done
against it cannot easily be recovered

Section 5.2
 Conservative Forces
• A force is conservative if the work it does on an
object moving between two points is independent of
the path the objects take between the points
– The work depends only upon the initial and final positions
of the object
– Any conservative force can have a potential energy
function associated with it

Section 5.2
 More About Conservative Forces
• Examples of conservative forces include:
– Gravity
– Spring force
– Electromagnetic forces
• Potential energy is another way of looking at
the work done by conservative forces

Section 5.2
 Nonconservative Forces
• A force is nonconservative if the work it does
on an object depends on the path taken by
the object between its final and starting
points.
• Examples of nonconservative forces
– Kinetic friction, air drag, propulsive forces

Section 5.2
 Friction Depends on the Path
• The blue path is shorter
than the red path
• The work required is
less on the blue path
than on the red path
• Friction depends on the
path and so is a non-
conservative force

Section 5.2
 Work-Energy Theorem Revisited
• The theorem can be expressed in terms of the
work done by both conservative forces, Wc,
and nonconservative forces, Wnc
• Wc + Wnc = ΔKE

Section 5.2
 Potential Energy
• Potential energy is associated with the
position of the object within some system
– Potential energy is a property of the system, not
the object
– A system is a collection of objects interacting via
forces or processes that are internal to the system

Section 5.3
 Work and Potential Energy
• For every conservative force a potential
energy function can be found
• Evaluating the difference of the function at
any two points in an object’s path gives the
negative of the work done by the force
between those two points

Section 5.3
 Gravitational Potential Energy
• Gravitational Potential Energy is the energy
associated with the relative position of an
object in space near the Earth’s surface
– Objects interact with the earth through the
gravitational force
– Actually the potential energy is for the earth-
object system

Section 5.3
 Work and Gravitational Potential
Energy
• PE = mgy
•
• Units of Potential
Energy are the same as
those of Work and
Kinetic Energy
– Joule (J)

Section 5.3
 Work-Energy Theorem, Extended
• The work-energy theorem can be extended to
include potential energy:

• If other conservative forces are present, potential

energy functions can be developed for them and
their change in that potential energy added to the
right side of the equation

Section 5.3
 Reference Levels for Gravitational Potential
Energy
• A location where the gravitational potential energy is
zero must be chosen for each problem
– The choice is arbitrary since the change in the potential
energy is the important quantity
– Once the position is chosen, it must remain fixed for the
entire problem
– Choose a convenient location for the zero reference height
• Often the Earth’s surface
• May be some other point suggested by the problem

Section 5.3
 Reference Levels, cont
• At location A, the desk may
be the convenient reference
level
• At location B, the floor
could be used
• At location C, the ground
would be the most logical
reference level
• The choice is arbitrary,
though

Section 5.3
Conservation of Mechanical Energy
• Conservation in general
– To say a physical quantity is conserved is to say that the
numerical value of the quantity remains constant
throughout any physical process, although the quantities
may change form
• In Conservation of Energy, the total mechanical
energy remains constant
– In any isolated system of objects interacting only through
conservative forces, the total mechanical energy of the
system remains constant.

Section 5.3
 Conservation of Energy, cont.
• Total mechanical energy is the sum of the
kinetic and potential energies in the system

– Other types of potential energy functions can be

added to modify this equation

Section 5.3
 Problem Solving with Conservation of
Energy
• Define the system
– Include all interacting bodies
– Verify the absence of nonconservative forces
• Select the location of zero gravitational potential
energy, where y = 0
– Do not change this location while solving the problem
• Select the body of interest and identify two
points
– One point should be where information is given
– The other point should be where you want to find out
something
Section 5.3
 Problem Solving, cont
• Apply the conservation of energy equation to
the system
– Identify the unknown quantity of interest
– Immediately substitute zero values, then do the
algebra before substituting the other values
• Solve for the unknown
– Typically a speed or a position
– Substitute known values
– Calculate result

Section 5.3
 Work-Energy With Nonconservative
Forces
• If nonconservative forces are present, then
the full Work-Energy Theorem must be used
instead of the equation for Conservation of
Energy
– Do not include both work done by gravity and
gravitation potential energy
• Often techniques from previous chapters will
need to be employed

Section 5.3
Potential Energy Stored in a Spring
• The force used in stretching or compressing a
spring is a conservative force
• Involves the spring constant, k
• Hooke’s Law gives the force
– Fs = - k x
• Fs is the restoring force
• Fs is in the opposite direction of x
• k depends on how the spring was formed, the material
it is made from, thickness of the wire, etc.
Section 5.4
 Potential Energy in a Spring
• Elastic Potential Energy
– Related to the work required to compress a spring
from its equilibrium position to some final,
arbitrary, position x

Section 5.4
 Spring Potential Energy, Example
• A) The spring is in
equilibrium, neither
stretched or compressed
• B) The spring is compressed,
storing potential energy
• C) The block is released and
the potential energy is
transformed to kinetic
energy of the block

Section 5.4
 Work-Energy Theorem Including a
Spring
• Wnc = (KEf – KEi) + (PEgf – PEgi) + (PEsf – PEsi)
– PEg is the gravitational potential energy
– PEs is the elastic potential energy associated with
a spring
– PE will now be used to denote the total potential
energy of the system

Section 5.4
 Conservation of Energy Including a
Spring
• Wnc = 0
• An extended form of conservation of
mechanical energy can be used
– The PE of the spring is added to both sides of the
conservation of energy equation
•
• The same problem-solving strategies apply
– Also need to define the equilibrium position of the
spring

Section 5.4
 Nonconservative Forces with Energy
Considerations
• When nonconservative forces are present, the total
mechanical energy of the system is not constant
• The work done by all nonconservative forces acting
on parts of a system equals the change in the
mechanical energy of the system
–

Section 5.5
 Nonconservative Forces and Energy
• In equation form:

• The energy can either cross a boundary or the energy is

transformed into a form of non-mechanical energy such
as thermal energy
– If positive work is done on the system, energy is transferred
from the environment to the system
– If negative work is done on the system, energy is transferred
from the system to the environment

Section 5.5
 Transferring Energy
• By Work
– By applying a force
– Produces a displacement of the system
• Heat
– The process of transferring heat by microscopic
collisions between atoms or molecules
– For example, when a spoon rests in a cup of
coffee, the spoon becomes hot because some of
the KE of the molecules in the coffee is transferred
to the molecules of the spoon as internal energy
Section 5.5
 Transferring Energy
• Mechanical Waves
– A disturbance propagates through a medium
– Examples include sound, water, seismic
• Electrical transmission
– Transfer by means of electrical current
– This is how energy enters any electrical device

Section 5.5
 Transferring Energy
• Electromagnetic radiation
– Any form of electromagnetic waves
• Light, microwaves, radio waves
– Examples
• Cooking something in your microwave oven
• Light energy traveling from the Sun to the Earth

Section 5.5
 Notes About Conservation of Energy
• We can neither create nor destroy energy
– Another way of saying energy is conserved
– If the total energy of the system does not remain
constant, the energy must have crossed the
boundary by some mechanism
– Applies to areas other than physics

Section 5.5
 Power
• Often also interested in the rate at which the energy
transfer takes place
• Power is defined as this rate of energy transfer

• SI units are Watts (W)

Section 5.6
 Instantaneous Power
• P=Fv
– Both the force and the velocity must be parallel
– They can change with time

Section 5.6
 Power Units
• US Customary units are generally hp
– Need a conversion factor

– Can define units of work or energy in terms of

units of power:
• kilowatt hours (kWh) are often used in electric bills
• This is a unit of energy, not power

Section 5.6
 Center of Mass
• The point in the body at which all the mass
may be considered to be concentrated
– When using mechanical energy, the change in
potential energy is related to the change in height
of the center of mass

Section 5.6
 Work Done by Varying Forces
• The work done by a
variable force acting on
an object that
undergoes a
displacement is equal to
the area under the
graph of Fx versus x

Section 5.7
 Spring Example
• Spring is slowly
stretched from 0 to xmax
•
•

Section 5.7
 Spring Example, cont.
• The work is also equal
to the area under the
curve
• In this case, the “curve”
is a triangle
• A = ½ B h gives W = ½
k(xmax)2 and W = PE

Section 5.7
 Raymond A. Serway
Chris Vuille

Chapter 6
Momentum and Collisions
 Collisions
• Conservation of momentum allows complex
collision problems to be solved without
knowing about the forces involved
• Information about the average force can be
derived

Introduction
 Momentum
• The linear momentum of an object of mass
m moving with a velocity is defined as the
product of the mass and the velocity
–
– SI Units are kg m / s
– Vector quantity, the direction of the momentum is
the same as the velocity’s

Section 6.1
 More About Momentum
• Momentum components
– px = m vx and py = m vy
• Applies to two-dimensional motion
• Momentum is related to kinetic energy
–

Section 6.1
 Impulse
• In order to change the momentum of an object, a
force must be applied
• The time rate of change of momentum of an object is
equal to the net force acting on it

– Gives an alternative statement of Newton’s second law

– Also valid when the forces are not constant

Section 6.1
 Impulse cont.
• When a single, constant force acts on the
object, there is an impulse delivered to the
object
–
– is defined as the impulse
– Vector quantity, the direction is the same as the
direction of the force
– SI unit of impulse: kg . m / s

Section 6.1
 Impulse-Momentum Theorem
• The theorem states that the impulse acting on
the object is equal to the change in
momentum of the object
–
– If the force is not constant, use the average force
applied

Section 6.1
 Average Force in Impulse
• The average force can
be thought of as the
constant force that
would give the same
impulse to the object in
the time interval as the
actual time-varying
force gives in the
interval

Section 6.1
 Average Force cont.
• The impulse imparted by a force during the
time interval Δt is equal to the area under the
force-time graph from the beginning to the
end of the time interval
• Or, the impulse is equal to the average force
multiplied by the time interval,

Section 6.1
Impulse Applied to Auto Collisions
• The most important factor is the collision
time, or the time it takes the person to come
to a rest
– Increasing this time will reduce the chance of
dying in a car crash
• Ways to increase the time
– Seat belts
– Air bags

Section 6.1
 Typical Collision Values
• For a 75 kg person
traveling at 27 m/s
(60.0 mph) and coming
to stop in 0.010 s
• F = -2.0 x 105 N
• a = 280 g
• Almost certainly fatal

Section 6.1
 Seat Belts
• Seat belts
– Restrain people so it takes more time for them to
stop
– New time is about 0.15 seconds
– New force is about 9.8 kN
– About one order of magnitude below the values
for an unprotected collision

Section 6.1
 Air Bags
• The air bag increases the time of the collision
• It will also absorb some of the energy from the body
• It will spread out the area of contact
– Decreases the pressure
– Helps prevent penetration wounds

Section 6.1
 Conservation of Momentum
• Momentum in an isolated system in which a collision
occurs is conserved
– A collision may be the result of physical contact between
two objects
– “Contact” may also arise from the electrostatic
interactions of the electrons in the surface atoms of the
bodies
– An isolated system will have not external forces

Section 6.2
 Conservation of Momentum, cont
• The principle of conservation of momentum
states when no external forces act on a system
consisting of two objects that collide with
each other, the total momentum of the
system remains constant in time
– Specifically, the total momentum before the
collision will equal the total momentum after the
collision

Section 6.2
Conservation of Momentum, Example
• The momentum of each
object will change
• The total momentum of
the system remains
constant

Section 6.2
 Forces in a Collision
• The force with which
object 1 acts on object
2 is equal and opposite
to the force with which
object 2 acts on object
1
• Impulses are also equal
and opposite

Section 6.2
Conservation of Momentum, cont.
• Mathematically:

– Momentum is conserved for the system of objects

– The system includes all the objects interacting with each
other
– Assumes only internal forces are acting during the collision
– Can be generalized to any number of objects

Section 6.2
 Types of Collisions
• Momentum is conserved in any collision
• Inelastic collisions
– Kinetic energy is not conserved
• Some of the kinetic energy is converted into other
types of energy such as heat, sound, work to
permanently deform an object
– Perfectly inelastic collisions occur when the
objects stick together
• Not all of the KE is necessarily lost

Section 6.3
 More Types of Collisions
• Elastic collision
– Both momentum and kinetic energy are
conserved
• Actual collisions
– Most collisions fall between elastic and perfectly
inelastic collisions

Section 6.3
 Perfectly Inelastic Collisions
• When two objects stick
together after the
collision, they have
undergone a perfectly
inelastic collision
• Conservation of
momentum becomes

Section 6.3
 Some General Notes About Collisions
• Momentum is a vector quantity
– Direction is important
– Be sure to have the correct signs

Section 6.3
 More About Elastic Collisions
• Both momentum and kinetic energy are
conserved
• Typically have two unknowns

• Solve the equations simultaneously

Section 6.3
 Elastic Collisions, cont.
• A simpler equation can
be used in place of the
KE equation

Section 6.3
 Summary of Types of Collisions
• In an elastic collision, both momentum and kinetic
energy are conserved
• In an inelastic collision, momentum is conserved but
kinetic energy is not
• In a perfectly inelastic collision, momentum is
conserved, kinetic energy is not, and the two objects
stick together after the collision, so their final
velocities are the same

Section 6.3
Problem Solving for One -Dimensional
Collisions
• Coordinates: Set up a coordinate axis and
define the velocities with respect to this axis
– It is convenient to make your axis coincide with
one of the initial velocities
• Diagram: In your sketch, draw all the velocity
vectors and label the velocities and the
masses

Section 6.3
Problem Solving for One -Dimensional
Collisions, 2
• Conservation of Momentum: Write a general
expression for the total momentum of the
system before and after the collision
– Equate the two total momentum expressions
– Fill in the known values

Section 6.3
Problem Solving for One -Dimensional
Collisions, 3
• Conservation of Energy: If the collision is
elastic, write a second equation for
conservation of KE, or the alternative
equation
– This only applies to perfectly elastic collisions
• Solve: the resulting equations simultaneously

Section 6.3
 Sketches for Collision Problems
• Draw “before” and
“after” sketches
• Label each object
– Include the direction of
velocity
– Keep track of subscripts

Section 6.3
 Sketches for Perfectly Inelastic
Collisions
• The objects stick
together
• Include all the velocity
directions
• The “after” collision
combines the masses
• Both move with the
same velocity

Section 6.3
 Glancing Collisions
• For a general collision of two objects in three-
dimensional space, the conservation of momentum
principle implies that the total momentum of the
system in each direction is conserved
–

– Use subscripts for identifying the object, initial and final

velocities, and components

Section 6.4
 Glancing Collisions – Example

• The “after” velocities have x and y components

• Momentum is conserved in the x direction and in the y
direction
• Apply conservation of momentum separately to each
direction
Section 6.4
 Problem Solving for Two-Dimensional
Collisions
• Coordinates: Set up both coordinate axes and
define your velocities with respect to these
axes
– It is convenient to choose the x- or y- axis to
coincide with one of the initial velocities
• Diagram: In your sketch, draw and label all the
velocities and masses

Section 6.4
 Problem Solving for Two-Dimensional
Collisions, 2
• Conservation of Momentum: Write
expressions for the x and y components of the
momentum of each object before and after
the collision
– Write expressions for the total momentum before
and after the collision in the x-direction and in the
y-direction

Section 6.4
 Problem Solving for Two-Dimensional
Collisions, 3
• Conservation of Energy: If the collision is
perfectly elastic, write an expression for the
total energy before and after the collision
– Equate the two expressions
– Fill in the known values
– Solve the quadratic equations
• Can’t be simplified
– Remember to skip this step if the collision is not
perfectly elastic
Section 6.4
Problem Solving for Two-Dimensional
Collisions, 4
• Solve for the unknown quantities
– Solve the equations simultaneously
– There will be two equations for inelastic collisions
– There will be three equations for elastic collisions

Section 6.4
 Rocket Propulsion
• The operation of a rocket depends on the law
of conservation of momentum as applied to a
system, where the system is the rocket plus its
ejected fuel
– This is different than propulsion on the earth
where two objects exert forces on each other
• Road on car
• Train on track

Section 6.5
 Rocket Propulsion, 2
• The rocket is accelerated as a result of the
thrust of the exhaust gases
• This represents the inverse of an inelastic
collision
– Momentum is conserved
– Kinetic Energy is increased (at the expense of the
stored energy of the rocket fuel)

Section 6.5
 Rocket Propulsion, 3

• The initial mass of the rocket is M + Δm

– M is the mass of the rocket
– m is the mass of the fuel about to be burned
• The initial velocity of the rocket is
Section 6.5
 Rocket Propulsion

• The rocket’s mass is M

• The mass of the fuel, Δm, has been ejected
• The rocket’s speed has increased to
Section 6.5
 Rocket Propulsion, final
• The basic equation for rocket propulsion is:

– Mi is the initial mass of the rocket plus fuel

– Mf is the final mass of the rocket plus any remaining fuel
– The speed of the rocket is proportional to the exhaust
speed
– For best results, the exhaust speed should be as high as
possible
– Typical exhaust speeds are several kilometers per second
Section 6.5
 Thrust of a Rocket
• The thrust is the force exerted on the rocket by the
ejected exhaust gases
• The instantaneous thrust is given by

– The thrust increases as the exhaust speed increases and as

the burn rate (ΔM/Δt) increases

Section 6.5
 Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction
1
Ensuring Continuity of Instruction

Ensuring Continuity of Instruction

This chapter focuses on the child-rights based disaster risk management,

alternative learning venues, alternative delivery of formal instruction, and
emergency procurement system for rehabilitating school buildings and
purchase of other instructional materials. This chapter provides for ensuring
the continuity of instruction during the period when the classroom / school
is not available for instructional purposes.
The Department of Education, as mandated by the Constitution is primarily
responsible for the education and manpower development of the country
and for the formulation, planning, implementation and coordination of the
policies, plans, programs and projects in the areas of formal and non-formal
education at the elementary, secondary and the alternative learning system.
This mandate also include supervision of all basic educational institutions,
both public and private, as well as the establishment and maintenance of a
complete, adequate and integrated system of education. The Department is
also in-charge of raising the standard of basic education, and administrative
efficiency in the delivery of educational services that are relevant and in
pursuance to the national development goals. The Department, as provider of
basic education serves 19 million school children and envisions highly
competent, civic-spirited, life skilled and God-loving Filipino youth who will
be the future contributor towards the building of a humane, healthy and
productive society.
In line with these mandates, the Department of Education (DepED) is now
heading towards the complete decentralization policy through the
implementation of the Decentralized Management Development Program
(DMDP), a six month program that aims specifically to address the issues
hindering the full roll-out of decentralization in DepED as contained in the R.
A. 9155 otherwise known as the Governance of Basic Education. DMDP is a
decentralization strategy designed not only to make the delivery of basic
services more efficient and effective, but also to produce the best results for
the basic education sector in terms of learning and management.

This is a subheading (for sub topics – Heading 2)

The policy on decentralization is being supported through the
implementation of the School-Based Management (SBM), a key component of
the department’s Basic Education Sector Reform Agenda (BESR A). BESR A is
a widely-accepted reform initiative which recognizes that schools, as the key
providers of education, should be able to continuously improve by being
empowered to make informed and localized decisions based on their own
unique needs. As a component of BESRA, SBM on the other hand gives school

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heads/ Principals and their teachers a wide opportunity to create linkages
with the local government and the private sector and be able to tap them
based on the principle that the people directly involved and affected by
school operations are the best persons to plan, manage and improve the
school. This component aims to create an environment where all the people
involved in the decentralization process not only agree but also commit to
make the change happen by strengthening their capacity to perform their
tasks under a decentralized set-up. The role of the national, regional and
division offices is to make sure that all the necessary support structures are
in place to aid the local stakeholders in managing the schools.
In view of the decentralization policy, only public secondary schools enjoy
fiscal autonomy which leaves the majority of public elementary schools
dependent on mostly centralized management set-up. In effect, public
secondary schools are more independent and may formulate their own
policies in mitigating the impact of hazards based on local situations.
Education of school children is most often affected when a disaster hits the
community where the school is located. The school is often used as an
evacuation center for affected families in the community. As an evacuation
center it is no longer conducive to teaching-learning activities. However, it is
the primary duty and responsibility
of the school to continuously deliver instructional services to the school
children as mandated by the following legal bases:
Legal Bases
Article XI V of the Philippine Constitution declares that “The State shall
protect and promote the right of all citizens to quality education at all levels
and shall take appropriate steps to make such education accessible to all.”
Education is only one of children’s rights that the Department has to provide,
but is also a key to ensure the full realization of many other important
constitutionally protected political, economic and social rights.
Presidential Decree No. 603. The Child and Youth Welfare Code identified in
Article 2 – Rights of a child which guarantees the exercise of the following:
 Dignity and worth of a human being

 Right to a wholesome family life; well-rounded development,
balanced diet, adequate clothing, sufficient shelter, proper medical
attention, to be brought up in an atmosphere of morality and
rectitude, education, full opportunities, protection against
exploitation, care, assistance and protection, efficient and honest
government and to grow up as free individuals in an atmosphere of
peace, understanding, tolerance and universal brotherhood.
 Child rights-oriented community response and governance in the
country.
Republic Act 4881, promulgated in 1967, “Affirms the duty of the State to
support the family in the upbringing of their children to be useful men and
women” and orders the creation of a Council for the Protection of Children
(CPC) in every city and municipality. It tasked the CPC to “assure proper
direction, supervision, and guardianship in the training, education, and other
interest of its minor citizens”.
 Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction
3
Ensuring Continuity of Instruction

The World Declaration on Education for All prescribes that Basic Learning
Needs (BLNs) shall be made available to all by various means. BLN comprise
both essential learning tools (literacy, numeracy, oral expression and
problem solving) and the basic learning contents (knowledge, skills, values
and attitudes) required by human beings to be able to survive, to develop
their full capacities, to live and work in dignity, to participate fully in
development, to improve the quality of their lives, to make informed
decisions, and to continue learning. This level and form of education may be
delivered to learners by way of schools or formal education or by way of
alternative learning schemes e.g. informal and non-formal education.
In view of this declaration, continuation of education shall be provided to all
including asylum-seekers and refugee children coming from countries
affected by emergencies. The Department of Foreign Affairs shall determine
asylum procedures in order to ensure that the right to education of these
children are protected and enjoyed.
Guided by these mandates, the Department issued DepED Order No. 9, s,
2005 to institute measures at school level to increase engaged time-on tasks
of the students and teachers in teaching and learning. The Department also
formulated the School Improvement Plan (SIP) and all its components.
The School Improvement Plan (SIP)
All schools nationwide are required to implement a School Improvement
Plan (SIP) which contains standards and requirements for total school
improvement. The school improvement plan takes into consideration
mainstreaming disaster risk reduction concepts in the teaching-learning
environment as well as the basic education curriculum.
Figure 15 indicates the SIP components as linked with the disaster risk
reduction in schools. In case of a disaster, it is essential to know the current
situation of the school and its population, as in Figure 16. Data should be
gathered in order to know the needs of every student/pupil in the damaged
area. The following data should be determined:
 Number of school buildings damaged

 Extent of damage caused by the emergency situation
 Number of children in need of instruction
 Location of the target groups
 Titles and number of Instructional materials available
 Existing physical facilities that can be used for formal instruction.
Alternative Learning Venues
In the event of damaged classrooms/schools the following should serve as
alternative learning venues to ensure the continuity of learning:
 Tents
 Makeshift Classrooms
 Covered Court/Gyms
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  Chapel
 Barangay Hall
 Social Action Center
 All other alternative safe and adequate structures
For a private facility, school authorities shall initiate the preparation and
signing of a Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) to ensure that such facility
will be made available to the school in case of a disaster.
 Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction
5
Ensuring Continuity of Instruction

Alternative Delivery of Formal Instruction

Alternative delivery of formal instruction is an emergency response during a
disaster. It refers to any activity that will ensure the continuity of student
learning in the event that the classroom/ school is not available for
instructional purposes. It is a mechanism that the school shall implement to
ensure continuity of instruction during emergency situations.
This is in compliance with the NDCC policy contained in The Policy
Guidelines on Child Rights-Based Disaster Management in cooperation with
the Office of Civil Defense, Council for the Welfare of Children and the United
Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). The guidelines state that even during pre-
disaster phase:
 The Department of Education (DepED) and the Commission on Higher
Education (CHED) shall integrate programs/ activities on Public
Information and Education Campaign (PIEC) specific for children
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 concerning safety counter measures on emergency situations under
its existing training modules and shall conduct PIEC regularly in high
risks areas;
 DepED and CHED shall integrate disaster preparedness and
management into their curricula;
 Concerned Local Government Units (LGUs) shall initiate a Disaster
Safety Awareness Program for Children; and
 At an early age, a child shall learn disaster safety measures in times of
emergencies.
The Guidelines also state that during an emergency situation, DepED and
CHED, in coordination with the Department of the Interior and Local
Government (DILG) and local disaster coordinating councils (DCCs) shall
provide recreational and educational activities and alternative learning
sessions (ALS) to be held in the evacuation centers to address the learning
needs of displaced children and out-of-school youth. There shall be
continuing education of displaced children in the evacuation center and
relocation site with due consideration for other culturally responsive
education systems, such as the MADRASA Education Program for the Muslim
population, having diverse socio-cultural orientations. The local Social
Welfare Office shall also provide day care services for pre-school children.
The following are suggested available alternative instructional materials that
schools may use during an emergency situation:
For Elementary:
• The Alternative Delivery Mode (ADM) for Grade IV - VI 

• Improvised Writing Exercises, Mathematics Workbooks, Stories written
on Manila Paper for Reading 

• Alternative Leaning System (ALS) 

• Day Care Services for Pre-School 
Children 

• Other instructional materials available at the Division, Region and Central
Office. 

For Secondary: 

 Effective and Alternative Secondary Education Modules (EASE)
 Distance Learning Modules (DLM)
 Available textbook materials
 Alternative Learning System (ALS)
 Other modes of delivery system available at other schools, Division,
Region and Central Office.
Recommended Actions to Ensure Continuity of Instruction During
Disasters
Preparedness and Mitigation (What to do before a disaster):
 Require every school to prepare a School Improvement Plan (SIP)
integrating all the basic elements to provide for continuity of
instruction.
 Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction
7
Ensuring Continuity of Instruction

 Conduct an inventory of existing and available alternative materials of

all learning levels.
 Recommend to the Division Office the reproduction of identified
alternative instructional materials.
 Ensure that each school, Division Office and Regional Office keep a file
or copy of the existing and available alternative instructional
materials for use in case of disaster.
Response (What to do during a disaster):
Every teacher at the school level shall
 Identify the learning competencies/ concepts to be covered during the
period when classes are disrupted;
 Borrow adequate copies of the materials for the affected students;
 Orient the students and parents on what, when, why and how to use
the given materials;
 Monitor the progress of the students during the period when classes
are disrupted; and
 Coordinate closely with the parents and other teachers of the affected
students to ensure that the children are guided with their assigned
tasks.
Rehabilitation (What to do after a disaster):
Every teacher at the school level shall
 Conduct an inventory of damaged textbooks/equipment for possible
replacement and/or procurement;
 Conduct an assessment to determine the progress of the student’s
learning. The assessment results will serve as the starting point of the
teacher to continue the lesson;
 Assess the effectiveness and appropriateness of the materials being
used by the students during this period of time;
 Recommend to the Division Office through the school head/district
supervisor other alternative materials that will address the needs of
the students; and
 Be responsible to account for and return borrowed materials to the
Division Office for the use of other schools when the need arises.
Minimum Standards for Education in Emergencies (MSEE)
With institutionalization of the Cluster Approach in humanitarian response
(See Chapter 5, Section 3), the minimum standards for education in
emergencies will also be adopted as suggested by the Inter-Agency Network
for
Education in Emergencies (INEE), one of the Education Cluster members.
This is corollary to the Sphere Project developed in 1997 to address concerns
related to quality and accountability in humanitarian responses. It created
the Humanitarian Charter that emphasizes the “right to life with dignity”
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 through setting minimum standards in the provision of water, sanitation and
hygiene promotion, food security, nutrition and food aid, shelter, settlement
and non-food items, and health services during emergency situations.
The MSEE set the following goals to be achieved during an emergency
situation:
 A common starting point to reach a minimum level of educational
quality and access in schools;
 A tool to improve coordination and enhance accountability and
predictability;
 A tool for capacity-building and training;
 Aid to strengthen the resilience of Ministries of Education; and
 Tool to promote education.
These goals were conceptualized because during adverse situations there is a
felt need for formal, informal, and non-formal education programs, based on
the following important issues:
 Individuals do not forfeit their right to education;
 Education is a priority humanitarian response;
 A broad based desire to ensure a minimum level of quality access and
accountability for education in crisis situations.

Emergency Procurement System for Rehabilitation / Replacement of School

Buildings, Equipment and Fixtures
During emergency situations, school buildings, textbooks, instructional
materials and other educational facilities are destroyed which results in
disruption of classes. In the past, rehabilitation efforts were slow due to
bureaucratic procedures in purchasing of the needed supplies and materials
for rehabilitation, which contributed to prolonging the effects of the
disastrous situation. In 2006, the Government Procurement Policy Board
(GPPB) issued a circular to clarify the procurement process in cases of
natural or man-made calamities. GPPB Circular No. 03-2006 (Appendix 4)
dated December 6, 2006 was issued to identify the appropriate mode and
procedure of procurement under Republic Act 9184 and its Implementing
Rules and Regulations Part A in case of natural or man-made calamities.
In case immediate procurement is needed due to the occurrence of natural or
man-made calamities, the alternative mode of negotiated procurement under
Section 54.2(b) of RA 9184 and its IRR-A may be adopted in order to prevent
prolonged damage to or loss of life and property and to immediately restore
vital public services, infrastructure facilities, and other public utilities.
Under this mode, the procuring entity simply negotiates with a supplier,
contractor or consultant of good standing, situated within the vicinity where
the calamity or emergency occurred.
While it is the school’s primary duty and responsibility to continuously deliver
instructional services to students and at times it may serve as an evacuation
center in times of calamity, ensuring safety of DepED properties should be given
important considerations. These will be determined and discussed in the next
Chapter.
 Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction
9
Ensuring Continuity of Instruction

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