CHAPTER 1: MATTER

1.1 Atoms and Molecules

1.2 Mole Concept
1.3 Stoichiometry
 OV E RV I E W S U BTO P IC 1 . 2

Mole, N A Empirical & Molecular

formula

1.2 MOLE CONCEPT

Molarity
moles
Molality
mass
Calculation Mole fraction
Interconvert
no. particles
Percentage
by mass
Molar volume Percentage
gas by volume
 1.2 Mole Concept
a) Define the terms empirical and molecular formulae.
.
b) Determine empirical and molecular formulae from mass composition or combustion data.

c) Determine the empirical formula (formula unit) from experiment.

(Experiment 1 : Determination of a formula unit of a compound)

d) Define each of the following concentration measurements:

i. molarity, M
ii. molality, m
iii. mole fraction, X
iv. percentage by mass, % w/w
v. percentage by volume, %v/v
 1.2 Mole Concept
e) Calculate each of the following concentration measurements:
i. molarity, M
ii. molality, m
iii. mole fraction, X
iv. percentage by mass, % w/w
v. percentage by volume, %v/v
ACTIVITY - 01
Total mass of the marbles = 1528.30 g

Mass of one marble = 3.562 g

How many marbles in the bowl ????

Answer = 1528.30 g ÷ 3.562 g

= 429 marbles
The challenge to guess the correct number
of marbles is easy if you know the weight of
one marble and can weigh the whole bowl
of them

Chemist take similar approach with

elements and compounds to determine the
amounts of substances and the number of
particles involved in the reaction
Greek stoicheion, “element of part,” + metron, measure
Study of the quantitative aspects of chemical formulas and reactions
 A dozen of eggs:
A pair of shoes:

Chemist have devised a unit called the mole to count

chemical entities by weighing them.
 Definition of mole
Amount of substances that contains the same number of particles (atoms,
molecules, formula units, ions) as there are atoms in exactly in 12 g of C–12

1 mol contains 6.023 x 1023 particles

Avogadro’s number
(N A)
EXAMPLE:
1 mol of C–12 contains 6.023 x 1023 C–12 atoms
1 mol of H2O contains 6.023 x 1023 H2O molecules
1 mol of NaCl contains 6.023 x 1023 NaCl formula units
 1 molecule of H2O :
1) ? hydrogen atom
1 molecule H2O consists 2 hydrogen atoms

2) ? oxygen atom
1 molecule H2O consists 1 oxygen atom

3) How many atoms in a H2O molecule?

Total atoms in 1 H2O molecule =
2 hydrogen atom + 1 oxygen atom = 3 atoms
 1 mole of H2O :
1) How many water molecules?
1 mole water ≡ 6.023 x 10 23 molecules

2) ? hydrogen atom
1 mole H2O molecule ≡ 2 mole hydrogen atom
6.023 x 10 23 molecules ≡ 2 x 6.023 x 10 23 hydrogen atoms

1 mol contains 6.02 x 1023 entities

 1 mole of H2O :
3) How many oxygen atom?
1 mole H2O ≡ 1 mole oxygen atom
6.023 x 1023 H2O molecules ≡ ( 1 x 6.023 x 1023 ) oxygen atoms

4) How many atoms in one mole water molecules?

1 mole H2O molecule ≡ 3 mole atoms
6.023 x 10 23 H2O molecules ≡ (3 x 6.023 x 10 23) atoms
1.0 mole of Cl = 6.023 x 1023 chlorine atoms
= 35.5 g Cl

1.0 mole of Cl2 = 6.023 x 1023 chlorine molecules

= (35.5+35.5) = 71 .0 g Cl2
= 6.023 x 1023 x 2 chlorine atoms

1.0 mole of NH3 = 6.023 x 1023 x 1 molecules NH3

= 6.023 x 1023 x 4 atoms
= 6.023 x 1023 x 1 Nitrogen atom
= 6.023 x 1023 x 3 Hydrogen atoms
Calculate the number of bromide ions in 2 moles of CaBr2 .

1 mole of CaBr2 contains 2 moles of bromide ions

2 mole of CaBr2 contains 4 moles of bromide ions

so,
number of bromide ions = 4 x 6.023 x 1023

= 2.409 x 1024 ions

 1 mole each of several elements:
copper, iron, carbon, sulfur and mercury
Each of them contain 6.023 x 1023 atoms
 Molar Mass
⚫ The mass of 1 mole of an element or 1 mole of compound.
Unit : g mol-1

⚫ Example:
- molar mass of Mg = 24 g mol-1
- molar mass of CH4 = (12 + 4) gmol-1
= 16 g mol-1
 Molecular Mass
The sum of the atomic masses in a molecule (unit : amu)

EXAMPLE:
1S 32.07 amu
2O + (2 x 16.00) amu
SO2 64.07 amu
SO2
 Atomic mass vs Molar mass
For any element
“numerically
atomic mass (amu) = = molar mass (grams)
same”

1 atom 1 mole (6.02 x 1023 atoms)

Fe 55.85 amu 55.85 g

S 32.07 amu 32.07 g
O 16.00 amu 16.00 g
 Molecular mass vs Molar mass
For any compound
Molecular mass (amu) = “numerically = molar mass (grams)
same”
1 molecule /
1 formula unit 1 mole (6.02 x 1023particles)
H2O 18.02 amu 18.02 g
NaCl 58.44 amu 58.44 g
Micro World Macro World
atoms & grams
molecules
Calculate the mass of:

a) 1 atom C (in amu)

b) 1 atom C (in g)
c) 1 mol of atom C (in g)
d) 1 molecule of CO2 (in g)
e) 1 mol of CO2 (in g)

Refer to periodic table for the atomic mass

a) 1 atom C (in amu)
= 12.01 amu 1 mole C ≡ 6.023x1023 atoms C
b) 1 atom C (in g)
= 12.01 g
6.02 x 1023
= 2.0 x 10 g
–23

c) 1 molecule of atom C (in g)

= 12.01 g
d) 1 molecule of CO2 (in g)
= 44.01 g 1 mole CO 2 ≡ 6.023x10 23 molecules CO
2
6.02 x 1023
= 7.3 x 10 g
–23

e) 1 molecule of CO2 (in g)

= 12.01 g + 2 x16.00 g
= 44.01 g
 KEEP IN MIND!!!
EXAMPLE : H 2O
Atomic Mass (1 atom)
Unit: amu
Ar or Mr
no unit Molecular Mass (1 molecule)
Unit: amu 18 amu
18
Molar Mass (1 mol of molecules)
Unit: g/mol 18 g/mol

For calculation of mole, use molar mass

KEEP IN MIND!!!
The mole concept provide the bridge
between mass and number of entities

GRAMS
use molar mass
MOLES
use Avogadro’s number
MOLECULES or ATOMS
 Calculating moles

Number of mole = Mass (g)

Molar Mass (g mol-1)

Conversion factor:
EXAMPLE:
1 mol of Fe = 55.85 g of Fe
1 mol of Fe contains 6.023 x 1023 atoms Fe
In 14 g of N2, calculate;

(a) Number of moles if molar mass = 28 g mol-1

(b) Number of molecules

(c) Number of atoms

(a) Number of moles if molar mass = 28 g mol-1

No. of moles N2 = Mass (g)

Molar Mass ( g mol )
-1

= 14 g
28 g mol-1

= 0.5 mol
(b) Number of molecules
Number of molecules N2 = Number of mole x NA
= 0.5 x 6.023 x 1023
= 3.0115 x 10 molecules
23

(c) Number of atoms

1 molecules of N2 contains 2 atoms of N
3.0115 x 1023 molecules of N2 ≡ 2 x 3.0115 x 1023 atoms of N
= 6.023 x 1023 atoms
 EXERCISE-01
a) Silver (Ag) is used in jewelry and tableware but
no longer in the U.S coins.
How many grams of Ag are in 0.0342 mol of Ag.

b) Iron (Fe), the main component of steel, is the

most important metal in industrial society.
How many Fe atoms are in 95.8 g of Fe?

ANS:
a) 3.69 g Ag
b) 1.04 x 1024 atoms Fe
 Mole Concept of Gases
2 condition for molar volume of any gas,
⚫ At s.t.p (standard temperature and pressure)
⚫ At room temperature

At s.t.p At room temperature

The condition, The condition,
Pressure = 1 atm Pressure = 1 atm
Temperature = 0oC @ 273K Temperature = 25oC @ 298K
Molar volume gas = 22.4 dm3 mole-1 Molar volume gas= 24.0 dm3 mole-1
A balloon is filled with hydrogen gas at s.t.p. If the volume of
the balloon is 2.24 dm3, calculate the amount (mole) of
hydrogen gas.

Solution 1
22.4 dm 3consists 1 mole of hydrogen gas
2.24 dm consists 1 mole x 2.24 dm of hydrogen gas
3 3

22.4 dm3

So, number of mole = 0.1 mol of hydrogen gas

A balloon is filled with hydrogen gas at s.t.p. If the volume of
the balloon is 2.24 dm3, calculate the amount (mole) of
hydrogen gas.

Solution 2
Number of mole = volume of gas (dm )
3

22.4 dm3 mol-1

= ___2.24 dm3____
22.4 dm3 mol-1
= 0.1 mol
A sample of CO2 has a volume of 56 cm3 at STP. Calculate:

a) The number of moles of gas molecules

b) The number of molecules
c) The number of oxygen atoms in the sample

Note: 1 dm3 = 1000 cm3

1 dm3 = 1L
 ALERT!! 56 cm3 ≡ 0.056 dm3

a) At STP;
22.4 dm3 ≡ 1 mole of CO2
0.056 dm3 = 0.0025 mole

b) Number of molecules CO2 = number of mol x NA

= 0.0025 x 6.023 x 1023
= 1.506 x 1021 molecules

c) 1 molecule of CO2 ≡ 2 O atoms

1.506 x 1021 molecule of CO2 = (1.506 x 1021 x 2 ) O atoms
= 3.011 x 1021 O atoms
 Type of Chemical Formula
➢ Empirical Formula
➢ Molecular Formula
➢ Structural Formula
➢ Formula Unit (for ionic compounds)

Example: Benzene
Empirical Formula = (CH)n
Molecular Formula = C6H6
Structural Formula =
 Definition…
EMPIRICAL FORMULA:
Shows the simplest ratio of atoms of each element in a compound.

MOLECULAR FORMULA:
Shows the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule of the
compound.

EXAMPLE:Hydrogen peroxide
Empirical Formula = (HO)n
Molecular Formula = H2O2
 KEEP IN MIND!!!
The relationship between empirical formula and molecular formula is :

Molecular formula = n (empirical formula)

Where ;
molecular mass @ molar mass
n=
emprical formula mass
 MASS % FROM CHEMICAL FORMULA
Percent Composition by mass

CO2
What mass % of C in CO2?
What mass % of O in CO2?

Mass % of element X = moles of X (mol) x molar mass of X (g/mol) x 100

molar mass of compound (g/mol)
Calculate the mass % (percent composition) of each
element in ethanol, C2H6O.

C2 H 6 O
Given; Molecular formula = C2H6O
Molar mass of ethanol C2H6O = 46.07 g

%C = 2 x (12.01 g) x 100% = 52.14%

46.07 g

%H = 6 x (1.008 g) x 100% = 13.13%

46.07 g

%O = 1 x (16.00 g) x 100% = 34.73%

46.07 g
***Check: 52.14% + 13.13% + 34.73% = 100.0%
 EXERCISE-02
Glucose C6H12O6 is the most important nutrient
in the living cell for generating chemical potential
energy.
a) What is the mass % of each element in glucose?
b) How many grams of carbon are in 16.55 g of
glucose?

ANS:
a) 40.00 % C, 6.71 % H, 53.29% O
b) 6.620 g C
 Elemental analysis of a sample of an ionic compound gave the
following results;
2.82 g of Na, 4.35 g of Cl, and 7.83 g of O.
What is the empirical formula of the compound?

**Calculation empirical formula based on mass of elements

 Element Na Cl O

Step 1 Mass 2.82 g 4.35 g 7.83 g

Step 2 2.82 g 4.35 g 7.83 g

Mole 22.99 g/mol 35.45 g/mol 16.00 g/mol
= 0.123 mol = 0.123 mol = 0.489 mol

Step 3 0.123 mol 0.123 mol 0.489 mol

Mole ratio 0.123 mol 0.123 mol 0.123 mol
(simplest
ratio) 1.00 1.00 3.98

Empirical Formula = NaClO4

A sample of hydrocarbon contains 85.7% carbon and 14.3%
hydrogen by mass. Its molar mass is 56. Determine the empirical
formula and molecular formula of the compound.

**Calculation molecular formula based on % by mass

 Element C H
Step 1 Mass 85.7 14.3
Step 2 Number of mol 85.7 14.3
12 1
= 7.1417 = 14.3
Step 3 Simplest ratio 1 2

So, the empirical formula = (CH2)n

n = molecular mass @ molar mass = 56 =4

empirical formula mass 14
Molecular formula = C4H8
A caproic acid, which is responsible for the foul odor of dirty socks.
Combustion of a 0.225 g sample of this compound produces
0.512 g CO2 and 0.209 g H2O. What is the empirical formula of
caproic acid? Caproic acid has a molar mass of 116 g /mol. What
is its molecular formula?

**Calculation molecular formulae from combustion process

 CxHyOz + O2 CO2 + H2O
0.225g 0.512 g 0.209 g

Mass of C = 1 x12 g (molar mass of C) x mass of CO2

44 g (molar mass of CO2)
= 12 g x 0.512 g = 0.140 g
44 g
2 x 1 g (molar mass of H)
Mass of H = x mass of H2O
18 g (molar mass of H2O)
= 2 g x 0.209 g = 0.023 g
18 g
Given, mass of sample = 0.225 g
Mass of O = 0.225 g – ( 0.140 g + 0.023 g)
= 0.062 g
 CxHyOz + O2 CO2 + H2O
0.225g 0.512 g 0.209 g
Element C H O
Step 1 Mass 0.140 g 0.023 g 0.062 g
Step 2 0.140 g 0.023 g 0.062 g
Mole 12.01 g/mol 1 g/mol 16 g/mol
= 0.0117 mol = 0.0230 mol = 0.0038 mol
Step 3 0.0117 0.0230 0.0038
Mole 0.0038 0.0038 0.0038
Ratio = 3.08 = 6.05 = 1.00
≈3 ≈6 =1

Empirical formula = C3H6O

 Empirical formula = C3H6O

Molar mass of caproic acid = n

Molar mass of empirical formula (C3H6O)
116 g/mol = 2
58.03 g/mol

Molecular Formula = (C3H6O)2

= C6H12O2
 EXERCISE-03

A combustion of 0.202 g of an organic sample that

contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen produce
0.361g carbon dioxide and 0.147 g water. If the
relative molecular mass of the sample is 148, what is
the molecular formula.

ANS:
C6H12O4
 EXERCISE-04

During physical activity, lactic acid (molar mass = 90.08 g/mol)

forms in muscle tissue and is responsible for muscle soreness.
Elemental analysis shows that it contains
40.0 mass % C, 6.7 mass % H and 53.3 mass % O.

a) Determine the empirical formula of lactic acid.

b) Determine the molecular formula.

ANS:
a) CH2O
b) C3H6O3
 EXERCISE-05
One of the most widespread environmental carcinogens
(cancer–causing agents) is benzo[a]pyrene (molar mass =
252.30 g/mol). It is found in coal dust, in cigarette smoke,
and even in charcoal–grilled meat.
Analysis of this hydrocarbon shows 95.21 mass % C
and 4.79 % mass % H. What is the molecular formula
of benzo[a]pyrene?
**Calculation molecular formula based on % by mass

ANS:
C20H12
 KEEP IN MIND!!!
Chemical formulas are written with whole numbers.
Beware of the rounding off!
EXAMPLE:
C H O
mole ratio 1.00 1.33 1.00
Empirical formula = CHO
Do try–and–error procedure:
1.33 x 1 = 1.33 , 1.33 x 2 = 2.66 , 1.33 x 3 = 3.99 ~ 4
mole ratio 1.00 x 3 1.33 x 3 1.00 x 3
= 3.00 = 3.99 = 3.00
Empirical formula = C3H4O3 correct
 EXERCISE-06

Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) cures scurvy and may

help prevent the common cold. It is composed of
40.92 % C, 4.58 % H and 54.50 % O by mass.
Determine its empirical formula.

**Calculation molecular formula based on % by mass

ANS:
C3H4O3
 EXERCISE-07

Vanillin has 63.15% C, 5.25% H, and 31.6% O.

What is the empirical formula of vanillin.

ANS:
C8H8O3
 CONCENTRATION

Concentrations of solutions in daily life

 Homogenous mixture of two or more
substances
SOLUTE
Substance present in the smaller amount

SOLVENT
Substance present in the larger amount
use to dissolve solute
2 types of solvent,
i) non-polar (example; benzene)
ii) polar (common: water)
 solvent
water

solution
CuSO4
solution
solute
CuSO4
 KEEP IN MIND!!!
Make clear the followings
when solving problems involved
concentrations of solution

EXAMPLE:
What is the solute? NaOH
What is the solvent? water
What is the solution? NaOH solution
Amount of solute present in a given quantity of solvent or solution
Concentration terms:
Molarity (M)
Molality (m)
Mole fraction (X)
Percentage by mass (mass %)
Percentage by volume (volume%)
⚫ The number of moles of solute per cubic decimetre (dm3) or.
⚫ litre (L) of solution

⚫ Molarity, M = moles of solute (mol)

⚫ Volume of solution (dm3)

Unit : mol dm-3 or mol L-1 or Molar(M)

Note:
1 dm3 = 1000 cm3
1L = 1000 mL
A student prepared a solution of NaCl by dissolving
1.461 g of NaCl in a 250 mL volumetric flask. What is
the molarity of this solution?
 From Q…; Solute = NaCl
Mass NaCl = 1.461g Solvent = pure water
Volume solution = 250 ml Solute + solvent = NaCl solution
Molarity = ???

Mole of NaCl = 1.461 g = 0.025 mol NaCl

58.44 g/mol
Moles of NaCl
Molarity = Volume of NaCl solution (in L)

= 0.025 mol
0.250 L
= 0.100 M of NaCl solution
 What mass of KI is required to make 500 mL of a
2.80 M KI solution?
SOLUTION

From Q…; Solute = Kl

Mass KI = ??? g Solvent = pure water
Volume solution = 500 ml Solute + solvent = KI solution
Molarity = 2.8 M
 Moles of KI
Molarity =
Volume of Kl solution (in L)

Mole of solute = Molarity x Volume of solution (in L)

Mole of KI = 2.80 mol/L x 0.50 L
= 1.400 mol

Mass = Mole x Molar Mass

Mass of KI = 1.400 mol x 166 g/mol
= 232.4 g
 EXERCISE-08

What is the molarity of an 85.0 mL ethanol

(C2H5OH) solution containing 1.77 g ethanol?

ANS:
0.452 M
 KEEP IN MIND!!!
In a solution,
Volume of solution ≠ volume of solvent
Mass of solution ≠ mass of solvent
This is because;
Mass of solution = mass of solute + mass of solvent
V solution = V solvent + V solute

Solution is made up by dissolving solute in solvent

Bitter tea (solvent) sweet tea (solution)

⚫ Molality is the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 kg of
solvent

⚫ Molality, m = moles of solute (mol)

⚫ mass of solvent (kg)

Unit : mol kg-1 or molal or m

ACTIVITY - 02

Please calculate the molality

of the solution! (glucose, C6H12O6)
 ACTIVITY - 02
From Q…;
Mass glucose = 4.8 g Solute = glucose
mass solvent = 90 g Solvent = pure water
Molality = ???

Mole of C6H12O6 = 4.8 g

180.06 g/mol
= 0.02666 mol C6H12O6

Molality = Moles of C6H12O6

Mass of solvent (H2O) (in kg)
= 0.02666 mol
0.09 kg
= 0.3 m of C6H12O6 solution
What is the molal concentration of a solution prepared
by dissolving 0.30 mole of CuCl in 40.0 mole of water

SOLUTION
From Q…;
Solute = CuCl
Mol water = 40 mole
Solvent = pure water
Mol solute = 0.3 mole
Molality = ???
Mass of H2O = Mol of H2O x molar mass of H2O
= 40.0 mol x 18.02 g mol -1

= 720.8 g @ 0.7208 kg

Moles of CuCl
Molality =
Mass of solvent (kg)
= 0.3 mol
0.7208 kg
= 0.416 m
 EXERCISE-09

What is the molality of a solution prepared by

dissolving 32.0 g of CaCl2 in 271 g of water?
(Molar mass of CaCl2 = 110.98 g/mol)

ANS:
1.06 m
ANS: EXERCISE-09
Mole of CaCl2 = 32 g = 0.288 mol
110.98 g/mol

Molality = Moles of CaCl2

Mass of solvent (H2O) (in kg)
= 0.288 mol
0.271 kg
= 1.063 mol kg -1
 EXERCISE-10
How many grams of glucose (C6H12O6) must
be dissolved in 563 g of ethanol (C2H5OH) to
prepare a 2.40 x 10–2 m solution?

From Q…;
mass solute = ??? Solute = glucose
Mass solvent = 563 g Solvent = ethanol
Molality = 2.4 x 10-2 m

ANS:
2.43 g glucose
ANS: EXERCISE-10
From Q…; Solvent = ethanol, C2H5OH
Mass solvent = 563 g Solute = glucose, C6H12O6
Molality = 2.4 x 10-2 m
46 g
Molar mass C2H5OH = ___
Mass solute = ???
Molar mass C6H12O6 = 180
___ g
Molality = mole solute
mass solvent (kg)
mole (solute) = mass
2.4 x 10-2 m = mole solute
Molar mass
0.563 kg
mole solute = ____ mol mass = mole x molar mass
= ________ g
 EXERCISE-11
Calculate the molality of a 5.86 M ethanol
(C2H5OH) solution whose density is 0.927 g/mL.

From Q…; Solute = ethanol, C2H5OH

Molarity = 5.86 M Solvent = water, H2O
Density = 0.927 g/mL
Molar mass C2H5OH = ___ g
Molality = ???
Molar mass H2O = ___ g

ANS:
8.90 m
 ANS: EXERCISE-11
From Q…; Solute = ethanol, C2H5OH
molarity = 5.86 M Solvent = water, H2O
Molar mass C2H5OH = ___46 g
ρ (solution) = 0.927 g/mL
Molality =- ??? 18 g
Molar mass H2O = ___
Molarity = mol solute ρ(solution) = mass (solution)
volume solution Volume (solution)
5.86 = mol solute 0.927 g/mL = mass solution
1 volume solution (L) 1000 mL (1 L)
Thus, mol solute = 5.86 Thus, mass solution = 927 g
volume solution = 1 L 927 g = mass solute + mass water
= 269.56 g + mass water
Mole solute = mass C2H5OH Thus, mass water = 927 – 269.56 g
molar mass C2H5OH = 657.44 g
5.86 = mass solute (g)
46 (g/mol) molality = mole solute
= 269.56 g mass solvent (in kg)
ANS: EXERCISE-11
From Q…;
Solvent = ethanol, C2H5OH
Mass solvent = 563 g
Solute = glucose, C6H12O6
Molality = 2.4 x 10-2 m
Mass solute = ???
From calculation;
Mass solution = 927 g Mole solute = 5.86 mol
Mass solute = 269.56 g Volume solution = 1 L
Thus; Mass solution = 927 – 269.56 = 657.44 g
Molality = mole solute
mass solvent (kg)
= 5.86 mol
0.657 kg
8.9 molal
= _____
 SELF-STUDY
a) Explain what is dilution.
b) Write the general formula for dilution.
c) Explain the steps of
preparation of diluted
solution in laboratory.
 SELF-STUDY
Dilution
..is a procedure for preparing less concentrated solution from a more
concentrated solution.
Note:
Not necessary to change mL to L
But, unit of Vi and Vf must be same

MiVi = MV
f f
Moles of solute = Moles of solute
before dilution (i) after dilution (f)
SELF-STUDY
Dilution
Add Solvent

MiVi = MfVf
Moles of solute = Moles of solute
before dilution (i) after dilution (f)

Note: Not necessary to change mL to L

But, unit of Vi and Vf must be same
SELF-STUDY
How would you prepare 60.0 mL of 0.2 M
HNO3 from a stock solution of 4.00 M HNO3?

Dilution
Add Solvent
 MiVi = MfVf
Mi = 4.00 Mf = 0.200 Vf = 0.060 L Vi = ? L

M f Vf 0.200 M x 0.060 L
Vi = =
Mi 4.00 M
= 0.003 L @ 3 mL

3 mL of acid + 57 mL of = 60 mL of solution
(HNO3) water
 EXERCISE-12
A particular analytical chemistry procedure requires
0.0100 M K2CrO4. What volume of 0.250 M K2CrO4
must be diluted with water to prepare 0.250 L of
0.0100 M K2CrO4?

ANS:
10.0 mL
Mole fraction is the ratio of the number of moles of one component
to the total number of moles of all component present.

Mole fraction (X) = mole of solute

mole of solute + mole of solvent

No unit
Mole % = mole fraction x 100
Total mole fraction = XA + XB + XC = 1
Sometimes written as % (w/w)
Percentage by mass is defined as the percentage of the
mass of solute per mass of solution.

Mass % = Mass of solute

x 100
Mass of solution

Mass Solution = mass solute + mass solvent

A sample of 0.892 g of potassium chloride is dissolved in
54.3 g of water. What is percentage by mass in the solution?
SOLUTION:

Mass % = Mass of solute

x 100
Mass of solution

= 0.892 x 100
0.892 + 54.3
= 1.61%
 Calculate the amount of water (in grams) that must
be added to 5.00 g of urea in the preparation of a
16.2 % by mass solution.

From Q…;
Mass solute = 5.00 g Solute = urea
Mass % = 16.2 % (solute) Solvent = water
Mass water = ???
 Mass % = Mass of solute
x 100
Mass of solution

16.2 = 5.00 x 100

Mass of solution
Mass of solution = 5.00 x 100
16.2
= 30.86 g

Mass of solution = mass of solute + mass of solvent

30.86 = 5.00 + mass of solvent
Mass of solvent = 30.86 – 5.00
= 25.86 g
Defined as the percentage of volume of solute in milliliter per
volume of solution in milliliter.

Volume % = Volume of solute

x 100
Volume of solution

Common symbol: % (v/v)

Most often used for liquids and gas
A 200 mL of perfume contains 28 mL of alcohol. What is the
% by volume of alcohol in this solution?
SOLUTION:

Volume
= of alcohol (mL)
x 100
Volume of solution (mL)

= 28
x 100
200
= 14 %
A sample of commercial concentrated hydrochloric
acid is 11.8 M HCl and has a density of 1.190 g/mL.
Calculate;

a) the mass %,
b) molality,
c) mole fraction of HCl.
 From Q…; Solute = HCl
Molarity = 11.8 M Solvent = water
ρ (solution) = 1.19 g/mL 36.45 g
Molar mass HCl = ______
Mass % (solute) = ???? 18 g
Molar mass H2O = ______
ρ(solution) = mass (solution)
Molarity = mol solute Volume (solution)
volume solution (L) 1.19 g/mL = mass solution
11.8 = mol solute 1000 mL (1 L)
1 volume solution (L)
Thus, mass solution = 1190 g
Thus, mol solute = 11.8
759.89
mass solvent = _______g
volume solution = 1 L
a) Mass % = mass solute x 100
Mole solute = mass HCl mass solution
molar mass HCl b) molality = mole solute
11.8 = mass solute (g) mass solvent (kg)
36.45 (g/mol) c) X HCl = mole HCl
Thus, mass solute = 430.11 g (mole HCl + mole water)
 Mass of solute (HCl) x 100
a) Mass % =
Mass of solution (HCl + water)

= 430.11 g x 100
1190 g
= 36.2 %
b) Mass of solution = mass of HCl + mass of solvent
Mass of solvent = 1190 g – 430.11 g
= 759.89 g solvent
@ 0.760 kg solvent

Moles of solute (HCl)

Molality =
Mass of solvent (in kg)

= 11.8 mol
0.760 kg
= 15.5 m of HCl solution
c) From previous calculation,
Moles of HCl = 11.8 mol
Mole of H2O = 759.89 g = 42.22 mol H2O
18.0 g/mol

Mole fraction (X) of HCl = ______mole of HCl_______

Mole of HCl + mole of H2O

= ____11.8 mol_____
11.8 mol + 42.22 mol
= 0.218
 EXERCISE-13
Hydrogen peroxide H2O2 is a powerful oxidizing agent
used in concentrated solution in rocket fuels and in dilute
solution as a hair bleach.
An aqueous solution of H2O2 is 30.0% by mass and has a
density of 1.11 g/mL. Calculate its:

a) Molality
b) Mole fraction of H2O2
c) Molarity
ANS:
a) 12.6 m
b) 0.185
c) 9.79 M
 ANS: EXERCISE-13 Solute = H2O2
From Q…; Solvent = water
ρ (solution) = 1.11 g/mL
Mass % = 30% (solute) ρ(solution) = mass (solution)
Volume (solution)
1.11 g/mL = mass of solution in (g)
volume of solution (ml)
Mass % = mass of solute (g) x 100 Thus,
mass of solution volume of solution = mass of solution
density
30 = mass of solute (g)
= 100 = 90.09 ml
100 Mass of solution (g)
1.11
Thus, mass solute = 30 g a)Molality ?
mass solution = 100 g b)Mole fraction ?
c)Molarity ?
 ANS:EXERCISE-13 Solute = H2O2
From previous… , Solvent = water
ρ (solution) = 1.11 g/mL
Mass % = 30% (solute)
mass solute = 30 g
mass solution = 100 g Mass solvent = 100 – 30 = 70 g
Volume of solution = 90.09 mL

a) Molality = __Moles of solute____

Mass of solvent (in kg)
b) Mole fraction, x = ______mole of solute________
Mole of solute + mole of H2O
c) Molarity = ___Mole of solute___
Volume of solution (in L)
 EXERCISE-14

1. How many grams of NaOH and water are needed to

prepare 250.0 g of 1.00% NaOH solution?

2. Hydrochloric acid can be purchased as a solution of 37%

HCl. What is the mass of this solution contains 7.5 g of
HCl?

ANS:
1) 2.50 g; 247.5 g
2) 20.27 g