Chapter 2 –

Measurements and Computations

TOP IC S:
ROU G H D ISTANC E MEASU REMENTS: PAC IN G AN D MEASU RIN G WHEEL
MEASU REMEN T OF HORIZON TAL D ISTAN C ES: TAP IN G
ERRORS IN MEASU REMENT: TAPING MISTAKES, ERRORS, AN D CORREC TION S
ELEC TRON IC D ISTAN C E MEASU REMEN T (ED M)
ROUGH DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS: Pacing
•Pacing simply involves counting steps or paces •For example, if a surveyor has a unit pace of
while walking naturally along the line to be 2.7 ft/pace and walks a line while counting
measured. The surveyor’s unit pace length is 86.5 paces, the distance is computed as
then multiplied by the number of paces
counted. Distance = 2.7 ft/pace * 86.5 paces = 234 ft
Note: Paces may be counted to the nearest half pace;
•A unit pace is taken as the distance between the paced distances should be rounded to no more than
left and right toes (or left and right heels) or vice three significant figures.
versa of two successive positions (see Figure).
•It is expressed in terms of meters per pace
(m/pace) or feet per pace (ft/pace). (Some
surveyors count full strides instead of paces; a
stride comprises two paces.)
Distance = unit pace * number of paces
Determining a Unit Pace
•A unit pace can easily be determined by walking
normally along a line of known distance on level
ground.
•The number of paces taken to walk the distance
is counted.
•The unit pace is then computed as the ratio of
known distance to the average number of
paces.
Determining a Unit Pace
Example b. The 95 percent error and Relative accuracy
A surveying student walked along a given line that was
known to be 200.0 ft long to determine her average unit pedometer
pace. She paced the line five times, recording 78, 76.5, (step counter)
77, 87, and 76 paces, respectively, in her field book.
a. Determine her average unit pace.
b. Compute the 95 percent error from the given data, and
determine the relative accuracy of her pacing method. σ∆ 2 2.19
E95 = 1.96 × = 1.96 ×
c. If the surveyor then counted an average of 123.5 paces n n−1 4 4−1

while pacing off a line of unknown distance, what is the 𝐄𝟗𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟖 paces
distance? 𝐷
Solution: Relative accuracy = 1: 𝐶 where D = 76.9 paces
a. C = 0.8
76.9
Relative accuracy = 1: 0.8
Relative accuracy = 1:96

c. Measured distance = 2.6 ft/pace × 123.5 paces

Measured distance = 320 ft
ROUGH DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS: Measuring Wheel
•A simple measuring wheel mounted on a rod
can be used to determine distance by pushing
the rod and rolling the wheel along the line to
be measured (see Figure 4-2).
•An attached device called an odometer serves to
count the number of turns, or revolutions, of
the wheel.
•From the known circumference of the wheel
and the number of revolutions, distances for
reconnaissance can be determined with relative
accuracies of about 1:200.
•This device is particularly useful for rough
measurements of distance along curved lines, as
well as for quick checks of route survey
measurements or construction pay quantity
measurements.
Measurement of HORIZONTAL Distances: Taping
Tapes – Steel tapes (Cut tape, Add tape, Invar/Lovar tapes)
Accessories – plumb bob, hand level, tension handle, tape thermometer, tape clamp handle, tape
repair kits, nonmetallic woven (synthetic yarn) or fiber glass tapes
Taping Accuracy – most ordinary taping surveys has about 1:5000 accuracy
Standard Conditions for the Use of Steel Tapes
1. Temperature = 20°C or 68°F
2. Tape fully supported throughout
3. Tape under a tension of 50 N (Newtons).
Errors in measurement: TAPING MISTAKES, ERRORS, AND CORRECTIONS

ERROR SYSTEMATIC (S)

TYPE OR ACCIDENTAL (A)
Tape length S
Temperature S or A
Pull S or A
Sag S
Alignment S
Tape not level S
Plumbing A
Marking A
Interpolation A
 Sources of Error in Taping
Incorrect Tape Length Temperature other than standard
𝑙 − 𝑙′ 𝐶𝑇 = 𝑘 𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑆 𝐿
𝐶𝐿 = 𝐿
𝑙′ where CT = correction in the length of a line
caused by nonstandard temperature
where CL = correction to be applied to the
measured (recorded) length of a line k = coefficient of thermal expansion and
to obtain the true length contraction of the tape
𝑙 = actual tape length 𝑇1 = tape temperature at the time of
measurement
𝑙′ = nominal tape length
TS = tape temperature when it has
L = the measured (recorded) length of
standard length
line
L = the measured (recorded) length of
line
 Sources of Error in Taping
Inconsistent Pull Sag
𝐿 𝑤 2 𝐿3𝑆
𝐶𝑃 = 𝑃1 − 𝑃𝑆 𝐶𝑆 = −
𝐴𝐸 24𝑃12
where where 𝐶𝑆 = correction for sag (difference
𝐶𝑃 = total elongation in tape length due between length of curved tape and
to pull straight line from one support to the
next)
𝑃1 = pull applied to the tape at the time
of the observation 𝐿𝑆 = unsupported length of the tape

PS = standard pull for the tape w = weight of the tape per unit of length

A = cross-sectional area of the tape P1 = pull on the tape

E = modulus of elasticity of steel

L =the measured (recorded) length of line
 Sources of Error in Taping
Tape not horizontal (Slope correction) and/or
tape off-Line
𝐻 = 𝐿2 − 𝑑 2
𝑑 𝐻
sin 𝛼 = ; c𝑜𝑠 𝛼 =
𝐿 𝐿
where
𝐶 = correction due to slope and/or tape
off-Line
L = measured (recorded) length of slope
d = difference in elevation
𝛼 = angle of slope
 Sources of Error in Taping: Normal Tension
•The error in measurement due to sag can sometimes be eliminated by increasing the applied
tension. Tension that eliminates sag errors is known as normal tension.

where Pn = normal tension

w = weight of the tape per unit of length
A = cross-sectional area of tape
E = modulus elasticity of tape
PS = standard pull for the tape
Sources of Error in Taping
•Improper Plumbing
Practice and steady nerves are necessary to hold a plumb bob still long enough
to mark a point. The plumb bob will sway, even in calm weather. On very gradual
slopes and on smooth surfaces such as pavements, inexperienced tapepersons
obtain better results by laying the tape on the ground instead of plumbing.
Experienced tapepersons plumb most measurements.

•Faulty Marking
Chaining pins should be set perpendicular to the taped line but inclined 45° to
the ground. This position permits plumbing to the point where the pin enters the
ground without interference from the loop.

•Incorrect reading or Interpolation

The process of reading to hundredths on tapes graduated only to tenths, or to
thousandths on tapes graduated to hundredths, is called interpolation. Errors
from this source are random over the length of a line. They can be reduced by
care in reading, employing a magnifying glass, or using a small scale to determine
the last figure.
Electronic Distance Measurement
•Types of EDMIs
With regard to With regard to
carrier signal measuring range

medium- or
electro-optical microwave
short-range intermediate- long-range
instruments instruments
range
•Reflecting Prisms
Modern electro-optical instruments transmit either low-power laser light or invisible infrared
light. A special reflecting prism set up over the opposite station returns the transmitted signal to
the EDMI, like a mirror.
•Total Station Theodolite
In the current generation, EDM instruments are combined with digital theodolites* and
microprocessors to produce total station instruments. They can automatically measure, process,
and record horizontal and vertical distances, as well as station coordinates and elevations.
*a surveying instrument with a rotating telescope for measuring horizontal and vertical angles.
Worked Problems
1. The slope measurement between two points 3. The point of intersection of the center line of
is 36.255 m and the slope angle is 1°50′. Elm Rd. with the center line of First St. was
Compute the horizontal distance. originally recorded (using a 30-m steel tape)
as being at 6 + 11.233. How far from existing
2. A 30-m steel tape, known to be 30.004 m station mark 5 + 00 on First St. would a
(under standard conditions), was used to surveyor have to measure along the center
record a measurement of 129.085 m. What is line to reestablish the intersection point
the distance corrected for the erroneous under the following conditions? Temperature
tape length? to be -6°C, with a tape that is 29.995 m under
standard conditions.
4. A 50-m tape is used to measure between two
points. The average weight of the tape per
meter is 0.320 N. If the measured distance
is 48.888 m, with the tape supported at the
ends only and with a tension of 100 N, find
the corrected distance.
Problem Plates Set 2
1. A surveying student walked along a 300-ft line on level ground five times and counted 122, 121, 102,
123, and 121.5 paces each time, from the beginning to the end of the line. (a) Determine her average
unit pace, and (b) compute the 95 percent error and determine the relative accuracy of her pacing
method.
2. When measuring a distance AB, the first taping pin was placed 1.0 ft to the right of line AB and the
second pin was set 0.5 ft left of line AB. The recorded distance was 236.89 ft. Calculate the corrected
distance. (Assume three taped segments, the first two 100 ft each.)
3. It is required to lay out a rectangular commercial building 200.00 ft wide and 350.00 ft long. If the steel
tape being is 100.02 ft long (under standard conditions), what distances should be laid out?
4. Station 2 + 33.33 must be marked in the field. If the steel tape to be used is only 99.98 ft (under
standard conditions) and if the temperature is 87°F at the time of the measurement, how far from the
existing station mark at 0 + 79.23 will the surveyor have to measure to locate the new station?
5. A steel tape with a standardized length of 30.009 m is used to lay out and mark a distance on level
ground; the required horizontal distance is 100.000 m. The average temperature at the time of
measurement is 25°C. What distance should be laid out between the two points under those conditions
so that the actual horizontal distance will be 100.000 m? (Assume normal tension is used.)
 Chapter 3 –
MEASURING VERTICAL DISTANCES
TOP IC S:
P RIN C IP LES OF LEVELIN G
LEVELIN G EQ U IP MEN T
LEVELING PROC ED U RES
VERTIC AL CON TROL
PROFILE LEVELIN G
TRIG O N O METRIC LEVELIN G