Examining Gender Responsive Implementation of National

Climate Change Policies

by
Anusheh Fawad

A thesis
presented to the University of Waterloo
in fulfillment of the
thesis requirement for the degree of
Master of Environmental Studies
in
Sustainability Management

Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, 2019

© Anusheh Fawad 2019
 Author’s Declaration

I hereby declare that I am the sole author of this thesis. This is a true copy of the thesis, including
any required final revisions, as accepted by my examiners.

I understand that my thesis may be made electronically available to the public.

ii
 Abstract

Globally, there is a growing recognition of implementing gender considerations into

national climate change policies and actions. However, examining climate policies at the
domestic level remains an under researched topic. The aim of this study is to investigate if
countries are reflecting gender equality concerns and the linkages between climate change
within their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and National Communications
(NCs) (both of which are national climate change policies) in a gender responsive manner.
Through the literature review, which incorporates feminist perspectives, this research
identifies five key concepts that can contribute to the gender responsive implementation of
climate change policies. The following five concepts were used to build the gender responsive
criteria: human rights, gender equal participation, power relations, gender mainstreaming and
budgeting. Using the gender responsive criteria, I performed thematic analysis of six countries
(Brazil, Canada, Egypt, Finland, Indonesia and Sweden) NDCs and NCs.
The thematic analysis revealed various findings regarding the reflection of gender
responsive implementation in the policies analyzed. Several data extracts displayed multiple
connections with the gender responsive criteria, however the majority of the NDCs and NCs
did not incorporate gender-responsive concepts consistently throughout the policies. Much of
the language pertaining to gender equality was geared towards promoting gender equality and
empowering girls and women in developing countries; frequently positioned women as
vulnerable in the context of climate change and often discussed gender in relation to
adaptation and disaster reduction strategies. Such findings were anticipated as these issues are
highlighted across the gender and climate change policy literature. However, the results from
the analysis provided useful insights on the current situation on gender responsive
implementation in NDCs and NCs.

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Acknowledgements

First and foremost, I would like to extend my gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Neil Craik, who
supported and provided me with guidance through this challenging yet rewarding journey. I
am also extremely grateful to Dr. Andrea Collins for her continuous support and
encouragement throughout the research project. Without the guidance of my mentors this
process would have been very difficult for me.

To my family and friends thank you from the bottom of my heart for all your support. To my
parents, thank you so much for your unconditional love. I want to especially thank my mother,
Aneela, for always being so supportive of my dreams and teaching me to stand up for what I
believe in. A special thank you to my partner, Tyler, words cannot express how much I
appreciate your kind and encouraging words. Without your love and support I would not be
able to overcome all the breakdowns I had during this process. I feel so lucky to be surrounded
by such loving, caring and supportive people.

Lastly, thank you to all those people who work tirelessly to advocate for gender equality and
women’s rights in the reality of climate change. Your efforts and demands for social and
environmental justice encourage me to stand up and support the necessary changes for a better
future.

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Table of Contents
Author’s Declaration ........................................................................................ ii
Abstract ............................................................................................................ iii
Acknowledgements .......................................................................................... iv
List of Abbreviations ...................................................................................... vii
UNFCCC Party Categories ........................................................................... viii
List of Figures .................................................................................................. ix
List of Tables ..................................................................................................... x
Chapter 1. Introduction .................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background of the Problem..........................................................................................................1
1.2 Significance of the Problem ..........................................................................................................6
1.3 Research Questions, Objectives and Goals ............................................................................... 8
1.4 Thesis Roadmap ........................................................................................................................... 10
Chapter 2. Gender and Climate Change: A Brief History ........................... 11
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 11
2.2 Gender, Environment and Sustainable Development ........................................................ 11
2.3 Gender Impacts of Climate Change .......................................................................................... 15
2.3.1 Gender and Climate Change Adaptation.................................................................................................... 16
2.3.2 Gender and Climate Change Mitigation ..................................................................................................... 18
2.4 Climate Change Governance ...................................................................................................... 19
2.5 Gender Assessment of the Paris Agreement ......................................................................... 22
2.5.1 Gender References Found in Paris Agreement........................................................................................ 22
2.5.2 Gender References Missing in the Paris Agreement ............................................................................. 25
2.6 Gender at COP 24 .......................................................................................................................... 27
Chapter 3. Literature Review......................................................................... 30
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 30
3.1.2 Feminist Perspectives and Climate Change Policy................................................................................ 31
3.2 Importance of Human Rights and Gender Equality in Climate Change Policies ......... 32
3.3 Importance of Gender Equal Participation in Climate Change Policies ........................ 35
3.4 Examining Gender Power Relations in Climate Change Policies ......................................... 37
3.5 Gender Mainstreaming for Gender Equality in Climate Change Policies ...................... 42
3.6 Importance of Gender-Responsive Budgeting in Climate Change Policies .................. 45
3.7 Gender-Responsive Criteria for Climate Change Policies ................................................. 48
Chapter 4. Methodology ................................................................................. 52
4.1 Introduction and Research Questions .................................................................................... 52
4.2 Research Paradigm ...................................................................................................................... 53
4.2.1 Research Method.................................................................................................................................................. 57
4.2.2 Positionality as a Researcher ........................................................................................................................... 58
4.3 Dataset............................................................................................................................................. 60
4.3.1 Country Selection Process................................................................................................................................ 64
4.3.2 Relevance and Validity of Indices ................................................................................................................ 67
4.3.3 Data Sample ........................................................................................................................................................... 69

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 4.3.4 Validity of Documentary Data ....................................................................................................................... 73
4.4 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................................... 74
4.4.1 Coding Process ..................................................................................................................................................... 75
4.4.2 Limitations .............................................................................................................................................................. 80
Chapter 5. Results and Discussion ................................................................. 81
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 81
5.2 Overview of the Results from Thematic Analysis ................................................................ 82
5.2.3 Summary of Key Findings .............................................................................................................................110
5.3 Discussion .................................................................................................................................... 111
5.3.1 Human Rights ......................................................................................................................................................111
5.3.2 Gender Equal Participation ............................................................................................................................113
5.3.3 Power Relations ..................................................................................................................................................114
5.3.4 Gender Mainstreaming ....................................................................................................................................115
5.3.5 Budgeting ..............................................................................................................................................................118
5.3.6 Future Implications of the Paris Rulebook Based on Findings.......................................................119
Chapter 6. Conclusion .................................................................................. 122
6.1 Summary of Findings and Contributions of the Study ..................................................... 122
6.2 Directions for Future Research .............................................................................................. 123
References ..................................................................................................... 126
Appendix A: Summary of Data of the Comparison of Country Rankings in
GII and CCPI ................................................................................................ 141
Appendix B: In-Document Word Search of NDCs and NCs of 36 countries
........................................................................................................................ 142
Appendix C: Coding Manual ....................................................................... 143

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List of Abbreviations

BPfA- Beijing Platform for Action

CCPI- Climate Change Performance Index

CMA- Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement

COP- Conference of Parties

GAP- Gender Action Plan

GCF- Green Climate Fund

GHGs- Greenhouse gases

GII- Gender Inequality Index

GRB- Gender Responsive Budgeting

INDCs- Intended Nationally Determined Contributions

NAMAs- Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions

NAPs- National Action Plans

NCs- National Communications

NDCs- Nationally Determined Contributions

INDCs- Intended Nationally Determined Contributions

WEDO- Women’s Economic and Development Organization

UN- United Nations

UNFCCC- United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

UNHRC- United Nations Human Rights Council

UNOHCHR- United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights

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UNFCCC Party Categories

The UNFCCC divides countries into three main groups according to differing commitments:

Annex I Parties: Include the industrialized countries that were members of the OECD
(Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) in 1992, plus countries with
economies in transition (the EIT Parties), including the Russian Federation, the Baltic States,
and several Central and Eastern European States (Parties & Observers, UNFCCC).

Annex II Parties: Consist of the OECD members of Annex I, but not the EIT Parties. They
are required to provide financial resources to enable developing countries to undertake
emissions reduction activities under the Convention and to help them adapt to adverse effects
of climate change (Parties & Observers, UNFCCC).

Non-Annex I Parties: Mostly include developing countries. Certain groups of developing

countries are recognized by the Convention as being especially vulnerable to the adverse
impacts of climate change, including countries with low-lying coastal areas and those prone to
desertification and drought. Others (such as countries that rely heavily on income from fossil
fuel production and commerce) feel more vulnerable to the potential economic impacts of
climate change response measures (Parties & Observers, UNFCCC).

viii
List of Figures

Figure 1: Five Key Concepts Contributing to Gender-Responsive Climate Policies .................. 51

Figure 2: Countries Chosen Through Country Selection Criteria ....................................................... 66

Figure 3: Final List of Countries for Data Analysis .................................................................................. 72

Figure 4: Coding Matrix ...................................................................................................................................... 78

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 List of Tables

Table 1: Five Criteria for Country Selection .................................................................................................. 65

Table 2: CCPI Performance Level Values Table .......................................................................................... 69

Table 3: GII Performance Level Values Table .............................................................................................. 69

Table 4: List of Key Terms Used for In-Document Word Search.......................................................... 71

Table 5: Gender Responsive Criteria Built from Literature Review ..................................................... 76

Table 6: Key Concepts and Code Applications ............................................................................................. 79

Table 7: Code Tree ................................................................................................................................................... 79

x
 Chapter 1. Introduction

1.1 Background of the Problem

In recent years, it has become increasingly apparent that climate change affects women

and men differently (UNDP, 2010; Habtezion, 2016). The differentiated impact can be linked

to the existing gender inequalities perpetuated through customs, social practices and economic

institutions (Habtezion, 2013). As a growing body of literature confirms the need for

governing bodies to create policies and programs that respond to the needs and interests of

men and women, gender considerations are now increasing in climate change policy

discussions (Markham, 2013; Dutta, 2015; Mary Robinson Foundation, 2015; UNWomen,

2016).

One of the major governing bodies, the Conference of Parties (COP) established under

the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), an environmental

treaty adopted in 1992, is responsible for, “the implementation of the Convention and any

related legal instruments that the Conference of the Parties may adopt, and shall make, within

its mandate, the decisions necessary to promote the effective implementation of the

Convention.” (UNFCCC, 1992, Art.7(2)). Under the Convention, countries are referred to as

Parties which form the COP. Parties are further divided into three classifications according to

differing commitments: Annex I, Annex II and Non-Annex Parties (please refer to UNFCCC

Party Categories page). The COP has adopted several gender considerations and strategies

within climate policies and measures, however the effective implementation of these strategies

remains under-researched (Schalatek and Burns, 2013).

1
 The Paris Agreement (2015), adopted at the twenty-first session of the COP21, builds

upon the Convention. The Paris Agreement “creates a framework blending bottom-up and top-

down features” (Bodansky and Rajamani, 2018) where countries’ individual commitments are

nationally determined but are obliged to follow rules and procedures determined at the

international level. The agreement is to be implemented in the context of “equity and common

but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities in light of different national

circumstances” (PA, 2015, Art. 2(2)). In practice, the Principle of Common but Differentiated

Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities acknowledges that all countries will have

different means to address and respond to climate change. This is extremely important as it

avoids placing undue burden on countries and reflects the concept of practicing equity.

It is believed that the Paris Agreement is one of the first steps taken by the

international climate regime to address social issues by incorporating a human rights based

approach (Duyck et al. 2017). Within its preamble the Paris Agreement recognizes the

importance of integrating human rights, including gender equality, when taking action to

address climate change (PA, 2015, Preamble). It is well documented that climate impacts

often operate as impediments to the enjoyment of human rights, particularly for those people

that lack the capacity to respond and adapt to changes in the environment. Although climate

change is not a direct cause of gender inequality it does contribute to worsening social

conditions that impact women and men in different ways. Much of the literature on gender and

climate change emphasizes that women and girls are at particular risk in the context of climate

change. Climate impacts often exacerbate existing gender inequalities such as food insecurity,

access to resources and information, restricted mobility, gender-based violence and other

forms of gender discrimination.

2
 Therefore, the recognition of human rights including gender equality in the Paris

Agreement is a positive step towards achieving people-centered and equitable climate

solutions. At the transnational level, it is reiterated that gender equality is crucial to tackling

climate change (UN Climate Change News, 2018) and that successful climate action is

dependent on the engagement of women as decision-makers, planners and stakeholders

throughout all levels (UNWomen, 2018). Patricia Espinosa, the UN Climate Change

Executive Secretary stated, “For the Paris Agreement to succeed, women and girls must be

fully involved in climate policy. When we include women in climate solutions, we see

enhanced economic growth and the outcomes are more sustainable” (UNFCCC, 2018).

From a gender equality perspective, one of the most important features of the Paris

Agreement is its encouragement of Parties to follow a gender-responsive approach to climate

action (PA, 2015 Art. 7(5), 11(2)). Although, a number of different definitions for the term

gender-responsive exist, the central idea of the concept remains the same, which is to address

and respond to gender gaps in policy and programs. For the purpose of clarification this thesis

will use the definition provided in the report,“ Pocket Guide to Gender Equality Under the

UNFCCC”, (2017) which refers to gender-responsive as:

“Policies and approaches that entail identifying needed interventions to address gender

gaps in sector and government policies, plans and budgets; considering gender norms,

roles and relations for women and men and how they affect access to and control over

resources; and considering women’s and men’s specific needs, although these nuances

are not always clear cut. Changes are planned or made that respond to the inequities in

the lives of men or women within a given social setting and aim to remedy these

3
 inequities” (p. 53).

In order for Parties’ to integrate gender commitments outlined in the Paris Agreement,

national climate policies will need to be implemented in a gender-responsive manner. Parties

will need to ensure that actions taken to put climate policies and plans into effect contribute to

the achievement of gender equality and women’s empowerment. The Paris Agreement offers

tremendous hope for the global community to combat climate change while addressing social

inequities. Three years after it’s adoption in 2015, 181 Parties have ratified to the agreement

and are now at the implementation phase (Mayer, 2016; UN Women 2015; Koehler, 2017).

Therefore, it is timely to examine current national climate policies for gender-responsive

implementation and assess the impact of the Paris Agreement on the gender and climate

change debate.

The Paris Agreement sets out a framework for collective action on climate change and

builds upon the UNFCCC’s traditional thematic areas: mitigation, adaptation, finance,

technology, capacity building and reporting and accounting (Bodle, 2016). To strengthen the

global response to the threat of climate change, the Paris Agreement outlines three specific

objectives in Article 2: (1) Holding the increase in global average temperature well below 2

degrees or even 1.5 degrees (2) Increasing the ability to adapt to the adverse impacts of

climate change (3) Making financial flows consistent with low greenhouse gas emissions and

climate resilient development. In order to achieve these objectives, Article 3 of the Paris

Agreement requires all Parties to “undertake and communicate ambitious efforts” through

Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) as defined in the specific articles of the Paris

Agreement. Under the agreement each Party, “on the basis of equity” (Art.4 (1) p.2), is

4
required to submit NDCs that it intends to achieve every five years with the expectation that

NDCs will represent a progression of commitments to ensure they “reflect the highest possible

ambition” (Art.4 (3) p.3) and demonstrate progress over time.

Furthermore submission of NDCs will provide transparency for stakeholders to track

progress and ensure Parties’ are held accountable in meeting their stated goals (PA, 2015, Art

13 (5); 14(1)). Since NDCs are at the center of the Paris Agreement which is to implemented

on the basis of equity (Art.4 (1)), it is important to examine if the implementation of NDCs is

coherent with this principle, particularly in regards to gender equality. Because NDCs are

future contributions under the Paris Agreement and implementation is still underway, it is

worthwhile to examine if National Communications (NCs), a transparency arrangement

mentioned in the Paris Agreement (PA, 2015 Art 13(4)) is addressing gender equality and its

linkages to climate change. This is important for identifying whether or not gender is

mainstreamed across climate policies and if it is being actively addressed.

The Paris Agreement aims to contribute to building on and improving the existing

UNFCCC transparency system. Under the Paris Agreement, the enhanced transparency

framework for action and support was established to promote effective implementation with

built-in flexibility that takes into account Parties’ different capacities (PA, 2015 Art.13 (1)).

The framework requires transparency arrangements under the Convention to inform the

development of modalities, procedures and guidelines of the framework (PA, 2015 Art 13(4)).

Among these arrangements are the National Communications (NCs), which are intended to

function as both national reporting and planning documents (Nelson, 2015). The preparation

of NCs should be guided by a number of COP decisions (UNFCCC). NCs are often several

hundred pages long and provide comprehensive background information of each Party’s

5
climate policies and measures. The purpose of NCs is to provide information on a regular

basis and assess progress towards the implementation of the Convention. They provide

extensive coverage on climate mitigation and adaption measures that are linked to technology

needs, capacity development and other national circumstances. All countries under the

UNFCCC are required to submit NCs every four years, but the reporting requirements differ

for Annex I (developed) and Non-Annex I (developing) countries (IIED, 2017). Annex I

countries have to report more regularly and in greater detail as well as provide support to

developing countries in the preparation of their NCs. Whereas, Non-Annex I countries have

more flexible guidelines in relation to timing and content (IIED, 2017). In addition NCs are

highly regulated documents, which undergo a technical review process coordinated by the

secretariat and conducted by international expert review teams (UNFCCC). Under the Paris

Agreement’s enhanced transparency framework for action and support, NCs will serve as an

important tool to monitor progress of the implementation and achievement of NDCs and the

overarching objectives of the agreement (IIED, 2017). Since the Paris Agreement encourages

Parties to integrate gender considerations into climate aspects throughout climate policies and

processes including the NCs (Nelson, 2015), it is valuable to examine if NCs are incorporating

gender interests and reflecting gender commitments echoed across the international climate

regime.

Both NDCs and NCs will play a major role in the effective implementation of the Paris

Agreement, which is premised on a vision for rights-based and gender-responsive climate

action (WEDO, 2018). Therefore, analyzing these national climate policies with a gender lens

will help determine the status of gender equality in light of the Paris Agreement.

1.2 Significance of the Problem

6
 Although, references to gender in the Paris Agreement are a step closer to addressing

gender equality, the agreement must be examined through a critical lens to expose any gaps.

Feminist scholars (Jonsson, 2013; Djoudi et al, 2016) have criticized UNFCCC policies

including the Paris Agreement for having tendencies to equate gender with solely women.

Most language on gender in the agreement is contained within the adaption and capacity

building sections, implying that women have a fixed identity in relation to climate change

either as vulnerable victims or agents of change (Djoudi, 2011; Jonsson, 2011; Chant and

Sweetman, 2012). Such discourses continue to reproduce gender binaries and stereotypes

resulting in narrow conceptions of women and gender equality (Arora-Jonsson, 2011).

Likewise, it has been pointed out that the Paris Agreement does not include gender

perspectives in all areas; the lack of language on gender equality disregards the impact of

disparities related to technology and transfer, finance, and mitigation strategies ultimately

furthering gender inequality (IDRC, 2017). Equally important, a study published by the

Women’s Economic Development Organization (WEDO) (2016) performed a gender analysis

of 190 Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) and found that overall gender

integration in INDCs was fairly limited particularly across Annex I parties which made no

reference or mention of gender considerations. For instance, only 64 of the 190 countries’

mentioned women or gender and all 64 countries’ were Non-Annex I parties (developing

countries). The study also found the context in which women and gender were discussed was

most commonly in relation to adaption. My research builds upon WEDO’s gender analysis of

INDCs by going a step further and examining NDCs and NCs. This is significant since INDCs

have now been converted to NDCs after the ratification of the Paris Agreement and can be

examined based on gender commitments outlined in the agreement. Likewise, examining NCs

7
after the ratification of the Paris Agreement, adds another layer of depth to the research project

by revealing how gender concerns are being integrated into regional and national levels post-

Paris.

Overlooking gender perspectives in any climate policies and actions can result in the

failure to distinguish between the different needs of men and women (UN, 2002). Failing to

enable women in every area and at all levels of development, management and governance

risks reinforcing existing social structures and negative practices disabling their participation

and influence (Moghadam & Senftova, 2005). If the Paris Agreement lacks depth in its

commitment to gender equality by failing to acknowledge its relevance at all fronts, it may be

translated into weak gender commitments at the national level. This poses several challenges

in the implementation phase for progressing gender equality under the UNFCCC including the

Paris Agreement and other mechanisms including NDCs and NCs. Therefore, my interest is to

consider how feminist and gender equality perspectives can strengthen gender-responsive

implementation in national climate policies.

1.3 Research Questions, Objectives and Goals

Whether the principles of gender equality and human rights commitments will truly

guide climate action is dependent on the gender-responsive implementation of the Paris

Agreement (Huyer, 2016). To investigate how gender equality is reflected through national

climate policy, the following research questions have been developed. Answering the research

questions will offer deeper insights into gender-responsive implementation of the Paris

Agreement and if it meaningfully reflects the gender commitments. The research questions

are:

1. Which of the Parties that have ratified to the Paris Agreement include a strong

8
 commitment to gender equality in their Nationally Determined Contributions and

National Communications?

2. How do these Parties address gender equality concerns and the linkages between

climate change in their Nationally Determined Contributions and National

Communications?

Since several studies have highlighted the under/misrepresentation of women in most climate

relevant fields including decision-making bodies, conducting feminist research into the lack of

recognition of gendered dimensions in climate change policy is timely and seeks to address

this gap. Through a comprehensive review of the literature, which incorporates feminist

beliefs, this study identifies a list of key concepts that can contribute to the gender-responsive

implementation of climate change policies. Determining a strong commitment to gender

equality (Research Question 1) is based on which Parties exhibit a high number of references

to a list of key terms that were recognized through the literature as relevant and meaningful to

the topic under study. Equally important, the literature review aids in the development of the

gender-responsive criteria that is used to examine, through thematic analysis, how NDCs and

NCs are addressing gender equality concerns and the linkages between climate change

(Research Question 2). The research objectives and goals are provided below:

Goals:

1. Address research gaps in gender and national climate change policies

2. Identify and develop a list of key concepts that offer insight into gender-responsive

implementation.

9
Objectives:

1. To highlight key concepts that can improve the ways in which gender concerns and the

linkages between climate change are addressed in NDCs and NCs.

2. To promote the need for more feminist research and perspectives in national climate

policymaking.

1.4 Thesis Roadmap

This chapter summarizes the topic under investigation and the objectives of the study.

It is followed by the next chapter (Chapter 2), which provides a brief history on gender and

climate change including the connections between gender, environment and sustainable

development; gendered impacts of climate change; climate governance and a gender

assessment of the Paris Agreement. The next chapter (Chapter 3) provides a comprehensive

review on the gender and climate change policy literature through feminist and gender

equality perspectives. The literature review identifies a list of key concepts that contribute to

the development of gender-responsive criteria, which are used for evaluating NDCs and NCs.

The methodology chapter (Chapter 4) outlines a detailed discussion of research approaches

and tools used in the study and also explains limitations associated with the research study.

The results/discussion chapter (Chapter 5) summarizes the data analysis and synthesizes

research data and findings. It also provides an assessment of the results based on the five key

concepts of the gender responsive criteria and how they answer the research questions. Lastly,

the conclusion chapter (6) summarizes the research objectives and findings, provides

concluding remarks and directions for future research.

10
 Chapter 2. Gender and Climate Change: A Brief History

2.1 Introduction

This chapter provides a brief discussion on the history of gender and climate policy. It

includes a review of the linkages between gender, environment, sustainable development and

climate change, as well as identifies key UNFCCC gender developments and policies. The

chapter also includes a gender assessment of the Paris Agreement and focuses on the

challenges associated with its implementation at the national level. Lastly, the chapter ends

with a brief discussion on the finalization of the Paris Rulebook at COP 24 in Katowice,

Poland and its implications on the gender-responsive implementation of the Paris Agreement.

2.2 Gender, Environment and Sustainable Development

Internationally, there has been a growing recognition of the close relationship between

environmental degradation and gender impacts and how that relationship affects the progress

towards sustainable development. Quite often the connection between human society and the

physical environment seems gender neutral, meaning both women and men interact and

experience environmental impacts in similar ways (OSCE, 2009). However, research studies

linking gender and the environment suggest that the way men and women interact with the

environment is a direct result of the socio-cultural construction of gender roles and

relationships, resulting in a differentiated environmental impact for women and men (Jackson,

1993; Agarwal, 1997; Chant, 2008; Resurrección 2013; Jonsson, 2014).

It is reiterated throughout the gender, environment and development literature that

women are marginalized across all parts of the world in social, economic and political forums.

As a result, women are granted limited access to financial and material resources, restricted

11
rights, and limited voice in decision-making processes, all of which contribute to their

vulnerability to the changing climate (Habtezion, 2013). This is particularly evident in less

developed nations where women face the greatest risks and burdens from the effects of

climate change, yet their needs and concerns are most often neglected in sustainability

planning and implementation (Demetriades & Esplen, 2008).

The exclusion of women in climate change policies and decisions, led to the neglect in

their involvement regarding these matters. Through the efforts of women’s organizations and

feminists scholars assessing gender and climate change policies, more attention was drawn

towards this issue. There is now a growing body of knowledge regarding the way different

groups of women and men contribute to environment and development initiatives. This has led

to the belief that systemic changes are required if environmental concerns associated with

social and gender justice are to be implemented in the development process (Rico, 1998).

Although debates surrounding women’s interests and roles in the environment and

development were discussed in the early 1970’s, it was not until 1984 that the United Nations

Environment Programme (UNEP) established a women’s advisory group: Senior Women’s

Advisory Group on Sustainable Development (Rico, 1998). Such efforts initiated research into

the connection between women’s exclusion, the roles women fulfill and the impacts of

development on women and environmental degradation and how to address these issues. One

of the outcomes of the women’s advisory group was the Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies

for the Advancement of Women, adopted in 1985 at the World Conference to Review and

Appraise the Achievements of the UN Decade for Women. This advisory group integrated the

subject of environment officially into the discussion on women and how the relationship

between the two was also linked with development concerns. The Nairobi Forward-looking

12
Strategies for the Advancement of Women report stated that due to natural and man-made

disasters traditional means of livelihoods are often jeopardized and as a result it has “pushed

great numbers of poor women into marginal environments… depriving them of their

livelihoods” (Nairobi, 1985, paragraph 224). Furthermore, to address such issues, paragraph

227 on the Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women emphasizes

that “the environmental impacts policies, programmes and projects on women's health and

activities, including their source of employment and income, should be assessed and the

negative effects eliminated.”

Another major milestone was the adoption of the Beijing Platform for Action (BPfA)

at the UN Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995, which reflected the

importance between gender equality and sustainable development (Borza, 2012). The BPfA

identified environment as one of the twelve critical areas for women. Area ‘K’ in the BPfA

titled ‘Women and the Environment’ affirmed that, “women have an essential role to play in

the development of sustainable and ecologically sound consumption and production patterns,

and approaches to natural resource management” (paragraph 246). It was also recognized in

Area K, paragraph 249 of the document that:

“women remain largely absent at all levels of policy formulation and decision-making

in natural resource and environmental management, conservation, protection and

rehabilitation, and their experience and skills in advocacy for and monitoring of proper

natural resources management too often remain marginalized in policy-making and

decision-making bodies, as well as educational institutions and environment-related

agencies at the managerial level”.

13
The BPfA is seen as a monumental victory for women’s empowerment that aims to remove all

barriers to women’s active involvement in private and public spheres through the principle of

shared power and responsibility (UN, 2010). It acknowledged that gender equality is a

fundamental prerequisite to achieve sustainable development and should be incorporated as a

central element. Equally important, the BPfA endorsed a policy for the promotion of gender

equality and women’s empowerment and set into motion the need to mainstream gender

concerns across all sectors. Gender mainstreaming is seen as a strategy to reconsider, “the

processes of policy design, implementation and evaluation by taking into account the gender-

specific and often diverse interests” (True, 2003, p.371). From this perspective, gender

mainstreaming encourages examining policies on the basis of whether or not it lessens or

exacerbates gender inequalities.

More recently, the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda (2015) set out ambitious

sustainable development goals (SDGs) for the next 15 years and captured both gender equality

(SDG 5) and climate change (SDG 13) as stand-alone goals. The Agenda recognizes that

gender inequalities are further exacerbated by climate change and emphasizes that global and

national development efforts should include gender perspectives (UN, 2015). The United

Nations Development Program’s report, Gender and Climate Change (2016), bridges the two

issues and discusses how both act as barriers to sustainable development. It also offers insights

and recommendations for governments to adopt gender-responsive approaches, “that promote

women’s empowerment while also delivering results for zero-carbon and climate-resilient

futures” (p. 4).

Although the connection between gender, the environment and development is fairly

new, there is a growing body of literature that stresses the importance of more research and

14
commitment to incorporate gender across policy, particularly in climate governance. When

climate measures are developed and implemented with a gender consciousness they can lessen

the effects of climate change confronted by women. Such actions can ultimately increase

women’s agency and capabilities for improving climate performance among other global

development issues (Chauhan & Kumar 2016; Habtezion 2016; ADB 2013).

2.3 Gender Impacts of Climate Change

Climate change is a crosscutting issue that intersects with a wide-range of factors

including intensified droughts and flooding, limited human mobility and the security of

people’s livelihoods (such as food, water and energy and economic security). It also has an

impact on people’s dignity, which includes meeting basic human rights, development of

capacities and societal participation (Dankelman, 2010). Climate change weakens these

securities and increases existing social inequalities.

Gender inequalities happen to be among the most pervasive inequalities throughout the

world (UNDP 2010, UNWomen 2016, Gilligan and Sabater, 2017). Although, women

perform equally important or similar tasks as men, their roles and responsibilities in society

are often taken for granted (UNDP, 2010). Most literature cites that women as opposed to

men, do not receive equal rights and opportunities, face multiple forms of discrimination and

are often excluded from high-level decision making (Denton, 2002; MacGreogor 2009;

Jonsson 2011). Another example highlighted by Batliwala (1994), Kabeer (1999) and Arora-

Jonsson (2011) is women’s and girl’s increased vulnerability in environmental disasters. Due

to women’s socioeconomic marginalization at varying degrees and levels they are more

inclined to experience different forms of oppression such as sexual violence, inadequate

resources and lack of information and freedom. As well, in many countries women often lack

15
legal assets and rights to own property, restricting their ability to rebuild their lives in the

aftermath of a disaster (Dankelman, 2002; Djoudi et al, 2016).

Although, scholars do acknowledge that tremendous progress has been made over the

past years, they stress that gender inequalities are still reflected in women’s poverty, lack of

resources, and the violence committed against them (Agarwal, 1997, 2003; Jonsson 2011,

2013; MacGregor, 2010). Climate change does not cause gender inequality but it does worsen

social conditions that result in increased vulnerability (UNDP 2010; UNDP 2016). As such,

scholars have noted that climate change is not gender-neutral and that women and men do not

experience its impacts equally.

2.3.1 Gender and Climate Change Adaptation

Climate adaptation strategies are used to prevent and minimize the damage anticipated

from the adverse effects of climate change (UNDP, 2010; CARE, 2010). In recent years,

climate adaptation has focused on gender-related effects and aims to address the underlying

causes of vulnerability and gender inequality. Many studies have focused on men and

women’s different capabilities to cope or adapt to climate change. For instance, CARE

International’s report, Adaptation, Gender and Women’s Empowerment (2010) illustrates how

men and women respond to the effects of climate change such as disasters. Men may opt to

migrate or travel to various locations to seek employment opportunities, but women are less

likely to travel because of social norms, lack of mobility and increased risk of violence and

sexual exploitation and are thus confined to limited options. The UNDP publication, Gender,

Climate Change and Community Based Adaptation Guidebook (2010) discusses the

disproportionate burden of climate change impacts faced by poor people in the developing

16
world, particularly women in the Global South who are most vulnerable due to their low

socio-economic status.

The report focuses on the gender dimensions of climate change adaptation representing

women as active agents of change. This study including several others have shifted the

narrative of depicting women as vulnerable victims to agents of change that can help combat

climate change (UNDP, 2010; Habtezion, 2016; IUCN, 2016). Many women in developing

countries are responsible for managing natural resources and have built a strong understanding

of their environment. Their unique knowledge and expertise is seen as crucial for ensuring the

effectiveness and sustainability of adaptation responses to climate change (UNDP, 2010,

2016).

This representation of women has led several projects aimed at increasing women’s

participation in adaptation activities. However, scholars debate such an approach increases

women’s labor burdens and adds to their already long list of uncompensated work (Jonsson

2013, Dankelman, 2002; Agarwal, 1995). Thus, climate adaptation practices are often highly

debated as those furthering the marginalization of groups and obscuring gender relations.

Feminist scholars have reiterated that patriarchal decision-making structures are present from

global policy to ground level implementation in climate adaptation programs (Kabeer 1999;

Agarwal, 1997, 2003). For example, adaptation strategies highlight how women can take

advantage of income opportunities that may arise as a result of the changing climate. Most of

these strategies may not recognize that due to social, political, and cultural constraints women

compared to men, often lack access to financial and material resources including; land,

markets, technology and skills to support such changes (Kabeer 1999; Batliwala 2007; Sapra,

2012).

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2.3.2 Gender and Climate Change Mitigation

Climate change mitigation strategies are used to reduce or prevent GHG emissions.

Women’s ability to mitigate climate change is still relatively under researched and explored as

compared to gender and climate adaptation (GGCA, 2016). For instance, in a 2012 assessment

of the Clean Development Mechanism (one of the mechanisms that supports and promotes

countries’ mitigation efforts) projects revealed that only five of the 3,864 (0.13%) projects

included gender considerations (EGI, 2016; UNFCCC, 2012).

Climate mitigation is often associated with finding technological solutions to reduce

the emissions of GHG. Because women’s participation in the science and technology field is

still lagging they are often excluded from these processes (CSW, 2011). Likewise, building

complex technologies is often inapplicable to those most vulnerable to climate change

impacts. Scholars, such as MacGregor (2009), described mitigation policies and solutions as

those that bring about “better environmental performance” through “technological

advancement” and “economic efficiency” (p.133). MacGregor (2009) argues that this

approach has resulted in the development of all kinds of complex technologies and systems

that promise high profitability including “carbon trading and offsetting, carbon capture and

storage, carbon renewable energy and genetically modified crops” (p. 133) but they do nothing

to address the underlying reasons that cause unsustainable greenhouse gas emissions.

However, UNFCCC has made efforts to include more gender concerns and

considerations in climate mitigation activities. For example, Nationally Appropriate

Mitigation Actions (NAMAs), which are a voluntary set of mitigation contributions submitted

by developing countries, shows that 7 out of the 8 energy-sector documents included

references of women or gender in the proposed objectives or outcomes (IUCN, 2016). Equally

18
important, a review of these energy-sector NAMAs shows that the gender component included

specific gender-responsive activities, such as increasing electrification in rural households and

improving the efficiency of biomass fuels for household energy uses (IUCN, 2016).

The Green Climate Fund (GCF) established under the UNFCCC as a part of the

Financial Mechanism to assist developing countries through adaptation and mitigation efforts

to combat climate change has also increased gender considerations. This has included

screening funding proposals for gender considerations throughout the planning, preparation

and development stages through its Gender Policy and Action Plan (2014). It requires funding

proposals to include an initial gender assessment, which provides a general description of the

gender equality situation in the area of where the project is to take place. The project request

also entails that the submissions include a gender and social action plan at the project

preparation stage to indicate the gender-responsive activities (e.g. providing relevant gender-

performance indicators, sex-disaggregated targets and timelines). So far, 84 percent of all

GCF’s approved funding proposals have included an initial gender assessment and 67 percent

included a project-level gender and social inclusion action plan.

2.4 Climate Change Governance

Climate governance is concerned with directing society towards preventing, mitigating

and/or adapting to the risks of climate change through institutions, instruments and

mechanisms (Jaegers and Stripple 2003; Kronsell, 2018). Under the UNFCCC, many

protocols and agreements have been developed to address the impacts of climate change and

to reduce GHG emissions through research and technology. Gender is a fairly new topic that

has been introduced into the UNFCCC. Through constant efforts of women’s rights

organizations and their allies’, gender equality and women’s rights approaches are gaining

19
momentum in the climate regime (Mayer, 2016). Presently, under the UNFCCC, over fifty

decisions address gender equality and some of these decisions have assisted with shaping

many of the implementation mechanisms under the Convention (EGI, 2016). The following

section provides a brief summary of three prominent climate instruments that address and

incorporate gender commitments in the UNFCCC processes.

1. The Lima Work Programme (2014) emerged from the need to support the implementation

of UNFCCC Decisions 36/CP.7, 1/CP.16 and 23/CP.18 adopted by the COP. These

decisions aimed at promoting gender balance and improving the participation of women in

UNFCCC negotiations as well as, in representation of women in bodies established

pursuant to the Convention. The Lima Work Programme Group mandates the UNFCCC

Secretariat to organize technical workshops for Parties to support the implementation of

these decisions and help them identify tools and good practices to design gender

responsive climate change policies. Through these workshops Parties were able to

transform their perspective on topics including mitigation and technology development

from gender-neutral to gender responsive. The increase in gender decisions pushed forth

gender equality commitments during the Conference of Parties at its twenty-first session

(COP 21) in Paris (Mayer 2016).

2. The Paris Agreement established by Decision 1/CP.21 recognized the importance of a

rights-based approach to achieve fair and sustainable outcomes, as it inserted its

importance in the preamble. This insertion into the Paris Agreement is the first to mention

gender equality within an international climate agreement. This is largely due to the years

of coordinated efforts and advocacy of civil society organizations, many of which include

20
 women’s rights groups (Mayer, 2016). Of equal importance, the Paris Agreement

mandates gender responsive adaptation actions and capacity building activities including

climate finance resources for vulnerable groups (UN Women Submission, 2016).

Furthermore the UNFCCC and the Parties have agreed to focus on two goals under the

dedicated gender and climate change agenda:

• Improving gender balance and increasing the participation of women in all

UNFCCC processes, including in delegations and in bodies constituted under

the Convention and its Kyoto Protocol, and

• Increasing awareness and support for the development and effective

implementation of gender-responsive climate policy at the regional, national

and local levels. (UNFCCC, Chronology of Gender in the Intergovernmental

Process).

3. With the focus of such goals Parties at the 23rd annual COP, held in Bonn, Germany

(2017), adopted a new roadmap to incorporate gender equality and women’s

empowerment in climate change discourse and actions. It is the first-ever Gender Action

Plan (GAP) to be adopted which supports gender responsive climate action. The GAP

(2017) recognizes the need to ensure women have the means to influence climate change

decisions and emphasizes the need to strengthen gender responsive policy in all activities

relating to adaptation, mitigation and implementation processes including capacity-

building, finance, technology and transfer. It also acknowledges, that gender concerns

should be mainstreamed across decisions as well as mandates under the UNFCCC in order

to increase their effectiveness. These goals also resonate with the commitments of the

Paris Agreement (2015) that highlights a gender responsive approach in adaptation and

21
 capacity-building actions. The GAP outlines five priority areas to drive the achievement of

its objectives, these include: (1) capacity-building, knowledge sharing and communication;

(2) gender balance, participation and women’s leadership; (3) coherence in the

implementation of gender-related mandates; (4) gender responsive implementation and

means of implementation; and (5) monitoring and reporting. By consolidating these five

areas the GAP demonstrates strong support for gender responsive climate action at the

national level (Huyer et al. 2017).

2.5 Gender Assessment of the Paris Agreement

Although, the UNFCCC has drawn considerable attention by establishing a dedicated

agenda item under the Convention to address issues of gender and climate change, their efforts

seem rather to have a lip service approach (Lyster, 2017). The Paris Agreement partially

reflects the significance of gender equality as it fails to recognize advances on all fronts. It

only mentions the term in the preamble. Much of the language pertaining to gender is confined

to the adaptation and capacity building articles. Although, having legal obligations to address

gender issues in national legislation and policies is a monumental achievement, these

obligations are limited to areas of adaptation and capacity building. Commitment to gender

equality would be more visible and concrete if gender was considered equally across all areas

of the Paris Agreement. If national climate actions are not gender responsive they may

jeopardize the progress on gender equality and even worsen inequalities.

2.5.1 Gender References Found in Paris Agreement

Gender in the Preamble

The preamble of the Paris Agreement (2015) captures the importance of incorporating

and respecting human rights by,

22
 “Acknowledging that climate change is a common concern of humankind, Parties

should, when taking action to address climate change, respect, promote and consider

their respective obligations on human rights, the right to health, the rights of

indigenous peoples, local communities, migrants, children, persons with disabilities

and people in vulnerable situations and the right to development, as well as gender

equality, empowerment of women and intergenerational equity”

Acknowledging a human rights approach to climate action is important, however, the

preamble combines different vulnerable groups together “without recognizing the differential

vulnerabilities between and within these groups” (IDRC 2017, p. 7). There is a sense of

homogenizing all vulnerable groups into one category, without paying specific attention to

each and discussing the implications of climate change impacts on each of these vulnerable

groups.

Gender and Adaptation

Reference to gender in the Paris Agreement is also included in the adaptation section.

Article 7, paragraph 5 of the Paris Agreement, which states:

“Parties acknowledge that adaptation action should follow a country-driven, gender-

responsive, participatory and fully transparent approach, taking into consideration

vulnerable groups, communities and ecosystems, and should be based on and guided

by the best available science and, as appropriate, traditional knowledge, knowledge of

indigenous peoples and local knowledge systems, with a view to integrating adaptation

into relevant socioeconomic and environmental policies and actions, where

appropriate”.

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Many studies have confirmed men and women have different capacities to adapt to climate

change. It is therefore important that climate adaptation is gender responsive in approach to

equitably address such differences and encourage adaptation policies that contribute to gender

equality. The Paris Agreement’s acknowledgment of promoting a gender responsive approach

to climate adaptation is therefore a sign of commitment to gender equality that will hopefully

influence Parties to integrate these gender commitments.

Gender and Capacity-Building

Another reference to gender is included in the section discussing capacity building.

Article 11, paragraph 2 of the Paris Agreement states:

“Capacity-building should be country-driven, based on and responsive to national

needs, and foster country ownership of Parties, in particular, for developing country

Parties, including at the national, subnational and local levels. Capacity-building

should be guided by lessons learned, including those from capacity-building activities

under the Convention, and should be an effective, iterative process that is

participatory, cross-cutting and gender-responsive”

The capacity-building section in the Paris Agreement is based on, “enhancing the adaptive

capacity, strengthening resilience and reducing vulnerability to climate change, with a view to

contributing to sustainable development and ensuring an adequate adaptation response” (Art

7(1)). Many gender differences in adaptive capacity are a result of different levels and access

to knowledge and resources. Addressing these gender differences systematically will enable

the reduction of gender vulnerabilities and assessing deeper levels of gender inequalities.

24
Therefore, by incorporating a gender responsive approach to capacity building the Paris

Agreement shows commitment, “to support adaptation that does not reinforce inequalities”

(IDRC, 2017, p.7).

2.5.2 Gender References Missing in the Paris Agreement

Gender and Mitigation

Mitigation policies have major impacts on climate change responses and are the central

focus of the Paris Agreement. However, Articles 4, 5, and 6, which discuss mitigation

strategies in terms of commitment to NDCs, make no obvious reference to gender. As

acknowledged earlier, NDCs are a vital instrument in determining the effective

implementation of the Paris Agreement. Excluding gender language in mitigation policies,

compromises the commitment made to gender equality through climate actions.

Similarly the gender analysis of 190 INDCs conducted by the WEDO (2016) found

that only 12 countries mentioned women or gender in their mitigation-related activities. This

illuminates that gender unawareness in climate mitigation policies at the international level

may trickle down to the national level. Therefore, gender inclusion across the Paris Agreement

is of utmost importance, if climate policies are to be developed and implemented in a gender

responsive manner. Unfortunately, the Paris Agreement does not strengthen the gender

responsive approaches within the structure of the NDCs.

Gender and Finance

Article 9 of the Paris Agreement discusses the mobilization of climate finance and

emphasizes that developed country Parties provide financial resources to assist developing

country Parties. Climate finance is an important aspect of the agreement as it supports the

budgets and costs of mitigation and adaptation actions. However, gender is not explicitly

25
mentioned in this section. Failing to acknowledge the importance for finance to be distributed

in a gender responsive and equitable manner may result in climate activities to further

exacerbate gender inequalities (IDRC, 2018). Climate finance can address a number of

mitigation concerns such as renewable energy, sustainable agricultural practices and public

transportation. Gender perspectives are relevant and important among all these areas. The

report “Gender and Climate Finance” (Nakhooda & Schalatek, 2015) submitted by Overseas

Development Institute, presents transportation in urban cities as a suitable area where climate

finance can address gender needs “through investments in cleaner public systems such as bus-

rapid transit” (p.2). Budgets can be allocated to analyze the special needs of men and women

in urban transit such as, “affordability, schedule flexibility, trip length and frequency,

geographical coverage and density of the transit network as well as gender-specific security

concerns” (p.2). Addressing these concerns will not only increase ridership, which is essential

to lower GHG emissions but also make transportation affordable and safer for users. Equally

important such services may contribute to increasing women’s access to employment,

education and opportunities that strengthen their capabilities.

Gender and Technology

Technology is another section in the Paris Agreement, where the gender perspective is

missing from the discussion. Article 10 of the Paris Agreement highlights the importance of

technology development and transfer to enable adaptation and mitigation actions. However,

gender considerations are completely absent from this section. Men and women’s

technological needs may vary, based on gender roles and norms. Gender roles and

responsibilities dictate the availability and ability to learn new technologies. Many of these

technological advancements are targeted towards climate mitigation, which is often seen as

26
gender-blind/neutral. The technical paper produced by the Secretariat, “Guidelines or other

tools for integrating gender considerations into climate change related activities under the

Convention” notes although women are also key users of climate adaptation and mitigation

technologies, there continues to be a widespread perception that technology is, “either gender-

neutral or a male-dominated arena with little or no need for the integration of gender

considerations” (UNFCCC, 2016, paragraph 80). The results from the study, “Gender and

water technologies: Water lifting for irrigation and multiple purposes in Ethiopia” surveyed 79

farmers in Bale and Lemo, Ethiopia regarding gender and individual irrigation technologies.

The report found women and men both reported that, “men mostly control the use of the

technologies especially for irrigation, though women and men perceive the level of control

over the technologies differently” (Nigussie et al. 2017, p.4). The respondents from the study

also indicated that, “men have more control over income from the technologies” (Nigussie et

al. 2017, p.4). These findings reveal that climate technologies are not gender-neutral and

gender roles and norms often guide access and control over these resources. Therefore,

integrating gender considerations among climate technologies will not only ensure that women

are involved in its development and usage but also benefit from the outcomes.

2.6 Gender at COP 24

In December 2018 global leaders and climate advocates gathered in Katowice, Poland

for the 24th COP and finalized the Paris Rulebook, a detailed set of guidelines established by

the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement

(CMA) for implementing various aspects of the Paris Agreement by 2020 (UNFCCC, 2018).

Although the Paris rulebook would’ve played an integral role in informing the research

questions and objectives of this study it was submitted after the completion of this project.

27
This research analysis was completed from January 2018 to November 2018 therefore it was

not viable to include the Paris Rulebook as part of the assessment. However, due to the

significance of the Rulebook and the outcomes of COP 24, this section observes the

integration of gender equality into COP 24 decisions.

Gender considerations are visible throughout the Paris Rulebook with more gender

coverage in matters related to NDCs, adaptation communications, the technology and

transparency frameworks and finance. The Paris implementation guidelines have requested for

information on and consideration of gender responsiveness as part of the planning process of

Parties’ NDCs, the rulebook states:

“Information on the planning processes that the Party undertook to prepare its

nationally determined contribution and, if available, on the Party’s implementation

plans, including, as appropriate:

(i) Domestic institutional arrangements, public participation and engagement with

1. local communities and indigenous peoples, in a gender-responsive

manner;...” (p.17)

The insertion of this text in the context of mitigation and NDCs is a major achievement, since

efforts to address gender responsive mitigations have been ongoing since Copenhagen at COP

15 (Rojas, 2018). The Paris Rulebook also acknowledges the need to address gender

responsiveness in adaptation actions, under the section ‘Elements for reporting adaptation

communications’, it requests:

28
“Information on gender-responsive adaptation action and information on traditional

knowledge, knowledge of indigenous peoples and local knowledge systems related to

adaptation, where appropriate;” (p.36)

Furthermore, the technology framework decision has the highest number of references

to gender, asking parties to:

• Design and implement the Technology Mechanism in a manner that considers

gender (p.58)

• Foster gender-responsiveness through Innovation (p.59)

• Facilitate enabling environments to promote endogenous and gender-

responsive technologies for mitigation and adaptation actions (p.61)

• Provide support under the framework through gender-responsive collaboration

and stakeholder engagement (p.62).

At a quick glance the Paris Rulebook often encourages gender responsive approaches,

to guide the implementation of the Paris Agreement. It also includes more gender language

across different sectors including mitigation and technology, both areas in the Paris

Agreement that were largely gender blind. The Paris Rulebook offers great potential for

Parties’ to incorporate gender perspectives in the implementation of the Paris Agreement.

29
 Chapter 3. Literature Review

3.1 Introduction

This chapter commences with literature on key concepts and tools that contribute to the

theoretical understanding of gender responsive climate change policies. The literature on

gender equality and climate change policy is diverse and several approaches exist in

explaining the complex relationship between the two concepts. However, the approach of this

thesis is to analyze specific concepts discussed within the gender and climate change policy

literature through a feminist lens. This approach is valuable for the study, as it not only

provides an analytical lens on popular concepts and tools utilized across the climate regime

but also presents whether or not these concepts truly support gender equality. The literature

review presents five concepts that are used throughout the gender and climate change policy

discourse. These concepts when combined and applied effectively across all policy processes

can aid in the development and implementation of climate policies that are responsive to the

diverse needs of people. These five concepts are used to build the gender responsive criteria

that will aid in the examination of national climate policies and determine the extent to which

they reflect gender commitments.

The five concepts identified through the literature review are listed below:

• Human Rights

• Gender Equal Participation

• Gender Mainstreaming

• Power Relations

• Budgeting

30
 All concepts reflect the importance of incorporating gender aspects into climate governance.

The literature on gender and climate change policy is vast and growing. These five concepts

are by no means an exhaustive list of concepts that can contribute to gender responsive

climate policies. However, these concepts are responsive to the different and evolving

needs of men and women, therefore they are deemed as critical components of gender

responsive climate policies and are a part of the criteria.

3.1.2 Feminist Perspectives and Climate Change Policy

Feminist perspectives in environmental governance derive from feminist theory, which

developed as a response to the changing and varied nature of women’s experiences and

concerns (Kronsell, 2018). Feminist perspectives illuminate the ways gender inequality is

beyond the control of an individual as it is deeply rooted in the structures of our society

(Lorber, 1997; Denton, 2002). The pervasiveness of gender inequality is formed into all social

units including “marriage and families, work and the economy, politics, religions, the arts and

other cultural productions, and the very language we speak” (Lorber, 1997). Since gender

inequality is interwoven into our social fabric, feminist theory and perspectives are

specifically concerned with dissecting power relations and inequalities, both of which often go

unnoticed in climate politics (MacGregor, 2009; Kronsell, 2018). Women’s concerns and the

underlying reasons of existing gender inequalities are also not always integrated into climate

change policy. Thus, feminist perspectives provide a theoretical lens for this research project

that investigates how gender equality including women’s concerns are reflected and integrated

into climate change policy. Applying a feminist lens to this literature review will add depth

and critique to the discussion (Kronsell, 2018). It will use the profound insights they offer to

build gender responsive criteria that seek to advance national climate policies towards gender

31
inclusivity, equality and justice. A feminist critique will help develop a more comprehensive

gender responsive framework for the evaluation of national climate documents, which is

essential for addressing the research objectives. Although, the five concepts which form the

gender responsive criteria are examined through a critical feminist lens, it should be noted that

feminist literature informing the gender and climate change debate is quite dense and this is by

no means a complete feminist analysis of the concepts and should not be taken as such.

3.2 Importance of Human Rights and Gender Equality in Climate Change Policies

A human rights approach is founded on the belief that, “respect for individual human

rights, including gender equality, must be the base, and in the framework, of any civil,

political, social, economic and development agenda” (Campese et al 2009, p. 258). It is now

well documented that climate change undermines the enjoyment of human rights, particularly

for those people that lack the capacity to respond and adapt to changes in the environment

(OHCHR, 2016). There is vast literature on gender and climate change, which emphasizes that

women and girls are at particular risk in the context of climate change (Hemmati & Röhr,

2007; Terry, 2009; MacGregor, 2010; Arora-Jonsson; 2011; Skinner, 2011; Otzelberger, 2014;

UNFCCC, 2014 & UNWomen, 2018). Women and girls worldwide face multiple forms of

discrimination and constraints usually embedded in norms, practices and legal institutions

(Tschakert & Machado, 2012). Women and girls often face barriers to education, personal

autonomy, economic opportunities and access to resources and information. In some

countries, generally developing countries certain laws and customary practices institutionalize

such disparities (World Bank Group, 2016). A study conducted by the World Bank in 2016

revealed that out of the 173 economies it covered, 155 had least one law impeding women’s

economic opportunities such as restricting women from factory jobs, working night shifts, or

32
getting a job without the permission of their husbands (World Bank Group, 2016). Equally

important, some countries limit women’s rights to own land and property, which is an

essential resource for poverty reduction, access to markets, food security and development.

Furthermore, women in developing countries account for 40 percent of the overall agricultural

labor force (FAO, 2011) but own only between 10 and 20 percent of the land (The World

Bank, 2011). Feminist scholars examining gender and climate change urge that such forms of

gender based discrimination act as an impediments to women’s human rights (Dankelman,

2002; 2008 & Arora-Jonsson, 2014). This often makes it more challenging for women and

girls to respond and adapt to the impacts of climate change. Therefore, feminists and gender

advocates emphasize that gender equality is a fundamental human right and necessitates the

empowerment of women, who have been historically marginalized across political, economic

and social grounds (Habetzion, 2013).

The Convention on Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women

(CEDAW), an international treaty adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1979, has played

an important role in engaging with Parties to incorporate human rights obligations into climate

action. In its 44th session in 2009, the Committee stated, “All stakeholders should ensure that

climate change and disaster risk reduction measures are gender responsive, sensitive to

indigenous knowledge systems and respect human rights.” (CEDAW- 44th Session, 2009).

Other human rights institutions including the United Nations Office of the High

Commissioner for Human Rights (UNOHCHR) and the United Nations Human Rights

Council (UNHRC) have also called upon world leaders and governments to incorporate a

rights-based approach to guide global climate politics. In order to protect individuals’ rights

33
and reduce gender inequalities, the Paris Agreement emphasizes the importance of a human

rights approach to mitigate and adapt to the impacts of climate change.

In recognizing the adverse impacts of climate change on the effective enjoyment of

human rights the preamble to the Paris Agreement (PA, 2015, Preamble) encourages that

when Parties address climate change they should, “respect, promote and consider their

respective obligations on human rights… as well as gender equality, empowerment of women

and intergenerational equity.”

Acknowledging the rights’ of individuals including gender equality under this legally

binding agreement indicates that Parties should be integrating a human rights approach. The

approach should also address gender perspectives in the development and implementation of

climate policies. Therefore, exploring national climate policies that not only promote but also

incorporate human rights approaches in climate solutions and actions are necessary for this

research project.

However, some feminist scholars do argue, that simply including language on gender

equality and human rights’ language in agreements and legislation detracts from addressing

the underlying power relations of the gender order and social injustices (Denton 2002;

MacGregor 2010; Arora- Jonsson, 2012 & Tschakert & Machado, 2012). Including human

rights and gender equality in policies plays a powerful role in promoting fair and equitable

measures. However, its mere inclusion may contribute to a tick box culture where too much

emphasis is placed on following rules and may not always lead to fair outcomes. From this

perspective, human rights and gender equality principles do not guide policymaking and

planning processes but are included rather to comply with legislations.

34
3.3 Importance of Gender Equal Participation in Climate Change Policies

Most literature examining the connections between gender and climate change

acknowledges that climate change has a gender-differentiated impact (UNDP, 2010). Most

literature also recognizes that in order to limit or reduce gender inequalities policies

addressing climate change should be representative of the diverse needs and concerns of all

people (UNDP, 2010; WEDO, 2015). The basic tenet of gender equality is that all people are

equal beings in that they are deserving of equal rights including equal access to decision-

making and equal representation in policies. Despite this acknowledgment, women’s

involvement in political and economic spaces, especially at executive levels of decision-

making in climate-related institutions is not gender-balanced (Hemmati and Rohr 2009;

Macgregor 2010).

To ensure women’s interests are included in policies and decisions, feminists

examining gender and climate policies emphasize the need for women to be amongst the

policy-makers (Lovenduski, 2005). Women’s organizations including the Mary Robinson

Foundation for Climate Justice and UN Women, have recommended gender quotas to boost

women’s participation in climate governance (Mary Robinson Foundation, 2013). In recent

years, achieving gender parity has become an important goal for global organizations

including the UNFCCC. It has been strengthened by feminist movements advocating for

“women’s inclusion as crucial to achieve justice, promote women’s interests and make use of

women’s resources for the good of society” (Krook and Norris, 2014, p.2). Gender quotas can

be used as a tool to counter gender disparities in decision-making positions (Krook and Norris,

2014), as it is assumed that women’s increased participation will lead to more inclusive

politics (Hemmati and Rohr 2007). Gender quotas can be a useful strategy to increase

35
women’s participation in climate governance however, more action is required since climate

decision-making bodies are still not gender-balanced.

Women still remain underrepresented in negotiations and on the delegations of many

countries including those most vulnerable to climate impacts and their representation is

particularly low in high-level positions. Reports developed by the WEDO have tracked data

since 2008 on women’s participation at UNFCCC meetings (WEDO, 2012; 2014; 2017). The

trends noted in these reports describe a steady increase in the last eight years in women’s

involvement in both the overall participation and high-levels of decision-making. The study

attributes this progress to various factors including the implementation of gender quotas by

COP and the UNFCCC. The WEDO reports however indicate that progress has been

extremely slow, and women’s access to and influence in UNFCCC meetings still remains a

challenge. The UNFCCC statistics published in May 2018 showed that at COP23 (2017),

women represented 47 percent of the participants in the non-governmental sectors but the

number of women leading government delegations remains under 30 percent (UNFCCC,

2018). Delegates at the 2017 UN Climate Conference in Bonn noticed the lack of women in

executive and influential positions during meetings and negotiations and called on officials to

continue work on increasing the numbers for the UN Climate Change Conference COP 24

(UNFCCC, 2018). Despite slow progress, efforts to support the gradual increase of women’s

political participation in UNFCCC processes are a step closer towards gender equality.

Even though women’s increased participation and representation in policy domains is

crucial to addressing gender bias and structural inequalities, simply including more women

does not ensure this outcome (Hankivsky, 2005; Chant and Sweetman, 2012). Quantifying

women’s participation and only focusing on the headcount of women in political spheres may

36
lead to dismissing issues related to the uneven power relations that exist within institutions

and between policy actors. Many feminist scholars (Kaijser and Kronsell 2013; Cornwall &

Rivas, 2015) also point out that only employing gender quotas can be misleading, as it

presumes that more women equals gender equality and justice. Feminist scholars examining

gender and climate policies advocate that gender equality should go beyond the inclusion of

women, and transform social and political order, which are responsible for creating disparities

across gender, race, class, and sexual identity in the first place (MacGregor, 2010; Kaijser and

Kronsell 2013; Cornwall & Rivas, 2015). According to Arora-Jonsson (2011) simply adding

women to existing institutions dominated by male figures, in both the North and South, allows

for legitimizing these structures as “people’s organizations” providing a mirage for gender

equality. Gender equal participation should not become synonymous with women’s

participation. Rather the aim should be, increasing the participatory planning of all

stakeholders working towards transforming social norms and addressing the needs of all

people, especially those facing multiple forms of discrimination and oppression.

3.4 Examining Gender Power Relations in Climate Change Policies

Gender in the academic context is understood as a socially constructed concept that is

not fixed or innate but rather varies across time and space (Lorber and Farrell, 1991). Gender

is seen as a structure of power relations that is built into all units of society, which “determines

the distribution of power, privileges and economic resources” (Lorber, 1997). In Western

culture gender is dominantly characterized as either masculine or feminine, where the

masculine is treated as the standard of human experience by social norms, the law and other

social institutions (Westmarland, 2001; MacGregor 2009). Gender relations reveal the power

order between women and men and boys and girls, play a critical role in the access to and

37
control of environmental resources and opportunities they provide (Resurrección, 2013;

Kronsell, 2018). As a result of socially constructed gender roles and stereotypes men and

women perform different work tasks, acquire differentiated access to resources and

information and experience the effects of climate change differently (Denton, 2002).

Feminist research examining gender and climate change often analyze the way gender

roles are assigned and how that places women at a disadvantage in relation to climate

decision-making and its impacts. Research studies linking gender and the environment suggest

that the way men and women interact with the environment is a direct result of the socio-

cultural construction of gender roles and relationships, resulting in a differentiated

environmental impact for both sexes (Arora-Jonsson, 2014). Traditionally, these socially

constructed gender roles have pre-established women’s and men’s specific responsibilities

(Jacobi et al, 2015), where women are characterized as caregivers and nurturers and men are

embodied as breadwinners and leaders or authoritative figures. For example, in many rural

Global South households, women are responsible for water and waste management as these

responsibilities fall under family and homecare duties. However their restricted access to

political and public spheres, which remain male-dominated fields, limits women’s decisions

about water and waste management systems. Similarly, as women and girls are expected to

take on caretaker roles, they perform most of the unpaid household chores, giving them less

time for income-generating activities, education or participation in community decision-

making processes (Skinner 2011; MacGregor 2010).

Traditional stereotypes still persist and create gender inequalities, which are

perpetuated through customs, social practices and economic institutions resulting in adverse

effects both socially and environmentally. As such, Habtezion (2013) points out that even after

38
countless women’s movements, protests and numerous changes to international and national

legislation regarding women’s rights, women still remain marginalized. They suffer from

limited access to financial, material and technological resources, restricted rights and limited

voice in decision-making making them vulnerable to the changing climate and its impacts.

Existing evidence and data suggests that because of these gender inequalities the effects of

climate change often affect women more severely, as their social roles dictate and limit their

ability to mitigate or adapt to climate change (OSCE, 2009).

In addition, the gender pay gap is pervasive across all regions and most sectors, in

every country, women are paid less than men for equal work, and as a result they have fewer

resources comparatively than men to adapt to the changing climate (Habtezion, 2013). The

rising costs of food, energy, transportation and healthcare all caused by the disrupting effects

of climate change disproportionately affects women and intensifies women’s poverty and

insecurity (OSCE, 2009). Men are also negatively affected by climate change particularly

when they are poor. For example, if they are unable to fulfill their socially constructed roles as

breadwinners they may experience anxiety and stress (Skinner, 2011). Another example, of

gender inequality for men includes the pressure of masculinity and taking heroic action in

emergency situations placing them at higher risk than women and children (Skinner, 2011).

As determined above, gender roles and relations play a critical role in access to and

control of environmental resources. Feminist research examining gender in the climate change

discourse, often emphasizes that the “social construction of hegemonic masculinities and

femininities…shape the way we interpret, debate, articulate and respond to climate change”

(MacGregor, 2010, p. 228). This may then be the reason why women are often referenced as

vulnerable victims and vulnerability is seen as inherent to femininity (Gilson, 2016).

39
MacGregor (2010) recognized in her study that, “the most frequent co-location of words in the

gender and climate change research is undoubtedly ‘women’ and ‘vulnerable’” (p.227),

especially when discussing the Global South. This has been viewed as problematic because it

reaffirms the negative stereotypes about women constantly needing to be rescued from the

dangers of climate change. Scholars investigating gender and climate change impacts have

noted that such depictions have led to an increase in adaptation strategies for women focusing

mainly on their vulnerability (Sultana, 2014). Although addressing women’s vulnerabilities

and their inclusion in adaptation strategies is important, constantly representing them as

victims often ignores their perspectives and diverse roles in other climate-related activities.

On the other hand, new and surfacing gender and climate literature represents women

as agents of change. Representing women in such ways insinuates that women and girls can

help save the world (Moser, 1989). This essentialist framing has had real life consequences for

women, especially in rural communities. It has increased their workload, by adding

environmental protection to their already long list of domestic and care-taking chores

(Agarwal, 1997, 2003; Arora-Jonsson 2011, 2013, 2014; Chant & Sweetman 2012). Molyneux

(2006) observes women in development goals such as climate change, serve as “conduit for

policy” (p.439) where they are expected to voluntarily take on the role of ‘saviors’ and ‘fixers’

to solve problems, which are not necessarily of interest to them. Some climate change

initiatives can therefore divert responsibility from institutions onto individual women,

regardless of whether they have interests, resources or time to carry them out (Chant &

Sweetman, 2012). Melissa Leach (2007) explains that policy-makers and bureaucrats justify

women’s innate closeness to nature as an opportunity to involve women in environmental

protection activities and make use of their often-unpaid labor. Many policies have therefore

40
been developed on the reliance of essentializing gender stereotypes and notions of women as

altruists and closer to nature. An example includes the multilateral efforts to increase women’s

participation in sustainable development and climate change adaptation, which led to the

“Women’s Empowerment for Resilience and Adaptation Against Climate Change-Uganda”

project. This involved “women pooling together their individual savings to invest in

innovative, scalable and replicable activities that catalyze action towards a low-carbon and

highly resilient future” (UNFCCC Uganda, n.d). Based on this example, the responsibility

falls upon women to invest their own resources to find solutions and save their communities.

Such approaches to advance environmental and climate change goals have oversimplified the

complexity and support required for their achievement, it has conveniently shifted the burden

and responsibility onto women (Leach 2007; Chant 2008; Chant & Sweetman 2012). Chant

and Sweetman (2012) stress such depictions overestimate that women are capable of fixing

climate change without addressing the on-going gender bias and structural barriers to their

capabilities. From this view if women and girls are expected to help fix climate change then

policies regarding climate change will need to be responsive to the needs and concerns of all

people.

Westerland (2001) and MacGregor (2009) have both highlighted that climate change

decisions and actions operate in a setting in which masculinity is regarded as the norm.

MacGregor (2010) argues that, “climate politics has been shaped by stereotypically

masculinist discourses that work to ‘invisibilise’ and alienate women and their concerns” (p.

230). Such perspectives question the normative setting of climate politics, which produce

power and reinforce it through social structures and relations (Lorber, 1997; Kronsel, 2018).

This approach that dissects power relations also disrupts gender stereotypes by openly

41
challenging the social institution of gender and its social construction (Lorber and Farrell,

1991).

The ability to respond and adapt to climate is dependent on an individual’s access to

resources and personal agency. Gender shapes the distribution of resources, opportunities and

outcomes throughout society from household to the highest levels of political decision-making

(Borza, 2012). Therefore, examining gender power relations within climate policies is

necessary to determine whose interests are being pushed forward and whose are being

sidelined. It can also reveal if Parties are paying attention to gender power relations and

implementing climate policies that address the effects of unequal access to resources,

opportunities and outcomes, making them more gender responsive in approach.

3.5 Gender Mainstreaming for Gender Equality in Climate Change Policies

Gender equality and climate change are both recognized as cross cutting issues, which

overlap within various sectors including, water, energy, agriculture, adaptation, mitigation and

finance. Many in the gender and climate change advocacy community consider it important to

adopt a gender equality perspective in all climate related processes including policy

development, decision-making, and at all levels of climate mitigation and adaptation strategies

(GGCA, 2016). Gender mainstreaming was introduced in 1995 as an approach at the UN’s

Fourth World Conference on Women held in Beijing. In 1997 United Nations established that

gender mainstreaming would be the official approach to be used in all policies and programs

in the UN system (UN, 2002). Since then, gender mainstreaming has become a popular

approach to increase the integration of gender perspectives into climate policies and actions.

The UN continues to use gender mainstreaming as an approach for realizing progress and

promoting women and girls’ rights as a sub-set of human rights. It is identified as a strategy

42
for implementing greater equality for women and girls in relation to men and boys. The

definition of gender mainstreaming in the United Nations Gender Equality Glossary is stated

as such:

“Mainstreaming a gender perspective is the process of assessing the implications for

women and men of any planned action, including legislation, policies or programs, in

all areas and at all levels. It is a way to make women’s as well as men’s concerns and

experiences an integral dimension of the design, implementation, monitoring and

evaluation of policies and programs in all political, economic and societal spheres so

that women and men benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated. The ultimate

goal is to achieve gender equality” (UN, 2002).

The formalization of mainstreaming gender as a goal across all UN member states and

systems offered hope and commitment for global gender action in national and international

policies. Pollack and Hafner (2002), believe in its potential as a revolutionary concept for

policies, one that “promises to change the way in which ‘mainstream’ policies are formulated,

decided upon, implemented and evaluated” (p. 350). However, they argue, that if gender

mainstreaming is as an extraordinary concept, it is also a demanding one. The revolutionary

changes require transformation in the mentalities and organizations of both domestic and

international actors in order to be fully operational (Pollack & Hafner, 2002). Nonetheless,

after its quick adoption over the years by several major organizations, the changes and views

regarding mainstreaming have been mixed (Daly, 2005; Alston, 2014).

Many feminist scholars, gender advocates and development practitioners have

expressed their concerns that gender mainstreaming has become a procedural exercise (Daly

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2005; Chant & Sweetman 2012; Arora-Jonsson 2011). They argue that mainstreaming detracts

from the core feminist principles that drive gender equality, which require radical changes

within and throughout systems (Alston, 2014). The very substance of feminism and gender

equality is often lost in translation as a result of assimilating into the language of the

establishment (Castaneda et al. 2013; Hankivsky, 2005). From this perspective it has become a

formalized practice, an almost tick-box method to ensure they meet regulations and essentially

look good on paper. The focus has shifted from addressing gender inequalities and how they

are (re)produced in environmental management to institutionalizing gender concerns

(Hankivsky, 2005).

Furthermore, gender mainstreaming as an approach is not applied equally across the

Paris Agreement, especially in non-traditional sectors such as mitigation, technology and

finance. This is observed in the absence of gender considerations from the technology,

mitigation and finance articles which limit women’s meaningful participation and perpetuates

the vicious cycle of social and political exclusion. So long as women are unequally

represented within all fields, have less power and influence in all climate change policies,

information and funds than men, they are unlikely to make meaningful contributions or benefit

from climate-change solutions (Otzelberger, 2011).

The research report, “Financing Mitigation: Exposing gender gaps in financing climate

change mitigation, and proposing solutions”, analyzes cases studies from the Global South for

the effective (or not) mainstreaming of gender concerns into their mitigation finance

initiatives. Based on the analysis the team found that gender is rarely perceived as relevant to

practitioners involved in climate change mitigation investments and financing (Eddy et al,

2015). The study also concluded that, “prevailing approaches to reducing emissions have

44
prioritized scientific and technological measures, often at the expense of social and behavioral

considerations” (p.1). The report recommended that further research be directed towards

guidance for governments, funders, and institutions. The guidance be provided on how to

implement gender considerations across climate related processes and policies, “in ways that

lead to more effective and inclusive projects, in which benefits are shared equitably” (p.27).

Women’s organizations and advocacy groups emphasize that climate-related policies and

actions may not be successful or fair unless gender perspectives and gender equality

approaches are applied and embraced within all sectors, including those which have been

traditionally dominated by men (Otzelberger, 2014; GGCA, 2016).

Although, mainstreaming gender concerns across policy domains and developing

gender-aware initiatives is crucial to addressing gender bias and structural inequalities, gender

mainstreaming alone does not ensure this outcome. What ensures gendered outcomes is

implementing gender mainstreaming approaches in a deeper context. As well as,

understanding the teachings of different feminist perspectives and the valuable insights they

offer for achieving social justice through policy (Alston, 2014; Hankivsky, 2005). Therefore,

examining whether national climate policies mainstream gender concerns across all sectors is

vital for this research project.

3.6 Importance of Gender-Responsive Budgeting in Climate Change Policies

Julie Nelson, a feminist economist and author of the book Feminism, Objectivity and

Economics (1995) argues that the traditional economic system is built on the idea of the

“economic man” (Nelson, 1995, p. 135). Where masculine experiences such as being the

breadwinner and achiever are rewarded and normalized and feminine experiences such as

childbirth and care taking are subsequently ignored.

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 Such perspectives have highlighted the importance of examining the ignorance of

women’s and gender concerns in climate financing initiatives. Feminist economist Mariama

Williams discusses the many issues that contribute to gender-unawareness in her book (2015),

“Gender and Climate Change Financing: Coming Out of the Margins”. Cohen notes in a book

review on “Gender and Climate Change Financing: Coming Out of the Margins” that Williams

specifically points to the “tendency for the financing of climate change policy initiatives to put

more emphasis on the mitigation of climate change, rather than on measures related to the

adaptation to changes” (Cohen, 2018, p. 198). Most of the policies surrounding mitigation

actions, (actions that have the most potential to reduce greenhouses gases and lessen the

impact of climate change) primarily focus on areas investing in science and the economy, both

of which are driven by male interests, and often provide limited coverage on gender (Terry

2009; Djoudi et al 2016).

MacGregor (2010), Williams (2015) and Kronsell (2018) argue that climate change is

framed as a techno-scientific problem. Other feminists also agree with this standpoint (Djoudi

et al, 2016), confirming that climate change is generally accepted as a techno-scientific

problem requiring technical solutions that often ignores or passively addresses gender

concerns. A common reason identified by scholars for overlooking gender aspects in climate

mitigation financing, is due to the fact that professions associated with these fields are often

male-dominated and frame climate change as a global issue affecting all humans equally

(Doyle and Chaturvedi 2010). As climate change is widely represented as a techno-scientific

problem, climate decisions mostly focus on technical fixes in the energy and transport areas,

which are the overwhelming focus of mitigation actions. According to Hemmati and Röhr

46
(2009) “the debate on climate change has been very narrow, focusing on the economic effects

of climate change, efficiency, and technological problems” (p. 20).

To increase gender considerations and concerns in climate policy, particularly in

climate financing, international organizations including the UNFCCC promoted and supported

the concept of gender-responsive budgeting (GRB) that emerged from feminist politics in the

1980s and 1990s. The concept became popularized at the Fourth World Conference on

Women in Beijing (1995) (Khan, 2015) that requested for “the integration of a gender

perspective in budgetary decisions in policies and programs” (Sharp and Broomhill 2002).

This notion encourages gender-based assessments of budgets “with the aim of securing gender

equality in decision-making about public resource allocation; and gender equality in the

distribution of the impact of budgets, both in their benefits and in their burdens” (Goswami,

2006). If GRB is institutionalized it has great potential to address structural inequalities and

reduce gender-based climate impacts. But its success “will require effective and equitable

access to climate finance including dedicated funding streams for women, and gender

considerations in all levels of design and implementation of climate finance funding

mechanisms” (WEDO Collective Working Group on Gender, 2015).

Utilizing GRB initiatives has the potential to hold governments accountable by

increasing transparency in monitoring the achievements of political goals, specifically those

ensuring gender equality. (ILO, 2006; Bosnic, 2015). It also offers opportunities for better data

collection as “the requirement for sex-disaggregated data and gender analysis of budget

programs can significantly contribute to the ongoing collection of data about budget programs

and their results” (Bosnic, 2015). Consequently, GRB can contribute to better performance

indicators including gender indicators that allow for monitoring and evaluation of program

47
outcomes on men and women and various social groups. Lastly, it is likely to improve the

budgetary-decision making processes. Through its inclusive approach, it incorporates a wider

range of society’s interests and improves their capacity for budgeting and policy-making.

However, the implementation of GRB in relation to climate change has been met with

fair criticism from some feminist economists (Khan, 2015; Bosnic, 2015). It is argued that the

implementation process has been slow and not applied equally across all climate policy

domains. Elson and Sharpe (2010) and Lyster (2017) all feminist economists have also

pointed out that its implementation is done in a shallow manner, paying lip service to gender

rather than actively examining the gendered impact of budgetary processes. These feminist

economists debate that if gender approaches such as GRB are to be taken seriously, feminist

perspectives including feminist economics must be institutionalized and expanded to all levels

and for all policy domains. However, it is believed feminist perspectives do not always inform

policies to the extent it should, as women’s unpaid work and reproduction do not count in

economic planning or models (Elson and Sharpe, 2010; Williams, 2015). Feminist economists

describe the continued reliance on traditional economic models as a major obstacle for

achieving women’s economic development and progressing gender equality (Nelson, 1995).

Incorporating feminist perspectives in budgetary planning from start to finish is central to

addressing structural inequalities. It has the potential to identify and expose gender biases in

climate finance, which if not addressed could lead to increasing gender inequalities (Khan,

2015).

3.7 Gender Responsive Criteria for Climate Change Policies

Through the literature review the five key concepts presented above have been

critically examined from feminist perspectives. This provides insights into how climate

48
change policies can be more attentive and responsive to the needs of women and men.

However, there is a wealth of information on gender and climate change policy and the issue

at hand is a very complex, pervasive and an uncertain phenomenon that will require

continuous development and improvement through research, including feminist knowledge.

Although, the five key concepts identified play a critical role in gender-responsive climate

policies, which can further gender equality, they are by no means an exhaustive list of

concepts and should not be taken as such.

The significance of incorporating a human rights approach to climate policy was often

the central theme discussed in the gender and climate change advocacy literature. Feminist

scholars and gender-climate change advocates stress that women’s rights are human rights and

that climate change impacts remain strong impediments to further gender equality (Jonsson,

2012; MacGregor 2010, Denton 2002; Kronsell, 2013). Incorporating human rights, which

encompasses gender equality, is recognized across the United Nations and its entities

including the UNFCCC. Therefore, a human rights approach was important to include in the

gender responsive criteria with the aim of identifying policies that recognize and respect the

rights of all human beings.

Gender equal participation is another common theme identified in the literature review.

The need to increase women’s representation and participation in climate policy-making

processes is echoed across the literature. It is important to include gender equal participation

as a part of the criteria that not only observes policies supporting women in political spheres

but also searches for participatory planning and active contributions from women’s groups and

other civil society organizations.

Equally important is the recurring theme of addressing gender power relations.

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Feminist perspectives were specifically concerned with dissecting power relations and

inequalities, both of which often go unnoticed in climate change governance. Ignoring how

social relations between men and women govern and dictate climate change impacts and

policies can perpetuate existing gender inequalities. Thus, it is essential for this project to

search for policies that addressed the effects of unequal access to resources, as well as support

the social transformation of gender roles.

Another prominent concept observed across the gender and climate change literature is

gender mainstreaming. Since gender and climate change are recognized as cross cutting issues

that intersect with one another it is crucial that gender concerns be mainstreamed across the

climate change discourse. However, the literature suggests that gender aspects were not

incorporated evenly throughout climate measures resulting in ineffective gender outcomes

(IDRC, 2017). Efforts to integrate gender across the climate policy domain have been slow,

especially in climate mitigation strategies where social considerations are not yet well

understood. It is therefore, important to include gender mainstreaming as a key concept in the

criteria and observe the integration (or lack thereof) of gender in NDCs and NCs.

Lastly, budgeting was also recognized as another vital concept to include in the

criteria. Budgets influence policies, dictate priorities and provide the means to meet the social

and economic needs of citizens (Judd, 2001). When a part of the policy processes, GRB can

reduce structural inequalities by addressing the needs of men and women. By including gender

perspectives in budgeting processes, monitoring and evaluation of climate policies can be

increased (Bosnic, 2015; Khan, 2015). Increased accountability is important for assuring that

governments achieve their set goals and commitments for gender equality.

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 If the elements outlined in the above criteria are present and visible in the data analysis

process then it can be considered that Parties are displaying a strong commitment to gender

within national climate policies and are thus gender responsive. Through the comprehensive

literature review, I have created the gender responsive criteria shown below in Figure 1. As

mentioned above, the gender responsive criteria will partly guide the data analysis process and

assist in the thematic analysis of national climate policies, a detailed account of this process is

outlined in Chapter 4.

Figure 1: Five Key Concepts Contributing to Gender-Responsive Climate Policies

Human Rights

Gender Gender Equal

Mainstreaming Par cipa on
Gender
Responsive
Concepts

Power
Budge ng
Rela ons

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 Chapter 4. Methodology

4.1 Introduction and Research Questions

The purpose of this chapter is to outline the methodology used to conduct this research,

which aims to identify gender commitments in national climate policies. The overall objective

is to examine and analyze NDCs and NCs to determine how Parties are addressing gender

equality concerns within national climate documents and if climate policies are implemented

with a gender responsive approach. In order to achieve this objective, I conducted thematic

analysis of six countries’ national climate documents (NDCs and NCs) to observe the manner

in which they are representing gender concerns. According to Bowen (2009), “organizational

and institutional documents have become a staple in qualitative research” (p.27) and can serve

several purposes in a research study such as helping “researchers understand the historical

roots of specific issues” (p.29). As gender has made its way into the international climate

regime, there is an urgency to examine how it is reflected in the larger climate change context.

Since the overall research interest was to investigate, how gender is integrated into

climate change policy, meaningful data was acquired through organizations specifically

involved in developing climate change legislature. I was particularly interested in identifying

which countries are most involved in addressing the linkages and representation of gender

across the climate change policy setting. Analyzing the gender normative setting of

institutions and social structures is central to the feminist approach (Kronsell, 2016) applied in

this research and also important for answering the research questions:

1. Which of the Parties that have ratified to the Paris Agreement include a strong

commitment to gender equality in their Nationally Determined Contributions and

National Communications?

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 2. How do these Parties address gender equality concerns and the linkages between

climate change in their Nationally Determined Contributions and National

Communications?

4.2 Research Paradigm

It is echoed throughout the interdisciplinary field of women’s studies that, “there has

never been one correct feminist epistemology generating one correct feminist methodology”

(Cook and Fanow 2005, p.2213). Some described it as a “perspective” (Reinharz, 1992), while

others consider it be more than a method as it fosters questions about ontological and

epistemological assumptions (Code, 2000). Feminism highlights the partiality of

epistemological views that categorize women as inferior and men as superior (Westerland,

2001). Throughout history, men have been characterized as rational beings and masculinity

has been associated with reasoning whereas, women have been depicted as non-rational and

emotional counterparts. These views are largely extended into Western philosophy where,

Francis Bacon (1561-1626) related knowledge as intrinsic to men and nature to women,

“claiming that nature is an object of knowledge with men being the “knowers” and women the

“knowable” (Westerland, 2001). These beliefs have led feminists to question our philosophical

underpinnings to conclude that, “the maleness of the Man of Reason ... is no superficial

linguistic bias. It lies deep in our philosophical tradition" (Lloyd, 1984, p.ix). From such

perspectives feminist researchers criticize “traditional methodology” as one “based in liberal-

positivist epistemology using empiricism, objectivity and rationalism” (Wilkinson 2007,

p.410) that “generally ignores women’s knowledge by showing bias towards the male

perspective” (Beetham and Demetriades 2007, p.199). Feminism confronts the contradictions

53
in how traditional knowledge is measured and its excessive reliance on objectivity to reveal

the truth. Although this study does not use standpoint epistemology, it does value the different

viewpoints and experiences women bring into decision-making processes.

Regardless of the variations and understanding of feminist research, many feminist

scholars have identified “basic attributes” (Wilkinson, 2007) that distinguish it from

traditional social research. It centralizes women or gender throughout the research process

with the intention to contribute to women’s empowerment (Acker, Barry and Esseveld 1983;

Cook and Fannow 2005). The central aim of my research is to examine if gender, including

women’s issues are a part of climate decision-making, thus feminist research can add analytic

value.

Feminist researchers have identified traditional research methods and processes as

repressing and distorting the knowledge of subjugated groups (Stanley and Wise, 1993);

paying little or no attention to gender power relations (Oakley 1974); the treatment of women

as a homogenous group (Fonow and Cook, 1991; Stanely and Wise, 1993; Patricia Hill

Collins, 1990) and adding women to research without thinking about them differently

(Reinharz, 1992). These perceptions are also recognized across the gender and climate change

policy literature. They are integrated into the gender responsive criteria, which will be used to

examine national climate policies.

Feminist beliefs have exposed that what the world knows and accepts as universal

knowledge is actually male knowledge resulting from gender-blind scholarship (Mies, 1983;

Westmarland, 2001). Gender-blind approaches to research are often characterized as ignoring

and silencing the knowledge and voices of women and marginalized groups from the

mainstream; this is partly evident in the study currently under investigation. Social actors in

54
the fields of science and law, both spaces that are predominately occupied by men (Arora-

Jonsson 2011), dictate climate change policy, and as a result “climate change has brought

about a masculinization of environmentalism” (MacGregor, 2010, p. 128). MacGregor (2010)

describes this as the unequal gender representation of women at all levels as scientific and

economic experts, entrepreneurs, policy makers and spokespeople. Gay-Antaki and Liverman

(2018) highlight the gender-blind nature of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

(IPCC), where studies have documented the gender imbalance in the science field due to the

continued barriers faced by female scientists including discrimination, unequal pay, and the

lack of funding opportunities. Bee et al. (2015) discussed the dominant Western perspective,

which has led to the belief that climate change can be stopped by techno-scientific and market-

based solutions; such types of thinking are “based in masculinist notions of controlling or

dominating the environment” (Bee, 2015, p. 4). Such perceptions of masculinity also run the

risk of essentializing men’s roles and identities which can be damaging, however, norms

associated with masculinity are valued and promoted over those associated with femininity

and are less likely to be discriminated against (ODI, 2015).

Feminist research can challenge the normative setting of climate politics that hides

how power is produced and reinforced through political and economic structures (Arora-

Jonsson 2011; Bee et al. 2013; MacGregor 2010; Sultana 2014). It raises questions regarding

women’s direction and involvement in climate policy and stresses that if women continue to

remain a minority in fields that influence climate change policy, they will be largely absent

from framing the discourse on climate change (MacGregor, 2010). A core feminist principle

is the belief, “that women and men are inherently of equal worth. Because most societies

55
privilege men as a group, social movements are necessary to achieve equality between women

and men” (Freedman, 2002).

Feminist scholarship evokes questions of how knowledge is constructed, who

produces it and how it is used. Asking such questions in this study is important for unraveling

the “dominant conceptions of femininity and masculinity…implicated within the institutional

frameworks of climate policy” (Tuana and Cuomo, n.d, p.2). By adopting a critical approach

toward intellectual domains that have ignored women and their experiences, feminist research

creates space for those “voices that are often excluded from knowledge production and policy

making, and critically reflect upon how it can all be done better” (Cresse and Frisby, 2011,p.

3). Therefore, feminist perspectives have been embedded throughout the research, from

developing the gender responsive criteria that is informed from feminist views to using a

qualitative research approach to guide the research process.

However, challenges within feminist research have been identified. It is idealistic to

think one can achieve the perfect feminist research process. Quite often there exists a large

gap between the reality and ideal goals of doing feminist research (Acker et al 1983; Gorelick,

1991; Carryer 1995). For Acker et al (1983), removing the power imbalance between “the

knower” (researcher) and “the other” (object of study) proved contradictory. According to

Acker et al (1983), “research is embedded in a definite social relationship in which there is a

power differential in favor of the knower who assumes the power to define the process of the

research” (p.427). This social relationship ultimately creates a biased one-sided reflection “of

the powerful knower” (p.427). In all studies including this study, the researcher(s) determines

the manner in which information and data are to be presented which displays a one-sided

reflection of the topic under investigation. However, this study attempts to provide a holistic

56
view of gender concerns that currently exist in national climate policies and aims to do so in a

manner, which minimizes personal bias as much as possible.

4.2.1 Research Method

This study applies thematic analysis as its primary method to address gender equality

discussions in national climate change policies. Thematic analysis is often a common

approach employed in qualitative studies: it is concerned with identifying, examining and

reporting patterns or themes within the data (Braun and Clarke, 2006). Feminism as a

methodology is not linked to any one specific method, however a qualitative approach is the

most popular among feminist and social science researchers (Westmarland, 2001). Qualitative

research is primarily investigative in nature and is used to find rich meaning and gain a deeper

understanding of the phenomenon under study.

Likewise, thematic analysis as a method is not tied to any particular epistemological or

theoretical perspective (Braun and Clarke 2006). This “theoretical freedom” (Braun and Clark,

2006, p.5) allows thematic analysis to be a “flexible and useful research tool, which can

potentially provide a rich and detailed, yet complex account of data” (Braun and Clarke, 2006,

p.5). As a novice researcher who has never previously conducted any type of qualitative

research, the clearly defined steps in thematic analysis can help guide my analysis and reveal

useful findings (Castlebury and Nolen, 2018). According to Hughes (1997), the research

purpose and the type of research question(s) asked are some of the factors that influence the

decision of the researcher to adopt a qualitative approach. The central aim of this study is to

produce knowledge that will promote the social transformation of gender relations and

contribute to increasing gender equality. This goal led me to engage in feminist research and

from there onwards influenced each decision I took to conduct my study.

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 To gain a profound understanding of the topic, the research questions were formulated

to understand how gender equality is addressed in climate change policies. The research

questions are not geared towards solving a problem; rather they are aimed at investigating

policies in-depth to understand how gender equality is being addressed. This approach

described by Schram (2006) is considered as problem generation or problematizing, which is

closer to qualitative research. The initial choice I made of choosing gender and climate change

policy as my topic led me to assess large volumes of official texts and interpret how gender

was categorized and perceived in the NDCs and NCs. Due to the investigative nature of the

study qualitative research including thematic analysis of documents was considered the most

suitable method for the overall research purpose. Despite the popularity and wide use of mixed

methods in social sciences, Azorin and Cameron (2010) explain, “mixed methods research is

not intrinsically superior to research that relies on a single method” (p. 97), what is more

important is to consider what method(s) is most appropriate to “address the research problem

and research question(s)” (p. 97). The use of methods such as semi-structured interviews and

focus groups is reiterated throughout feminist research, however as stated by Kelly, Regan and

Burton (1992) “what makes feminist research feminist is less the method used, and more how

it is used and what it is used for” (p.150).

4.2.2 Positionality as a Researcher

As one engaging in feminist qualitative research, focusing on reflexivity was important

for providing transparency within the research process. As stated by Sultana (2007), “it is

critical to pay attention to positionality, reflexivity, the production of knowledge and the

power relations that are inherent in research processes in order to undertake ethical

research…”(p.380). Determining how my social background, values and assumptions affect

58
the research was a daunting task. At first, it was difficult to label myself as one specifically

aligned with the values of radical feminism or material feminism; I realized through this

process that different feminist perspectives and elements all contributed to my definition of

feminism. For me feminism is a concept, which is used to address gender inequalities in

access to power and resources that limit or restrict an individual’s abilities and existence

because of their gender. Through this difficult process of self-reflexivity, which is still under

construction, I recognized I have a feminist consciousness, which believes in three core

principles: (1) gender and gender roles are social constructs where women have been socially

and historically subjugated by male-centric ideologies; (2) women and men are equal beings

deserving of equal rights, attention and respect with regards to their differentiated needs; and

(3) the need to support social transformation if women are to be equally valued in society.

I do identify myself as a feminist and throughout this research I support the need for

gender equality by promoting change in the way women’s human rights and interests are

conceptualized. I also employ feminist principles to support the structural changes in the way

women’s needs and concerns are represented in relation to climate change policy. Feminism is

built on the notion of equality and justice, these values have shaped and informed the way I

see the world. It has also guided me throughout this research process from articulating my

research questions, to creating my research methodology, data collection and analyzing data

through a critical frame that places an emphasis on women’s rights and needs to achieve

gender equality. As described by Victoria Clarke (2017) “feminism is so integral to the

development of qualitative research that if you don’t engage with feminist methodological

writing, then you can’t fully understand qualitative research” (p.3).

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4.3 Dataset

This is a mono-method study that relies on textual information derived from official

documents. Despite Creswell’s (2014) warning against heavy reliance on only qualitative

types of data (i.e. documents) for analysis, Denscombe (2010) suggests, “documents can be

treated as source of data in their own right” (p.216). For example, the WEDO Gender Analysis

of INDCs research report only analyzes text as data to reveal the extent of gender concerns

addressed at the national level. Likewise, the research conducted by Verloo et al. (2016) solely

uses qualitative data including policy texts (reports, programs, legal texts etc.), mass media

articles, expert texts and texts from the feminist movement to study gender policy frames in

six countries and the EU from 1995 to 2004.

All the data for this study was collected from the United Nations Framework

Convention on Climate Change website, which houses all relevant documentation regarding

climate change decisions and actions. Gathering documents from the UNFCCC provided an

efficient and cost-effective method as all information was free to download and publicly

available on one website. The data search and collection process began in March 2018

involving the selection of countries’ NDCs and NCs through a systematic process that

required meeting multiple standards for analysis (outlined in the section below). Despite their

usefulness to this study, it is important to note these documents submitted to the UNFCCC

website do not represent the “opinion whatsoever on the part of the UNFCCC or the

Secretariat of the United Nations”. It is in the discretion of the government to reveal the

information they seem fit, which may lead to insufficient detail where some information is left

out or incomplete and the increased likelihood of biased selectivity which aligns policies and

procedures with the agenda of the organization’s principles (Bowen, 2009). However, Bowen

60
(2009) explains these as “potential flaws rather than major disadvantages” (p.32) and proposes

that the use of documents in research “offers advantages that clearly outweigh the limitations”

(p.32).

However, Denscombe (2010) warns, “any documents to be used for research need to

be considered very carefully in terms of their authorship, their credibility and their

authenticity” (p.223). As one conducting feminist research, exercising reflexivity was of

utmost importance. I therefore took great care to ensure my data was obtained from credible,

relevant and authentic sources by following the four criteria for the Evaluation of Internet

documents and webpages as described by Denscombe (2010).

The four criteria for the Evaluation of Internet documents and webpages include:

• Authoritativeness of the site: All NDCs and NCs were acquired through the UNFCCC
an intergovernmental site, which adds credibility to the source
• Trustworthiness of the site: The UNFCCC website is legitimate, since it is managed
and maintained by the Secretariat- there is sense of check and balance
• How up-to-date the site is: The website is regularly up-dated depending on recent and
emerging decisions, mandates and events
• The popularity of the site: The UNFCCC website is well recognized across the globe,
is used by academics, practitioners, governments, NGOs and the general public for
information related to climate change action

Furthermore, to provide transparency and rigor throughout the research process I included a

detailed account of the data collection process and followed Braun and Clarke’s influential

six-step framework for performing thematic analysis.

The documents are used to provide a framework for observing and explaining gender

equality in the climate change policy discourse and are central to addressing the research

problem. According to Bowen (2009) the use of organizational and institutional documents

“can suggest some questions that need to be asked and situations that need to be observed as

part of the research” (Bowen, 2009, p.30). In addition, Bowen (2009) describes documents as

61
“stable”, “unobtrusive” and “non reactive”, (p.31) meaning documents remain unaffected by

the research process and the researcher’s influence. Feminist and qualitative research methods

such as semi-structured interviews, ethnography, focus groups etc. are criticized for being

obtrusive and reactive (Bowen, 2009), in that the social interactions between the researcher

and the participants may influence and distort the research process and outcomes. However,

this issue of reflexivity is usually not a concern when using documents for research purposes

(Bowen, 2009).

The integration of gender in climate change policy is fairly new and evolving through

the guidelines and standards mandated by the UNFCCC. Since the UNFCCC is designated as

the entity creating “norms, rules, and decision-making procedures” (Abbott, 2014, p. 64) that

influences the behavior of those involved in the climate change policy field, they dictate the

current and future discourse surrounding gender in climate change policy. As existing

multilateral efforts to combat climate change including NDCs and NCs are organized around

the UNFCCC, examining the dominant framing of these texts was therefore considered by me

as relevant and useful to address the question and fit well with the critical feminist approach of

this study.

Also, while examining the NDCs and NCs of all countries would yield results that are

more generalizable, this was not the purpose of the study. By selecting a smaller number of

NDCs and NCs more resources such as time, effort and concentration could be allocated

towards specific Parties to determine how each one was reflecting gender concerns and the

linkages between climate change. This approach provided the advantage of conducting deep

qualitative analysis and allowed for more engagement with the text. This would not have been

possible if a large number of NDCs and NCs were selected for analysis. Also, conducting

62
thematic analysis of all countries’ NDCs and NCs was out of the scope for a graduate degree

with limited time and resources. Moreover, the aim of this thesis was to identify NDCs and

NCs that exhibited a strong commitment to gender equality, compared to others, to observe in-

depth the way they shape and frame the discourse on gender and climate change. Thus, it was

not desirable to study all NDCs and NCs, as some displayed weak or no commitment to

gender equality.

Although, the research project employs a qualitative approach, it made use of

quantitative data such as indices sourced by the United Nations Development Program

(UNDP) and the Germanwatch for narrowing the research sample size. The two indices were

the 2015 Gender Inequality Index (GII) and the 2018 Climate Change Performance Index

(CCPI). Besides reducing the sample size for a smaller data set, the indices were used to

illuminate how countries across the globe were ranked in regards to gender inequality and

climate change performance. This provided the opportunity to observe for any apparent

relationship between the two phenomena. The goal of this research was not to conduct

statistical analysis, but rather to put the two occurrences in perspective of one another. Using

indices as complementary data made it possible to compare the rankings between countries

and visualize a potential relationship between increased/decreased gender equality and

increased/decreased climate change performance. This research examines gender and climate

change policy concerns at the national level rather than in a specific region or community,

therefore collecting secondary data from international organizations presented itself as a viable

option.

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4.3.1 Country Selection Process

As explained earlier, NDCs are a vital component for the implementation of the Paris

Agreement. NDCs outline each Party’s commitments and how they intend to achieve them.

The NDCs are expected to clearly communicate how each country plans on integrating climate

change into different domains such as human rights, gender equality and sustainable

development. Therefore, selecting NDCs as a source of data was necessary to examine if

national climate policies are being applied in a manner that is coherent to the gender equality

principles reiterated in the Paris Agreement. It is also important to note only those countries

with registered NDCs that are available through the ‘NDC Interim Registry’, maintained by

the Secretariat, were included in the study. Since NDCs are future contributions under the

Paris Agreement and implementation is still underway another relevant source of data was

collected to ensure the research study was comprehensive in nature.

This additional source of data included NCs. As described previously the UNFCCC

requires Parties to report regularly on their progress to implement decisions of the Convention

through reports known as National Communications. Since, the UNFCCC encourages all

Parties to integrate gender considerations into climate aspects including the NCs, it was

sensible to use NCs as a form of data and analyze them through a gender perspective. The

NCs are highly regulated reporting instruments under the Convention and its importance is

also emphasized in the enhanced transparency framework outlined in the Paris Agreement.

Other relevant policies including Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMAs) and

National Adaptation Plans (NAPs) were excluded from the dataset, as only developed

countries are required to submit these plans. In order to eliminate any apparent bias, it was

important to include all countries (whether developed or developing) within the research.

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NDCs and NCs are reports submitted by both developing and developed countries and

together they offered a good basis to investigate the discourse on gender and climate change

policy.

However, as stated above, it was not feasible to evaluate all NDCs and NCs. Therefore

to ensure rigor and accuracy, the following process determined the selection of countries for

review. This procedure was important for reducing selection bias of countries and provided a

clear guide for picking only those countries that met the following criteria:

Table 1: Five Criteria for Country Selection

Country Selection Criteria
1. Countries must have formally ratified the Paris Agreement
2. Countries must have submitted the NDCs to the ‘NDC Interim Registry’ and NCs
to the UNFCCC website
3. NDCs and NCs must be submitted in English
4. NCs must be submitted in or after 2015
5. Countries should be in both indices (GII and CCPI)

Countries were identified based on the criteria shown in Table 1 to ensure the selection

process of 177 countries was performed in a consistent and fair manner. First, countries that

had formally ratified to the Paris Agreement were selected as this meant they were legally

bound to the treaty and mandated to fulfilling its requirements based on their capabilities

(Criterion 1). Secondly, because this study focuses on both the NDC and NC of a country, it

was important to include only those countries that submitted both documents through the

correct submission portals: NDC Interim Registry and the ‘NC submissions portal’ (Criterion

2). Next, only countries that submitted both NDCs and NCs in English were obtained; this is

due to the researcher’s ability to read, write and interpret data only in English (Criterion 3).

Since the NDCs were a direct outcome of the Paris Agreement and developed after its

adoption in 2015 it was important to include NCs that were up-to-date and relevant; therefore

only those NCs submitted in or after 2015 were accepted (Criterion 4). After applying these 4
65
criteria to all 177 countries, the sample size was 80 countries, which was too large of a sample

size for this research project. Lastly, this study incorporated the Gender Inequality Index and

the Climate Change Performance Index for comparative purposes and reduced the sample size

by selecting only those countries that were included in of both these indices (Criterion 5).

After running all countries through the five criteria, the initial sample size consisted of 37

countries (shown below in Figure 2), but Japan was removed due to file glitches that would

not allow in-document word searches. All information was organized and catalogued in

Microsoft Excel.

Figure 2: Countries Chosen Through Country Selection Criteria

NDC availability NC availability
Country (ENG; date) (ENG; date in or after 2015) Ranking Ranking
CCPI GII
1. Sweden NDC-ENG 22 Dec 2017- ENG 4 4
2. Lithuania NDC-ENG 29 Dec 2017- ENG 5 25
3. Norway NDC-ENG 18 Apr 2018- ENG 7 6
4. United Kingdom NDC-ENG 30 Dec 2017- ENG 8 28
5. Finland NDC-ENG 13 Dec 2017-ENG 9 8
6. Latvia NDC-ENG 29 Dec 2017- ENG 10 41
7. Switzerland NDC-ENG 19 Dec 2017- ENG 12 1
8. Croatia NDC-ENG 2 May 2018- ENG 13 31
9. France NDC-ENG 22 Feb 2018- ENG 15 19
10. Italy NDC-ENG 19 Jan 2018- ENG 16 16
11. Denmark NDC-ENG 21 Jan 2018-ENG 17 2
12. Portugal NDC-ENG 29 Dec 2017- ENG 18 17
13. Brazil NDC-ENG 20 Apr 2016- ENG 19 92
14. Germany NDC-ENG 20 Dec 2017- ENG 22 9
15. Slovakia NDC-ENG 29 Dec 2017- ENG 24 39
16. Luxembourg NDC-ENG 11 Feb 2018- ENG 25 13
17. Romania NDC-ENG 27 Dec 2017- ENG 26 72
18. Egypt NDC-ENG 8 Nov 2016- ENG 28 135
19. Cyprus NDC-ENG 22 Feb 2018- ENG 29 21
20. Estonia NDC-ENG 9 Mar 2018-ENG 30 28
21. Slovenia NDC-ENG 13 Mar 2018- ENG 31 6
22. Belgium NDC-ENG 20 Dec 2017- ENG 32 12
23. New Zealand NDC-ENG 21 Dec 2017- ENG 33 34
24. Netherlands NDC-ENG 14 Feb 2018- ENG 34 3
25. Austria NDC-ENG 8 Feb 2018- ENG 35 14
26. Indonesia NDC-ENG 14 Feb 2018- ENG 37 105
27. Greece NDC-ENG 22 Dec 2017- ENG 39 23
28. Poland NDC-ENG 29 Dec 2017- ENG 40 30
29. Bulgaria NDC-ENG 29 Dec 2017- ENG 42 45
30. Czech Republic NDC-ENG 22 Dec 2017- ENG 43 27
31. Hungary NDC-ENG 10 Jan 2018- ENG 44 49
32. Ireland NDC-ENG 30 Mar 2018- ENG 49 26
33. Japan * NDC-ENG 22 Dec 2017- ENG 50 21
34. Canada NDC-ENG 29 Dec 2017- ENG 51 18

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 35. Kazakhstan NDC-ENG 31 Dec 2017- ENG 55 42
36. Australia NDC-ENG 4 May 2018- ENG 57 24
37. Saudi Arabia NDC-ENG 22 Dec 2016- ENG 60 50
Note. Source: Author *Excluded from sample

4.3.2 Relevance and Validity of Indices

Gender Inequality Index (GII 2015)

The GII (2015) was used instead of other gender indices (Environment and Gender

Index and Global Gender Gap Index) based on its comprehensive nature and the range of

variables used to measure gender inequality across countries. The GII (2015) measures gender

inequalities of 159 countries in three important dimensions of human development. These

dimensions include: reproductive health, measured by the maternal mortality ratio and

adolescent birth rate; empowerment measured by the proportion of parliamentary seats held by

females and the proportion of females and males aged 25 years and older with at least some

secondary education; and economic status measured by the labor market participation rate of

female and male populations aged 15 years and older. Although these dimensions do not cover

the full array of possibilities that contribute to gender disparities, it does provide a good

starting point of factors attributed to increased or decreased gender inequality.

Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI 2018)

For the past 13 years, the CCPI (2018) has been tracking countries efforts to combat

climate change. The CCPI used in 2018 is designed to include measures taken by governments

to reduce GHG emissions based on the climate protection commitments agreed upon in the

Paris Agreement. Through standardized criteria the index assesses and compares the climate

change performance of 56 countries including the European Union (EU). These countries are

ranked based on their performance regarding 14 indicators within the four categories, which

include GHG Emissions, Renewable Energy, Energy Use and Climate Policy. However, the
67
CCPI only provided data on 56 countries, most of which belong to developed countries

(Annex II) or developed and economies in transition countries (Annex I), both categories

signify higher economic development.

Although, the sample was less representative than the GII, the CCPI only included 56

countries because when combined they are responsible for more than 90 percent of global

greenhouse gas emissions. A significant number of these countries included Annex I and II

parties. This provided perspective into which countries should be closely monitored and held

accountable for reducing climate change impacts. While all countries emit GHGs, it is

important to pay close attention to those who have contributed in the past and/or are currently

contributing the most to the problem. This can help ensure countries’ climate policies and

efforts are apt and meet international climate requirements, including gender equitable climate

action.

I chose to observe official statistics of countries to compare their performance on

gender equality and climate change to see if any obvious relationship between the two existed.

No definite relationship between a country’s CCPI and GII ranking could be determined and

this was expected as both indices measured two different phenomena with very different

indicators and methods. Also, without appropriate statistical analyses, which this study does

not provide, it would be impossible to claim there is any concrete relationship between the two

matters. With that being said, certain trends within the indices were noticed and this helped

classify countries into specific categories. The CCPI already labeled countries based on their

performance and assigned them the following values: Very High, High, Medium, Low, and

Very Low. The GII however, labeled countries based on human development and assigned the

following values: Very High, High, Medium and Low. In order to establish a standard for

68
comparison between the two indices, I aligned the performance level values for the GII with

the CCPI. The performance level tables of both indices are shown below.

Table 2: CCPI Performance Level Values Table

Performance Level (PL) of CCPI as determined by GermanWatch
Rank Performance Level Values
≥3 Very High
4-18 High
19-32 Medium
33-45 Low
46-60 Very Low

Table 3: GII Performance Level Values Table

Performance Level (PL) of GII as determined by researcher
Rank Performance Level Values
≤5 Very High
6-33 High
34-61 Medium
62-89 Low
≥ 90 Very Low

Assigning countries performance level values helped gain insight into the varying

nature of gender equality and climate change. For instance, countries that performed

extremely well in the GII did poorly in the CCPI and vice versa, while there were some

countries that did not fluctuate much between rankings. A full summary of data can be viewed

in Appendix A.

Using the UNFCCC Party categories, countries were divided into the three groups:

Annex I, Annex II and Non-Annex. This provided insight into how many of the countries from

the sample were developed, economies in transition or developing parties. From the sample of

36 countries 32 of them belonged to the Annex I and II categories and only 4 countries

belonged to the Non-Annex I category. This automatically signified the higher representation

of developed countries within this study and the potential bias for over–representation.

4.3.3 Data Sample

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 Purposive or judgmental sampling is a non-probability sampling technique common in

qualitative methods that enable the researcher to select “information-rich cases” (Patton, 1990,

p. 169,) that will best answer the research question(s) and objective(s) (Saunders et al, 2012).

Criterion sampling is a type of purposive sampling that allows the researcher to apply their

particular criteria when defining the sample. Ritchie et al (2003) define the approach as one

where “members of a sample are chosen with a purpose…in relation to the criterion” (p. 77).

This approach permits the researcher to critically think and define the parameters of the

sample at an early stage (Miles and Huberman, 1994). It was established early on in the study

that the emphasis would be on countries that displayed a strong commitment to gender

equality in NDCs and NCs. This would help reveal how gender and women’s rights concerns

are being interpreted and constructed by Parties in climate policy and action. Thus, it was not

suitable to include all 36 countries since those with weak or absent gender commitments

would not provide much information to work with. Criterion sampling was therefore applied

to the 36 countries to yield a sample that would offer, “information-rich cases” (Patton, 1990,

p. 169) where “one can learn a great deal about issues of central importance to the purpose of

the research” (p. 169).

Based on my review of both the grey and academic literature, a number of key words

were identified in the gender and climate change discourse. The keywords listed below in

Table 4 comprised majority of the literature review and were frequently repeated as central

topics across the five key concepts. The reiteration of these words created a powerful cohesive

effect and emphasized the significance to the research topic. Besides gender mainstreaming,

all other terms were selected instead of the key concepts because they were more tailored and

specific, making it simpler to identify gender considerations in national climate documents.

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Gender, gender equality, and women were selected as key terms due to their relevance to the

research topic and were at the basis of all five concepts. It was therefore important to observe

in what context these terms were being utilized in national climate policies. Gender

mainstreaming one of the five concepts and gender responsive were also chosen for their

relevance to the research topic and due to their popularization in climate actions under the

UNFCCC. These two terms were also chosen to examine if Parties were incorporating gender

inclusive terminology into national climate policies. Participatory planning was chosen as a

term because it was often used to highlight the importance of inclusive planning including

increasing women’s participation in decision-making processes. Lastly, inequality was chosen

as a key term since unequal access to resources and information were often stressed as factors

contributing to gender inequality and impediments to human rights.

The key words were used to conduct a basic in-document word search of all 36

countries’ NCs and NDCs using the “command” and “F” function. These word repetitions

were captured in Microsoft Excel. Although, redundancy in this process was expected, it was

used for a rudimentary analysis of the texts to determine which countries included a higher

volume of gender-inclusive language and to narrow the sample size accordingly.

Table 4: List of Key Terms Used for In-Document Word Search

List of Key Terms
1. Gender
2. Gender Equality
3. Women
4. Gender-responsive
5. Gender-mainstreaming
6. Participatory Planning
7. Inequality
All the documents were housed in Zotero, a free and open source tool to help collect,

organize, cite and share research materials. The main criteria was countries that made

references to the key terms in the NDC and/or NC more than 30 times were recognized as

71
those with strong gender commitments in climate policies and selected for an in-depth

analysis. The number 30 was selected as the standard for strong gender commitments as data

collected during the in-document word search illustrated minimal representation of gender

concerns in both the NDCs and NCs. In order to set apart average countries from exceptional

ones, references of 30 or more were used as the baseline. Interestingly, none of the Annex I or

II parties mentioned or referenced any of the key terms in the NDCs; this however differed in

the NCs of Annex II Parties, with Canada having the highest number of references to key

terms from the entire sample (68 references in total), most EIT Parties made minimal or no

references, with the highest mention of 5 references from Croatia and the lowest of 0 from

Hungary, Slovakia and Czech Republic. Non-Annex I Parties also had higher key term

repetitions in the NCs as opposed to the NDCs, Brazil had the 2nd highest number of

references (57 references in total) after Canada.

The in-document search for keyword repetitions resulted in a total of 5 countries.

Indonesia was added to the sample to ensure the representation of both developed and

developing countries (countries for final analysis are shown below in Figure 3). Indonesia was

chosen over Saudi Arabia due to a higher reference of key terms in both the NDCs and NCs.

The final result was a total of 6 NCs and 5 NDCs, (Sweden and Finland submitted the NDC as

one under the European Union). The in-document word search of all 36 countries’ NDCs and

NCs can be found in Appendix B.

Figure 3: Final List of Countries for Data Analysis

Country Perform. Document Gender Gender Women GR* GM** PP*** Inequality Total
Level Equality
CCPI/GII
Sweden High/Very
High NC: NDC 14:0 8:0 8:0 1:0 0:0 0:0 0:0 31
Finland High/High NC: NDC 7:0 3:0 12:0 1:0 3:0 10:0 1:0 37
Canada Very 10:0 15:0 39:0 0:0 0:0 4:0 0:0 68

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 Low/High NC: NDC
Brazil Med/Very
Low NC: NDC 3:0 0:0 9:1 0:1 0:0 4:0 40:0 59
Egypt Med/Very
Low NC: NDC 11:0 2:0 18:0 0:0 2:0 3:0 0:0 36
Indonesia Low/Very
Low NC: NDC 0:0 0:2 1:2 0:0 0:0 3:1 1:0 10
Note. Source: Author
*Gender-Responsive
**Gender-Mainstreaming
***Participatory Planning

4.3.4 Validity of Documentary Data

This research relies solely on documentary data consisting of government publications

and official statistics. Denscombe (2010) and Bowen (2009) both caution against accepting

any type of document at face value. However, government and official documents are often

perceived in the “Western world as a key source of documentary information for social

scientists.” (Denscombe, 2010, p. 217). The reason being is that they are often associated with

authoritativeness where governments produce data by expending large resources and

expertise. They are also regarded as objective and impartial data since they are produced by

officials and factual when presenting numbers or hard data “over which there can be no

ambiguity” (Denscombe, 2010, p. 217). The validity of the NDCs and NCs could be

established based on their authenticity, credibility and completeness (Platt, 1981; Scott, 1990;

Bowen, 2009 & Denscombe, 2010). Both types of government publications were collected

through the UNFCCC website (NDC Interim Registry and NC submissions portal) which are

maintained and managed by the Secretariat to ensure their legitimacy. The information within

the reports is collated through a number of government departments, ministries and technical

experts to provide accurate and detailed data to perform a collective assessment of progress in

achieving the aims of the Paris Agreement and the Convention. These documents are made

publicly available for critical examination by international expert teams, scholars, scientists

and researchers to ensure the quality, accuracy and transparency of the reports submitted.

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 However, as one conducting feminist qualitative research it is important to disclose

that the data was acquired from organizations and governments that have the power to define

and dismiss what constitutes as mainstream climate policy problems. These structures of

power have often operated for years under a male-normed paradigm (Bee, 2015) and this was

taken into account when collecting and analyzing climate documents, as the needs, concerns

and contributions of women and marginalized groups were at times not apparent or

represented.

4.4 Data Analysis

When conducting qualitative research, “the researcher becomes the instrument for

analysis, making judgments about coding, theming, decontextualizing, and recontextualizing

the data” (Nowell et al. 2017, p.2). Therefore, to assure rigor and trustworthiness in the data

analysis process, Braun and Clarke’s framework for performing thematic analysis was applied.

Braun and Clarke describe thematic analysis as a “method for identifying, analyzing,

organizing, describing, and reporting themes found within a data set” (Nowell et al 2017, p. 2;

Braun and Clarke 2006). Since analysis is not a linear process (Braun and Clarke 2006;

Nowell et al. 2017) and requires the researcher to move back and forth between new theories

and data all research involves processes of induction and deduction (Robson, 1993), especially

in thematic analysis whereby induction creates themes and deduction verifies them (Gleeson,

2003).

Both an inductive and theoretical approach was used to code the dataset. In the initial

stages, coding was geared towards “identifying patterns and discovering theoretical properties

in the data” (Bowen, 2009, p.37). Braun and Clarke describe this as a “data-driven” (p.18)

approach that provides a rich description of the entire dataset. But through refining codes into

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sub-themes and themes the coding process was driven by my theoretical interests or as Braun

and Clarke (2006) describe as “analyst-driven” (p.12). Coding to provide a detailed account of

the overall dataset and focusing on a specific aspect of the data closely aligned with my

research purpose, which seeks to identify at large the gender responsive implementation of

national climate policies. I wanted to provide a bigger picture of how gender issues were

reflected, if at all, across all sections of the national climate policies. The flexible nature of

thematic analysis is that it allows the researcher to decide how to collect and define themes in

a number of ways. Even though an inductive coding process does not try to “fit into a pre-

existing coding frame” (Braun and Clarke, 2006, p.12) when identifying themes it is helpful to

use a few predefined codes to aid in analysis (Nowell et al. 2017). Therefore, examining the

dataset first in its entirety to recognize specific patterns on gender equality and then applying

the gender responsive criteria to assist in the development and refinement of codes and themes

seemed appropriate to address the research problem.

4.4.1 Coding Process

As suggested by Braun and Clarke (2006), I familiarized myself with the data prior to

the coding process, this allowed me to understand the depth and breadth of the content and

helped with basic recognition of patterns across the data. During this phase I manually jotted

notes and ideas (on the printed data set) for coding ideas and obtained a general sense of how

NDCs and NCs were addressing or ignoring gender concerns.

To enhance the analytic process, coding was conducting using NVivo 12, a qualitative

data analysis computer software program, designed to work with very rich text-based

information, where deep levels of data analysis are required. All documents from the final

sample were exported from Zotero into NVivo 12 and from there the coding process began.

75
The five concepts of the gender responsive criteria served as a guide for describing and

identifying interesting qualities across the data (see Table 5 below). Specifically aiding in

search of vivid examples or extracts that captured gender and women’s concerns throughout

the national climate policies. The gender responsive criteria shown below incorporated a

diverse range of perspectives from the gender and climate change policy literature, including

feminist viewpoints on gender integration into climate politics. These perspectives helped

establish detailed characteristics of what constitutes as gender responsive implementation of

climate policies and what to look for across the dataset.

Table 5: Gender Responsive Criteria Built from Literature Review

Gender-responsive concepts What to observe across data or lack thereof
Human Rights Evidence of policies recognizing and respecting women’s agency
and rights as equal human beings to men
Gender Equal Participation Evidence policies promote and support gender equal participation
in political spheres where women are well-supported to access
executive levels in climate decision-making bodies
Evidence of participatory planning that requires the active
contributions of civil society organizations including women’s
empowerment groups in the development and management of
national adaptation and mitigation policies
Power Relations Evidence that policies address the effects of unequal access to
resources, opportunities and outcomes
Women’s positioning in relation to climate change policies
(vulnerable groups, agents of change, beneficiaries or
stakeholders)
Evidence of policies addressing and supporting the social
transformation of gender roles and responsibilities which go
beyond essentializing gender roles to combat climate change
Gender Mainstreaming Any reference to gender or women in policy
Evidence that gender is integrated across all components of the
national climate policies especially in matters related to
mitigation, financing and technology (non-traditional sectors)
Budgeting Evidence of gender-responsive budgeting that addresses the needs
of women and men to reduce structural inequality caused by the
effects of climate change
Evidence of mechanisms or processes used for monitoring and
evaluating progress on gender equality in climate change policies
and plans, such as allocating budgets to regularly collect and
analyze gender and sex disaggregated data to improve gender
equality within climate change mitigation and adaptation actions

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 In order to provide a detailed description of the data, whenever the gender responsive

characteristics outlined in the table above appeared they were coded. But, their absence was

equally noted during the analysis. To track the absence of missing gender responsive

characteristics across the dataset a coding matrix was created. This provided a summary of the

coding references for each NDC and NC shown in Figure 4. The coding matrix displays the

number of times each code was applied within an NDC and NC. This analysis not only

revealed which countries included a higher level of gender integration but also made visible

which codes were lacking data and references to the gender responsive criteria. This illustrated

the manner in which gender issues and the linkages between climate change were being

addressed. It also allowed for a comparison among the six countries and the opportunity to

distinguish the various ways in which gender is understood and integrated into climate change

policies. It is, however, important to note that each country has different and evolving

political, economic and social circumstances and given the relatively small sample size the

findings below should not be interpreted as conclusive.

77
Figure 4: Coding Matrix
Brazil's NDC Brazil's NC Canada's NDC Canada's NC Egypt's NDC Egypt's NC EU NDC Finland's NC Indonesia's NDC Indonesia's NC Sweden's NC
Gender Equal Participation
Increase women’s participation in climate decision making roles 0 0 0 4 0 2 0 2 0 0 0
Evidence of women in climate decision-making roles 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 1
Participatory planning 0 5 2 5 0 4 0 5 4 5 4
Involvement of women’s groups and organizations 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
Gender Mainstreaming
Any reference to gender or women in climate policy 1 3 0 33 0 8 0 6 3 1 10
Gender equality mainstreamed as a concern for developing countries 0 0 0 16 0 0 0 2 0 0 5
Limited to adaptation and disaster risk reduction measures 0 0 0 10 0 3 0 1 0 0 1
Reference of women or gender across sectors in non-traditional sectors (mitigation, technology and finance) 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Power Relations
Gender synonymous with women 0 0 0 5 0 1 0 3 0 0 0
Women referenced as vulnerable or poor or agents of change in developed countries 0 4 0 2 0 3 0 1 0 0 0
Identification and reduction of inequalities that may contribute to gender inequality 0 0 0 4 2 8 0 1 1 0 0
Human Rights
Fairness and equity in implementation 3 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 1 0 4
Gender equality and empowerment of women as a right in climate actions 1 0 0 13 0 4 0 2 0 1 0
Increase access to resources and opportunities 0 4 0 7 0 3 0 2 0 0 0
Budgeting
Financial support for developing countries for gender equality 0 0 0 16 0 0 0 1 0 0 3
Budgets limited to adaptation support 0 0 0 11 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
Evidence of GRB 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
Collection of sex-disaggregated data 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Economic prioritization- lacking gender component 2 0 4 1 1 3 0 5 2 1 2
Emphasis on techno-scientific approach to climate change 2 7 3 5 1 10 0 8 0 2 2
Total 9 26 9 137 4 51 0 41 11 12 34

The search for meanings and patterns was by no means limited to the criteria, and

when new concepts or ideas regarding gender issues were noticed they were included as codes

and categorized within the gender responsive criteria. The more general level codes were

derived from the research objectives and criteria while the detailed and specific codes and

subthemes were captured from the multiple readings of the data. The recursive nature of

thematic analysis involved continuously revising and refining codes to form overarching and

broad themes to interpret the data and to say something meaningful about the research topic.

A total of 20 codes were developed and applied across the dataset. All coded extracts

can be found in the coding manual located in Appendix C. The coding manual includes all

data extracts and the accompanying codes. The purpose of the coding manual is to offer

transparency and rigor to the research project; it is not to be interpreted as a guide for

performing the coding. Using the gender responsive criteria to guide the coding process, the

codes were categorized into the five concepts based on their applicability and relevance to the

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concepts. Table 6 lists each key concept from the gender responsive criteria, the number of

codes accompanying each key concept and the number of times the code was applied.

Table 6: Key Concepts and Code Applications

Key Concepts Number of related Number of applications
codes of related codes
Gender-Equal Participation 4 47
Gender Mainstreaming 4 108
Power Relations 3 36
Human rights approach 3 53
Budgeting 6 91

To provide a clear and organized approach for understanding the codes and coded data, I

generated a code tree shown below in Table 7, which outlines every code and the number of

its application(s). It also demonstrates how specific codes and subthemes were integrated into

the five key concepts of the gender responsive criteria.

Table 7: Code Tree

Codes Number of
applications
Gender Equal Participation
Increase women’s participation in climate decision making roles 8
Evidence of women in climate decision-making roles 4
Participatory planning 34
Involvement of women’s groups and organizations 1
Gender Mainstreaming
Any reference to gender or women in climate policy 67
Gender equality mainstreamed as a concern for developing countries 23
Limited to adaptation and disaster risk reduction measures 14
Reference of women or gender across sectors in non-traditional sectors 2
(mitigation, technology and finance)
Power Relations
Gender synonymous with women 8
Women referenced as vulnerable or poor or agents of change in developed 6
countries
Identification and reduction of inequalities that may contribute to gender 22
inequality
Human Rights
Fairness and equity in implementation 11

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Gender equality and empowerment of women as a right in climate actions 31
Increase access to resources and opportunities 11
Budgeting
Financial support for developing countries for gender equality 10
Budgets limited to adaptation support 12
Evidence of GRB 2
Collection of sex-disaggregated data 3
Economic prioritization- lacking gender component 22
Emphasis on techno-scientific approach to climate change 42

4.4.2 Limitations

One of the key limitations of the study was the bias arising from the criteria used to

narrow down the sample size. By choosing only those countries that met the specific

requirements (e.g. English only texts, submission within 2015-2018 time period, belonging to

both indices etc.) meant omitting a significant number of countries that may have yielded

insightful findings regarding gender and climate change policy. However, to include all

countries with documents submitted in multiple languages and with longer time frames in the

sample size would have required extensive resources and multiple researchers, which was

beyond the scope of this project.

Performing the entire data analysis by myself is another limitation, which could have

potentially affected the research results and findings. However, the use of multiple coders for

inter-intra reliability was excluded for this research, as its applicability in qualitative research

is less clear and explicit than in quantitative research. Some scholars argue that it is expected

for different researchers to offer different elucidations (Armstong et al. 1997) of the

phenomenon being studied due to the subjective nature of qualitative research. Nonetheless,

through the iterative processes of data collection and thematic analysis rigor and consistency

was embedded in the research process.

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 Chapter 5. Results and Discussion

5.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the results from the thematic analysis and is subsequently

followed by the discussion section, which offers connections made between the results of the

analysis and the theoretical literature. Recall the purpose of this research is to examine how

gender equality is reflected within national climate change policy. Thus, the research focuses

on recognizing references to gender responsive characteristics within the dataset. By doing so

this research tracks the progress of gender equality commitments established under the

UNFCCC, including the Paris Agreement. In this study, I have identified five concepts

through the literature review as important elements that should be consider when

implementing gender equality aspects in climate change policies, these include: human rights,

gender equal participation, gender mainstreaming, power relations, and budgeting. These five

concepts formed the gender responsive criteria to support with thematic analysis and assist in

investigating how gender equality was reflected within NDCs and NCs. The gender responsive

criteria functioned as the foundation from which extracts were collected and analyzed. It

should be noted, that the overall coverage on gender equality in some Parties NDCs and NCs

was often minimal, which made the coding process quite difficult therefore any references to

gender/gender equality/women were included the analysis. Many of the gender responsive

elements were either completely absent or minimally discussed in some NDCs and NCs. Also,

since NCs contained a higher volume of information than NDCs, most of the coded extracts

pertain to the NCs, however all information collected were given equal attention. Despite,

such challenges a number of findings on how Parties addressed gender equality in national

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climate policies were uncovered.

5.2 Overview of the Results from Thematic Analysis

As discussed in the methods chapter, Braun and Clarke’s (2006) influential six-step

framework for performing thematic analysis was applied as the primary research method to

determine the narrative of gender equality in climate change policies. As indicated in the

methodology, through a series of steps Brazil, Canada, Egypt, Finland, Indonesia and

Sweden were identified as having strong gender equality commitments within their NDCs and

NCs. These documents were bounded as the dataset for this study. As discussed above Non-

Annex I Parties are recognized by the Convention as mostly developing countries that require

financial assistance from Annex I Parties to reduce emissions and adapt to the impacts of

climate change. In this study, 3 of the 6 Parties are identified as developing countries (Brazil,

Egypt and Indonesia) and the remaining 3 countries (Canada, Finland and Sweden) are

recognized as developed countries by the UNFCCC. Therefore, when reviewing the results,

the reader should be mindful that each country has different priorities, capabilities and the

capacity to respond to the impacts of climate change.

The findings revealed gender equality was recognized across all Parties, however some

emphasized its importance more than others. For instance, none of the Annex I Parties NDCs

referenced or mentioned gender equality/gender/women however, all Annex I Parties NCs

supported gender equality in climate change action, specifically in relation to development

assistance. In contrast, Non-Annex I Parties provided mixed results on their position on

integrating gender issues in climate change responses. Brazil and Indonesia NDCs mentioned

gender in the context of respecting and promoting human rights for sustainable development

but not specifically in relation to climate change policies. Whereas Egypt’s NDC made no

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references or connections to gender equality and climate change action. In contrast, Brazil and

Indonesia NCs did not mention gender equality or discuss gender impacts as a result of

climate change. Egypt was the only Non-Annex I Party that dedicated a section titled, Gender

and Climate Change in Egypt as a Cross Cutting Element under its NC. The section described

gender and climate change concerns in Egypt but, rarely provided information on the effective

means of gender responsive implementation and the necessary actions being taken to reduce

gender inequalities due to climate change impacts.

Based on the overall results of the thematic analysis gender equality across all NDCs

and NCs was often discussed in the context of human rights, where women’s rights to

resources, decision-making and opportunities were often reflected within policies. This

finding revealed that all Parties recognize the connection between human rights, gender

equality and climate change and find it necessary to include within their national climate

policies. The results also showed that only some NCs recognized the importance of gender

equal participation and strengthening women’s capacity to be effective leaders in climate

change decision-making bodies. Another important finding showed that Annex I Parties NCs,

particularly Canada, were coded most frequently for the code “any reference to gender or

women in climate policy” as shown in the coding matrix (Figure 8). This finding highlighted

gender mainstreaming as a common occurrence among Annex I Parties NCs. However, gender

was only mainstreamed in relation to developing countries when providing financial support

that centered upon adaptation, capacity building and disaster risk reduction. Besides

illustrating gender equality as a concern for developing countries and its importance in climate

adaptation, gender discussion among Annex I Parties’ climate policies was minimal. This

finding highlighted the challenges associated with mainstreaming gender across all areas of

83
climate change policy. Moreover, another finding reflected the complexity of power relations

that exist between gender and climate change. Most of the discussion pointed towards

essentializing gender roles and norms, by equating women and gender to adaptation and

capacity building sections.

Lastly, the results also showed the absence of gender responsive budgeting from the

NDCs and NCs. It was evident that all Parties’ NDCs and NCs prioritized economic

development by investing in mitigation actions such as clean technologies. Parties emphasized

these investments would allow for economic prosperity and clean growth at the same time,

thus privileging techno-scientific approaches to climate change. The results suggested there

was minimal consideration of any social issues including human rights and gender equality.

This finding raised concerns since mitigation strategies have major impacts on climate change

responses and consequences. By not addressing gendered implications of these technologies or

mitigation actions it may reinforce gender roles and norms. The results also displayed that

although gender considerations were apparent in climate adaptation budgets they were

virtually absent from climate mitigation financing. Canada’s NC showed that all budgets

discussing gender or women were allocated towards adaptation however there was no

evidence of any gender considerations in climate mitigation budgets to address the different

needs of men and women. Overall, majority of the NDCs and NCs did not incorporate gender-

responsive concepts consistently throughout the policies. Gender responsive implementation

did not always expand into areas other than financial support for developing countries and

matters related to adaptation and capacity building.

The results of the thematic analysis are presented under the five key concepts of the

gender responsive criteria. It was important to divide the findings of the study into these five

84
concepts, mainly because they offer the opportunity for a deeper investigation of the current

situation of gender equality in national climate change policies. A critical evaluation of the

coded extracts is provided under the corresponding concept, by presenting evidence or lack

thereof, of gender responsive implementation. Furthermore, organizing the data based on the

five gender responsive concepts was important for telling the complicated story of the data in

a coherent, concise and interesting manner. The results of the analysis are presented in tables,

which provide the data extract pertaining to the concept under discussion, as well as the type

of document and where the data extract is located within the document. Although multiple

connections between the gender responsive criteria and data extracts may apply, discussion is

based on the concept under investigation. Specific words in the extracts are bolded to help the

reader understand the connection the researcher has made between the concepts and the data.

(a) Human Rights

Gender equality was mentioned across the dataset, which showed some level of a

global commitment to address gender equality in climate change policies and actions. Most

notably the data extracts provided below showcase that Parties discussed gender equality in

the context of human rights.

Data extract(s) Document Chapter, Section and Page

Number
“The Government of Brazil is committed to implementing its Brazil’s Long-Term Aspirations, p. 1
iNDC with full respect to human rights, in particular rights of NDC
vulnerable communities, indigenous populations, traditional
communities and workers in sectors affected by relevant
policies and plans, while promoting gender-responsive
measures.

85
The Paris Agreement emphasizes the importance of gender Canada’s Chp.7: Financial,
equality in climate change action. Advancing the health and 7th NC Technology and Capacity
rights of, and protecting and empowering, women and girls Building Support, 7.1.2
is thus an overarching objective of Canada’s approach to Integrating Climate
climate change.” Considerations into
Development Assistance, p.
215
“All stakeholders should make the empowerment of women Egypt’s 3rd Chp.6: Capacity Building,
and poor and marginalized groups a strategic priority in the NC Institutional and Technical
fight against climate change.” Needs, 6.4 Gender and
Climate Change in Egypt as
a Cross Cutting Elements, p.
213, 214
“Finnish development policy strives to strengthen the rights Finland’s Chp.7: Financial resources
of the most vulnerable, promote gender equality, and improve 7th NC and transfer of technology,
climate change preparedness and mitigation.” 7.1 Provision of new and
additional financial
Finland’s Development Policy and the guidelines for forest resources, p. 219
sector cooperation put emphasis on a rights-based approach
to development, good forest governance, land issues, peoples’
rights to access, use and participate in forestry, the
participation of women in decision-making and gender
equality, just benefit sharing, as well as private sector
involvement in cooperation
“In line with the Paris Agreement, Indonesia respects, Indonesia’ Strategic Approach, p. 6
promotes and considers its obligation on human rights, the s NDC
right to health, the right of adat communities (Indonesia:
Masyarakat Hukum Adat and internationally known as
indigenous people), local communities, migrants, children,
persons with different abilities, and people in vulnerable
situations, and the right to development, as well as gender
equality, empowerment of women and intergenerational
equity.”
“At the same time, the Swedish policy framework also goes Sweden’s Chp.7: Provision of
beyond the 2030 Agenda in a number of aspects, such as 7th NC financial, technological and
gender equality, democracy and human rights” capacity-building support to
developing country Parties,
7.2.1 Policy framework for
Swedish development
cooperation and
humanitarian aid, p. 97

Based on these extracts Parties understand the strong connection between human rights and

gender equality and its importance in achieving sustainable development. Canada’s NC

discusses gender equality and its relevance for the effective and successful implementation of

the Paris Agreement. This illustrates that Canada recognized the deeper connection between

achieving gender equality and meeting the climate goals stated under the Paris Agreement.

86
Similarly, Indonesia’s NDC aligned its human rights goals with those of the Paris Agreement.

It was evident that gender equality, in a broader context, was a part of the climate

change policy discourse. All Parties, to some degree, reflected the linkages between gender

equality as a human rights issue, which needs to be integrated into climate action. However,

integrating gender equality within climate actions is not fully explained, Parties recognize its

importance but provide little insight on its effective implementation. From the data above, it

seems as though the inclusion of gender equality, right to health, right to development,

intergenerational equity, empowerment of women etc. may be a tick box practice and that all

social issues are combined together under the single category of human rights. Reaffirming the

importance of human rights issues demonstrates a growing awareness of how climate change

interacts with a multitude of social experiences. But according to the data above, it appears

that Parties simply state these issues rather than provide critical guidance on how to deal with

these complex issues in a comprehensive manner.

This finding relates to the literature where feminist scholars explore the possible

limitations of simply including gender equality and human rights language into agreements

and legislation. Feminist scholars argue that mentioning gender equality as a human rights

issue in policies will do little, if the root causes are not fully acknowledged and challenged

(Jonsson, 2012; MacGregor, 2010; Denton, 2002 & Kronsell, 2013). In order for Parties to

truly promote gender equality and women’s empowerment as a human right, its

implementation should be well supported through comprehensive climate plans, policies,

regulations and funding initiatives.

(b) Gender equal participation

The literature emphasizes that in order to limit or reduce gender inequalities through

87
climate policies women will need to be amongst the policy-makers. Increasing women’s

participation in climate decision-making roles is observed in Canada, Egypt and Finland’s

NCs. Based on the findings below, these Parties seem to acknowledge the importance of

incorporating women’s perspectives and concerns through climate actions and policies.

However, the context in which Annex I Parties and Egypt discuss gender equal participation

varies.

Data extract(s) Document Chapter, Section & Page

Number(s)
“…Canada partnered with the Women’s Environment Canada’s 7th Chp.9- Education,
and Development Organization to hold two events in 2017. NC Training, and Public
A two-day informal consultation on the development of Awareness, 9.7
the gender action plan under the UNFCCC was held in Participation in
September 2017 and a gender and climate change International Activities, p.
workshop, which focused on developing skills for female 302
negotiators from developing countries, was held in October
2017. The outcomes of the consultations helped to stimulate
and guide discussions on the gender action plan during the
23rd Conference of the Parties.”

“The goal of the SAWA leadership program is to increase

the number of women occupying leadership roles in the Chp.7: Financial,
climate change field and the water sector in particular. Technology and Capacity
With IDRC support, the program will be awarding Building Support,
fellowships to 36 women enrolled in master’s-level Annexes-Table 11:
integrated water resources management programs in Provision of capacity
Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka, and providing building support
these women with opportunities to access decision-making
environments through internships. The program will
generate greater participation by women professionals in
policy and decision-making processes by encouraging
them to occupy leadership roles in water planning and
management and by encouraging them to develop climate-
resilient policies to address water insecurity resulting
from climate change in their own local contexts.”

Women and girls are at particular risk when it comes to

climate threats, and their participation is crucial in planning
and implementing adaptation strategies to deal with those
threats.
“A gender-sensitive approach to creating, developing and Egypt’s 3rd Chp.6: Capacity Building,
strengthening institutional, systemic and human-resource NC Institutional and Technical
capacity-building can foster gender balance in decision- Needs, 6.4 Gender and
making on, delivery of and access to means and tools of Climate Change in Egypt
implementation for mitigation of adaptation actions.” as a Cross Cutting
Elements, p. 213-215
“Include gender perspectives into disaster reduction efforts

88
at the local, regional and national levels, including in
policies, strategies, action plans, and programs. As well as,
increase their participation and representation at all levels
of the decision-making process.”

“Build the capacity of national and local women’s groups

and provide them with a platform to be heard.”
“Finland’s Development Policy and the guidelines for forest Finland’s 7th Chp.7: Financial resources
sector cooperation put emphasis on a rights-based approach NC and transfer of technology,
to development, good forest governance, land issues, peoples’ 7.3.5 Forestry cooperation,
rights to access, use and participate in forestry, the p. 227.
participation of women in decision-making and gender
equality, just benefit sharing, as well as private sector
involvement in cooperation.”

“Since 2008, Finland has been supporting the project Chp.7: Financial resources
implemented by the Global Gender and Climate Alliance and transfer of technology,
(GGCA) to strengthen the role of women and mainstream 7.3.6 Capacity-building
the gender perspective in global climate policy…The project support, p. 228.
focused on advocacy for the establishment and
implementation of gender-responsive actions on climate
change through a series of activities that included
participating in UNFCCC formal meetings, supporting
directly the Convention’s Secretariat, technical support to
Parties and stakeholders, and incorporating gender equality
and women’s empowerment criteria in climate finance
mechanisms.”

“The Women Delegates Fund administered by WEDO

supported travel and enhanced leadership and
negotiations skills of women delegates. IUCN facilitated
development of national climate change and gender action
plans (ccGAPs) bringing the total number to 21.”

This evidence reveals that when increasing women’s participation in climate change

decision-making, Canada and Finland’s NCs confine their discussion of gender by only

focusing on women in developing countries. Both Parties focus on describing development

initiatives in developing countries that are funded by them to increase women’s participation

in policy and decision-making processes. Neither, Canada nor Finland identify or discuss any

measures being undertaken to achieve gender balance in climate decision-making bodies

within their own countries. Based on the data it appears the central focus of both Annex I

Parties is to highlight their development contributions towards gender equality. In contrast,

Egypt’s NC describes different approaches to increase gender equal participation in climate

89
decision-making and its positive outcomes for the implementation of mitigation and

adaptation actions. Egypt’s NC also notes the importance of providing national and regional

women’s organizations with a platform to voice their concerns and perspectives. This

illustrates that Egypt acknowledges the diverse roles and contributions of women’s

organizations and suggests providing them with an environment and space favorable to further

their efforts on gender equality.

Another important finding revealed that Canada’s, Indonesia’s and Sweden’s ministers

and executives involved in the preparation of the NCs were females; the other three Parties’

ministers were males. This evidence signifies that Canada, Indonesia and Sweden are

promoting and supporting women to access executive level positions in bureaucracies.

Data extract(s) Document Chapter, Section & Page

Number(s)
Catherine McKenna- Minister of Environment and Climate Canada’s 7th Minister’s Message, p.002
Change NC
Dr. Siti Nurbaya-Minister for Environment and Forestry Indonesia’s 3rd Foreword, p. iii
Dr. Nur Masripatin- Director General of Climate Change/ NC
National Focal Point for the UNFCCC Preface, p. v
Isabella Lövin- Minister for International Development Sweden’s 7th Preface, p. 3
Cooperation and Climate NC

The analysis also revealed that participatory planning was a common approach applied

by all Parties in NCs and in some NDCs. However, most of the Parties did not specifically

discuss participatory planning in the context of incorporating women’s organizations but

rather as an approach that involved a range of stakeholders including civil society

organizations.

Data extract(s) Document Chapter, Section & Page

Number(s)
“The Brazilian civil society has also been called to join Brazil’s 3rd Chp.2: Other Information
participatory preparation processes of plans, programs and NC Considered Relevant to
instruments of the National Policy on Climate Change, in line the Achievement of the
with the democratic principles of the country and for social Objective of the
mobilization to deal with climate change in Brazil.” Convention, 2.1
Education, Training and

90
“The Brazilian Climate Change Forum (FBMC), chaired by Public Awareness, p. 84-
the President of the Republic, was created in 2000, with the 86
objective of including the organized civil society in discussions
related to global climate change, as well as educating and
mobilizing society to debate and make a stand on problems
resulting from global climate change and regarding the Clean
Development Mechanism (CDM).”
“Across Canada, all levels of government and numerous non- Canada’s 7th Chp.1 Introduction and
governmental organizations have undertaken a range of NC Executive Summary, p.
activities to broaden public awareness of climate change and 13
encourage collective action.”
“This process was supported and informed by an extensive Canada’s The Pan-Canadian
process to engage Indigenous Peoples, experts, stakeholders NDC Framework on Clean
and the public.” Growth and Climate
Change, p. 1
“I would like to take this opportunity to express my gratitude to Egypt’s 3rd Foreword
the officials and experts of the Ministry of Environment and NC
Climate Change Central Department, other related
government and non-government organizations, the
consultant team and individuals for their dedication and
commitment in the preparation of the document through a
participatory process, which included a series of workshops,
seminars and meetings involving all key stakeholders.” Chp.4: Vulnerability and
Adaptation to Climate
“Encouraging and supporting civil society organizations to Change, 4.5 Tourism
participate in applying strategic operational policies.” Sector, p. 150

“Build the capacity of national and local women’s groups and Chp.6: Capacity
provide them with a platform to be heard.” Building, Institutional
and Technical Needs, 6.4
Gender and Climate
Change in Egypt as a
Cross Cutting Elements,
p. 215
“The Climate Arena of the Ministry of the Environment is a Finland’s 7th Chp.4: Policies and
network for other ministries and stakeholders (e.g. industrial NC Measures, 4.2 Climate
and environmental non-governmental organisations (NGOs), policy-making process in
research institutes and labour unions), where they can present Finland, p. 94
their views concerning issues related to climate policy. NGOs,
including environmental, business, social and research
organisations, participate in various governmental working
groups, seminars and official delegations.”

“Encouraging the public to participate in the planning of Chp.9: Education,

Finland’s climate policies continued in 2016 with an open Training and Public
online platform energiajailmasto.fi on which anyone regardless of Awareness, 9.4 Public
their background could comment on the planned climate Awareness, p. 279
strategies and measures of emissions reduction.”
“During development process of the TNC, inputs were Indonesia’s Preface, p. 5
received from various stakeholders at the national and sub- 3rd NC
national levels as well as from international and regional experts.
Stakeholder consultations where also carried out to obtain
public views.”
“Engagement of non-party stakeholders, including local Indonesia’s Strategic Approach, p. 6
government, private sectors, civil societies will continuously NDC

91
be enhanced.”

“In the preparation of the NDC, the GOI has conducted

consultations with various stakeholders representing
Ministries and other government institutions, academia,
scientists, private sector, and civil society organizations; these
consultations have included workshops and consultations
organized at both the national and provincial levels, as well as
bilateral meetings with key sectors.”
“There is extensive scope in Sweden to ask questions and Sweden’s 7th Chp.9 Policy for
express views on an area of knowledge or a policy proposal, NC Education, Training and
through consultation procedures and open meetings, hearings Public Awareness, 9.5
and seminars. Special initiatives are taken to increase public Public awareness,
participation in climate work. Activities range from answering participation and access
questions online to engaging in open consultations. Non-profit to information
organisations often establish web-based forums or appeals where activities, p. 124
the public are urged to express their opinions.”

Based on the evidence above, it is obvious that Parties consider participatory planning and

collective action an integral approach in climate decision-making. Although Parties’ make

references to civil society organizations none of them specify the inclusion of women’s

organizations. However, Egypt makes a strong connection between women’s groups and

participatory planning. By identifying that women’s organizations require a platform to

present their concerns and views on climate policy, suggests to me that Egypt recognizes what

actions need to be taken to increase women’s participation in climate planning and

development. But as mentioned in the literature increasing women’s participation across

different levels of decision-making processes does not necessarily result in gender equality

(Alston, 2014; Hankivsky, 2005). To ensure climate change policies and approaches

incorporate gender equality principles, policy actors and institutions need to be knowledgeable

on the diverse range of gender issues and its linkages to climate change (MacGregor, 2010;

Kaijser and Kronsell 2013; Cornwall & Rivas, 2015). It is not enough to only state what

actions are required to increase women’s participation in climate policy, but rather what type

of actions are currently being taken to achieve this goal.

92
(c) Power Relations

As documented throughout the literature, women’s identities in relation to the

environment and particularly in the context of climate change have often been essentialized as

either victims or agents of change. This aspect was visible throughout the data and is

presented in the table below.

Data extract(s) Document Chapter, Section & Page

Number(s)
“Women and girls are at particular risk when it comes to Canada’s Chp.7: Financial,
climate threats” 7th NC Technology and Capacity
Building Support, 7.1.2
“Overall the project is expected to improve the livelihoods of Integrating Climate
150,000 people in poor communities, particularly for Considerations into
women and youth.” Development Assistance,
p. 214
“Environment and climate action are one of six action areas
highlighted in the new policy, recognizing that women and
girls are disproportionately at risk from the effects of
climate change and need better support to mitigate and
adapt to changes that threaten their health and economic well-
being.”
“…(iii) supporting women and the most vulnerable and Egypt’s Chp.6: 6.2 Capacity
marginalized groups 3rd NC Building, Institutional
Strengthening, p. 201

“Climate change not only causes danger, vulnerability and Chp.6: Capacity Building,
risk to life and property, it also contributes in particular to Institutional and Technical
increasing the gap between the rich and the poor specially Needs, 6.4 Gender and
[sic] women.” Climate Change in Egypt
as a Cross Cutting
“Most of the poorest people in Egypt especially at rural areas Elements, p. 213-215
are women”

“Ensure that women are visible agents of change at all levels

of disaster preparedness, including early warning systems,
education, communication, information and advocacy.”

“Include the traditional knowledge and perspectives of

women in the analysis and evaluation of the characteristics of
key disaster risks”
“As climate change will most strongly affect the world’s Finland’s Chp.7: Financial resources
poorest people, and since most of them are women, one of 7th NC and transfer of technology,
the important themes has been mainstreaming gender 7.3.6 Capacity-Building
considerations into the climate policy-making agenda. Support, p. 228

The data above shows Canada, Egypt and Finland recognize that women and girls are

93
often disadvantaged when it comes to climate threats due to restricted access to resources and

information. This finding relates to the literature, which suggests women are more severely

affected by the effects of climate change because their social roles and responsibilities governs

their ability to adapt and respond to climate change (OSCE, 2009; Habtezion 2013). Given

these structural inequalities faced by women it is not surprising that these Parties have

centered their discussion of gender equality on the topic of disadvantaged women. This may

also be why gender equality in these policies is regarded as synonymous with supporting

women.

Although, identifying and reducing women’s vulnerabilities to climate impacts is

important for progressing gender equality, fixating solely on these issues reinforces the belief

that women are victims of climate change and therefore inherently vulnerable. For instance,

the data extracts from Canada’s and Finland’s NCs reflect a limited understanding of women’s

roles and identities in relation to climate change. Both Parties portray women as a

homogenous group typically having fewer resources to adapt thus increasing their

vulnerability. However, Egypt’s NCs seems to acknowledge both the reality that women have

fewer resources, but also could be a key resource for analyzing disaster risks. Based on this

evidence Egypt demonstrates the ability to recognize the diverse roles and contributions of

women.

Another important finding showed that Canada’s and Egypt’s NCs explicitly addressed

the effects of unequal access to resources, opportunities and outcomes. This provided some

context of the power relations that exist between women and men and their abilities to respond

to the changing climate. However, the context in which the two countries discuss gender

inequalities varies. Egypt’s NC provides coverage on gender concerns in the national context,

94
which discusses gender issues specific to Egypt which may contribute to gender differentiated

climate impacts. However, Canada’s discussion of gender inequalities is in the context of

developing countries, since the reference below is discussed in the context of providing

development assistance. This provided more evidence that developed countries often associate

gender inequalities with developing countries.

Data extract(s) Document Chapter, Section & Page

Number(s)
“For example, when communities organize themselves to adapt Canada’s Chp.7: Financial,
to climate change, women often do not participate in the 7th NC Technology and
decision making and do not get equal access to technologies. Capacity Building
When women have better access to climate-resilient Support, 7.1.2
resources and technologies, they are able to devote more time Integrating Climate
to the activities— such as education, paid work, political Considerations into
and public participation, and leisure activities—that enhance Development Assistance,
the quality of life for entire communities.” p. 214
“Climate change causes different impacts on men and Egypt’s 3rd Chp.6: Capacity
women. It has an impact on the relationship that people have NC Building, Institutional
with their environment, their knowledge in relation to their and Technical Needs, 6.4
environment, their social and economic positions and the Gender and Climate
power relationships between men and women in society.” Change in Egypt as a
Cross Cutting Elements,
“Most of the poorest people in Egypt especially at rural areas p. 213-214
are women”

“Although, there are no legal differences between men and

women that may hinder women’s economic opportunities,
including access to credit, culture values could hinder and
limit women’s economic opportunities.”

“Due to the feminization of poverty and the dominance of

male-controlled values, women have a limited capacity and
opportunities to cope with the impacts of climate change or
to participate in negotiations on issues relating to their
mitigation.”

The constant dialogue of women as poor, vulnerable or those with traditional knowledge about

the environment suggest to me the reinforcement of gender stereotypes that could further

entrench gender inequalities. This assumption can be corroborated by other evidence found in

the data, which indicates the continuous depiction of women as vulnerable victims of climate

change has led to their overrepresentation in adaptation and disaster risk reduction strategies.

95
Although, gender concerns need to be integrated into climate adaptation policies and

measures, equal consideration of gender concerns should be provided in climate mitigation

activities for ensuring a comprehensive approach gender and climate change policy.

Data extract(s) Document Chapter, Section & Page

Number(s)
“Having women and girls as leaders and full participants Canada’s Chp.7: Financial,
leads to more effective adaptation plans and projects that 7th NC Technology and Capacity
benefit all members of community” Building Support, 7.1.2
Integrating Climate
Considerations into
Development Assistance, p.
214

“Support to development goals across Africa and Asia, Chp.7: Financial,

including women and children’s health in Central Asia, Technology and Capacity
education in East Africa, and civil society initiatives such as Building Support, Annexes-
gender equality, innovation, and climate change Table 8 Finance delivered
adaptation” through Bilateral,
Regional, and Other
“Provide support to increase the capacity of public service Channels, p. 231, 238, 244
institutions and small and growing businesses to innovate, & 245
adapt to changing circumstances, and incorporate gender
equality and environmental sustainability.”

“Aims to increase the capacity of regional organizations,

national governments and local communities in the Caribbean
to respond to and manage natural disasters through
institutional support and gender-equal programming,
disaster risk management and community resilience
strategies.”

“Help communities establish effective risk reduction plans

and policies to reduce people’s vulnerability to natural
disasters, by working to ensure that disaster risk reduction
policy and law considers vulnerable communities, gender
equality, and the environment.”
“Gender mainstreaming must be an important part of the Egypt’s 3rd Chp.6 : Capacity Building,
adaptation process to ensure the success and sustainability NC Institutional and Technical
of climate projects and policies.” Needs, 6.4 Gender and
Climate Change in Egypt as
“Integrating considerations of gender into medium- and a Cross Cutting Elements,
long-term adaptation can help to ensure that adaptation is p.214
effective and implementable on the ground.”
“Finland promotes low carbon development and the capacity Finland’s Chp.6: Climate change
of its partner countries to adapt to climate change, and 7th NC impacts, adaptation
furthers integration of these goals into partner countries’ own measures and vulnerability
development planning. Particular attention will be paid to assessment, 6.4 Global
the roles of women, children and indigenous peoples in impacts of climate change
adapting to and combating climate change.” and international
cooperation, p. 209

96
Based on the data above, there are numerous associations between women, vulnerability, and

adaptation. The literature also indicates that women generally tend to experience higher

institutional discrimination than men thus they are more likely to be vulnerable to the impacts

of climate change. But solely concentrating on women’s susceptibility has led to the belief that

women are victims who need to be rescued. This may be why policies overwhelmingly focus

on building women’s adaptive capacity to respond to the effects of climate change. It is

important to continue to incorporate gender considerations, including women’s concerns into

adaptation measures but it is equally important to address gender concerns within other

aspects of climate change policy.

(d) Gender Mainstreaming

Multiple references to gender/women were identified in the data, indicating the

presence of gender mainstreaming within the dataset. As shown above, all NDCs and/or NCs

referenced gender/women. However, gender mainstreaming was more obvious in Annex I

Parties’ NCs and Egypt’s NC. Based on data extracts provided below Canada, Egypt, Finland

and Sweden integrated a number of gender considerations such as: supporting gender-sensitive

and gender responsive measures in agriculture, adaptation and disaster risk reduction, capacity

building, decision-making, and climate financing. This finding highlights that Parties are

making a conscious effort to incorporate gender concerns within climate policy. It also

illustrates that Parties to some extent, acknowledge gender equality and climate change as

crosscutting issues, which overlap with one another in countless ways.

Data extract(s) Document Chapter, Section & Page

Number(s)
“Canada is committed to acting in accordance with Canada’s Chp.7: Financial,
science, promoting de-carbonization, supporting climate 7th NC Technology and Capacity
change efforts in developing countries, empowering Building Support, p. 212.
women and girls and enabling future prosperity through a
sustainable national and global economy.”

97
“Canada adopted a Feminist International Assistance Chp.7: Financial,
Policy in June 2017, a central theme of which is to promote Technology and Capacity
gender equality and help empower all women and girls Building Support, 7.1.2
Integrating Climate
Considerations into
Development Assistance, p.
215.

“Provide support to increase the capacity of public service Chp.7: Financial,

institutions and small and growing businesses to innovate, Technology and Capacity
adapt to changing circumstances, and incorporate gender Building Support, Annexes-
equality and environmental sustainability.” Table 8: Finance delivered
through Bilateral, Regional,
“Supports increasing farm productivity and promoting and Other Channels (2015 and
sustainable, participatory and gender equal agricultural 2016), p. 232-235.
practices in Guatemala and Honduras.”

“Promotion of productive, sustainable and gender-

sensitive agricultural techniques to build food security
and climate change resilience for women subsistence
farmers.”

“Gender mainstreaming must be an important part of the Egypt’s 3rd Chp.6: Capacity Building,
adaptation process to ensure the success and NC Institutional and Technical
sustainability of climate projects and policies.” Needs, 6.4 Gender and
Climate Change in Egypt as
“Promotion of productive, sustainable and gender- a Cross Cutting Elements, p.
sensitive agricultural techniques to build food security 214.
and climate change resilience for women subsistence
farmers.”
“Finland’s Development Policy and the guidelines for Finland’s Chp.7: Financial resources
forest sector cooperation put emphasis on a rights-based 7th NC and transfer of technology,
approach to development, good forest governance, land 7.3.5 Forestry cooperation, p.
issues, peoples’ rights to access, use and participate in 227.
forestry, the participation of women in decision-making
and gender equality, just benefit sharing, as well as private
sector involvement in cooperation.”

“Finland supports capacity building among non-Annex Chp.7: Financial resources

I parties in several types of projects…Since 2008, Finland and transfer of technology,
has been supporting the project implemented by the 7.3.6 Capacity-building
Global Gender and Climate Alliance (GGCA) to support, p. 228.
strengthen the role of women and mainstream the
gender perspective in global climate policy.”

98
“Sweden has been a champion of gender integration in Sweden’s Chp.7: Provision of
the multilateral climate funds, including the promotion of 7th NC financial, technological and
separate gender policies and action plans that support capacity-building support to
gender-responsive actions.” developing country Parties,
7.3 Multilateral Financial
Support, p. 99.

“Since 2014, Sweden has a feminist foreign policy. Chp.7: Provision of

Equality between women and men is a prerequisite for financial, technological and
sustainability and for achieving the goals of UNFCCC and capacity-building support to
the Paris Agreement.” developing country Parties,
7.4.2. Bilateral financial
support through Sida, p.
102.

Although the analysis revealed certain aspects of gender mainstreaming, references to

gender/women were most common among NCs, these references were often restricted to

specific areas of climate change policy. For instance, none of the Annex I NDCs mentioned or

referenced gender/ gender equality/women or made any connections between gender equality

and climate change impacts within their national context. However, the data collected above

indicates Annex I Parties’ NCs mainstreamed gender equality only when discussing

developing countries. Much of the evidence further reveals Annex I Parties’ NCs often

associate gender equality as a concern for women in developing countries. Canada, Finland

and Sweden outline gender policies and programs specifically within their foreign

development aid policies. Most language pertaining to gender equality was confined to

Chapter 7 in Annex I NCs, which outlines each party’s financial, transfer of technology and

capacity-building commitments delivered through multilateral, bilateral and regional climate

funds.

Another interesting finding from the data above shows that Canada and Sweden

identified their development policies in the NCs as feminist in approach and one, which

believes in empowering women and ensuring equality between men and women. The data

above indicates that inequality between men and women is represented as a concern only for

99
developing countries, which developed countries, can help eliminate through their feminist

approaches. Supporting developing countries to increase gender integration and perspectives

in development projects is necessary for achieving both climate and gender equality goals.

But, the insertion of feminist policies and gender equality only in relation to developing

countries, as the data shows, implies that gender equality is somehow of less significance for

developed countries, since they may be viewed as more gender-equal or feminist societies.

There is strong evidence that suggests gender inequality declines as economic development

increases, but even the most developed countries have not attained gender equality. Gender

discrimination and inequalities are still pervasive in developed countries. Yet, Annex I NDCs

and NCs rarely, if at all, mention gender differences that exist within their own societies and

how such differences are exacerbated in the reality of climate change.

Another example shows that although Canada and Finland mainstream gender

considerations in climate actions, these actions are often limited to adaptation, capacity

building and disaster risk reduction. Addressing gender concerns in matters related to

adaptation is crucial, however gender concerns need to diversified into others areas, especially

in climate mitigation related activities.

Data extract(s) Document Chapter, Section & Page

Number(s)
“Having women and girls as leaders and full participants Canada’s 7th Chp.7: Financial, Technology
leads to more effective adaptation plans and projects that NC and Capacity Building
benefit all members of community” Support, 7.1.2 Integrating
Climate Considerations into
Development Assistance, p.
214

“Provide support to increase the capacity of public service Chp.7: Financial, Technology
institutions and small and growing businesses to innovate, and Capacity Building
adapt to changing circumstances, and incorporate Support, Annexes- Table 8
gender equality and environmental sustainability.” Finance delivered through
Bilateral, Regional, and Other
“Aims to increase the capacity of regional organizations, Channels, p. 231, 238, 244 &
national governments and local communities in the 245
Caribbean to respond to and manage natural disasters

100
through institutional support and gender-equal
programming, disaster risk management and community
resilience strategies.”

“Help communities establish effective risk reduction plans

and policies to reduce people’s vulnerability to natural
disasters, by working to ensure that disaster risk
reduction policy and law considers vulnerable
communities, gender equality, and the environment.”
“Finland promotes low carbon development and the Finland’s 7th Chp.6: Climate change
capacity of its partner countries to adapt to climate NC impacts, adaptation measures
change, and furthers integration of these goals into partner and vulnerability assessment,
countries’ own development planning. Particular attention 6.4 Global impacts of climate
will be paid to the roles of women, children and change and international
indigenous peoples in adapting to and combating climate cooperation, p. 209
change.”

These statements signify the heavy reliance of NCs on gender language in matters

related to climate adaptation. It is also worth noting, the Paris Agreement emphasizes gender

equality and women’s involvement in adaptation and capacity building measures, but lacks

coverage of this topic in areas related to mitigation and technology. Thus, it may be the reason

it is observed in the data that the concept of gender equality is limited to specific areas and not

embraced across all sectors of climate change policy. The finding above also illustrates that

Canada and Finland are willing to incorporate gender in specific aspects of climate policy, but

not others. To this effect, the data implies Canada and Finland fail to mainstream gender

concerns across all sectors of climate policy. As discussed in the literature, gender

mainstreaming is a demanding concept, which requires transformation of behaviors and

attitudes across organizations to be fully operational (Pollack and Hafner, 2002). Being

selective of where gender concerns should be mainstreamed and implemented detracts from its

core principles (UN, 2002).

Similarly, Egypt’s NC dedicates an entire section titled “Gender and Climate Change

in Egypt as a Cross Cutting Element”, which discusses gender concerns mainly in the context

of adaptation and disaster reduction. However this section also emphasizes the importance of

101
gender considerations in mitigation, monitoring and decision-making at the national and

regional levels of Egypt. This finding reflects that Egypt shows a higher level of commitment

to gender mainstreaming by recognizing its connections across different sectors. But at the

same time gender discussion is only limited to this specific section and not mainstreamed

across the entire document.

Data extract(s) Document Chapter, Section & Page

Number(s)
“Include gender perspectives into disaster reduction Egypt’s 3rd Chp.6: Capacity Building,
efforts at the local, regional and national levels, NC Institutional and Technical
including in policies, strategies, action plans, and Needs, 6.4 Gender and
programs. As well as, increase their participation and Climate Change in Egypt as
representation at all levels of the decision-making a Cross Cutting Elements,
process.” p.214

“Ensure that women are visible agents of change at all

levels of disaster preparedness, including early warning
systems, education, communication, information and
advocacy.”

“Analyze climate change data such as drought, floods, or

desertification from a gender-sensitive perspective.”

“Action to mitigate climate change has the potential to

also bring about local gender-positive impacts.”

“Include gender-specific indicators to monitor and

track progress on gender equality targets.”

Some evidence in the data suggests gender integration, which goes beyond building the

adaptive capacity of vulnerable women and towards recognizing and supporting women’s

importance and contributions through non-traditional sectors. Such approaches are important

and need to be consistently included throughout policy, to avoid stereotyping women’s

identities in relation to climate change and the environment.

Data extract Document Chapter, Section & Page

Number

102
“Canadian Climate Fund for the Private Sector in the Canada’s Chp.7: Financial, Technology
Americas (C2F) a fund established by Canada in 2012 at 7th NC and Capacity Building
the Inter-American Development Bank…provided Support, 7.2.1 Partnering
support for Divisa Solar, the first utility scale solar with Multilateral
photovoltaic project in Panama, operational since August Development Banks and Other
2015… In 2016, Divisa Solar generated 13,857-megawatt Development Partners, p.
hours of energy, abated 9,284 tonnes of carbon dioxide 219
equivalent, and mobilized US $5.92M from the private
sector. Divisa Solar was also the first project under the
C2F to include a gender-targeted internship program
for women in science, technology, engineering and
mathematics.”
“The technical focus of energy research is increasingly Sweden’s Chp.8: Research and
being strengthened with perspectives of the user, 7th NC Systematic Observation, 8.6.3.
behavioural and marketing aspects, and also by business Research and development
models related to the sector (one example of a smaller of measures for reducing
project is on Women and men in boards of directors emissions and adapting to
aiming to find out whether more women on boards climate change, including
would help businesses increase their efforts to reduce technology, p. 114
climate emissions).

Both, Canada and Sweden discuss gender aspects in relation to the energy sector,

however the context in which they represent gender differs. Canada, frames the discussion of

gender integration into science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) fields as

support for Panama, a developing country. It also seems as additional information rather than

the focal point of the Divisa Solar initiative. In contrast, Sweden’s NC describes efforts to

mainstream gender concerns by examining gender differences at the executive decision-

making level and its impact on emissions reduction in the energy sector. This illustrates a

higher level of understanding and commitment to gender perceptions in climate mitigation

activities. Based on this evidence Sweden demonstrates the ability to mainstream gender in

other climate policy areas such as energy research, which is often regarded in the literature as

a non-traditional sector for women.

(e) Budgeting

As the literature suggests, incorporating gender perspectives into climate budgetary

processes is imperative to address the needs of both women and men. Based on the data, all

103
Annex I Parties included discussion on climate financing, which centered on providing

financial resources to assist developing country parties in implementing the objectives of the

UNFCCC. However, none of the Annex I parties discussed gender perspectives specifically

within their national climate budgets. The data also revealed Egypt was the only Non-Annex I

party which mentioned gender in the context of climate finance, however the discussion was

only limited to adaptation finance.

Data extract(s) Document Chapter, Section &

Page Number(s)
“Canada’s climate finance will also have a focus on the Canada’s 7th Chp.7: Financial,
empowerment of women and girls and gender equality.” NC Technology and
Capacity Building
“Canada’s climate finance will closely align with its overall Support, 7.1.2
development priorities with a focus on the empowerment of Integrating Climate
women and girls and gender equality.” Considerations into
Development
“For example, over 2015 and 2016 Canada provided $324,000 Assistance, p. 215
to the Caribbean Disaster Risk Management Program which
aims to improve resilience in the Caribbean extreme weather
events, such as hurricanes and floods, and reduce their impact on
communities. Greater resiliency is achieved when all people and
sectors are involved in disaster risk prevention. To ensure this,
the Caribbean Disaster Risk Management Program gives special
attention to gender equality, to ensure equal access to
resources and opportunities for both men and women in
building their resilience and adaptive capacity.”

“Support for reconstruction and the restoration of lost assets Chp.7: Financial,
and livelihoods after Typhoon Haiyan, including increased Technology and
participation of women and men in affected regions, and Capacity Building
improved access to business development services.” Support, Annexes-
Table 8: Finance
“Aims to increase food security, increased farming productivity, delivered through
and gender equality in Nicaraguan small-scale farming Bilateral, Regional, and
exposed to extreme weather brought on by climate change.” Other Channels (2015
and 2016), p. 232-235.
“Provide support to increase the capacity of public service
institutions and small and growing businesses to innovate, adapt
to changing circumstances, and incorporate gender equality
and environmental sustainability.”
“Adaptation finance, whatever its source, should be used to Egypt’s 3rd
promote climate and development objectives, including NC
gender equality.”
“Finnish development policy strives to strengthen the rights of Finland’s 7th Chp.7: Financial
the most vulnerable, promote gender equality, and improve NC resources and transfer
climate change preparedness and mitigation. Therefore, besides of technology, 7.1
providing funds to the operating entities of the financial Provision of new and
mechanism of the UNFCCC and the funds under the Kyoto additional financial

104
Protocol, Finland provides support through bilateral, resources, p. 219
regional and other multilateral channels.”

“Since 2008, Finland has been supporting the project Chp.7: Financial
implemented by the Global Gender and Climate Alliance resources and transfer
(GGCA) to strengthen the role of women and mainstream the of technology, 7.3.6
gender perspective in global climate policy. The project that Capacity-building
consisted of four phases ended in 2016; the overall support support, p. 228.
from Finland was EUR 8.9 million in 2008 to 2016.”
“Sweden has also been a champion for gender integration in Sweden’s 7th Chp.7: Provision of
the multilateral climate funds, including the promotion of NC financial, technological
separate gender policies and action plans.” and capacity-building
support to developing
country Parties, 7.3
Multilateral Financial
Support, p. 99.

From the data above, Annex I Parties such as Canada and Finland outline several funding

initiatives to increase gender equality and women’s empowerment in developing countries.

But the evidence also reveals that Annex I Parties may consider gender responsive budgeting

only relevant in the context of developing countries. This finding is further supported by the

fact that none of the Annex I Parties mention what steps or measures were being undertaken to

ensure gender responsive budgeting within their own country’s climate budget plans.

Another finding discovered that Canada’s and Egypt’s NCs only mentioned the

importance of climate in relation to climate adaptation. For instance, Canada’s NC revealed

that all climate funds discussing gender or women were allocated towards adaptation, capacity

building and disaster reduction measures and strategies. There was no explicit evidence of

budgets designated towards climate mitigation activities. Likewise, Egypt’s discussion on

integrating gender equality into climate finance was brief and associated only with climate

adaptation. Since, gender equality was confined to climate adaptation and building capacity of

vulnerable groups, its relevance in climate mitigation and economic development was often

absent.

105
 Throughout the dataset, it was evident that the overall objective of the NDCs and NCs

(both Annex I and non-Annex I Parties) was to reduce GHG emissions while prospering

economically. It was clear that Parties placed a strong emphasis on economic development

and opportunities mainly through mitigation strategies to create a low carbon economy.

Furthermore, the data reveals all NDCs and NCs provide substantial coverage and support for

climate mitigation efforts in energy, transportation, agriculture, forestry, manufacturing and

waste management, however none integrated gender perspectives in these discussions. The

observable trend in the data showed most Parties were particularly concerned with planning

and investing in the procurement of clean energy and technologies, which could boost

economic conditions while contribute to clean growth. A number of extracts are provided

below to reveal the extent of economic prioritization through mitigation activities in NCs and

NDCs. It also shows the lack of gender representation or considerations in these

conversations.

Data extract(s) Document Chapter, Section & Page

Number(s)
“Brazil will strive for a transition towards energy systems Brazil’s Long-Term Aspirations, p.
based on renewable sources and the decarbonization of the NDC 1
global economy by the end of the century, in the context of
sustainable development and access to the financial and
technological means necessary for this transition.”
“These actions are supplemented by Canada’s Chp.4: Policies and
investments in clean technology, research, development and 7th NC Measures, 4.4 Modifying
demonstration to help Canada meeting its climate change goals Longer-Term Trends in
and creating economic opportunities.” Greenhouse Gas Emissions,
p. 80

“This funding helps mobilize private sector investment and Chp.1: Introduction and
expertise, including in clean technology innovation, in Executive Summary,
developing countries so that they too may seize the economic Financial, Technology and
opportunities of the global shift towards clean growth.” Capacity Building Support,
p. 11

106
“Canada recognizes the need to reduce greenhouse gas Canada’s Introduction, p. 1
emissions and considers addressing climate change as an NDC
opportunity to transition to a strong, diverse and competitive
low-carbon economy.”

“As a result of these efforts, the Pan-Canadian Framework on The Pan-Canadian

Clean Growth and Climate Change was adopted on December Framework on Clean
9, 2016. It is a comprehensive plan to reduce emissions across Growth and Climate
all sectors of the economy, accelerate clean economic growth, Change, p. 1
and build resilience to the impacts of climate change.”

“Other actions in the Pan-Canadian Framework include: Complementary Mitigation

protecting and enhancing carbon sinks including in forests, Actions, p. 2
wetlands and agricultural lands; identifying opportunities to
generate renewable fuel from waste; and demonstrating
leadership by reducing emissions from government operations
and scaling up the procurement of clean energy and
technologies. The Framework also includes support for clean
technology and innovation that promote clean growth,
including for early-stage technology development, establishing
international partnerships, and encouraging “mission-oriented”
research to help generate innovative new ideas and create
economic opportunities”
“Renewable energy may provide a number of opportunities Egypt 3rd Chp.3: Programs Containing
and cannot only address climate change mitigation but may also NC Measures to Mitigate
address sustainable and equitable economic development, Climate Change,
energy access, secure energy supply and reduce local Introduction, p. 87
environmental and health impacts.”

“Egypt didn't succeed yet to cut energy intensity in any ratio, Chp.3: Programs Containing
but there are many areas that it can improve upon to ensure Measures to Mitigate
continued economic growth while using less energy.” Climate Change, Current
“Working through international cooperation, Egypt can Strategies, Programs, and
transform its energy problem into an energy opportunity –an Policies for Mitigating GHG
opportunity to unleash the power to develop new supplies, invest Emissions by Key Sectors,
and apply new technologies, and create good new jobs for p. 89
Egypt."

“Finland supports developing countries by helping them to Finland’s Chp.4: Policies and
build their capacities and develop their economic 7th NC Measures, 4.10 Minimising
infrastructure, thus helping them diversify their economies the adverse effects of
and improve energy production.” policies and measures in
other countries, p. 144
“Sweden has introduced a range of policies and measures directly Sweden’s Ch.4: Policies and measures,
or indirectly affecting greenhouse gas emissions. The emphasis 7th NC 4.2. Policies and measures in
in the country’s climate strategy is on the use of general Sweden’s climate strategy
economic instruments…” and their effects, p. 42

Moving towards a low carbon economy is important for combating climate change.

But, excluding gender considerations from discussions of economic and technological

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developments implies a lack of meaningful representation and commitment by these Parties.

Gender inequalities and gender dimensions to access economic and decision-making

opportunities in the energy and technology sectors vary across social, cultural, economic and

political contexts. However, such issues are not entirely addressed in the extracts above or

throughout the NDCs or NCs. This finding is particularly important, as it indicates these

Parties may not recognize gender concerns as relevant or applicable in mitigation strategies.

Mitigation activities were overwhelming focused on developing new technologies that could

provide high profitability and create a low carbon economy supposedly a win-win situation.

Thus, it was not surprising to observe that most Parties shaped the issue of climate change as

one with a techno-scientific solution.

Throughout NDCs and NCs scientific and technological measures and policies were

reiterated as viable approaches to reducing GHG emissions. The extracts below provide

sufficient evidence of the strong techno-scientific framing of climate change adopted by

Parties.

Data extract(s) Document Chapter, Section and Page

Number(s)
“This chapter describes initiatives of excellence, Brazil’s 3rd Chp.2: Other Information
undertaken through institutes and Brazilian research NC Considered Relevant to the
groups that are contributing to the advancement of Achievement of the Objective of
the scientific basis on climate change in the the Convention,
country.” 2.2 Capacity-Building, p. 89

“The problem of global climate change is notably Ibid. 2.3 Technology Transfer, p.
scientific and technological at the short and medium 108
terms. It is scientific because it deals with defining
climate change, its causes, intensity, vulnerabilities,
impacts and reduction of uncertainties. It is
technological because the measures to combat
global warming include actions that aim at the
promotion and the cooperation for the development,
application and diffusion, including transfer of
technologies, practices and processes that prevent
the problem and its adverse effects.”
“Recognizing the growing global demand for clean Canada’s 7th Chp.1: Introduction and

108
technologies, the Pan-Canadian Framework creates NC Executive Summary, p. 4
the conditions to encourage and enhance the
development and adoption of clean technologies.
The Framework includes new actions to support
early-stage technological innovation, accelerated
commercialization and growth, enhanced adoption
of clean technology, and improved metrics to
measure success.”

“Recognizing the need to draw on the best

available technical and scientific expertise and Chp.3: 3.5 National Inventory
information, Environment and Climate Change Arrangements Canada’s
Canada has defined roles and responsibilities for the Greenhouse Gas Inventory, p. 48
preparation of the inventory, both internally and
externally.”
“Federal, provincial, and territorial governments Canada’s Complementary Mitigation
will work together to help industries improve their NDC Actions, p. 3
energy efficiency and invest in new technologies to
reduce emissions, including in the oil and gas
sector.”
“New technology is the cornerstone of any Egypt’s 3rd Chp.3: Programs Containing
sensible energy policy. Today, Egypt is seriously NC Measures to Mitigate Climate
looking for technology transfer on the front edge of Change, Current Strategies,
world industrial progress.” Programs, and Policies for
Mitigating GHG Emissions by
“Innovative clean energy technologies and Key Sectors, p. 89 & 90
processes, developed by the international market can
be an indispensable part of Egypt's future
environmental solutions.”
“In Finland, there is a growing interest towards the Finland’s Foreword, p. 7
interface between science and policy in the field of 7th NC
climate change.”

“According to the Finnish Science Barometer Chp.8: Research and systematic

2016 the public’s expectations are optimistic on observation, 8.1.1 domestic
science and the worldview. Science is believed to be activities, p. 242
the answer to many important issues.”
“The Finnish Climate Change Panel was
nominated by the Ministry of the Environment for
the first time in 2011 to enhance science-policy
interaction between climate and energy policy, as
well as public discussion.”

“The utilization of mitigation technologies will Indonesia’s Chp.5: Programmes Containing

encourage the development of science in the field 3rd NC Measures to Mitigate Climate
of low carbon technology in the country. Mastery Change, 5.4.3.5 Co-Benefits of
of new renewable energy technologies and Mitigation Action in Energy
conservation energy/ energy efficiency in the Sector, p. 124
country can be developed to achieve the climate
change mitigation targets in the energy sector. The
development of science and technology and the
mastery of strategic assets supporting low-carbon
technology (low-emission technology) can be
Indonesia’s competitive advantage in global
market.”

109
While clean technologies are important for building a sustainable future, they might also

create gender barriers to access or gender advantages and disadvantages. It can be noted in the

data extracts above, gender considerations are absent from policies that encourage mitigating

emissions through scientific and technological research. This evidence is relatable to the

finding that Parties seldom conceive gender equality as an issue in technical aspects and often

overlooks its implications. Since majority of the data predominantly represents climate change

as one with a techno-scientific solution, it not only underestimates gender but also suggests

climate problems are best handled through technological processes (MacGregor, 2010).

5.2.3 Summary of Key Findings

A number of findings were uncovered through the thematic analysis. The most

apparent finding revealed Annex I Parties NDCs mostly lacked coverage and depth when

discussing gender equality. However, 4 out of 6 NCs provided some reporting on gender

equality concerns and the linkages between climate change. Also, Egypt was the only Non-

Annex I party to acknowledge within its NC the connections between gender equality

concerns and the impacts of climate change. In many aspects the NDCs and NCs discussion

on gender equality did not move beyond general assumptions of women’s poverty and

vulnerability to climate change. Similarly, support for gender equality was overwhelmingly

focused on adaptation and disaster reduction strategies to reduce women’s vulnerabilities to

climate change impacts. Equally important, was the trend of Annex I parties’ not

acknowledging gender inequalities in their own societies and continuously associating gender

inequality with developing countries. Lastly, the results exposed the lack of gender

recognition among NDCs and NCs in matters pertaining to gender-responsive budgeting in

110
climate mitigation actions. Theoretical connections between the results of the study and

literature review are presented in the discussion section below.

5.3 Discussion

The discussion section interprets the findings above by engaging with the five gender

responsive concepts identified through the theoretical literature. Recall, the five gender

responsive concepts include: human rights, gender mainstreaming, power relations, gender

equal participation, and budgeting. Incorporating these concepts into climate change policies,

programs and strategies is likely to ensure that both men and women have equal access to, and

can benefit from climate change responses. From the findings above NDCs and NCs have not

yet fully utilized a gender responsive approach since many aspects of effective gender

integration are missing.

5.3.1 Human Rights

Gender equality besides being a basic human right is necessary for achieving

sustainable development and combating the adverse effects of climate change. It is now well

recognized that climate change caused by human activities affects a range of human rights

including rights to life, autonomy, development, food, health, water and sanitation and

housing (GGCA, 2016). It is also well documented that women and girls are

disproportionately affected by climate change impacts due to their social roles and

responsibilities, unequal participation in decision-making processes and the labor market,

which prevents them from fully participating in climate policy and planning measures

(Tschakert & Machado, 2012). But, women’s active leadership and political involvement at

the international and national levels has led to greater inclusivity of citizen’s needs and

improved outcomes of climate-related projects and policies. Therefore, Parties acknowledge

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the importance of including both men and women equally throughout UNFCCC processes and

in the planning and implementation of national climate policies. Since climate related

mitigation and adaptation actions have an impact on human rights, Parties under the UNFCCC

must address climate change in a manner that fully respects, protects and fulfills human rights

for all.

Throughout this study most Parties discuss gender equality in the context of human

rights. However, the discussion of gender equality, human rights and the connection between

climate change policies and impacts is not entirely addressed. The analysis in the previous

section shows that Parties often grouped together terms such as ‘human rights’, ‘gender

equality’ and ‘women’s empowerment’ without going into depth and fully examining their

importance and role in the climate policy context. Based on the document analysis in this

study it appears that references to human rights and gender equality are insubstantial and

require further efforts from Parties.

Similarly, this lip service approach can be identified in the Paris Agreement, which

functions as a part of the framework for national climate policies. A report produced under the

leadership of the African Working Group on Gender and Climate Change (2017) showed that

although the Paris Agreement recognizes the importance of gender equality in its preamble

and articles of adaptation and capacity building, it does not include direction or full coverage

on the means of implementation of gender equality across all climate processes.

As mentioned earlier if gender perspectives are overlooked in any aspect of climate

policies, budgets and plans it may reinforce and perpetuate gender inequalities, and act as

barriers to the full enjoyment of human rights (OHCHR, 2016). To ensure human rights are

protected and implemented across national climate policies, gender concerns and differences

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must be realized across all sectors and levels of climate policy. From this study, it is apparent

that gender equality is understood as a human rights issue but its full and deeper integration

within the six countries’ NDCs and NCs is inadequate and may result in widening gender gaps

due to climate change impacts.

5.3.2 Gender Equal Participation

Climate change will affect women and men differently according to their social,

cultural, economic and environmental setting. Therefore, to ensure gender inequalities are not

worsened as a result of climate change, policies must be representative of the differing needs

and capacities of men and women (GGCA, 2016). A common approach identified through the

analysis was Parties’ efforts to increase women’s participation in climate governing bodies.

The data revealed Egypt promoted inclusive decision-making, which emphasized a gender

sensitive approach to foster gender balance in decision-making processes. In addition Egypt

also recognized women’s participation can be enabled by providing women’s groups with a

platform to voice their concerns. Canada and Finland also supported the participation of

women in decision-making and leadership roles through development initiatives. However,

Canada and Finland did not provide any context on gender equal participation within their

own countries. Likewise, Egypt did not describe what kinds of measures and policies it has or

will develop in the future to ensure women’s active participation in climate policy.

Although, promoting and supporting women’s participation and leadership capacities

throughout different levels of the government is important, it is simply not enough

(Hankivsky, 2005). Feminists urge that more women in politics should not be equated with

gender equality (Chant and Sweetman, 2012). Parties should go beyond the inclusion of

women to transforming the social and political culture, which is responsible for creating

113
gender disparities initially (MacGregor, 2010; Kaijser and Kronsell 2013; Cornwall & Rivas,

2015). Increasing gender equal participation should be a part of the bigger picture of achieving

gender equality. Parties can direct more efforts towards improving the participation of gender

experts in policy-making processes who are well versed in feminist studies to develop more

holistic approaches to climate change (Alston, 2014).

5.3.3 Power Relations

Gender roles and responsibilities, access to and control over resources, and influence

in decision-making play an important role in determining social power relations and the ability

to adapt to changes in the environment. Djoudi et al (2016) study showed that vulnerability

and adaptive capacity are “dynamic in nature” (p. 248) in that, “the capacity to adapt and

respond to change is shaped by power relations determining access to resources, information

and the availability of options and choices” (p. 248). This is observed within this study to an

extent, where Canada and Egypt NCs identify and address gender inequalities related to lack

of decision-making opportunities, lack of access to resources, information and technologies.

This portrays some level of comprehension by the two Parties of gender asymmetries in

access, influence and power when discussing climate change impacts and policies.

But overall the results show the general dialogue amid Parties continues to represent

women with a fixed identity, which overlooks the root causes of power and social imbalances

between men and women. Similarly, Arora-Jonsson’s (2011) study on gender and climate

change found that in many policy documents, addressing power differences was often not on

the agenda as women were already categorized into a homogenous group. Arora-Jonsson

further explained the troubling effect of this practice and noted, “gender is made invisible in

114
the debates on climate change since it is assumed that we know what the problem is – the

vulnerability of women” (p. 748).

Feminist perspectives regarding gender and climate change caution against

essentializing women and men’s roles in relation to the environment. The findings of this

study show that gender equality is mentioned across the dataset, but representation of gender

equality is often synonymous with women and particularly focuses on poor and vulnerable

women in developing countries. Research studies such as the WEDO’s gender analysis of

Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) also found that the most common

framing of women or gender in INDCs was associated with terms such as poor and vulnerable.

Demetriades and Esplen (2008) also discovered that the available literature on gender and

climate change often made heavy generalizations about women and conceptualized them as,

“the poorest of the poor” (p.24). Such representation illustrates gender equality as confined to

alleviating women’s poverty and vulnerability rather than addressing social relations of power

that produced those vulnerabilities.

Addressing gender inequalities such as women’s vulnerability and adaptive capacity is

important to minimize existing injustices. However, this study shows that continuously

equating women with vulnerability and powerlessness has led to over representing women in

climate adaptation policies while overlooking their importance in climate mitigation policies.

The findings of this study show that gender equality is rarely expanded into areas other than

adaptation and disaster resilience. This study also highlights that gender considerations are not

applied across all sectors equally.

5.3.4 Gender Mainstreaming

115
 Gender equality and climate change are seen as cross sectoral issues, which require

mainstreaming efforts across all sectors and at all levels to enhance gender responsive climate

action (Nelson, 2015; GCF, 2017). For climate change responses to be effective, they must

assess gender inequalities and how it affects issues of access to and control over resources,

institutional structures, formal and informal networks and decision-making processes

(UNWomen, 2016). Therefore, to ensure gender inequalities are not worsened as a result of

climate change, policies must be representative of the differing needs and capacities of men

and women. It is well documented that gender gaps privilege males in education, personal

autonomy, and economic opportunities and are systematically greater in developing countries

than in developed countries. Thus achieving gender equality in developing countries has

become the standard practice. However, gender inequalities are still widespread in developed

countries in matters related to gender wage gaps, gender-based violence and bodily autonomy.

But discussion of such gender inequalities in developed countries is rarely examined in the

context of climate change.

The findings of this study corroborated this assumption as the data reveals all Annex I

Parties (developed countries) represent gender equality as a concern for Non-Annex I Parties

(developing countries). Previous research conducted by Arora- Jonsson (2011) also showed

such similarities, the study revealed that in the context of gender and climate change, “the

major problem is considered to be that women are vulnerable, more susceptible to climate

change and that this is mainly a problem in the developing world” (p.748). Again, this is

problematic because gender equality is limited to discussions only regarding women’s

vulnerability in adapting to climate change. As such gender considerations in mitigation,

technology and budgetary processes are not mainstreamed equally. Representation of gender

116
equality in national climate change policies is an important element but selective

representation that only shows limited aspects of gender equality can have the opposite effect

of the desired outcome.

Despite, the popularization of gender mainstreaming through the Paris Agreement and

the UNFCCC gender instruments such as the Lima Work Programme and the Gender Action

Plan, it is surprising to see gender perspectives still not as well mainstreamed into climate

mitigation actions as they have been in climate adaptation. Many studies have identified this

occurrence, for instance, Djoudi et al (2016) study found that scientific literature on gender

and climate change less frequently addressed gender in climate change mitigation studies than

in those on adaptation. In this study the findings show similar results, gender is

overrepresented in policies related to climate adaptation. For example, Canada’s NC contains

25 excerpts which are coded for “gender limited to adaptation measures” however there are no

excerpts on gender representation in mitigation measures available throughout Canada’s NC.

This shows a lack of understanding or commitment to mainstream gender concerns across the

climate context. The reason for this could be challenges associated with how to effectively

implement gender equality into climate policies and bring about transformative change (GCF,

2017). As seen throughout the data, there are often ambiguous inclusions and references to

gender equality pointing towards a lack of understanding by Parties. Terms such as ‘gender

equality’, ‘gender responsive’, ‘gender sensitive’ and ‘women’s empowerment’ are thrown

around or simply added to discussions without sufficient explanations of their meaning,

significance and consequences to climate policy and practice.

The exclusion of gender in climate mitigation actions also indicates a lack of

prioritization or investment into gender equality. The research results of this study present the

117
absence of gender mainstreaming efforts in climate financing particularly in climate mitigation

budgets.

5.3.5 Budgeting

Climate budgets are not gender neutral, financial flows to and from climate funds can

place burdens or distribute resources to men and women differently. Gender responsive

budgets, along with other policy measures can address gender bias and discrimination

(Goswami, 2006 & Khan, 2015). GRB aims to ensure the collection and distribution of public

resources is carried out in ways that contribute to advancing gender equality. It often involves

evaluating the different needs and responses of men and women within the “existing revenues,

expenditures and allocations and calls for adjusting budget policies to benefit all groups”,

(UNWomen Asia and the Pacific, n.d). Equally important, GRB can enhance monitoring and

evaluation of climate policies by regularly collecting and analyzing gender-disaggregated data

to improve gender equality in climate mitigation and adaptation measures. It is also an

important step towards accountability to women’s rights, greater public transparency and can

shift economic policies to provide financial benefits across societies. Therefore, all budget

related climate decisions should apply a gender-responsive budgeting approach across all

phases of budgetary planning to ensure equal distribution; address gender-differentiated needs;

and identify whose interests are prevailing in existing budgets.

However, throughout the analysis, finding evidence of gender responsive budgeting

was hard and finding sex-disaggregated data was even harder. Gender equality and climate

financing are commonly referenced in relation to financial support for developing countries

but consist of vague inclusions of gender equality, which lack depth and clarity in discussion.

Furthermore, the findings reveal gender considerations in climate mitigation investments are

118
mostly absent. Besides, Sweden’s NC, which only points to the overrepresentation of gender

in adaptation budgets and underrepresentation of gender in mitigation budgets none of the

NDCs or NCs provide evidence of gender-responsive budgeting in climate mitigation

initiatives.

WEDO’s report (2013), “Exposing the Gender Gaps in Financing Climate Change

Mitigation” found that the overall understanding of gender is not well understood in climate

mitigation financing and thus, the prevailing approaches to minimize emissions prioritize

technical and scientific measures. Similarly, this research also reveals that NDCs and NCs

place a strong emphasis on clean economic growth through technical and scientific

investments while gender perspectives remain absent from the techno-scientific approach to

climate change. A possible explanation for this could be the discussion on climate mitigation

excessively privileging scientific methods that present evidence as objective facts and pay

little attention to more anecdotal and qualitative findings. Therefore, social issues such as

gender equality that are subjective in nature may not be seen as relevant in matters related to

climate mitigation. Terry (2009) pointed out, “framing climate change as a problem that needs

mainly technical and economic solutions makes it hard to find an entry point to introduce

gender-equality issues into the equation” (p.15). Thus, broadening the scope of climate

mitigation policies from technical methods to more diverse social aspects can lead to

improved allocation of gender responsive budgets, gender inclusive and representative policies

and ultimately the reduction of structural inequalities (GCF, 2017).

5.3.6 Future Implications of the Paris Rulebook Based on Findings

As noted in section 2.6 Gender at COP 24, the Paris Rulebook, which provides a set of

guidelines for the implementation of the Paris Agreement, has incorporated several gender

119
considerations. Since the Paris Rulebook was established after the finalization of this research

project it was not a part of the analysis. However, based on the results of this study a number

of suggestions on how the Paris Rulebook may impact the future of gender and climate change

policy are provided below.

Firstly, the results of this study highlight the lack of engagement between gender and

mitigation actions among NDCs and NCs. The Paris Rulebook has integrated several gender

considerations into mitigation actions, particularly in the implementation of NDCs. The

Rulebook requests that planning and preparation of the NDCs are done in a gender responsive

manner. Since, the first set of NDCs submitted often lacked gender considerations it will be

interesting to see whether the next set of NDCs will be more attentive and supportive of

gender responsive climate actions. Also the willingness to incorporate gender aspects across a

number of areas in the Rulebook displays a meaningful commitment that goes beyond the lip

service approach, which was noticeable in the Paris Agreement. A number of guidelines for

implementing gender responsive actions are provided across adaptation, mitigation, finance

and technological aspects. The Paris Rulebook displays a strong commitment by the

international climate regime for taking concrete steps to integrate gender equality into climate

change planning. At a quick glance, the Paris Rulebook incorporates several gender

responsive concepts identified within this study. Most notable is the presence of gender

mainstreaming throughout the Rulebook. Gender considerations are well dispersed across the

document and throughout a variety of sections, including innovation, transparency and

collaboration and stakeholder engagement. The Rulebook also emphasizes gender balanced

representation in the Supervisory Body and the among technical expert review team;

incorporating gender considerations into climate finance; addressing barriers and facilitating

120
access to resources including technologies and encouraging Parties to respect, promote and

consider their respective obligations on human rights to guide climate action.

The Paris Rulebook offers optimism for gender and climate change advocates,

however the effective implementation is dependent on the commitment of Parties to follow a

gender responsive approach to climate planning and action.

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 Chapter 6. Conclusion

6.1 Summary of Findings and Contributions of the Study

Gendered impacts of climate change have been acknowledged as an issue requiring

greater attention from academic researchers. To address this research gap, I developed the

gender responsive criteria informed by feminist perspectives on gender and climate change

and used thematic analysis to identify how national climate policies were addressing the

connection between gender equality and climate change. The results revealed that all six

Parties, some more than others acknowledge the importance between gender equality and

climate change impacts. However, Parties did not fully employ a gender responsive approach,

many of the gender responsive elements were either completely missing or were rarely

discussed in detail. The general representation of gender equality in NDCs and NCs was fairly

limited in discussion and a number of gender gaps still exist in areas of climate finance,

mitigation and technology.

The research further revealed that continuing to represent gender equality as a concern

for vulnerable women in the developing countries is influencing national climate policies and

actions to homogenize women’s vulnerability to climate adaptation. As a result gender

perspectives in mitigation planning, finance and implementation are often missing. Climate

mitigation strategies are a central component to address climate change and are likely to have

a gender-differentiated impact. Failing to address these differences may result in the

ineffectiveness of climate mitigation policies, further entrenchment of gender inequalities and

contribute to unsustainable development.

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 After completing this research project, the six Parties identified as having strong

gender commitments do not consistently address the connections between gender equality and

climate change. Climate policies containing gender language and references rarely move

beyond traditional assumptions of gender and its role in climate change. NDCs and NCs do

not seem to be informed by new and emerging feminist research on gender and climate

change. Much of the discussion on gender reinforces gender stereotypes highlighted in the

literature review. Although, some gender responsive concepts are present within the NDCs

and NCs, they only scratch the surface of the complex and challenging issue of addressing

gender equality concerns and the linkages between climate change. If gender equality is to be

achieved and support sustainable development including the fight against climate change,

gender perspectives need to be deeply understood and applied in a broader context across

climate policies and actions.

This research contributes to the academic literature by highlighting five key concepts

that can improve the ways in which gender concerns and the linkages between climate change

are addressed in national climate policies. Equally important, this research contributes to the

under researched discipline of gender and climate policy implementation. The extensive

examination of NDCs and NCs through a gender lens promotes the need for continuous

research and monitoring of gender in national climate decisions. As well this study is

particularly useful in determining whether Parties are consistently reflecting gender equality

principles echoed in the international climate regime. The research also supports the need for

more feminist research to inform climate policy-making.

6.2 Directions for Future Research

123
 After completing this research project, three potential areas for future research have

been identified. The first direction of future research is the possibility of conducting a similar

thematic analysis of the NDCs and NCs of a larger sample size and then comparing those

findings with the findings of this study. This would determine to what extent the findings of

this study are consistent across different Parties’ NDCs and NCs. To ensure generalizability of

results a larger project could examine NDCs and NCs of all Parties to the UNFCCC. This

would however require multiple coders to make the project practical and it would also reduce

coder’s bias and increase the validity of the results. Such a large-scale project has the potential

to reveal governments’ progress or lack thereof on gender equality and monitor Parties gender

commitments as outlined under the UNFCCC.

The second direction involves a longitudinal analysis of NDCs and NCs of the six

Parties to examine how discussions of gender equality in climate change policies have

developed over the years. This could illuminate a number of findings regarding the evolution

of gender equality in climate politics. It could also reveal how gender issues have been

integrated into climate action throughout the years. Such a study may also make it possible to

see if any changes are reflected as a result of society’s growing awareness of gender

inequalities. As gender equality is recognized as a prerequisite for sustainable development

and for achieving the goals of UNFCCC and the Paris Agreement, tracking its progress over

time and across Parties national climate documents seems to me to be of high significance.

Last but not least, since the Paris Rulebook (UNFCCC, 2018) for guiding the

implementation of the agreement has been established, it would be very useful for future

research to examine gender responsive implementation of the next set of NDCs and NCs. As

discussed previously, the Rulebook incorporates several gender considerations across a

124
number of aspects including in the implementation of NDCs and in the enhanced transparency

framework. It would therefore be worthwhile to conduct an extensive gender analysis of

Parties’ national climate documents and determine if gender commitments in the Rulebook are

translated at the national level.

125
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Appendix A: Summary of Data of the Comparison of Country Rankings in GII and
CCPI

Summary of Data
Country Categories Country Rankings CCPI-GII Performance Level CCPI/GII
Annex I (only EIT) Bulgaria 42-45 Low/Med
Annex I (only EIT) Croatia 13-31 High/High
Annex I (only EIT) Cyprus 29-21 Med/High
Annex I (only EIT) Czech Republic 43-27 Low/High
Annex I (only EIT) Estonia 30-28 Med/High
Annex I (only EIT) Hungary 44-49 Low/Med
Annex I (only EIT) Kazakhstan 55-42 Very Low/ Med
Annex I (only EIT) Latvia 10-41 High/Med
Annex I (only EIT) Lithuania 5-25 High/High
Annex I (only EIT) Poland 40-30 Low/High
Annex I (only EIT) Romania 26-72 Med/Low
Annex I (only EIT) Slovakia 24-39 Med/Med
Annex I (only EIT) Slovenia 31-6 Med/High
Annex II Greece 39-23 Low/High
Annex II Australia 57-24 Very Low/ High
Annex II Austria 35-14 Low/High
Annex II Belgium 32-12 Med/High
Annex II Canada 51-18 Very Low/ High
Annex II Denmark 17-2 High/Very High
Annex II Finland 9-8 High/High
Annex II France 15-19 High/High
Annex II Germany 22-9 Med/High
Annex II Ireland 49-26 Very Low/ High
Annex II Italy 16-16 High/High
Annex II Luxembourg 25-13 High/High
Annex II Japan 50-21 Very Low/ High
Annex II Netherlands 34-3 Low/Very High
Annex II New Zealand 33-34 Low/Med
Annex II Norway 7-6 High/High
Annex II Portugal 18-17 High/High
Annex II Sweden 4-4 High/Very High
Annex II Switzerland 12-1 High/Very High
Annex II United Kingdom 8-28 High/High
Non-Annex I Brazil 19-92 Med/Very Low
Non-Annex I Egypt 28-135 Med/Very Low
Non-Annex I Indonesia 37-105 Low/ Very Low
Non-Annex I Saudi Arabia 60-50 Very Low/ Med

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 Appendix B: In-Document Word Search of NDCs and NCs of 36 countries
Country Document Gender Gender Equality Women Gender-repsonsive Gender-mainstreaming Participatory Planning Inequality Human Rights Total
Switzerland NDC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sweden EU NDC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
France EU NDC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
United Kingdom EU NDC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Finland EU NDC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Norway NDC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Portugal EU NDC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Luxembourg NDC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Denmark EU NDC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Italy EU NDC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Belgium EU NDC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Germany EU NDC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
New Zealand NDC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Australia NDC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Greece EU NDC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Ireland EU NDC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Canada NDC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Netherlands EU NDC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Austria EU NDC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Lithuania EU NDC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Croatia EU NDC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Bulgaria EU NDC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cyprus EU NDC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Estonia EU NDC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Hungary EU NDC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Latvia EU NDC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Romania EU NDC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Slovakia EU NDC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Slovenia EU NDC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Kazahkstan NDC 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
Czech Republic EU NDC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Poland EU NDC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Brazil NDC 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 3
Egypt NDC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Indonesia NDC 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 1 5
Saudi Arabia NDC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Country Document Gender Gender Equality Women Gender-repsonsive Gender-mainstreaming Participatory Planning Inequality Total
Switzerland NC 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
Sweden NC 14 8 8 1 0 0 0 31
France NC 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 5
United Kingdom NC 1 0 1 0 0 5 0 7
Finland NC 7 3 12 1 3 10 1 37
Norway NC 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
Portugal NC 2 0 0 0 0 4 0 6
Luxembourg NC 3 9 3 0 0 1 1 17
Denmark NC 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 3
Italy NC 0 0 1 0 0 3 0 4
Belgium NC 0 0 3 0 0 1 0 4
Germany NC 0 3 0 0 0 5 2 10
New Zealand NC 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 3
Australia NC 4 1 9 0 0 0 0 14
Greece NC 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 3
Japan NC Unable to perform word search, glitches within the document 0
Ireland NC 3 1 6 0 0 1 1 12
Canada NC 10 15 39 0 0 4 0 68
Netherlands NC 9 1 2 1 0 2 0 15
Austria NC 1 1 3 0 0 3 0 8
Lithuania NC 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5
Croatia NC 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2
Bulgaria NC 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 2
Cyprus NC 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 2
Estonia NC 0 0 1 0 0 0 3 4
Hungary NC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Latvia NC 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 2
Romania NC 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 4
Slovakia NC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Slovenia NC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Kazahkstan NC 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
Czech Republic NC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Poland NC 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
Brazil NC 3 0 9 0 0 4 40 56
Egypt NC 11 2 18 0 2 3 0 36
Indonesia NC 0 0 1 0 0 3 1 5 gender reference in NDC
Saudi Arabia NC 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2

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 Appendix C: Coding Manual

Gender Equal Participation

Increase women’s 1. “Women and girls are at particular risk when it comes to climate threats, and
participation in climate their participation is crucial in planning and implementing adaptation strategies
decision making roles to deal with those threats.”

2. “The goal of the SAWA leadership program is to increase the number of

women occupying leadership roles in the climate change field and the water
sector in particular. With IDRC support, the program will be awarding
fellowships to 36 women enrolled in master’s-level integrated water resources
management programs in Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka, and
providing these women with opportunities to access decision-making
environments through internships. The program will generate greater
participation by women professionals in policy and decision-making processes
by encouraging them to occupy leadership roles in water planning and
management and by encouraging them to develop climate-resilient policies to
address water insecurity resulting from climate change in their own local
contexts.”

3. “Canada’s Advancement of Gender in International Climate Change

Negotiations Gender equality and climate change are key priorities for the
Government of Canada and are paramount to the successful implementation of
the Paris Agreement. In support of the Lima work programme on gender,
which calls on Parties to assist with training and raising awareness for female
and male delegates on issues related to gender balance and to build the skills
and capacity of female delegates, Canada partnered with the Women’s
Environment and Development Organization to hold two events in 2017. A
two-day informal consultation on the development of the gender action plan
under the UNFCCC was held in September 2017 and a gender and climate
change workshop, which focused on developing skills for female negotiators
from developing countries, was held in October 2017. The outcomes of the
consultations helped to stimulate and guide discussions on the gender action
plan during the 23rd Conference of the Parties to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change.”

4. “A gender-sensitive approach to creating, developing and strengthening

institutional, systemic and human-resource capacity-building can foster gender
balance in decision-making on, delivery of and access to means and tools of
implementation for mitigation of adaptation actions.”

5. “As well as, increase their participation and representation at all levels of the
decision-making process.”

6. “Finland’s Development Policy and the guidelines for forest sector cooperation
put emphasis on a rights-based approach to development, good forest
governance, land issues, peoples’ rights to access, use and participate in
forestry, the participation of women in decision-making and gender equality,
just benefit sharing, as well as private sector involvement in cooperation.”

7. “Since 2008, Finland has been supporting the project implemented by the
Global Gender and Climate Alliance (GGCA) to strengthen the role of women
and mainstream the gender perspective in global climate policy. The project
that consisted of four phases ended in 2016; the overall support from Finland
was EUR 8.9 million in 2008 to 2016. The project focused on advocacy for the

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 establishment and implementation of gender-responsive actions on climate
change through a series of activities that included participating in UNFCCC
formal meetings, supporting directly the Convention’s Secretariat, technical
support to Parties and stakeholders, and incorporating gender equality and
women’s empowerment criteria in climate finance mechanisms.”

8. “The South Asian Water Leadership Program on Climate Change, funded by

the IDRC from 2016–2020, aims to increase the number of women occupying
leadership roles in the climate change field and the water sector in particular.
With IDRC support, the program will be awarding fellowships to 36 women
enrolled in graduate level integrated water resources management programs in
Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka, and providing these women with
opportunities to access decision-making environments through internships.”
Evidence of women in 1. “Catherine McKenna Minister of Environment and Climate Change”
climate decision-making 2. “Dr. Siti Nurbaya Minister for Environment and Forestry”
roles 3. “Dr. Nur Masripatin, M.For.Sc. Director General of Climate Change/ National
Focal Point for the UNFCCC”
4. “Isabella Lövin Minister for International Development Cooperation and
Climate”
Participatory planning 1. “Public-private partnership – greater acceptance of non-governmental
organization participation in offering social services, based on the
understanding that, alone, the Government is unable to respond to the huge
challenge posed by poverty, which makes it necessary, therefore, to expand on
initiatives by the various organized segments of society to provide social
services”

2. “The Brazilian civil society has also been called to join participatory
preparation processes of plans, programs and instruments of the National
Policy on Climate Change, in line with the democratic principles of the country
and for social mobilization to deal with climate change in Brazil.”

3. “The Brazilian Climate Change Forum (FBMC), chaired by the President of

the Republic, was created in 2000, with the objective of including the
organized civil society in discussions related to global climate change, as well
as educating and mobilizing society to debate and make a stand on problems
resulting from global climate change and regarding the Clean Development
Mechanism (CDM).”

4. “The FBMC has contributed in a significant manner towards developing the

National Climate Change Plan and the National Climate Change Policy,
Sectoral Plans of Mitigation and Adaptation to Climate Change and National
Adaptation Policy (PNA), coordinating public hearings and sectoral meetings
with representatives of the organized civil society, businesses, universities and
subnational governments. These meetings result in significant contributions to
the participatory process of drawing up plans and policies, being instruments to
raise social awareness and to mobilize society around the issue of global
climate change in Brazil. One of the Forum’s attributions is to encourage the
creation of state climate change fora at state level, and hold
public hearings in diverse regions of the country.”

5. “A differential of IES-Brasil is that it intends to generate different GHG

emissions scenarios in the medium and long term for Brazil through a
participatory process involving, from the very beginning, the government, the
private sector, the academia and civil society. The project will also provide
elements for the business mitigation strategies and civil society organizations
active in this field, so that government and society will be able to access their

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 results with the certainty that a high level of contribution of stakeholders was
considered and that the best practices and professional research were
involved.”

6. 6.“Across Canada, all levels of government and numerous non-governmental

organizations have undertaken a range of activities to broaden public
awareness of climate change and encourage collective action. The 2017
Generation Energy dialogue utilized polls, surveys, and citizen dialogues to
engage over 380,000 people in an inclusive discussion on Canada’s low-carbon
energy future”

7. “In November 2016 the Government of Canada announced that it would

consult with provinces and territories, Indigenous Peoples, industries, and
nongovernmental organizations to develop a Clean Fuel Standard to reduce
Canada’s GHGs through the increased use of lower carbon fuels and
alternative technologies.”

8. “Supports increasing farm productivity and promoting sustainable,

participatory and gender equal agricultural practices in Guatemala and
Honduras.”

9. “The goal of the SAWA leadership program is to increase the number of

women occupying leadership roles in the climate change field and the water
sector in particular. With IDRC support, the program will be awarding
fellowships to 36 women enrolled in master’s-level integrated water resources
management programs in Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka, and
providing these women with opportunities to access decision-making
environments through internships. The program will generate greater
participation by women professionals in policy and decision-making processes
by encouraging them to occupy leadership roles in water planning and
management and by encouraging them to develop climate-resilient policies to
address water insecurity resulting from climate change in their own local
contexts.”

10. “This 4-year leadership program aims to develop multiple technical capacities
among young leaders, in particular women. It is one of the three leadership
programs implemented by IDRC’s climate change program in Latin America,
the Caribbean, Africa and Asia. This program consists of a Postgraduate
Diploma that combines a theoretical training module with practical exercises to
consolidate the acquired knowledge in the field. It focuses on providing young
leaders with practical knowledge of climate risk and urban management
accompanied by participatory planning and negotiation skills to enable them to
advise local public and private stakeholders for the effective development of
climate resilient transformative policies in medium-sized cities.”

11. “This process was supported and informed by an extensive process to engage
Indigenous Peoples, experts, stakeholders and the public.”

12. “The Pan-Canadian Framework commits to ongoing monitoring and reporting

on results, in order to ensure that policies are effective, take stock of progress
achieved, and to inform Canada’s future national commitments in accordance
with the Paris Agreement. This will include annual reporting to the Prime
Minister of Canada and provincial and territorial Premiers; external assessment
and advice by experts; meaningful engagement with Indigenous Peoples,
including through distinction-based tables; and reviews of carbon pricing
approaches in 2020 and 2022, including expert assessment of stringency and

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 effectiveness that compares carbon pricing systems across Canada”

13. “I would like to take this opportunity to express my gratitude to the officials
and experts of the Ministry of Environment and Climate Change Central
Department, other related government and non-government organizations, the
consultant team and individuals for their dedication and commitment in the
preparation of the document through a participatory process, which included a
series of workshops, seminars and meetings involving all key stakeholders.”

14. “Encouraging and supporting civil society organizations to participate in

applying strategic operational policies: Any proposed methods for the
adaptation to climate change will rely on different operational mechanisms and
policies for their implementation. At the forefront comes the reliance on the
participation and support of the local civil community and its various
organizations in touristic locations. These include local, regional and national
tourism investors’ associations, and civil societies that are interested in the
matter, along with local universities and others.”

15. “Involve participatory management that gives more responsibility to users.”

16. “Ensure that women are visible agents of change at all levels of disaster
preparedness, including early warning systems, education, communication,
information and advocacy.”

17. “Participation of stakeholders is a key element of the Finnish climate policy at

both
national and international levels. Municipalities have taken an active role in
climate policy at the local level.”

18. “The Finnish Climate Change Panel, which was nominated for the first time in
2011, strengthens the interaction between research and policy-making. Other
stakeholders, including industrial and environmental non-governmental
organisations (NGOs), research institutes and labour unions, can present their
views on climate policy at the Ministry of the Environment’s Climate Arena.”

19. “The Climate Arena of the Ministry of the Environment is a network for other
ministries and stakeholders (e.g. industrial and environmental non-
governmental organisations (NGOs), research institutes and labour unions),
where they can present their views concerning issues related to climate policy.
NGOs, including environmental, business, social and research organisations,
participate in various governmental working groups, seminars and official
delegations. Industrial enterprises and the general public also have a major role
in providing information and views for the decision-making process. In
addition, the Ministry of the Environment organises regular stakeholder
meetings in advance of all major UNFCCC negotiations.”

20. “The participatory approach to forestry has been important in the promotion of
sustainable forestry and peoples’ livelihoods, especially in bilateral
programmes in Tanzania, Zambia, Laos and Nepal
21. “Encouraging the public to participate in the planning of Finland’s climate
policies continued in 2016 with an open online platform energiajailmasto.fi on
which anyone regardless of their background could comment on the planned
climate strategies and measures of emissions reduction.”

22. “During development process of the TNC,

inputs were received from various stakeholders at the national and sub-national

146
 levels as well as from international and regional experts. Stakeholder
consultations where also carried out to obtain public views.”

23. “The TNC was supported by the

Global Environment Facility a through the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP), along with further funding from the Government of
Indonesia. The Third National Communication was prepared together with
related ministries and government agencies and universities. There were series
of consultation processes that involved subnational governments,
representative of civil society and private sectors.”

24. “Indonesian REDD+ National Strategy is formulated taking into account

relevant policies, with an inclusive process based on wide-range participation
of multistakeholders.”

25. “Development of the National Strategy

was expected to result in the formulation of policies that consider the
participation and accommodate every stakeholder’s interests, effective and
easy to be implemented, as well as easy to control and evaluate, and provides
fair economic incentives for the community.”

26. “Inclusiveness. The formulation of REDD+ National Strategy involves

stakeholders who either will implement the policies, or directly and indirectly
affected.”

27. “Indonesia has taken significant steps to reduce emissions in land use sector by
instituting a moratorium on the clearing of primary forests and by prohibiting
conversion of its remaining forests by reducing deforestation and forest
degradation, restoring ecosystem functions, as well as sustainable forest
management which include social forestry through active participation of the
private sector, small and medium enterprises, civil society organizations, local
communities and the most vulnerable groups, especially adat communities
(Indonesia: Masyarakat Hukum Adat, internationally known as Indigenous
People), and women – in both the planning and implementation stages.”

28. “Indonesia requires a comprehensive and thorough plan to effectively

implement sustainable production and consumption patterns, benefiting from
the diversity of traditional wisdom of her indigenous institutions. Broader
constituency building is also deemed critical through effective engagement of
all stakeholders including faith based networks as well as the existing interfaith
movement.”

29. “Engagement of non-party stakeholders, including local government, private

sectors, civil societies will continuously be enhanced.”

30. “In the preparation of the NDC, the GOI has conducted consultations with
various stakeholders representing Ministries and other government institutions,
academia, scientists, private sector, and civil society organizations; these
consultations have included workshops and consultations organized at both the
national and provincial levels, as well as bilateral meetings with key sectors”

31. “In the framework of the PGD, for example, coordination and collaboration
take place through a reference group on trade policy at the Ministry for Foreign
Affairs. Regular meetings of this group, which includes representatives of
business, the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida)
and civil society organisations have created a basis for broad consultation on

147
 trade policy.”

32. “A large number of Swedish actors, such as ministries, government agencies,

state-owned companies, nongovernmental organisations, universities and the
private sector assist in climate change-related cooperative actions and activities
such as providing grants and innovative finance, technology transfer, research
and various forms of capacity development. There are a number of different
forms of cooperation, policy instruments and support.”

33. “Nine organisations work on environmental and climate change in the

intersection between the science community, civil society and policy makers.”

34. “There is extensive scope in Sweden to ask questions and express views on an
area of knowledge or a policy proposal, through consultation procedures and
open meetings, hearings and seminars. Special initiatives are taken to increase
public participation in climate work. Activities range from answering questions
online to engaging in open consultations. Non-profit organisations often
establish web-based forums or appeals where the public are urged to express
their opinions. Energy and climate advisers in Sweden’s municipalities reply
free of charge to questions about heating, energy costs and efficiency,
transport, climate, government grants relating to energy and a great deal else.
This advisory service caters for the general public, SMEs and organisations.
Agencies and organisations at national level regularly communicates with the
public.”
Involvement of women’s 1. “Build the capacity of national and local women’s groups and provide them
groups and organizations with a platform to be heard.”
Gender Mainstreaming
Any reference to gender 1. “Currently, the main social policies in place are those geared towards
or women in climate combating poverty and hunger; universalization and educational qualification;
policy job and income generation for the poorest; expansion and improvement of
health services; combating socioeconomic inequalities and those inequalities
resulting from race and gender”

2. “Also worthy of note is the fact that, unlike in other countries, in Brazil there is
no inequality in the rates of extreme poverty among men and women (Figure
1.16). This does not mean, however, that asymmetric relations of gender do not
influence the extreme poverty experienced by women.”

3. “However, the occupation rate of working-age women is not good; it is much

lower than that observed for men: 50.3% against 74.1% in 2012. It is observed
that the more children per woman, the lower the occupation rate will be.
Women who are mothers of one or more children have an occupation rate of
43.1%. Women with two or more children have an occupation rate of 30.0%.”

4. “All policies, measures and actions to implement Brazil’s iNDC are carried out
under the National Policy on Climate Change (Law 12,187/2009), the Law on
the Protection of Native Forests (Law 12,651/2012, hereinafter referred as
Forest Code), the Law on the National System of Conservation Units (Law
9,985/2000), related legislation, instruments and planning processes. The
Government of Brazil is committed to implementing its iNDC with full respect
to human rights, in particular rights of vulnerable communities, indigenous
populations, traditional communities and workers in sectors affected by
relevant policies and plans, while promoting gender-responsive measures.”

5. “These included carbon markets, gender equality, and the engagement of

Indigenous Peoples in international climate action.”

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6. “These complementary meetings informed the COP23 negotiations, where
Canada was recognized for its leadership in helping to reach agreement on a
UNFCCC Gender Action Plan and on the launch of the local communities”

7. “Canada is committed to acting in accordance with science, promoting de-

carbonization, supporting climate change efforts in developing countries,
empowering women and girls and enabling future prosperity through a
sustainable national and global economy.”

8. “Canada’s climate finance will closely align with its overall development
priorities with a focus on the empowerment of women and girls and gender
equality”

9. “In line with Jordan’s National Green Growth Plan, this project will help
introduce energy efficient solutions in Jordan by: launching an awareness
campaign targeting 25,000 people to raise awareness of renewable energy and
energy efficiency (RE&EE) solutions; strengthening women’s organizations
and community-based organizations in the management of RE&EE initiatives;
and, help to procure and install 22,800 RE&EE units, including solar panels.
Overall the project is expected to improve the livelihoods of 150,000 people in
poor communities, particularly for women and youth.

10. “It is widely understood that climate change is both a contributing factor and
an exacerbating factor for other development challenges, such as health,
security, economic growth, and gender equality”

11. “To reflect this reality, Canada’s climate finance flows are consistent with
Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development and, in particular, Sustainable
Development Goal (SDG) 13, which sets out targets for climate action,
including: implementing UNFCCC commitments; enhancing adaptation and
climate resilience; and promoting effective climate planning with a focus on
women, youth and local and marginalized communities.”

12. “Women and girls are at particular risk when it comes to climate threats, and
their participation is crucial in planning and implementing adaptation strategies
to deal with those threats”

13. “For example, when communities organize themselves to adapt to climate

change, women often do not participate in the decision making and do not get
equal access to technologies. Having women and girls as leaders and full
participants leads to more effective adaptation plans and projects that benefit
all”

14. “When women have better access to climate-resilient resources and

technologies, they are able to devote more time to the activities— such as
education, paid work, political and public participation, and leisure activities—
that enhance the quality of life for entire communities.”

15. “The Paris Agreement emphasizes the importance of gender equality in climate
change action. Advancing the health and rights of, and protecting and
empowering, women and girls is thus an overarching objective of Canada’s
approach to climate change. Canada’s pledge and its development assistance
both have a particular focus on empowering women and girls.”

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16. “Canada adopted a Feminist International Assistance Policy in June 2017, a
central theme of which is to promote gender equality and help empower all
women and girls.”

17. “Environment and climate action are one of six action areas highlighted in the
new policy, recognizing that women and girls are disproportionately at risk
from the effects of climate change and need better support to mitigate and
adapt to changes that threaten their health and economic well-being. Canada’s
climate finance will also have a focus on the empowerment of women and
girls and gender equality.”

18. “For example, over 2015 and 2016 Canada provided $324,000 to the
Caribbean Disaster Risk Management Program which aims to improve
resilience in the Caribbean extreme weather events, such as hurricanes and
floods, and reduce their impact on communities. Greater resiliency is achieved
when all people and sectors are involved in disaster risk prevention. To ensure
this, the Caribbean Disaster Risk Management Program gives special attention
to gender equality, to ensure equal access to resources and opportunities for
both men and women in building their resilience and adaptive capacity.”

19. “Canada’s investment will help to reduce emissions, support a range of

adaptation efforts, create jobs and advance low-carbon, women-focused
projects to support development in the region.”

20. “In 2016, Divisa Solar generated 13,857 megawatt hours of energy, abated
9,284 tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent, and mobilized US $5.92M from the
private sector. Divisa Solar was also the first project under the C2F to include a
gender-targeted internship program for women in science, technology,
engineering and mathematics.”

21. “It will mobilize its resources and expertise to promote inclusive green
economic growth, while promoting the involvement of women and young
entrepreneurs in achieving sustainable development objectives.”

22. “Focusing on vulnerable regions and low-income farmers, this project is

expected to directly improve the standard of living of 9,000 beneficiaries,
4,000 of which are women.

23. “The South Asian Water Leadership Program on Climate Change, funded by
the IDRC from 2016–2020, aims to increase the number of women occupying
leadership roles in the climate change field and the water sector in particular.
With IDRC support, the program will be awarding fellowships to 36 women
enrolled in graduate level integrated water resources management programs in
Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka, and providing these women with
opportunities to access decision-making environments through internships.”

24. “Canada’s IDRC also approved funding in 2016 for the Build Leadership for
Latin American and Caribbean Cities in a Changing Climate program, from
2017–2021, which aims to develop multiple technical capacities among young
leaders, in particular women. It consists of a Postgraduate Diploma focuses on
providing young leaders with practical knowledge of climate risk and urban
management accompanied by participatory planning and negotiation skills to
enable them to advise local public and private stakeholders for the effective
development of climate resilient transformative policies in medium-sized
cities.”

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25. “Support for sustainable, gender equitable food security though cooperatives
and introducing climate resilience strategies such as increasing access to
drought-resistant seed varieties.”

26. “Promotion of productive, sustainable and gender-sensitive agricultural

techniques to build food security and climate change resilience for women
subsistence farmers.”

27. “Aims to increase food security, increased farming productivity, and gender
equality in Nicaraguan smallscale farming exposed to extreme weather brought
on by climate change.”

28. “Aims to improve agricultural production, increasing food security while

providing equal rural opportunities for women and men.”

29. “Support for reconstruction and the restoration of lost assets and livelihoods
after Typhoon Haiyan, including increased participation of women and men in
affected regions, and improved access to business development services”

30. “Provide support to increase the capacity of public service institutions and
small and growing businesses to innovate, adapt to changing circumstances,
and incorporate gender equality and environmental sustainability.”

31. “Aims to increase the capacity of regional organizations, national governments

and local communities in the Caribbean to respond to and manage natural
disasters through institutional support and gender-equal programming, disaster
risk management and community resilience strategies.”

32. “Supports increasing farm productivity and promoting sustainable,

participatory and gender equal agricultural practices in Guatemala and
Honduras”

33. “Support to various human development goals across Africa and Asia,
including women and children’s health in Central Asia, education in East
Africa, and civil society initiatives such as gender equality, innovation, and
climate change adaptation.”

34. “Help communities establish effective risk reduction plans and policies to
reduce people’s vulnerability to natural disasters, by working to ensure that
disaster risk reduction policy and law considers vulnerable communities,
gender equality, and the environment.”

35. “The goal of the SAWA leadership program is to increase the number of
women occupying leadership roles in the climate change field and the water
sector in particular. With IDRC support, the program will be awarding
fellowships to 36 women enrolled in master’s-level integrated water resources
management programs in Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka, and
providing these women with opportunities to access decision-making
environments through internships. The program will generate greater
participation by women professionals in policy and decision-making processes
by encouraging them to occupy leadership roles in water planning and
management and by encouraging them to develop climate-resilient policies to
address water insecurity resulting from climate change in their own local
contexts.”

151
36. “This 4-year leadership program aims to develop multiple technical capacities
among young leaders, in particular women. It is one of the three leadership
programs implemented by IDRC’s climate change program in Latin America,
the Caribbean, Africa and Asia. This program consists of a Postgraduate
Diploma that combines a theoretical training module with practical exercises to
consolidate the acquired knowledge in the field. It focuses on providing young
leaders with practical knowledge of climate risk and urban management
accompanied by participatory planning and negotiation skills to enable them to
advise local public and private stakeholders for the effective development of
climate resilient transformative policies in medium-sized cities.”

37. “Gender equality and climate change are key priorities for the Government of
Canada and are paramount to the successful implementation of the Paris
Agreement. In support of the Lima work programme on gender, which calls on
Parties to assist with training and raising awareness for female and male
delegates on issues related to gender balance and to build the skills and
capacity of female delegates, Canada partnered with the Women’s
Environment and Development Organization to hold two events in 2017. A
two-day informal consultation on the development of the gender action plan
under the UNFCCC was held in September 2017 and a gender and climate
change workshop, which focused on developing skills for female negotiators
from developing countries, was held in October 2017. The outcomes of the
consultations helped to stimulate and guide discussions on the gender action
plan during the 23rd Conference of the Parties to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change.”

38. “Gender will be a cross cutting parameter.”

39. “Climate change not only causes danger, vulnerability and risk to life and
property, it also contributes in particular to increasing the gap between the rich
and the poor specially women.”

40. “Climate change causes different impacts on men and women. It has an impact
on the relationship that people have with their environment, their knowledge in
relation to their environment, their social and economic positions and the
power relationships between men and women in society.”

41. “Today, the most vulnerable and marginalized individuals are the most
affected by the impacts of climate change. Due to the feminization of poverty
and the dominance of male-controlled values, women have a limited capacity
and opportunities to cope with the impacts of climate change or to participate
in negotiations on issues relating to their mitigation.”

42. “Issues of gender gabs and climate change include: • Most of the poorest
people in Egypt especially at rural areas are women • Women who can access
credit is extremely lower than that of male • Although, there are no legal
differences between men and women that may hinder women’s economic
opportunities, including access to credit, culture values could hinder and limit
women’s economic opportunities”

43. “As for gender mainstreaming in disaster risk reduction, related issues are: •
Gender mainstreaming must be an important part of the adaptation process to
ensure the success and sustainability of climate projects and policies.
• Integrating considerations of gender into medium- and long-term adaptation
can help to ensure that adaptation is effective and implementable on the
ground.

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 • Adaptation is a pressing developmental and cross-cutting challenge and
provides an opportunity to improve the well-being of humans and the
ecosystem.
• A gender-sensitive approach to creating, developing and strengthening
institutional, systemic and human-resource capacity-building can foster gender
balance in decision-making on, delivery of and access to means and tools of
implementation for mitigation of adaptation actions.
• Adaptation finance, whatever its source, should be used to promote climate
and development objectives, including gender equality.
• All stakeholders should make the empowerment of women and poor and
marginalized groups a strategic priority in the fight against climate change.
• Action to mitigate climate change has the potential to also bring about local
gender-positive impacts.”

44. “For gender involvement, it is recommended to: • Include gender perspectives

into disaster reduction efforts at the local, regional and national levels,
including in policies, strategies, action plans, and programs. As well as,
increase their participation and representation at all levels of the decision-
making process.
• Analyze climate change data such as drought, floods, or desertification from a
gender-sensitive perspective”

45. “Include the traditional knowledge and perspectives of women in the analysis
and evaluation of the characteristics of key disaster risks
• Ensure that women are visible agents of change at all levels of disaster
preparedness, including early warning systems, education, communication,
information and advocacy. • Build the capacity of national and local women’s
groups and provide them with a platform to be heard • Include gender-specific
indicators to monitor and track progress on gender equality targets”

46. “The Global Gender and Climate Alliance (GGCA) project to strengthen the
role of women and mainstream the gender perspective in global climate policy.
The total contribution is EUR 8.9 million during the implementation period
2008 to 2016.”

47. “Particular attention is paid to the roles of women, children and indigenous
peoples in adapting to and combating climate change.”

48. “Finnish development policy strives to strengthen the rights of the most
vulnerable, promote gender equality, and improve climate change preparedness
and mitigation.”

49. “Finland’s Development Policy and the guidelines for forest sector cooperation
put emphasis on a rights-based approach to development, good forest
governance, land issues, peoples’ rights to access, use and participate in
forestry, the participation of women in decision-making and gender equality,
just benefit sharing, as well as private sector involvement in cooperation”

50. “As climate change will most strongly affect the world’s poorest people, and
since most of them are women, one of the important themes has been
mainstreaming gender considerations into the climate policy-making agenda.
Since 2008, Finland has been supporting the project implemented by the
Global Gender and Climate Alliance (GGCA) to strengthen the role of women
and mainstream the gender perspective in global climate policy.”

51. “The project that consisted of four phases ended in 2016; the overall support

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 from Finland was EUR 8.9 million in 2008 to 2016. The project focused on
advocacy for the establishment and implementation of gender-responsive
actions on climate change through a series of activities that included
participating in UNFCCC formal meetings, supporting directly the
Convention’s Secretariat, technical support to Parties and stakeholders, and
incorporating gender equality and women’s empowerment criteria in climate
finance mechanisms. The Women Delegates Fund administered by WEDO
supported travel and enhanced leadership and negotiations skills of women
delegates.”

52. “Improve woman participation”

53. “Indonesia has taken significant steps to reduce emissions in land use sector by
instituting a moratorium on the clearing of primary forests and by prohibiting
conversion of its remaining forests by reducing deforestation and forest
degradation, restoring ecosystem functions, as well as sustainable forest
management which include social forestry through active participation of the
private sector, small and medium enterprises, civil society organizations, local
communities and the most vulnerable groups, especially adat communities
(Indonesia: Masyarakat Hukum Adat, internationally known as Indigenous
People), and women”

54. “In line with the Paris Agreement, Indonesia respects, promotes and considers
its obligation on human rights, the right to health, the right of adat
communities (Indonesia: Masyarakat Hukum Adat and internationally known
as indigenous people), local communities, migrants, children, persons with
different abilities, and people in vulnerable situations, and the right to
development, as well as gender equality, empowerment of women and
intergenerational equity.”

55. “The preparation of the NDC has taken into account the Post-2015 Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) particularly on taking urgent action to combat
climate change and its impacts, promoting food security and sustainable
agriculture, achieving gender equality, ensuring the availability and sustainable
management of water, access to affordable, reliable, and renewable energy for
all, sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, resilient
infrastructure, sustainable consumption and production patterns”

56. “At the same time, the Swedish policy framework also goes beyond the 2030
Agenda in a number of aspects, such as gender equality, democracy and human
rights.”

57. “Sweden has been a champion of gender integration in the multilateral climate
funds, including the promotion of separate gender policies and action plans that
support gender-responsive actions. Integration of gender issues is improving,
thus also contributing to raising the efficiency and long-term sustainability of
the projects and programs funded by multilateral climate funds.”

58. “The OECD DAC gender policy marker is used to track gender equality
integration in climate finance.”

59. “Equality between women and men is a prerequisite for sustainability and for
achieving the goals of UNFCCC and the Paris Agreement. Sida is committed
to integrating the gender equality perspective throughout its operations,
including the support for climate action.”

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 60. “The overall level of gender integration is around 80 %.”

61. “Sida’s voluntary reporting of gender integration in the NC and other climate
finance reporting is done to track the progress, stimulate further integration and
encourage other actors to do the same. Sweden has also been a champion for
gender integration in the multilateral climate funds, including the promotion of
separate gender policies and action plans”

62. “Fund focusing on women entrepreneurs in sub-Sahara Africa”

63. “Swedfund invests together with Ethiopian Development Bank and company
from Bangladesh, DBS, to build textile factory in Ethiopia. Strong focus on
sustainability, environment and women.”

64. “The Huairou Commission is a global membership and partner coalition

working with women leaders at the grass roots level. It aims to make concrete
improvements on a local level and to strengthen women’s collective power on
a global level.”

65. “The technical focus of energy research is increasingly

being strengthened with perspectives of the user, behavioural and marketing
aspects, and also by business models related to the sector (one example of a
smaller project is on Women and men in boards of directors aiming to find out
whether more women on boards would help businesses increase their efforts to
reduce climate emissions).”
Gender equality 1. “Canada is committed to acting in accordance with science, promoting de-
mainstreamed as a carbonization, supporting climate change efforts in developing countries,
concern for developing empowering women and girls and enabling future prosperity through a
countries sustainable national and global economy.”

2. “Canada’s climate finance will closely align with its overall development
priorities with a focus on the empowerment of women and girls and gender
equality”

3. “Overall the project is expected to improve the livelihoods of 150,000 people

in poor communities, particularly for women and youth.”

4. “Canada adopted a Feminist International Assistance Policy in June 2017, a

central theme of which is to promote gender equality and help empower all
women and girls”

5. “For example, over 2015 and 2016 Canada provided $324,000 to the
Caribbean Disaster Risk Management Program which aims to improve
resilience in the Caribbean extreme weather events, such as hurricanes and
floods, and reduce their impact on communities. Greater resiliency is achieved
when all people and sectors are involved in disaster risk prevention. To ensure
this, the Caribbean Disaster Risk Management Program gives special attention
to gender equality, to ensure equal access to resources and opportunities for
both men and women in building their resilience and adaptive capacity.”

6. “In 2016, Divisa Solar generated 13,857 megawatt hours of energy, abated
9,284 tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent, and mobilized US $5.92M from the
private sector. Divisa Solar was also the first project under the C2F to include a
gender-targeted internship program for women in science, technology,
engineering and mathematics.”

155
7. “The South Asian Water Leadership Program on Climate Change, funded by
the IDRC from 2016–2020, aims to increase the number of women occupying
leadership roles in the climate change field and the water sector in particular.
With IDRC support, the program will be awarding fellowships to 36 women
enrolled in graduate level integrated water resources management programs in
Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka, and providing these women with
opportunities to access decision-making environments through internships.”

8. “Canada’s IDRC also approved funding in 2016 for the Build Leadership for
Latin American and Caribbean Cities in a Changing Climate program, from
2017–2021, which aims to develop multiple technical capacities among young
leaders, in particular women. It consists of a Postgraduate Diploma focuses on
providing young leaders with practical knowledge of climate risk and urban
management accompanied by participatory planning and negotiation skills to
enable them to advise local public and private stakeholders for the effective
development of climate resilient transformative policies in medium-sized
cities.”

9. “Aims to increase food security, increased farming productivity, and gender

equality in Nicaraguan smallscale farming exposed to extreme weather brought
on by climate change.”

10. “Support for reconstruction and the restoration of lost assets and livelihoods
after Typhoon Haiyan, including increased participation of women and men in
affected regions, and improved access to business development services”

11. “Aims to increase the capacity of regional organizations, national governments

and local communities in the Caribbean to respond to and manage natural
disasters through institutional support and gender-equal programming, disaster
risk management and community resilience strategies.”

12. “Supports increasing farm productivity and promoting sustainable,

participatory and gender equal agricultural practices in Guatemala and
Honduras”

13. “Support to various human development goals across Africa and Asia,
including women and children’s health in Central Asia, education in East
Africa, and civil society initiatives such as gender equality, innovation, and
climate change adaptation.”

14. “The goal of the SAWA leadership program is to increase the number of
women occupying leadership roles in the climate change field and the water
sector in particular. With IDRC support, the program will be awarding
fellowships to 36 women enrolled in master’s-level integrated water resources
management programs in Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka, and
providing these women with opportunities to access decision-making
environments through internships. The program will generate greater
participation by women professionals in policy and decision-making processes
by encouraging them to occupy leadership roles in water planning and
management and by encouraging them to develop climate-resilient policies to
address water insecurity resulting from climate change in their own local
contexts.”

15. “This 4-year leadership program aims to develop multiple technical capacities
among young leaders, in particular women. It is one of the three leadership
programs implemented by IDRC’s climate change program in Latin America,

156
 the Caribbean, Africa and Asia. This program consists of a Postgraduate
Diploma that combines a theoretical training module with practical exercises to
consolidate the acquired knowledge in the field. It focuses on providing young
leaders with practical knowledge of climate risk and urban management
accompanied by participatory planning and negotiation skills to enable them to
advise local public and private stakeholders for the effective development of
climate resilient transformative policies in medium-sized cities.”

16. “A two-day informal consultation on the development of the gender action

plan under the UNFCCC was held in September 2017 and a gender and climate
change workshop, which focused on developing skills for female negotiators
from developing countries, was held in October 2017.”

17. “Finnish development policy strives to strengthen the rights of the most
vulnerable, promote gender equality, and improve climate change preparedness
and mitigation.”

18. “Finland’s Development Policy and the guidelines for forest sector cooperation
put emphasis on a rights-based approach to development, good forest
governance, land issues, peoples’ rights to access, use and participate in
forestry, the participation of women in decision-making and gender equality,
just benefit sharing, as well as private sector involvement in cooperation”

19. “At the same time, the Swedish policy framework also goes beyond the 2030
Agenda in a number of aspects, such as gender equality, democracy and human
rights.”

20. “Sweden has been a champion of gender integration in the multilateral climate
funds, including the promotion of separate gender policies and action plans that
support gender-responsive actions.”

21. “Sida is committed to integrating the gender equality perspective throughout its
operations, including the support for climate action.”

22. “Fund focusing on women entrepreneurs in sub-Sahara Africa”

23. “Swedfund invests together with Ethiopian Development Bank and company
from Bangladesh, DBS, to build textile factory in Ethiopia. Strong focus on
sustainability, environment and women”

Limited to adaptation
and disaster risk 1. “Include gender perspectives into disaster reduction efforts at the local,
reduction measures regional and national levels, including in policies, strategies, action plans, and
programs”

2. “Gender mainstreaming must be an important part of the adaptation process to

ensure the success and sustainability of climate projects and policies."

3. “Include the traditional knowledge and perspectives of women in the analysis

and evaluation of the characteristics of key disaster risks”

4. “Integrating considerations of gender into medium- and long-term adaptation

can help to ensure that adaptation is effective and implementable on the
ground.”

5. “Having women and girls as leaders and full participants leads to more

157
 effective adaptation plans and projects that benefit all”

6. “Women and girls are at particular risk when it comes to climate threats, and
their participation is crucial in planning and implementing adaptation strategies
to deal with those threats.”

7. “Support for sustainable, gender equitable food security though cooperatives

and introducing climate resilience strategies such as increasing access to
drought-resistant seed varieties.”

8. “Promotion of productive, sustainable and gender-sensitive agricultural

techniques to build food security and climate change resilience for women
subsistence farmers.”

9. “Aims to increase the capacity of regional organizations, national governments

and local communities in the Caribbean to respond to and manage natural
disasters through institutional support and gender-equal programming, disaster
risk management and community resilience strategies.”

10. “Support for reconstruction and the restoration of lost assets and livelihoods
after Typhoon Haiyan, including increased participation of women and men in
affected regions, and improved access to business development services.”

11. “Aims to increase the capacity of regional organizations, national governments

and local communities in the Caribbean to respond to and manage natural
disasters through institutional support and gender-equal programming, disaster
risk management and community resilience strategies.”

12. “Supports increasing farm productivity and promoting sustainable,

participatory and gender equal agricultural practices in Guatemala and
Honduras.”

13. “Support to development goals across Africa and Asia, including women and
children’s health in Central Asia, education in East Africa, and civil society
initiatives such as gender equality, innovation, and climate change adaptation.”

14. “Help communities establish effective risk reduction plans and policies to
reduce people’s vulnerability to natural disasters, by working to ensure that
disaster risk reduction policy and law considers vulnerable communities,
gender equality, and the environment.”

15. “Finland promotes low carbon development and the capacity of its partner
countries to adapt to climate change, and furthers integration of these goals
into partner countries’ own development planning. Particular attention will be
paid to the roles of women, children and indigenous peoples in adapting to and
combating climate change.”

16. “There is a slightly increasing trend, but a further stepping up of efforts can be
sought, in particular in the mitigation portfolio. Within adaptation, the level has
in general been higher, but there is scope for improvement here as well.”
Reference of women or
gender across sectors in 1. “In 2016, Divisa Solar generated 13,857 megawatt hours of energy, abated
non-traditional sectors 9,284 tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent, and mobilized US $5.92M from the
(mitigation, technology private sector. Divisa Solar was also the first project under the C2F to include a
and finance) gender-targeted internship program for women in science, technology,
engineering and mathematics.”

158
 2. “The technical focus of energy research is increasingly being strengthened with
perspectives of the user, behavioural and marketing aspects, and also by
business models related to the sector (one example of a smaller project is on
Women and men in boards of directors aiming to find out whether more
women on boards would help businesses increase their efforts to reduce
climate emissions). Through its research funding, the Swedish Energy Agency
underlines the importance of interconnecting the infrastructure and systems of
different sectors and of testing and developing comprehensive solutions for a
sustainable society.”
Power Relations
Gender synonymous 1. “The Paris Agreement emphasizes the importance of gender equality in climate
with women change action. Advancing the health and rights of, and protecting and
empowering, women and girls is thus an overarching objective of Canada’s
approach to climate change.”

2. “Canada’s climate finance will also have a focus on the empowerment of

women and girls and gender equality.”

3. “Promotion of productive, sustainable and gender-sensitive agricultural

techniques to build food security and climate change resilience for women
subsistence farmers.”

4. “Support to various human development goals across Africa and Asia,

including women and children’s health in Central Asia, education in East
Africa, and civil society initiatives such as gender equality, innovation, and
climate change adaptation.”

5. “A two-day informal consultation on the development of the gender action

plan under the UNFCCC was held in September 2017 and a gender and climate
change workshop, which focused on developing skills for female negotiators
from developing countries, was held in October 2017.”

6. “Issues of gender gabs and climate change include: • Most of the poorest
people in Egypt especially at rural areas are women • Women who can access
credit is extremely lower than that of male • Although, there are no legal
differences between men and women that may hinder women’s economic
opportunities, including access to credit, culture values could hinder and limit
women’s economic opportunities”

7. “As climate change will most strongly affect the world’s poorest people, and
since most of them are women, one of the important themes has been
mainstreaming gender considerations into the climate policy-making agenda.”

8. “The project focused on advocacy for the establishment and implementation of

gender-responsive actions on climate change through a series of activities that
included participating in UNFCCC formal meetings, supporting directly the
Convention’s Secretariat, technical support to Parties and stakeholders, and
incorporating gender equality and women’s empowerment criteria in climate
finance mechanisms.”

9. “The Global Gender and Climate Alliance (GGCA) project to strengthen the
role of women and mainstream the gender perspective in global climate policy.
The total contribution is EUR 8.9 million during the implementation period
2008 to 2016.”

159
Women referenced as 1. “Women and girls are at particular risk when it comes to climate threats”
vulnerable or poor or
agents of change in 2. “Overall the project is expected to improve the livelihoods of 150,000 people
developed countries in poor communities, particularly for women and youth.”

3. “Strengthened capacity of government to promote and support climate change

adaptation and mitigation with appropriate measures to protect land-related
sectors against climate change is essential… (iii) supporting women and the
most vulnerable and marginalized groups”

4. “Climate change not only causes danger, vulnerability and risk to life and
property, it also contributes in particular to increasing the gap between the rich
and the poor specially women”

5. “Ensure that women are visible agents of change at all levels of disaster
preparedness, including early warning systems, education, communication,
information and advocacy.”

6. “As climate change will most strongly affect the world’s poorest people, and
since most of them are women, one of the important themes has been
mainstreaming gender considerations into the climate policy-making agenda.”
Identification and 1. “Brazil in terms of improvements in the opportunities of access to the
reduction of inequalities education system, health care, basic sanitation, and in the fight against hunger,
that may contribute to poverty and income inequality.”
gender inequality
2. “Currently, the main social policies in place are those geared towards
combating poverty and hunger; universalization and educational qualification;
job and income generation for the poorest; expansion and improvement of
health services; combating socioeconomic inequalities and those inequalities
resulting from race and gender. In summary, they are policies focused on
improving the quality of life of Brazilians, especially those in a situation of
social vulnerability (IPEA, 2014).”

3. “With respect to racial inequality, there was a reduction in the period. In 1990,
the likelihood of blacks being extremely poor was approximately three times
higher than that of white people.”

4. “Also worthy of note is the fact that, unlike in other countries, in Brazil there is
no inequality in the rates of extreme poverty among men and women (Figure
1.16). This does not mean, however, that asymmetric relations of gender do not
influence the extreme poverty experienced by women.”

5. “It is widely understood that climate change is both a contributing factor and
an exacerbating factor for other development challenges, such as health,
security, economic growth, and gender equality.”

6. “Women and girls are at particular risk when it comes to climate threats, and
their participation is crucial in planning and implementing adaptation strategies
to deal with those threats. For example, when communities organize
themselves to adapt to climate change, women often do not participate in the
decision making and do not get equal access to technologies.”

7. “When women have better access to climate-resilient resources and

technologies, they are able to devote more time to the activities— such as
education, paid work, political and public participation, and leisure activities—
that enhance the quality of life for entire communities.”

160
 8. “Environment and climate action are one of six action areas highlighted in the
new policy, recognizing that women and girls are disproportionately at risk
from the effects of climate change and need better support to mitigate and
adapt to changes that threaten their health and economic well-being.”

9. “Housing is a basic human need, like food and clothing, and a basic human
right that is guaranteed by all legislations and constitutions.”

10. “To maintain a high degree of emphasis on linkages between climate change,
sustainable land management, alleviation of food insecurity, and poverty
reduction in Egypt and policy and development programming”

11. “Climate change not only causes danger, vulnerability and risk to life and
property, it also contributes in particular to increasing the gap between the rich
and the poor specially women.”

12. “Climate change causes different impacts on men and women. It has an impact
on the relationship that people have with their environment, their knowledge in
relation to their environment, their social and economic positions and the
power relationships between men and women in society.”

13. “Today, the most vulnerable and marginalized individuals are the most
affected by the impacts of climate change. Due to the feminization of poverty
and the dominance of male-controlled values, women have a limited capacity
and opportunities to cope with the impacts of climate change or to participate
in negotiations on issues relating to their mitigation.”

14. “Most of the poorest people in Egypt especially at rural areas are women”

15. “Women who can access credit is extremely lower than that of male”

16. “Although, there are no legal differences between men and women that may
hinder women’s economic opportunities, including access to credit, culture
values could hinder and limit women’s economic opportunities”

17. “Focus on marginalized social groups, and those mostly affected by economic
reform policies.”

18. “Provide protection to the poor, the low-income groups and the middle class.”

19. “The National Institute for Health and Welfare studies the health and welfare
impacts of climate change with special focus on inequalities, especially
vulnerable population groups and measures that should be taken to enhance
resilience and preparedness to changes.”

20. “Climate change impacts the day-to-day lives of all Indonesians, but most
severely Indonesia’s most vulnerable populations. Climate change-induced
natural disasters will impact a greater number of people living below the
poverty line, preventing asset accumulation. Rising food, water and energy
prices, which often follow drought, floods, and other disasters, will drive the
poor further into poverty. Socio-economic disparity will potentially contribute
to political instability in regions most affected by climate change.”
Human Rights
Fairness and equity in 1. “The Government of Brazil is committed to implementing its iNDC with full
implementation respect to human rights, in particular rights of vulnerable communities,

161
 indigenous populations, traditional communities and workers in sectors
affected by relevant policies and plans, while promoting gender-responsive
measures.”

2. “The Government of Brazil gives particular attention to the poorest

populations, in terms of improving their housing and living conditions,
bolstering their capacity to withstand the effects of severe climate events.”

3. “In order to build a fair and equitable global response to climate change, it is
therefore of central importance to link cause (net anthropogenic greenhouse
gas emissions) and effect (temperature increase and global climate change).”

4. “In implementing the Pan-Canadian Framework, key socio-economic aspects

and potential impacts are being taken into consideration. Economy-wide
measures such as setting a price on carbon pollution can have impacts on
economy competitiveness and on most vulnerable groups of society and
Indigenous Peoples.”

5. “The Paris Agreement emphasizes the importance of gender equality in climate

change action. Advancing the health and rights of, and protecting and
empowering, women and girls is thus an overarching objective of Canada’s
approach to climate change.”

6. “Finland has integrated the goals and objectives of the UNFCCC and the
Kyoto Protocol into its development policy, while taking into account the fact
that economic and social development and poverty eradication are the first and
overriding priorities of the developing country Parties.”

7. “In line with the Paris Agreement, Indonesia respects, promotes and considers
its obligation on human rights, the right to health, the right of adat
communities (Indonesia: Masyarakat Hukum Adat and internationally known
as indigenous people), local communities, migrants, children, persons with
different abilities, and people in vulnerable situations, and the right to
development, as well as gender equality, empowerment of women and
intergenerational equity.”

8. “Parties under the UN Framework Convention of Climate Change should strive

to implement policies and measures in such a way as to minimise adverse
effects. These include the adverse effects of climate change, effects on
international trade, and the social, environmental and economic impact on
other parties, especially developing countries”

9. “Under Sweden’s policy for global development (PGD), all policy areas should
interact in a coherent way so the country can make an effective contribution to
equitable and sustainable global development. When decisions in a given
policy area are judged to affect this goal of equitable and sustainable global
development, an impact assessment must be carried out. The policy’s two
perspectives – a rights perspective and the perspective of poor people on
development – should serve as a guide.”

10. “At the same time, the Swedish policy framework also goes beyond the 2030
Agenda in a number of aspects, such as gender equality, democracy and human
rights”

11. “Positive trends are the increased level of climate integration within human
rights, democracy and related sectors, as well as within humanitarian support

162
 and disaster risk reduction support”
Gender equality and 1. “The Government of Brazil is committed to implementing its iNDC with full
empowerment of women respect to human rights, in particular rights of vulnerable communities,
as a right in climate indigenous populations, traditional communities and workers in sectors
actions affected by relevant policies and plans, while promoting gender-responsive
measures”

2. “To reflect this reality, Canada’s climate finance flows are consistent with
Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development and, in particular, Sustainable
Development Goal (SDG) 13, which sets out targets for climate action,
including: implementing UNFCCC commitments; enhancing adaptation and
climate resilience; and promoting effective climate planning with a focus on
women, youth and local and marginalized communities.”

3. “The Paris Agreement emphasizes the importance of gender equality in climate

change action. Advancing the health and rights of, and protecting and
empowering, women and girls is thus an overarching objective of Canada’s
approach to climate change. Canada’s pledge and its development assistance
both have a particular focus on empowering women and girls.”

4. “Canada adopted a Feminist International Assistance Policy in June 2017, a

central theme of which is to promote gender equality and help empower all
women and girls.”

5. “It will mobilize its resources and expertise to promote inclusive green
economic growth, while promoting the involvement of women and young
entrepreneurs in achieving sustainable development objectives.”

6. “Support for sustainable, gender equitable food security though cooperatives

and introducing climate resilience strategies such as increasing access to
drought-resistant seed varieties.”

7. “Provide support to increase the capacity of public service institutions and

small and growing businesses to innovate, adapt to changing circumstances,
and incorporate gender equality and environmental sustainability.”

8. “Aims to increase the capacity of regional organizations, national governments

and local communities in the Caribbean to respond to and manage natural
disasters through institutional support and gender-equal programming, disaster
risk management and community resilience strategies.”

9. “Supports increasing farm productivity and promoting sustainable,

participatory and gender equal agricultural practices in Guatemala and
Honduras”

10. “Support to various human development goals across Africa and Asia,
including women and children’s health in Central Asia, education in East
Africa, and civil society initiatives such as gender equality, innovation, and
climate change adaptation.”

11. “Help communities establish effective risk reduction plans and policies to
reduce people’s vulnerability to natural disasters, by working to ensure that
disaster risk reduction policy and law considers vulnerable communities,
gender equality, and the environment.”

163
12. “The goal of the SAWA leadership program is to increase the number of
women occupying leadership roles in the climate change field and the water
sector in particular. With IDRC support, the program will be awarding
fellowships to 36 women enrolled in master’s-level integrated water resources
management programs in Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka, and
providing these women with opportunities to access decision-making
environments through internships. The program will generate greater
participation by women professionals in policy and decision-making processes
by encouraging them to occupy leadership roles in water planning and
management and by encouraging them to develop climate-resilient policies to
address water insecurity resulting from climate change in their own local
contexts.”

13. “This 4-year leadership program aims to develop multiple technical capacities
among young leaders, in particular women. It is one of the three leadership
programs implemented by IDRC’s climate change program in Latin America,
the Caribbean, Africa and Asia. This program consists of a Postgraduate
Diploma that combines a theoretical training module with practical exercises to
consolidate the acquired knowledge in the field. It focuses on providing young
leaders with practical knowledge of climate risk and urban management
accompanied by participatory planning and negotiation skills to enable them to
advise local public and private stakeholders for the effective development of
climate resilient transformative policies in medium-sized cities.”

14. In support of the Lima work programme on gender, which calls on Parties to
assist with training and raising awareness for female and male delegates on
issues related to gender balance and to build the skills and capacity of female
delegates, Canada partnered with the Women’s Environment and Development
Organization to hold two events in 2017. A two-day informal consultation on
the development of the gender action plan under the UNFCCC was held in
September 2017 and a gender and climate change workshop, which focused on
developing skills for female negotiators from developing countries, was held in
October 2017. The outcomes of the consultations helped to stimulate and guide
discussions on the gender action plan during the 23rd Conference of the Parties
to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.

15. A gender-sensitive approach to creating, developing and strengthening

institutional, systemic and human-resource capacity-building can foster gender
balance in decision-making on, delivery of and access to means and tools of
implementation for mitigation of adaptation actions.

16. “Adaptation finance, whatever its source, should be used to promote climate
and development objectives, including gender equality.”

17. “All stakeholders should make the empowerment of women and poor and
marginalized groups a strategic priority in the fight against climate change.”

18. “Build the capacity of national and local women’s groups and provide them
with a platform to be heard”

19. “Finnish development policy strives to strengthen the rights of the most
vulnerable, promote gender equality, and improve climate change preparedness
and mitigation”

20. “The project that consisted of four phases ended in 2016; the overall support
from Finland was EUR 8.9 million in 2008 to 2016. The project focused on

164
 advocacy for the establishment and implementation of gender-responsive
actions on climate change through a series of activities that included
participating in UNFCCC formal meetings, supporting directly the
Convention’s Secretariat, technical support to Parties and stakeholders, and
incorporating gender equality and women’s empowerment criteria in climate
finance mechanisms. The Women Delegates Fund administered by WEDO
supported travel and enhanced leadership and negotiations skills of women
delegates.”

21. “Improve woman participation”

Increase access to 1. “The following subsections present the main recent advances in Brazil in terms
resources and of improvements in the opportunities of access to the education system, health
opportunities care, basic sanitation, and in the fight against hunger, poverty and income
inequality.”

2. “…the intent of eliminating extreme poverty, in 2004 the Federal Government

created the Family Allowance Program (Programa Bolsa Família), with a view
to guaranteeing the right to food, health, education and achieving citizenship to
the population most vulnerable to hunger.”

3. “Unlike in the past, the expansion of the access to education in the country
promoted both the increase in the average years in school and the reduction of
educational inequality, which, in turn, had positive effects on the reduction of
income inequality in Brazil”

4. “However, the government has worked to increase the opportunities for access
to education and health services through decentralization measures and
regionalization of the network assistance, in addition to focusing social
programs on the poorest population, which occurs in parallel to the challenge
of universalizing programs. This led to a number of improvements in the recent
period, some of which received international acknowlegment [sic], such as the
sharp drop in poverty and extreme poverty rates, which was strongly
influenced by the reduction in family income inequality.”

5. “Aims to improve agricultural production, increasing food security while

providing equal rural opportunities for women and men.”

6. “Support for reconstruction and the restoration of lost assets and livelihoods
after Typhoon Haiyan, including increased participation of women and men in
affected regions, and improved access to business development services.”

7. “Support for sustainable, gender equitable food security though cooperatives

and introducing climate resilience strategies such as increasing access to
drought-resistant seed varieties.”

8. “The goal of the SAWA leadership program is to increase the number of

women occupying leadership roles in the climate change field and the water
sector in particular. With IDRC support, the program will be awarding
fellowships to 36 women enrolled in master’s-level integrated water resources
management programs in Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka, and
providing these women with opportunities to access decision-making
environments through internships. The program will generate greater
participation by women professionals in policy and decision-making processes
by encouraging them to occupy leadership roles in water planning and
management and by encouraging them to develop climate-resilient policies to
address water insecurity resulting from climate change in their own local

165
 contexts.”

9. “A gender-sensitive approach to creating, developing and strengthening

institutional, systemic and human-resource capacity-building can foster gender
balance in decision-making on, delivery of and access to means and tools of
implementation for mitigation of adaptation actions.”

10. “The right of access to information in official documents is a basic civil right
protected by the Finnish constitution.”

11. “Maintaining and strengthening existing public health and other infrastructure,
including housing, transport and energy, and preventing poverty are crucial for
successful adaptation.”

12. “This 4-year leadership program aims to develop multiple technical capacities
among young leaders, in particular women. It is one of the three leadership
programs implemented by IDRC’s climate change program in Latin America,
the Caribbean, Africa and Asia. This program consists of a Postgraduate
Diploma that combines a theoretical training module with practical exercises to
consolidate the acquired knowledge in the field. It focuses on providing young
leaders with practical knowledge of climate risk and urban management
accompanied by participatory planning and negotiation skills to enable them to
advise local public and private stakeholders for the effective development of
climate resilient transformative policies in medium-sized cities.”

13. “Provide support to increase the capacity of public service institutions and
small and growing businesses to innovate, adapt to changing circumstances,
and incorporate gender equality and environmental sustainability.”

14. “Build the capacity of national and local women’s groups and provide them
with a platform to be heard”

15. “Include gender perspectives into disaster reduction efforts at the local,
regional and national levels, including in policies, strategies, action plans, and
programs. As well as, increase their participation and representation at all
levels of the decision-making process.”

16. “Since 2008, Finland has been supporting the project implemented by the
Global Gender and Climate Alliance (GGCA) to strengthen the role of women
and mainstream the gender perspective in global climate policy.”
Budgeting
Financial support for 1. “Canada adopted a Feminist International Assistance Policy in June 2017, a
developing countries for central theme of which is to promote gender equality and help empower all
gender equality women and girls.”

2. “For example, over 2015 and 2016 Canada provided $324,000 to the
Caribbean Disaster Risk Management Program which aims to improve
resilience in the Caribbean extreme weather events, such as hurricanes and
floods, and reduce their impact on communities. Greater resiliency is achieved
when all people and sectors are involved in disaster risk prevention. To ensure
this, the Caribbean Disaster Risk Management Program gives special attention
to gender equality, to ensure equal access to resources and opportunities for
both men and women in building their resilience and adaptive capacity.”

3. “Canada’s investment will help to reduce emissions, support a range of

adaptation efforts, create jobs and advance low-carbon, women-focused

166
 projects to support development in the region.”

4. “In 2016, Divisa Solar generated 13,857 megawatt hours of energy, abated
9,284 tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent, and mobilized US $5.92M from the
private sector. Divisa Solar was also the first project under the C2F to include a
gender-targeted internship program for women in science, technology,
engineering and mathematics.”

5. “The South Asian Water Leadership Program on Climate Change, funded by

the IDRC from 2016–2020, aims to increase the number of women occupying
leadership roles in the climate change field and the water sector in particular.
With IDRC support, the program will be awarding fellowships to 36 women
enrolled in graduate level integrated water resources management programs in
Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka, and providing these women with
opportunities to access decision-making environments through internships.”

6. “Canada’s IDRC also approved funding in 2016 for the Build Leadership for
Latin American and Caribbean Cities in a Changing Climate program, from
2017–2021, which aims to develop multiple technical capacities among young
leaders, in particular women. It consists of a Postgraduate Diploma focuses on
providing young leaders with practical knowledge of climate risk and urban
management accompanied by participatory planning and negotiation skills to
enable them to advise local public and private stakeholders for the effective
development of climate resilient transformative policies in medium-sized
cities.”

7. “Support for sustainable, gender equitable food security though cooperatives

and introducing climate resilience strategies such as increasing access to
drought-resistant seed varieties.”

8. “Promotion of productive, sustainable and gender-sensitive agricultural

techniques to build food security and climate change resilience for women
subsistence farmers.”

9. “Aims to increase food security, increased farming productivity, and gender

equality in Nicaraguan smallscale farming exposed to extreme weather brought
on by climate change”

10. “Aims to improve agricultural production, increasing food security while

providing equal rural opportunities for women and men.”

11. “Support for reconstruction and the restoration of lost assets and livelihoods
after Typhoon Haiyan, including increased participation of women and men in
affected regions, and improved access to business development services”

12. “Provide support to increase the capacity of public service institutions and
small and growing businesses to innovate, adapt to changing circumstances,
and incorporate gender equality and environmental sustainability.”

13. “Aims to increase the capacity of regional organizations, national governments

and local communities in the Caribbean to respond to and manage natural
disasters through institutional support and gender-equal programming, disaster
risk management and community resilience strategies.”

14. “Supports increasing farm productivity and promoting sustainable,

participatory and gender equal agricultural practices in Guatemala and

167
 Honduras”

15. “Support to various human development goals across Africa and Asia,
including women and children’s health in Central Asia, education in East
Africa, and civil society initiatives such as gender equality, innovation, and
climate change adaptation.”

16. “A two-day informal consultation on the development of the gender action

plan under the UNFCCC was held in September 2017 and a gender and climate
change workshop, which focused on developing skills for female negotiators
from developing countries, was held in October 2017. The outcomes of the
consultations helped to stimulate and guide discussions on the gender action
plan during the 23rd Conference of the Parties to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change.”

17. “Finnish development policy strives to strengthen the rights of the most
vulnerable, promote gender equality, and improve climate change preparedness
and mitigation. Therefore, besides providing funds to the operating entities of
the financial mechanism of the UNFCCC and the funds under the Kyoto
Protocol, Finland provides support through bilateral, regional and other
multilateral channels.”

18. “Sweden has also been a champion for gender integration in the multilateral
climate funds, including the promotion of separate gender policies and action
plans.”

19. “Fund focusing on women entrepreneurs in sub-Sahara Africa”

20. “Swedfund invests together with Ethiopian Development Bank and company
from Bangladesh, DBS, to build textile factory in Ethiopia. Strong focus on
sustainability, environment and women.”
Budgets limited to 1. “For example, over 2015 and 2016 Canada provided $324,000 to the
adaptation support Caribbean Disaster Risk Management Program which aims to improve
resilience in the Caribbean extreme weather events, such as hurricanes and
floods, and reduce their impact on communities. Greater resiliency is achieved
when all people and sectors are involved in disaster risk prevention. To ensure
this, the Caribbean Disaster Risk Management Program gives special attention
to gender equality, to ensure equal access to resources and opportunities for
both men and women in building their resilience and adaptive capacity.”

2. “In May 2017, Canada announced a reinvestment of $200M in funding to the

Canadian Climate Fund for the Private Sector in Asia at the Asian
Development Bank (CFPS). This fund aims to catalyze private investment in
climate change action in developing Asian and Pacific countries, including
small-island developing states that are among the most impacted by climate
change. Canada’s investment will help to reduce emissions, support a range of
adaptation efforts, create jobs and advance low-carbon, women-focused
projects to support development in the region. As of December 2016, Canada’s
investment in the CFPS has resulted in an expected 1.8 million tonnes of
carbon reductions per year.”

3. Adaptation finance, whatever its source, should be used to promote climate and
development objectives, including gender equality.

4. “Provide support to increase the capacity of public service institutions and

small and growing businesses to innovate, adapt to changing circumstances,

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 and incorporate gender equality and environmental sustainability”

5. “Support to development goals across Africa and Asia, including women and
children’s health in Central Asia, education in East Africa, and civil society
initiatives such as gender equality, innovation, and climate change adaptation.”

6. “Aims to increase the capacity of regional organizations, national governments

and local communities in the Caribbean to respond to and manage natural
disasters through institutional support and gender-equal programming, disaster
risk management and community resilience strategies.”

7. “Support for sustainable, gender equitable food security though cooperatives

and introducing climate resilience strategies such as increasing access to
drought-resistant seed varieties.”

8. “Supports increasing farm productivity and promoting sustainable,

participatory and gender equal agricultural practices in Guatemala and
Honduras.”

9. “Promotion of productive, sustainable and gender-sensitive agricultural

techniques to build food security and climate change resilience for women
subsistence farmers.”

10. “Aims to increase food security, increased farming productivity, and gender
equality in Nicaraguan smallscale farming exposed to extreme weather brought
on by climate change.”

11. “Support for reconstruction and the restoration of lost assets and livelihoods
after Typhoon Haiyan, including increased participation of women and men in
affected regions, and improved access to business development services.”

12. “Provide support to increase the capacity of public service institutions and
small and growing businesses to innovate, adapt to changing circumstances,
and incorporate gender equality and environmental sustainability.”
Evidence of GRB 1. “For example, over 2015 and 2016 Canada provided $324,000 to the
Caribbean Disaster Risk Management Program which aims to improve
resilience in the Caribbean extreme weather events, such as hurricanes and
floods, and reduce their impact on communities. Greater resiliency is achieved
when all people and sectors are involved in disaster risk prevention. To ensure
this, the Caribbean Disaster Risk Management Program gives special attention
to gender equality, to ensure equal access to resources and opportunities for
both men and women in building their resilience and adaptive capacity.”

2. “Since 2008, Finland has been supporting the project implemented by the
Global Gender and Climate Alliance (GGCA) to strengthen the role of women
and mainstream the gender perspective in global climate policy. The project
that consisted of four phases ended in 2016; the overall support from Finland
was EUR 8.9 million in 2008 to 2016. The project focused on advocacy for the
establishment and implementation of gender-responsive actions on climate
change through a series of activities that included participating in UNFCCC
formal meetings, supporting directly the Convention’s Secretariat, technical
support to Parties and stakeholders, and incorporating gender equality and
women’s empowerment criteria in climate finance mechanisms.”
3. “Integration of gender issues is improving, thus also contributing to raising the
efficiency and long-term sustainability of the projects and programs funded by
multilateral climate funds.”

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Collection of sex- 1. Also worthy of note is the fact that, unlike in other countries, in Brazil there is
disaggregated data no inequality in the rates of extreme poverty among men and women (Figure
1.16). This does not mean, however, that asymmetric relations of gender do not
influence the extreme poverty experienced by women

2. However, the occupation rate of working-age women is not good; it is much

lower than that observed for men: 50.3% against 74.1% in 2012. It is observed
that the more children per woman, the lower the occupation rate will be.
Women who are mothers of one or more children have an occupation rate of
43.1%. Women with two or more children have an occupation rate of 30.0%

3. Prenatal care is an important factor for the reduction of child mortality and also
mother mortality. From 1990 to 2011, mother mortality rate fell by 55%, from
141 deaths per one hundred thousand live births to 64. Moreover, in 2011, 99%
of childbirths were in hospitals or other health institutions, and around 90% of
pregnant women have four or more prenatal appointments.

Economic prioritization- 1. “Brazil will strive for a transition towards energy systems based on renewable
lacking gender sources and the decarbonization of the global economy by the end of the
component century, in the context of sustainable development and access to the financial
and technological means necessary for this transition.”

2. “Each individual actor’s contribution to temperature increase should take into

consideration differences in terms of starting points, approaches, economic
structures, resource bases, the need to maintain sustainable economic growth,
available technologies and other individual circumstances.”

3. “Canada recognizes the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and considers
addressing climate change as an opportunity to transition to a strong, diverse
and competitive low-carbon economy.”

4. “Through the Vancouver Declaration, working groups were established to

develop options for pricing carbon pollution; complementary actions to reduce
emissions; adaptation and climate resilience; and clean technology, innovation
and jobs”

5. “As a result of these efforts, the Pan-Canadian Framework on Clean Growth

and Climate Change was adopted on December 9, 2016. It is a comprehensive
plan to reduce emissions across all sectors of the economy, accelerate clean
economic growth, and build resilience to the impacts of climate change”

6. “Other actions in the Pan-Canadian Framework include: protecting and

enhancing carbon sinks including in forests, wetlands and agricultural lands;
identifying opportunities to generate renewable fuel from waste; and
demonstrating leadership by reducing emissions from government operations
and scaling up the procurement of clean energy and technologies. The
Framework also includes support for clean technology and innovation that
promote clean growth, including for early-stage technology development,
establishing international partnerships, and encouraging “mission-oriented”
research to help generate innovative new ideas and create economic
opportunities”

7. “These actions are supplemented by investments in clean technology, research,

development and demonstration to help Canada meeting its climate change
goals and creating economic opportunities.”

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8. “Renewable energy (RE) technologies will play a very important role in
reducing GHG emissions, but they alone would not suffice to keep climate
change manageable. RE may provide a number of opportunities and cannot
only address climate change mitigation but may also address sustainable and
equitable economic development, energy access, secure energy supply and
reduce local environmental and health impacts.”

9. “Egypt didn’t succeed yet to cut energy intensity in any ratio, but there are
many areas that it can improve upon to ensure continued economic growth
while using less energy.”

10. “Egypt is working with developed and developing countries alike to tackle the
interrelated challenges of energy security, economic development,
environmental quality, and climate change. Egypt is promoting an approach to
climate change that allows it to find its own best path for meeting strong
environmental and economic development goals, while ensuring that it is
included in addressing global environmental challenges.”

11. “However, renewable energy may provide a number of opportunities since it

also addresses sustainable and equitable economic development, energy access,
secure energy supply, and reduced local environmental and health impacts.”

12. “Finland supports developing countries by helping them to build their

capacities and develop their economic infrastructure, thus helping them
diversify their economies and improve energy production”

13. “Economic diversification and private sector development are particularly

important targets in various Finnish bilateral programmes and Finnish-
supported multilateral programmes in Zambia, southern Africa and the
Mekong region. Regional programmes that promote the role of the private
sector in providing energy services are being promoted in Latin America, Sub-
Saharan Africa and parts of Asia”

14. “More employment is created especially in the production of biofuels and

bioenergy.”

15. “Studies on adaptation needs for industry suggest that adaptation to climate
change
presents an opportunity for the industry sector. For instance, new products,
processes, technologies and know-how related to adaptation can be exploited
as part of CleanTech and other business opportunities.”

16. “In developing countries, the private sector and entrepreneurs play a key role
in economic development.”

17. “The studies are important, particularly to evaluate the potential benefits,
including the economic advantages, of certain climate change adaptation.”

18. “To lift people out of poverty, the Government of Indonesia (GOI) is
promoting economic development projected to average at least 5% per year in
order to reduce the poverty rate to below 4% by 2025, as mandated by the
Indonesian Constitution, inter alia, that “every person shall have the right to
enjoy a good and healthy environment.”

19. “The preparation of the NDC has taken into account the Post-2015 Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) particularly on taking urgent action to combat

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 climate change and its impacts, promoting food security and sustainable
agriculture, achieving gender equality, ensuring the availability and sustainable
management of water, access to affordable, reliable, and renewable energy for
all, sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, resilient
infrastructure, sustainable consumption and production patterns, conservation”

20. “The emphasis in the country’s climate strategy is on the use of general
economic instruments, but in many cases these are supplemented with targeted
instruments, for example to support the development and market introduction
of technology and eliminate barriers to energy efficiency and other measures.”

21. “The EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) is the EU’s most important tool
to combat climate change.”
Emphasis on techno- 1. “Nevertheless, the global climate change is recognized as being a technical and
scientific approach to complex issue, difficult to be understood by lay persons and therefore requires
climate change efforts to translate the scientific knowledge into a more accessible language,
which is important for the social mobilization around the theme.”

2. “The publication of the Reports of its three Working Groups by the Brazilian
Panel on Climate Change (PBMC), also contributes to briefly circulate
information in a less technical language about the state-of-the-art of the
scientific basis of climate change in Brazil and necessary efforts to be
undertaken for adaptation and mitigation”

3. “This chapter describes initiatives of excellence, undertaken through institutes

and Brazilian research groups that are contributing to the advancement of the
scientific basis on climate change in the country. These are advances to fill
scientific gaps and in methodological improvements, thus enabling the
production of climate modeling results and the impacts and vulnerabilities to
climate risk and mitigation options, with less uncertainty and greater
robustness.”

4. “The Inter-American Institute for Global Change Research (IAI)32 in 1992 and
composed of 19 American countries 33 is an intergovernmental organization
created. IAI is guided by principles of scientific excellence, international
cooperation and ample exchange of scientific data, aimed at improving the
understanding of global climate change and its socioeconomic impacts.
Recognizing the need to better understand the natural and social processes that
govern the environmental change on a large scale, the IAI encourages the
exchange between scientists and public managers. With that, the IAI aims at
increasing the scientific capacity in the region and, at the same time, provide
useful information to decision makers.”

5. “The activity involves strong national and international scientific collaboration

in generating knowledge and capacity for implementing global climate change
scenarios on a more detailed and precise scale than ever before.”

6. “The problem of global climate change is notably scientific and technological

at the short and medium terms. It is scientific because it deals with defining
climate change, its causes, intensity, vulnerabilities, impacts and reduction of
uncertainties. It is technological because the measures to combat global
warming include actions that aim at the promotion and the cooperation for the
development, application and diffusion, including transfer of technologies,
practices and processes that prevent the problem and its adverse effects.”

7. “Agreements may be signed to finance projects related to sustainability and the

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 low-carbon economy in accordance with the interest and the rules of each
institution. Examples are: infrastructure projects aligned to the principles of
sustainable development or mitigation of and adaptation to climate change, as
well as investments in renewable energy and energy efficiency or that may
promote sustainable uses of biodiversity, ecosystems and regeneration of
natural resources, as well as actions for the development, dissemination and
transfer of environmentally sustainable technologies.”

8. “Brazil will strive for a transition towards energy systems based on renewable
sources and the decarbonization of the global economy by the end of the
century, in the context of sustainable development and access to the financial
and technological means necessary for this transition.”

9. “Each individual actor’s contribution to temperature increase should take into

consideration differences in terms of starting points, approaches, economic
structures, resource bases, the need to maintain sustainable economic growth,
available technologies and other individual circumstances.”

10. “Recognizing the growing global demand for clean technologies, the Pan-
Canadian Framework creates the conditions to encourage and enhance the
development and adoption of clean technologies. The Framework includes new
actions to support early-stage technological innovation, accelerated
commercialization and growth, enhanced adoption of clean technology, and
improved metrics to measure success.”

11. “This funding helps mobilize private sector investment and expertise, including
in clean technology innovation, in developing countries so that they too may
seize the economic opportunities of the global shift towards clean growth.”

12. “Recognizing the need to draw on the best available technical and scientific
expertise and information, Environment and Climate Change Canada has
defined roles and responsibilities for the preparation of the inventory, both
internally and externally. As such, Environment and Climate Change Canada is
involved in many agreements with data providers and expert contributors in a
variety of ways, ranging from informal to formal arrangements.”

13. “Assessments have been performed by the Government of Canada as a tool to

further highlight the importance of understanding and addressing climate
change impacts. These assessments are scientific reports that assess, critically
analyze, and synthesize the growing knowledge base on the issue. Working
with subject matter experts in government, universities, and non-government
organizations, federal departments produce science assessments that are
current, relevant, and accessible sources of information to help inform planning
of policies, programs, and actions.”

14. “The Government of Canada undertakes science and monitoring activities

related to past, present, and future states of the climate system and how it
functions, as well as on the changing composition of the atmosphere and
related impacts. These activities include foundational climate and climate
change science as well as climate information and services provided by federal
departments to inform effective adaptation planning and decision-making.
Climate change science includes research related to the impacts of climate
change on biodiversity and ecosystem services, as well as options and
opportunities for using ecosystems to support climate change adaptation and
mitigation.”

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15. “Through the Vancouver Declaration, working groups were established to
develop options for pricing carbon pollution; complementary actions to reduce
emissions; adaptation and climate resilience; and clean technology, innovation
and jobs”

16. “Federal, provincial, and territorial governments will work together to help
industries improve their energy efficiency and invest in new technologies to
reduce emissions, including in the oil and gas sector.”

17. “Other actions in the Pan-Canadian Framework include: protecting and

enhancing carbon sinks including in forests, wetlands and agricultural lands;
identifying opportunities to generate renewable fuel from waste; and
demonstrating leadership by reducing emissions from government operations
and scaling up the procurement of clean energy and technologies. The
Framework also includes support for clean technology and innovation that
promote clean growth, including for early-stage technology development,
establishing international partnerships, and encouraging “mission-oriented”
research to help generate innovative new ideas and create economic
opportunities”

18. “The key for Egypt to mitigation of climate change is to lay a sound foundation
for further evolution to zero- and low-carbon energy supply technologies, with
substantial reductions in energy intensity along with comprehensive mitigation
efforts covering all major emitters and technology and financial transfers from
industrialized countries to support decarbonization”

19. “Most policies that aim at a more sustainable development rest upon four main
pillars: more efficient use of energy, especially at the point of end use;
increased utilization of renewable energy as a substitute for non-renewable
energy sources; accelerated development and deployment of new energy
technologies – particularly next-generation fossil fuel technologies that
produce near-zero harmful emissions and open up opportunities for CO2”

20. “Renewable energy (RE) technologies will play a very important role in
reducing GHG emissions, but they alone would not suffice to keep climate
change manageable. RE may provide a number of opportunities and cannot
only address climate change mitigation but may also address sustainable and
equitable economic development, energy access, secure energy supply and
reduce local environmental and health impacts.”

21. “New technology is the cornerstone of any sensible energy policy. Today,
Egypt is seriously looking for technology transfer on the front edge of world
industrial progress.”

22. “Working through international cooperation, Egypt can transform its energy
problem into an energy opportunity –an opportunity to unleash the power to
develop new supplies, invest and apply new technologies, and create good new
jobs for Egypt. It can be an opportunity to pass on to a new era of energy
efficiency and truly enhance Egypt's energy security.”

23. “Egypt is addressing the impact of growing energy consumption on the

environment and climate. However, climate change should be addressed as part
of an integrated agenda that enhances energy security, maintains economic
prosperity, reduces pollution, and mitigates greenhouse gas emissions. Energy
efficiency is central to this approach, and advanced technologies - for example,
clean coal technology, advanced nuclear power, renewables, and smart grid -

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 are already needed on a vast scale to eventually reduce emissions
significantly.”

24. “Innovative clean energy technologies and processes, developed by the

international market can be an indispensable part of Egypt's future
environmental solutions.”

25. “Technological and design improvements, as well as an efficient driving style

and energy-saving devices can increase the fuel-economy of vehicles.
Furthermore, carbon emissions can be reduced by switching to alternative fuels
with lower lifecycle GHG emissions, such as natural gas”

26. “International cooperation and transfer of technology should be strengthened to

share the benefit of technological knowledge worldwide. Egypt needs to
prioritize the development of low-cost technologies with substantial local
content.”

27. “From perspective of sustainable socio-economic development, the main

research areas include major strategies and policies on climate change;
construction and comprehensive demonstration of technological support
systems for low-carbon and sustainable development; raising public awareness
of participation in actions to tackle climate change; and international
collaborative research.”

28. “Renewable energy technologies, which are relevant to the local context, will
play a very important role in reducing GHG emissions, but they would not
suffice to keep climate change manageable. However, renewable energy may
provide a number of opportunities since it also addresses sustainable and
equitable economic development, energy access, secure energy supply, and
reduced local environmental and health impacts”

29. “In Finland, there is a growing interest towards the interface between science
and policy in the field of climate change.”

30. “The increase in the technology intensity of the country’s manufacturing sector
has been strong”

31. “Studies on adaptation needs for industry suggest that adaptation to climate
change presents an opportunity for the industry sector. For instance, new
products, processes, technologies and know-how related to adaptation can be
exploited as part of CleanTech and other business opportunities.”

32. “Finland has specific programmes and financial arrangements for transferring
environmentally sound technology to developing countries (examples in Table
7.6). These activities comprise the transfer of both ‘soft’ technology, such as
capacity building, creating information networks and enhancing training and
research, and ‘hard’ technology, that is, technology to control greenhouse gas
emissions and for adaptation measures.”

33. “During the reporting period, Finnfund (see Section 7.3.7) was a financer of
renew- able energy production projects in Thailand, Honduras, Sri Lanka,
Kenya and Cape Verde and tree-planting projects in Tanzania and Uganda. In
addition, Finnfund is an investor in the Central American Renewable Energy
and Cleaner Production Facility (CAREC) and the Evolution One Fund, which
are investing in renewable and clean technologies in Central America and
southern Africa. Finland is also promoting business-to-business partnerships in

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 environmentally sound technologies through Finnpartnership as part of a wider
set of Aid for Trade interventions”

34. “The Finnish Climate Change Panel was nominated by the Ministry of the
Environment for the first time in 2011 to enhance science-policy interaction
between climate and energy policy, as well as public discussion. The Finnish
Climate Change Panel has been an active knowledge producer and partner in
the field (Box 8.2).”

35. “According to the Finnish Science Barometer 2016 the public’s expectations
are optimistic on science and the world view. Science is believed to be the
answer to many important issues.”

36. “Nominated by the Finnish Ministry of the Environment at the end of 2011, the
interdisciplinary and independent Climate Change Panel of researchers and
academians aims to enhance communication between science and politics in
issues related to climate change”

37. “The energy sector mitigation actions are focused on increasing the utilisation
of renewable energy, fuel-switching towards cleaner (lower emission) energy
sources and efforts to improve energy efficiency and conservation.”

38. “The utilisation of mitigation technologies will encourage the development of

science in the field of low carbon technology in the country. Mastery of new
renewable energy technologies and conservation energy/ energy efficiency in
the country can be developed to achieve the climate change mitigation targets
in the energy sector. The development of science and technology and the
mastery of strategic assets supporting low-carbon technology (low-emission
technology) can be Indonesia’s competitive advantage in global market.”

39. “The emphasis in the country’s climate strategy is on the use of general
economic instruments, but in many cases these are supplemented with targeted
instruments, for example to support the development and market introduction
of technology and eliminate barriers to energy efficiency and other measures.”

40. “Swedish climate-related research covers a broad spectrum, from natural

sciences to humanities, but with an emphasis on technical and scientific
research and development”

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