Mathematics in

the Modern
World
Problem Solving
ENGR. ARLON G. CALMA, CLSSYB
Course Objectives

➢Inductive Reasoning
➢Deductive Reasoning
➢Problem Solving Strategies
Problem Solving and Reasoning

➢Problem Solving is the ability to make

choices, interpret, formulate, model and
investigate problem situations, and
communicate solutions effectively.
➢Reasoning is drawing of inferences or
conclusions from known or assumed facts.
Types of Reasoning

❑Inductive Reasoning
❑Deductive Reasoning
3.1 Inductive Reasoning
➢The type of reasoning that forms a conclusion
based on the examination of specific examples.
➢Is the process of reaching a general conclusion
by examining specific examples.
➢The conclusion formed by using inductive
reasoning is a conjecture, since it may or may not
be correct
Example1: Use Inductive Reasoning to
Predict a Number
a) 3, 6, 9, 12, 15?
Answer: Each successive number is 3 larger than
the preceding number. Thus we predict that the next
number in the list is 3 larger than 15 which is 18.
Example1: Use Inductive Reasoning to
Predict a Number
b) 1, 3, 6, 10, 15?
Answer: The first two numbers differ by 2. The
second and third numbers differ by 3. It appears
that the difference between two numbers is always 1
more than the preceding difference. Since 10 and
15 differ by 5, we predict that the next number in
the list will be 6 larger than 15 which is 21.
3.1 Inductive Reasoning

➢Inductive Reasoning is not used just to

predict the next number in a list. It is also to
make conjecture about something procedure.
Example2: Use Inductive Reasoning to
Make a Conjecture
➢Consider the following procedure: Pick a number.
Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product,
divide the sum by 2 and subtract 3.
➢Complete the above procedure for several
different numbers. Use inductive reasoning to make
a conjecture about the relationship between the
size of the resulting number and the size of the
original number.
Example2: Use Inductive Reasoning to
Make a Conjecture
➢Solution: Suppose we pick 5 as our original number. Then
the procedure would produce the following results:
➢Original number: 5
➢Multiply by 8: 8 x 5 = 40
➢Add 6: 40 + 6 = 46
➢Divide by 2: 46 ÷ 2 = 23
➢Subtract 3: 23 – 3 = 20
Example2: Use Inductive Reasoning to
Make a Conjecture
➢Solution: Suppose we pick 6 as our original number. Then
the procedure would produce the following results:
➢Original number: 6
➢Multiply by 8: 8 x 6 = 48
➢Add 6: 48 + 6 = 54
➢Divide by 2: 54 ÷ 2 = 27
➢Subtract 3: 27 – 3 = 24
Example2: Use Inductive Reasoning to
Make a Conjecture
➢Solution: Suppose we pick 10 as our original number. Then
the procedure would produce the following results:
➢Original number: 10
➢Multiply by 8: 8 x 10 = 80
➢Add 6: 80 + 6 = 86
➢Divide by 2: 86 ÷ 2 = 43
➢Subtract 3: 43 – 3 = 40
Example2: Use Inductive Reasoning to
Make a Conjecture
➢Solution: Suppose we pick 100 as our original number.
Then the procedure would produce the following results:
➢Original number: 100
➢Multiply by 8: 8 x 100 = 800
➢Add 6: 800 + 6 = 806
➢Divide by 2: 806 ÷ 2 = 403
➢Subtract 3: 403 – 3 = 400
Example2: Use Inductive Reasoning to
Make a Conjecture
➢Answer: We started with 5 and followed the procedure
to produce 20. Starting with 6 as our original number
produces a final result of 24. Starting with 10 produces
a final result of 40. Starting with 100 produces a final
result of 400.
➢In each of these cases the resulting number is four
times the original number.
➢We conjecture that the following the given procedure
produces a number that is four times the original
number.
3.1 Inductive Reasoning

➢Scientists often use inductive reasoning. For

instance Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) used
inductive reasoning to discover that the time
required for a pendulum to complete one
swing, called the period of the pendulum,
depends on the length of the pendulum.
Galileo did not have a clock, so he measured
the periods of pendulums in “heartbeats.”
3.1 Inductive Reasoning

Length of pendulum, Period of pendulum,

in units in heartbeats
1 1
4 2
9 3
16 4
25 5
36 6
Example3: Use Inductive Reasoning to
Solve an Application
➢Use the data in the above table and inductive
reasoning to answer each of the following
questions.
a. If a pendulum has length of 49 units, what its
period?
b. If the length of a pendulum is quadrupled, what
happens to its period?
Example3: Use Inductive Reasoning to
Solve an Application
a. If a pendulum has length of 49 units, what its
period? Length of pendulum, Period of pendulum,
in units in heartbeats
1 1
4 2
9 3
16 4
25 5
36 6

Answer: In the table, each pendulum has a period that is

the square root of its length, Thus we conjecture that a
pendulum with a length of 49 units will have a period of
7 heartbeats.
Example3: Use Inductive Reasoning to
Solve an Application
b. If the length of a pendulum is quadrupled, what happens to its
period? Length of pendulum, Period of pendulum,
in units in heartbeats
1 1
4 2
9 3
16 4
25 5
36 6
Answer: In the table, a pendulum with a length of 4 units has a
period that is twice that of a pendulum with a length of 1 unit. A
pendulum with a length of 16 units has a period that is twice that
pendulum with a length of 4 units. It appears that quadrupling the
length of a pendulum doubles its period.
Example4: Use Inductive Reasoning
❑Consider this:
11x(1)x(101)=1111 11x(3)x(101)=3333
11x(2)x(101)=2222 11x(4)x(101)=4444
❑Conjecture: 11x(n)x(101)=nnnn
Example4: Use Inductive Reasoning
➢Conjecture: 11x(n)x(101)=nnnn
➢How about when n=10?
➢11x(10)x(101)=11,110 Counterexample
Counterexamples
➢A statement is a true statement provided that it is
true in all cases. If you can find one case for which
a statement is not true, called a counterexample,
then the statement is a false statement.
Example5: Find a Counterexample
➢Verify that each of the following statements is a
false statement by finding a counterexample.
a. |x| > 0
b. x2 > x
➢A statement may have many counterexamples, but
we need only find one counterexample to verify
that the statement is false.
Example5: Find a Counterexample
➢Solution:
a. Let x=0, Then |0| = 0. Because 0 is not greater
than 0, we have found a counterexample. Thus
“for all numbers x, |x| >0” is a false statement.
b. For x=1, we have 12 = 1. Since 1 is not greater
than 1, we have found a counterexample. Thus
“for all numbers x, x2 > x” is a false statement.
3.2 Deductive Reasoning
➢Is the process of reaching a conclusion by
applying general assumptions, procedures or
principles.
➢Is the process of proving a specific conclusion
from one or more general statements or “general
to particular”
Example6: Use Deductive Reasoning to
Establish a Conjecture
➢Use deductive reasoning to show that the
following procedure produces a number that is four
times the original number.
➢Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by
8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum by 2, and
subtract 3.
Example6: Use Deductive Reasoning to
Establish a Conjecture
➢Solution: Let n represent the original number
➢Original number:n
➢Multiply by 8: 8 x n = 8n
➢Add 6: 8n + 6
➢Divide by 2: (8n+6) ÷ 2 = 4n + 3
➢Subtract 3: 4n + 3 – 3 = 4n
Example6: Use Deductive Reasoning to
Establish a Conjecture
➢Answer: We started with n and ended with 4n. The
procedure given in this example produces a
number that is four times the original number.
Example7: Determine the Types of
Reasoning
A. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced
plums every other year. Last year the tree did
not produce plums, so this year the tree will
produce plums.
B. All home improvements cost more than the
estimate. The contractor estimated that my home
improvement will cost Php 500,000 . Thus my
home improvement will cost more than Php
500,000.
Example7: Determine the Types of
Reasoning
Answer:
A. This an argument reaches a conclusion based on
specific examples, so it is an example of
inductive reasoning.
B. Because the conclusion is a specific case of
general assumption, this argument is an example
of deductive reasoning.
3.2 Deductive Reasoning
➢Logic puzzles can be solved by using deductive
reasoning and a chart that enables us to display
the given information in a visual manner.
Example8: Solve a Logic Puzzle
➢Each of four neighbors, Sean, Maria, Sarah, and Brian, has a
different occupation namely editor, banker, chef and dentist. From
the following clues, determine the occupation of each neighbor.
1. Maria gets home from work after the banker but
before the dentist.
2. Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not
the editor.
3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same
time.
4. The banker lives next door to Brian
Example8: Solve a Logic Puzzle
➢Solution: Clue 1:Maria gets home from work
after the banker but before the dentist.

Editor Banker Chef Dentist

Sean
Maria X1 X1
Sarah
Brian
Example8: Solve a Logic Puzzle
➢Solution: Clue 2:Sarah, who is the last to get
home from work, is not the editor. Also we
know from clue 1 that the banker is not the last
to get home.
Editor Banker Chef Dentist
Sean
Maria X1 X1
Sarah X2 X2
Brian
Example8: Solve a Logic Puzzle
➢Solution: Clue 3:The dentist and Sarah leave for
work at the same time.

Editor Banker Chef Dentist

Sean X3 X3
Maria l X1 X3 X1
Sarah X2 X2 l X3
Brian X3 X3
Example8: Solve a Logic Puzzle
➢Solution: Clue 4:The banker lives next door to
Brian

Editor Banker Chef Dentist

Sean X3 l X3 X4
Maria l X1 X3 X1
Sarah X2 X2 l X3
Brian X3 X4 X3 l
3.3 Problem-Solving Strategies: Polya’s
Problem-Solving Strategy
1887 - 1985. George Polya was a
Hungarian who immigrated to the
United States in 1940. His major
contribution is for his work in
problem solving. Growing up he
was very frustrated with the
practice of having to regularly
memorize information.
3.3 Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy
➢Polya’s Four Step Problem-Solving Strategy

1. UNDERSTAND 3. CARRY OUT

THE PROBLEM THE PLAN

2. DEVISE A PLAN 4. REVIEW THE

SOLUTION
3.3 Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy
➢Polya’s four steps are deceptively simple. To
become a good problem solver, it helps to examine
each of these steps and determine what is
involved.
Step 1: Understand the Problem
❑ Note the keywords
❑ Get to know the problem setting
❑ Find all what is asked.
❑ Restate the problem in your own words
❑ Draw an illustration of the problem
Step 2: Devise a Plan
❑ Make a list of the known information
❑ Make a list of information that is needed
❑ Draw a diagram
❑ Make an organized list that shows all the
possibilities
❑ Make a table or a chart
❑ Work backwards
Step 2: Devise a Plan
❑ Try to solve a similar but simpler problem
❑ Look for a pattern
❑ Write an equation. If necessary, define what each
variables represents
❑ Perform an experiment
❑ Guess at a solution and then check your result
Step 3: Carry Out the Plan
❑Implement the strategy that you have chosen until
the problem is solved.
❑Give yourself a reasonable amount of time to solve
the problem.
❑Do not be afraid of starting over. Often, a new
strategy will lead to success.
Step 4: Review the Solution
❑The appropriateness/applicability of your solution
should satisfy the statement of the problem, you
can see an easier solution and can extend your
solution to a more general case.
Example9: Apply Polya’s Strategy
(Make an organized list)
➢A baseball team won two out of their last four
games. In how many different orders could they
have two wins and two losses in four games?
Example9: Apply Polya’s Strategy
(Make an organized list)
➢Solution:
➢Understand the Problem: There are many different
orders. The team may have won two straight
games and lost the last two (WWLL). Or maybe
they lost the first two games and won the last two
(LLWW). Of course there are other possibilities,
such as WLWL.
Example9: Apply Polya’s Strategy
(Make an organized list)
➢Solution:
➢Devise a Plan: We will make an organized list of all
the possible orders. An organized list is a list that
is produced using a system that ensures that each
of the different orders will be listed once and only
once.
Example9: Apply Polya’s Strategy
(Make an organized list)
➢Solution:
➢Carry Out the Plan: Each entry in our list must
contains two Ws and two Ls. We will use a strategy
that makes sure each order is considered, with no
duplications. One such strategy is to always write
W unless doing so will produce to many Ws or a
duplicate of one of the previous orders. If it is not
possible to write a W, then and only then do we
write an L. This strategy produces the six different
orders.
Example9: Apply Polya’s Strategy
(Make an organized list)
➢Solution:
➢Carry Out the Plan:
1. WWLL (start with two wins)
2. WLWL (start win one win)
3. WLLW
4. LWWL (start with one loss)
5. LWLW
6. LLWW (start with two losses)
Example9: Apply Polya’s Strategy
(Make an organized list)
➢Solution:
➢Review the Solution: We have made an organized
list. The list has no duplicates, and the list
considers all possibilities, so we are confident that
there are six different orders in which a baseball
team can win exactly two out of four games.
Example10: Apply Polya’s Strategy
(Solve similar but simpler problem)
➢A basketball league consisting of 10 teams, each
team plays each of the other teams exactly three
times. How many league games will be played?
Example10: Apply Polya’s Strategy
(Solve similar but simpler problem)
➢Solution:
➢Understand the Problem: There are 10 teams, each
team plays each of the other teams exactly three
times. How many league games will be played?
Example10: Apply Polya’s Strategy
(Solve similar but simpler problem)
➢Solution:
➢Devise a Plan: Try the strategy of working similar
but simpler problem. Consider a league with only
four teams (A,B,C,D) in which each team plays each
of the other teams only once.
Example10: Apply Polya’s Strategy
(Solve similar but simpler problem)
➢Solution:
➢Devise a Plan: Since each of the four teams will play a
game against each of other three, we might conclude
that would result in 4x3=12 games. However, the
diagram show only six-line segments. It appears that
our procedure has counted each game twice. For
instance when team A plays team B, team B also plays
team A. To produce the correct result, we must divide
our previous result, 12 by 2. Hence, four teams can play
each other once in (4x3)/2 = 6 games
Example10: Apply Polya’s Strategy
(Solve similar but simpler problem)
➢Solution:
➢Carry Out the Plan: Using the process develop, we
see that 10 teams can play each other once in a
total of (10x9)/2=45 games. Since each team plays
each opponent exactly three times, the total
number of games is 45 x 3 = 135
Example10: Apply Polya’s Strategy
(Solve similar but simpler problem)
➢Solution:
➢Review the Solution: We could check our work by
the method of making an organized list.
9 AB AC AD AE AF AG AH AI AJ
8 BC BD BE BF BG BH BI BJ
7 CD CE CF CG CH CI CJ
6 DE DF DG DH DI DJ
5 EF EG EH EI EJ
4 FG FH FI FJ
3 GH GI GJ
2 HI HJ
1 IJ
45 45 x 3 = 135 since each team plays each opponent exactly three times
Example11: Apply Polya’s Strategy
(Make a table and look for a pattern)
➢Determine the digit 100 places to the right of the
7
decimal point in the decimal representation
27
Example11: Apply Polya’s Strategy
(Make a table and look for a pattern)
➢Solution:
7
➢Understand the Problem: Express the fraction as
27
a decimal and look for a pattern that will enable us
to determine the digits 100 places to the right of
the decimal point.
Example11: Apply Polya’s Strategy
(Make a table and look for a pattern)
➢Solution:
➢Devise a Plan: Dividing 27 into 7 by long division
or by using a calculator produces the decimal
0.259259259… Since the decimal representation
repeats the digits 259 over and over forever. We
know that the digit located 100 places to the right
of the decimal point is either a 2, a 5, or a 9.
Example11: Apply Polya’s Strategy
(Make a table and look for a pattern)
➢Solution:
➢Devise a Plan:
Column 1 Column 2 Column 3
Location Digit Location Digit Location Digit
1st 2 2nd 5 3rd 9
4th 2 5th 5 6th 9
7th 2 8th 5 9th 9
10th 2 11th 5 12th 9
13th 2 14th 5 15th 9
. . .
. . .
. . .
Example11: Apply Polya’s Strategy
(Make a table and look for a pattern)
➢Solution:
➢Carry Out the Plan: Only in column 3 is each of the
decimal digit locations evenly divisible by 3. From
this pattern we can tell that the 99th decimal digit
(because 99 is evenly divisible by 3) must be a 9.
Since 2 always follows a 9 in the pattern, the 100th
decimal digit must be a 2.
Example11: Apply Polya’s Strategy
(Make a table and look for a pattern)
➢Solution:
➢Review the Solution: The above table illustrates
additional patterns. For instance, if each of the location
numbers in column 1 is divided 3, a remainder 1 is
produced. If each of the location numbers in column 2
is divided by 3, a remainder of 2 is produced. Thus we
can find the decimal digit in any location by dividing the
location number by 3 and examining the remainder. For
instance to find the digit in the 3200 th decimal place of
7
merely divide 3200 by 3 and examine the remainder
27
which 2. Thus the digit 3200 places to the right of the
decimal point is a 5.
Example12: Apply Polya’s Strategy
(Work backwards)
➢ On Monday, Gerry opened a savings account for
his summer earnings and deposited all of his
first week’s earnings. On Tuesday, he deposited
P225 into the account. He withdrew P105 on
Wednesday to buy tapes and another P80 on
Thursday for other expenses. On Friday, he
withdrew half of what was left in the account to
buy some clothing. He then had P150 remaining
in the account. How much money did he deposit
that Monday?
Example12: Apply Polya’s Strategy
(Work backwards)
➢Solution:
➢Understand the Problem: We need to determine
how much money Gary deposited in his savings
account by Monday.
Example12: Apply Polya’s Strategy
(Work backwards)
➢Solution:
➢Devise a Plan: We could guess and check, but we
might need to make several guesses before we
found the correct solution. An algebraic method
might work but setting up the necessary equation
could be a challenge. Since we know the end
result, let’s try the method of working backwards.
 Example12: Apply Polya’s Strategy
(Work backwards)
➢Solution:
➢Carry Out the Plan:
Monday Deposited X Monday Deposited X P260
Subtract P225
Tuesday Deposited (added) P225 Tuesday Deposited (added) P225
P485-P225=P260
Add P105
Wednesday Withdrew (subtracted) P105 Wednesday Withdrew (subtracted) P105
P380+P105=P485
Add P80
Thursday Withdrew (subtracted) P80 Thursday Withdrew (subtracted) P80
P300+P80=P380
Multiply by 2
Friday Withdrew half (divided by 2) Friday Withdrew half (divided by 2)
P150 x 2= P300
Final Amount P150 Final Amount P150
Example12: Apply Polya’s Strategy
(Work backwards)
➢Solution:
➢Review the Solution: To check our solution we start
with P260 and proceed through each of the
transactions given in the problem, P260 add P225
is P485. P485 less P105 is P380. P380 less P80
is P300. Half of P300 is P150.
Example13: Apply Polya’s Strategy
(Guess and check)
➢The product of the ages, in years, of three
teenagers is 4590. None of the teens are the same
age. What are the ages of the teenagers?
Example13: Apply Polya’s Strategy
(Guess and check)
➢Solution:
➢Understand the Problem: We need to determine
three distinct counting numbers, from the list
13,14,15,16,17,18 and 19, that have a product of
4590.
Example13: Apply Polya’s Strategy
(Guess and check)
➢Solution:
➢Devise a Plan: If we represent the ages by x,y,z, then
xyz=4590. We are unable to solve this equation, but we
notice that 4590 ends in zero. Hence, 4590 has a
factor of 2 and factor of 5, which means that at least
one of the numbers we seek must be an even number
and at least one number must have 5 as a factor. The
only number in our list that has 5 as a factor is 15. Thus
15 is one of the numbers, and at least one of the other
numbers must even number. At this point we try to
solve by guessing and checking.
Example13: Apply Polya’s Strategy
(Guess and check)
➢Solution:
➢Carry Out the Plan:
15 x 16 x 18 = 4320 No. This product is too small
15 x 16 x 19 = 4560 No. This product is too small
15 x 17 x 18 = 4590 Yes. This is the correct product

➢The ages of the teenagers are 15,17, and 18.

Example13: Apply Polya’s Strategy
(Guess and check)
➢Solution:
➢Review the Solution: Because 15x17x18 = 4590
and each of the ages represents the age of a
teenager, we know our solution is correct. None of
the numbers 13,14,16, and 19 is a factor (divisor)
of 4590, so there are no other solutions.
Example14: Apply Polya’s Strategy
(Draw a diagram)
➢John and Peter are pilots. They are both flying
from Clark to Zamboanga. John leaves at 8 AM and
Peter leaves at 9 AM. John averages 250 miles per
hour, and Peter averages 375 miles per hour.
About what time will Peter overtake John?
Example14: Apply Polya’s Strategy
(Draw a diagram)
➢Solution:
➢Understand the Problem: We are looking for the
time Peter will overtake John if Peter averages 375
mph and John averages 250 mph
Example14: Apply Polya’s Strategy
(Draw a diagram)
➢Solution:
➢Devise a Plan: Make two tables for John and Peter.
Draw graphs on the same grid and locate the point
of intersection.
Example14: Apply Polya’s Strategy
(Draw a diagram)
➢Solution:
➢Carry Out the Plan:
John Peter
Time Distance Time Distance
8:00 AM 0 8:00 AM
9:00 AM 250 9:00 AM 0
10:00 AM 500 10:00 AM 375
11:00 AM 750 11:00 AM 750
Example14: Apply Polya’s Strategy
(Draw a diagram)
➢Solution:
➢Review the Solution: John gets a 250-mile head
start. Peter gains on John at the rate of 125 mph.
So, it will take Peter about 2 hours to catch up.