MAT 1100 LECTURE NOTES

9. TRANSCEDENTAL FUNCTIONS.
9.1 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

9.1.1 The Radian measure

The radian is another basic unit of angle measure that is used extensively in
subsequent mathematics courses and in various mathematical applications in the
physical sciences.

One radian is the measure of the central angle of a circle in which the sides of the
angle intercept an arc equal in length to the radius of the circle.

𝜃 r
r

From the diagram, 𝜃 is an angle of measure 1 radian. Thus, since the circumference of
a circle is given by 𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑟, and each arc of length r determines an angle of 1 radian,
2𝜋𝑟
there are = 2𝜋 radians in one complete revolution. This means that
𝑟

2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 360𝑜

or, equivalently,

𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 180𝑜

The two angle units of measure are related as follows:

180 𝜋
1 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 and 1 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 180 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
𝜋

Exercise: Change (a) 150𝑜 to radians

3𝜋
(b) radians to degrees
4

Exercise: Complete the following table:

1
 DEGREES RADIANS

30𝑜

𝜋
4

60𝑜
𝜋
2

180𝑜

3𝜋
2

360𝑜

9.1.2 Trigonometric Ratios

These are ratios of a right angled triangle.

Primary trigonometric Ratios

For the right angled triangle

a c

b 𝜃

1. Sine ratio is defined by

oppositeside a
sin   
hypotenuse c

2. Cosine ratio is defined by

adjacent side b
cos   
hypotenuse c

3. Tangent ratio is defined by

2
 oppositeside a
tan   
adjcent side b

sin  sin a / c a
Note: tan   since    tan 
cos  cos b / c b

Secondary trigonometric Ratios

These are the trigonometric ratios of a right angled triangle which are the reciprocals
of the primary ratios.

1. Secant ratio is defined as

hypotenuse c
sec  
adjacent side b

1 1 1 c
Note: sec   since    sec
cos  cos b / c b

2. Cosecant ratio is defined as

hypotenuse c
csc  
adjacent side a

1 1 1 c
Note: csc  since    csc
sin  sin a / c a

3. Cotangent ratio is defined as

adjacent side b
cot   
oppositeside a

1 1 1 b
Note: cot   since    csc
tan  tan a / b a

Standard Trigonometric Ratios for Some angles

The Cartesian plane has Four Quadrants

2nd Quadrant 1st Quadrant

3rd Quadrant 4th Quadrant

3
1. Standard ratios of angles (   30  , 45 , 60  ) the in the first quadrant


O

(a) sin 30  , cos 30  , tan 30  , sin 60  , cos 60  , tan 60 

To obtain these ratios we consider an equilateral triangle ABC where each side
is 2 units and each angle is 60  . A perpendicular from A to BC bisects BC and
angle A, as shown in the diagram.

A
30 30 


2 2
√3

B 60 60 C
1 P 1

By Pythagoras theorem, AP  3 . Clearly from the triangle,

1 3 1
sin 30   , cos 30   , tan 30   ;
2 2 3

1 1
sin 60   , cos 60   , tan 60   3
3 2

(b) sin 45 , cos 45 , tan 45

To obtain these ratios we construct a right angled isosceles triangle ABC

whose hypotenuse is of length 2 units and angle A is 90  . A perpendicular
from A to BC bisects BC and angle A, as shown in the diagram.

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 B

45 1

2 P

1 1

45
A 45 45 C
2

By Pythagoras theorem, AB  2 . It follows that

1 2 1 2 1 2
sin 45   , cos 45    , tan 45   
2 2 2 2 2 2

(c) sin 0  , cos 0  , tan 0 

Take the Cartesian plane and consider a unit circle with centre at the origin.
Let P be a point on the circle and PM be perpendicular to the x – axis as
shown in the diagram.

yQ

1

O M R x

From the right angled triangle OMP,

PM OM PM
sin   , cos   , tan   .
OP OP OP
Now, as P approaches R as it moves on the circle, both  and PM approach 0
whereas OM approaches 1. Thus as  becomes 0
0 1 0
sin 0    0 , cos 0    1 , tan 0    0 .
1 1 1
i.e. sin 0  0 , cos 0  1 , tan 0  0 .
  

Similarly, as P approaches Q as it moves on the circle,  approaches 90 

whereas PM approaches 1. Thus, as  becomes 90 

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 1 0 1
sin 0° = 1 = 1, cos 90    0 , tan 0   which is not defined .
1 0
Therefore,
sin 90   1 , cos 90   0 , tan 0  undefined .
We now consider a unit circle on the Cartesian plane with centre at
the origin.
y
(x,y)
P (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
𝑟=1
𝜃
M O x

Choosing 𝑟 = 1, for any angle we obtain

𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = = 𝑦, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 1 = 𝑥 and 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, provided 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ≠ 0.
1

Example Find sin  , cos  , tan  for 𝜃 = 240𝑜 .

y

P (x,y), (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)

√3
1 y 2
𝜃 x 60°
1
O2 M x
𝑟=1
Q (−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)

PM y 3
POM  60 implying that sin 60     y y
OP 1 2
OM x 1
and cos 60     x  x  . Thus point P has coordinates
OP 1 2
1 √3
(2 ,2
).
 1 3
Thus, point Q has coordinates   , 

 2 2 
Therefore,

6
 3  1 sin 240   3 / 2
sin 240    , cos 240   , tan 240     3
2 2 cos 240   1/ 2
Example Find sin  , cos  , tan  for 𝜃 = 315𝑜 .
y

P(𝑥. 𝑦), (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)

𝜃 45° y
O x M x
𝑟=1
Q(x,-y), (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)

PM y 2
POM  45 implying that sin 45    y y
OP 1 2
OM x 2
and cos 45   xx . Thus point P has coordinates
OP 1 2
√2 √2
(2 ,2
).
 2 2
Thus, point Q has coordinates  , .

 2 2 
Therefore,
2 2 sin 45  2 / 2
sin 315   , cos 315  , tan 315    1
2 2 cos 45 2/2
Example Find sin  , cos  , tan  for 𝜃 = −210𝑜 .

PM y 1
POM  30 implying that sin 30     y y
OP 1 2
OM x 3
and cos 30    xx . Thus, point P has coordinates
OP 1 2
√3 1
( 2 , 2).
y

Q(-x,y),(−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)P(x,y),(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)

30° y
O x M x
𝜃

7
 √3 1
Thus, point Q has coordinates (− , ).
2 2
Therefore,

1 3 sin(210  ) 1/ 2 1
sin(210  )  , cos(210  )   , tan(210  )   
2 2 cos(210) 
 3/2 3
Exercise: Complete the following table:

𝜃 𝜃 𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

0

90 

120 

180 

 135

 30 

270 

 300 

360 

510 

In the diagram,
y
𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)

𝑟=1

 M
O  x

𝑟=1

𝑃∗ (𝑥, −𝑦)

8
 if point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) lies in the first quadrant then
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑦, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑥, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑦/𝑥.
The image 𝑃∗ of 𝑃 under a reflection in the x – axis has coordinates
(𝑥, −𝑦). Thus
Sin(−𝜃) = −𝑦 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, cos(−𝜃) = 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃,

𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛(−𝜃) = − (𝑥 ) = −𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃.
Therefore,
sin(−𝜃) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃; cos(−𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑡𝑎𝑛(−𝜃) = −𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃.

For example,

1 √3
Sin(−30𝑜 ) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛30𝑜 = − 2 ; cos(−30𝑜 ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠30𝑜 = ,
2
1
𝑡𝑎𝑛(−30𝑜 ) = −𝑡𝑎𝑛30𝑜 = − √3.

9.1.3 Trigonometric Identities

We consider a right angled triangle.

a c

𝜃
B

By Pythagorus theorem,
𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2 .
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑐 ; 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑐 ; 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑏
𝑎 2 𝑏 2 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑎2 +𝑏 2 𝑐2
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = ( 𝑐 ) + (𝑐 ) = + 𝑐2 = = 𝑐2 = 1
𝑐2 𝑐2

i.e. 1. 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 1

This is the basic trigonometric identity from which the other

trigonometric identity are derived.
For example,

9
2. 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃

3. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

When we divide 1 by 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃,

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃 1
+ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃 ⇒
𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃

4. 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 + 1 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃

When we divide 1 by 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃,

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃 1
+ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 ⇒
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

5. 1+𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝜃

Examples: Verify each of the following identity:

sin  cos 
1.  1
csc sec
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 (sin 𝜃)2 (cos 𝜃)2
Proof: 𝐿𝐻𝑆 = csc 𝜃 + sec 𝜃 = 1 + 1 = + = sin2 𝜃 + cos 2 𝜃 = 1
1 1
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
= 𝑅𝐻𝑆.
2. cos x  cos x tan x  sec x
2

Proof: 𝐿𝐻𝑆 = cos 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 tan2 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 (1 + tan2 𝑥) = cos 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥

1 1
= cos 𝑥 (cos2 𝑥) = cos 𝑥 = sec 𝑥 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆.
1
3.  (1  sin  )(1  sin  )
sec 2 
1 1
Proof: 𝑅𝐻𝑆 = (1 + sin 𝜃)(1 − sin 𝜃) = 1 − sin2 𝜃 = cos2 𝜃 = 1 = sec2 𝜃 = 𝐿𝐻𝑆.
cos2 𝑥
cos x  tan x
4.  csc x  sec 2 x .
sin x cos x
sin 𝑥 cos2 𝑥+sin 𝑥
cos 𝑥+tan 𝑥 cos 𝑥+ cos2 𝑥+sin 𝑥 1 1
Proof: 𝐿𝐻𝑆 = = cos 𝑥
= cos 𝑥
= = +
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 cos2 𝑥 sin 𝑥 cos2 𝑥

= csc 𝑥 + sec 2 𝑥 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆.

3
Example 1. If sin   and cos   0 , find the values of the other
5
trigonometric functions.

10
Sum and Difference Formulas
y

(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽)
P 𝛽
𝛼
O x
𝛼−𝛽
d

(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼) Q

We consider a unit circle and two angle 𝛼 and 𝛽 and the angle representing 𝛼 − 𝛽. In
the triangle OPQ we let P have coordinates (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽), point Q have coordinates
(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼) and let 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑑. Using the distance formula
𝑑 = √(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽)2 + (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽)2
𝑑2 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽)2 + (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽)2
=𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 − 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
=(𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼) − 2(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽) + (𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽)
i.e. 𝑑 2 =2 − 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 (I)

y
(cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) , sin(𝛼 − 𝛽))
Q′
𝑑
𝛼−𝛽

O 𝑃′(1,0) x

The terminal side of angle 𝛼 − 𝛽 cut the unit circle at the point
Q’(cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) , sin(𝛼 − 𝛽)). Let the distance 𝑃′ 𝑄′ = 𝐷. Then
𝐷 = √[cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) − 1]2 + [sin(𝛼 − 𝛽) − 0]2
Thus,
𝐷2 =2 − 2cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) (II)
The triangles 𝑂𝑃𝑄 and 𝑂𝑃′𝑄′ are congruent, thus 𝐷 = 𝑑. This means that
2 − 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 = 2 − 2cos(𝛼 − 𝛽)
Therefore

11
6. cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽

If in the formula for cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) we replace 𝛽 with (−𝛽) we obtain

7. cos(𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽

5𝜋
Example: Find an exact value for 𝑐𝑜𝑠 12 .

𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋+2𝜋 5𝜋
Solution: Let 𝛼 = 𝜋/4 and 𝜋/6 so that 4 + 6 = = . Then
12 12
5𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
cos ( ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
12 4 6 4 6
√2 √3 √2 1 √6 √2 √6−√2
= ( 2 ) ( 2 ) − ( 2 ) (2) = − = .
4 4 4

The difference formula for cosine can generate other identities involving a 90𝑜
angle.

8. cos(900 − 𝛼) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠90𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛90𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 0 + 1 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼

i.e.
cos(900 − 𝛼) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼

If we substitute 𝛼 with 900 − 𝛼 in 8 we obtain

cos(900 − (90𝑜 − 𝛼)) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(90𝑜 − 𝛼)
i.e.

9. cos α = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(90𝑜 − 𝛼)

𝑠𝑖𝑛(90𝑜 −𝛼) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼

10. tan(90𝑜 − 𝛼) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(90𝑜 −𝛼) = = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛼
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
i.e.
tan(900 − 𝛼) = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛼
To develop the formula for sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) we use identity 8 and replace 𝛼 with
𝛼 + 𝛽. Thus
Sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) = cos(900 − (𝛼 + 𝛽))
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠[(900 − 𝛼) − 𝛽]
= cos(90𝑜 − 𝛼) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 + sin(90𝑜 − 𝛼)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
= sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 + cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽

11. Sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) = sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 + cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽

For Sin(𝛼 − 𝛽) we replace 𝛽 with (−𝛽) in 11 so that

12
 Sin(𝛼 + (−𝛽)) = sin 𝛼 cos(−𝛽) + cos 𝛼 sin(−𝛽)
Thus,

12. Sin(𝛼 − 𝛽) = sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 − cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽

The formula for tan(𝛼 + 𝛽) follows directly from the sine and cosine
relationships.
sin(   ) sin  cos   cos  sin 
tan(   )  
cos(   ) cos  cos   sin  sin 
Dividing both the numerator and the denominator yields
sin  cos  cos  sin  sin  sin 
 
cos  cos  cos  cos  cos  cos 
tan(   )  
cos  cos  sin  sin  sin  sin 
 1
cos  cos  cos  cos  cos  cos 

tan   tan 
13 tan(   ) 
1  tan  tan 

To obtain the formula for tan(   ) we replace 𝛽 with (−𝛽) in 13 to get

tan   tan 
14. tan(   ) 
1  tan  tan 

Example: Find the exact value of 𝑡𝑎𝑛 195𝑜 .

Solution: Let 𝛼 = 135𝑜 and 𝛽 = 60𝑜 . then
tan135  tan 60 
tan(135  60 ) 
 

1  tan135 tan 60 
1 3

1  (1)( 3 )
1 3 1−√3
 ×
1 3 1−√3

−1+√3+√3−3
= −4+2 3
= −4+2
√ √3
= 2 1−3 −2
2
1 −(√3)
−4
+ 2−23
√
=
−2
= 2 − √3.

When we add the identities (7)

cos(𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
and (6)
cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽

13
we have
cos(𝛼 + 𝛽) +cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) = 2 cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽.
From this we get the product identity

1
15. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 = 2 [𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛼 + 𝛽) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛼 − 𝛽)]

When we subtract identity (6) from identity (7) we get the product identity

1
16. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 = 2 [𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛼 − 𝛽) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛼 + 𝛽)]

Similarly adding (11)

sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
and (12)
sin(𝛼 − 𝛽) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
we obtain the product identities

1
17. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 = [𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼 + 𝛽) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼 − 𝛽)]
2

Subtracting the identities we get the product identity.

1
18. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 = 2 [𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼 + 𝛽) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼 − 𝛽)]

𝐴+𝐵 𝐴−𝐵
When we let 𝐴 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 and 𝐵 = 𝛼 − 𝛽, it follows 𝛼 = 2
and 𝛽 = 2
. Replacing
these in 15 we obtain the identity

𝐴+𝐵 𝐴−𝐵
19. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠
2 2

Replacing them in 16 we have the identity

𝐴+𝐵 𝐴−𝐵
20. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2

Replacing the same in 17 and 18 we obtain the identities

𝐴+𝐵 𝐴−𝐵
21. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2
and

𝐴+𝐵 𝐴−𝐵
22. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2

14
Multiple angle Formulas

In the formula for sin(𝛼 + 𝛽), if we let 𝛼 = 𝛽 we have

sin(𝛼 + 𝛼) = sin 𝛼 cos 𝛼 + cos 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼

i.e.
23. sin 2α = 2sin 𝛼 cos 𝛼

Note that 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛼 ≠ 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼. For example, if 𝛼 = 300 ,

√3 1 √3
𝑠𝑖𝑛2(300 ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛600 = and 2𝑠𝑖𝑛300 = 2 × 2 = 1 ≠ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2(300 ).
2 2

Putting 𝛼 in place for 𝛽 in the formula for cos(𝛼 + 𝛽) yields

cos(𝛼 + 𝛼) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
i.e.
24. cos 2α = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼

From 24 we get
cos 2α = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 − (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼)
i.e.
25. cos 2α = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 − 1

Again from 24 we obtain

cos 2α = (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼
i.e.
26. cos 2α = 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼

Substituting 𝛼 = 𝛽 in the formula for tan(𝛼 + 𝛽) yields

𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼
tan(𝛼 + 𝛼) = 1−𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 = 1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝛼
i.e.
2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼
27. tan 2α = 1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝛼
5
Example: Find 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃, 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃, and 𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃 if 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = − 13 and is a fourth
quadrant angle.
y

12
x
-5
13

15
 12 5
Therefore, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 13 and 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = − 12. Now using the identities for double
angles we get
5 12 120
(i) 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 2 × (− 13) × (13) = − 169
12 2 5 2 144 25 119
(ii) 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = (13) − (− 13) = 169 − 169 = 169
5 10
2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 2(− ) − 5 144 120
12
(iii) tan 2θ = 1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 = 5 2
= 12
25 = − 6 × 119 = − 119.
1−(− ) 1−
12 144

Half angle Formulas

Half-angle formulas for sin(α/2) and cos(𝛼/2) are a direct consequence of

the identities for 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝛼.

𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝛼 = 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼
1
⇒ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼 = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝛼)
2
1
⇒ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = ±√2 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝛼)
Replacing 𝛼 with 𝛼/2 yields

1
28. sin α /2 = ±√2 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼)

Using the formula cos 2α = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 − 1 we can obtain the half-angle formula
𝛼
for cos ( 2 ) 𝑎𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠:
cos 2α = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 − 1
1
⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 = 2 (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝛼)
1
⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = ±√2 (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝛼)
Replacing 𝛼 with 𝛼/2 yields

1
29. cos α /2 = ±√2 (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼)

In the formulas for sin(α/2) and cos(𝛼/2), the choice of the plus or minus
sign is determined by the quadrant in which 𝛼/2 lies.
For example if 𝛼/2 is in the first and second quadrants then
1
sin α /2 = √2 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼),
If it is in the third and the fourth quadrants, then
1
sin α/2 = −√2 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼).

16
 𝛼
To obtain the formula for tan( 2 ) we proceed as follows:
𝛼 sin 𝛼/2 1 1
tan ( 2 ) = cos 𝛼/2 = ± (√2 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼)) /± (√2 (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼))

i.e.
1−cosα
30. tan α/2 = ±√1+cosα

Or
1 − cosα 1 − cosα (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼)2 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼)2
tan α/2 = ±√ × = ±√ = ± √
1 + cosα 1 − cosα 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼
1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
=±
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
i.e.

1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
31. tan α/2 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼

We no longer need the ± sign because 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 is never negative,

and sin 𝛼 and tan 𝛼/2 the same sign.
Now,
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
= × 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼(1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼(1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼) = 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
i.e.
𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
32. tan 2 = 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼

Example: Find an exact value of tan 67.50 .

1 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠1350 1−(−√2/2)
Solution: tan 67.50 = tan 2(135)0 = =
sin 1350 √2/2
2+√2
= = √2 + 2
√2

9.1.4 Graphing Trigonometric Functions

We look at the graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥.
1. The sine curve
x 0 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋 5𝜋 𝜋 7𝜋 4𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 11𝜋 2𝜋
6 3 2 3 6 6 3 2 3 6
f(x)=sinx 0 1 √3 1 √3 1 0 1 −√3 -1 −√3 1 0
− −
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

17
 y

1
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥
1
2

3𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋
−2𝜋 − −𝜋 −2 0 𝜋 2𝜋 x
2 2 2
1
−2

−1

Note that the graph of sine function repeats itself after 2𝜋 radians. Thus it is
said to have a period of 2𝜋.
2. The cosine curve
x 0 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋 5𝜋 𝜋 7𝜋 4𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 11𝜋 2𝜋
6 3 2 3 6 6 3 2 3 6
f(x)=sinx 1 √3 1 0 −1 −√3 -1 −√3 −1 0 1 √3 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

1
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥
1
2

3𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋
−2𝜋 − −𝜋 −2 0 𝜋 2𝜋 x
2 2 2
1
−2
−1
Note that
𝜋
sin (𝑥 + 2 ) = cos 𝑥

Similarly, the cosine function has a period of 2𝜋.

Period Amplitude and Phase Shift
Period
A function f is called periodic if there exists a positive real number p such that
𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑝) = 𝑓(𝑥),
for all x in the domain of f. The smallest value of p is called the period of the
function.

18
From the graphs of the sine and cosine functions it is evident that 2𝜋 is the
smallest value for which sin(𝑥 + 2𝜋) = sin 𝑥 and cos(𝑥 + 2𝜋) = cos 𝑥.
Therefore both the sine and the cosine functions are periodic with period 2𝜋.
Now, we consider the graph of a function of the form
𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑏𝑥, where 𝑏 > 0. One cycle of the graph is completed as 𝑏𝑥
increases form 0 to 2𝜋. When 𝑏𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 = 0 and
2𝜋
𝑏𝑥 = 2𝜋, 𝑥 = . The same holds for 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑏𝑥. Therefore we can state
𝑏
that the period of 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑏𝑥 and also of 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑏𝑥, where 𝑏 > 0, is
2𝜋
. If 𝑏 < 0, then we can first apply the appropriate property,
𝑏
sin(−𝑥) = − sin 𝑥 or cos(−𝑥) = cos 𝑥 and find the period accordingly.
Amplitude
The amplitude of the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎sin 𝑥 or 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎cos 𝑥 is |𝑎| and it is
the maximum functional value attained by 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).
1 1 1
For example, the amplitude of 𝑓(𝑥) = − 2 cos 𝑥 is |− 2| = 2 and that of

𝑓(𝑥) = 3sin 2𝑥 is |3| = 3.

Phase Shift
𝜋
You will note that the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = sin(𝑥 − 2 ) is the basic sine curve
𝜋
shifted units to the right. Likewise, the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = cos(𝑥 + 𝜋) is the
2
𝜋
basic cosine curve shifted 𝜋 units to the left. Each number 2 and 𝜋 in this case
represents the amount of shift to the right and to the left, called to the phase
shift of the graph.
In general, the phase shift of 𝑓(𝑥) = sin(𝑥 − 𝑐) or 𝑓(𝑥) = cos(𝑥 − 𝑐) is |𝑐|.
If c is positive, the phase shift is to the right and if c is negative, the phase
shift is to the left.
𝜋
Example: Find the period, amplitude, and phase shift of 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 sin(2𝑥 + 2 )
and sketch the curve in the interval
0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋.
Solution: We rewrite the function in the following form for easy determination
of the required quantities:
𝜋
𝑓(𝑥) = 3 sin 2(𝑥 − (− 4 ))

𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑖𝑠 period is phase shift is

2𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
|3| = 3 =𝜋 |− 4 | = units to the left.
2 4

19
 3

𝜋
2 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 sin(2𝑥 + 2 )

0 𝜋/4 𝜋/2 3𝜋/4 𝜋 x

-1

-2

-3

9.1.5 Inverses of trigonometric functions

Inverse functions of 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙, 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙 and 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒙
Recall that a function f has an inverse function if and only if it is one-to-one and onto.

The sine function 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 is not one-to-one unless its domain is restricted to the
𝜋 𝜋
interval [− 2 , 2 ]

𝑦 𝑦=𝑥

𝑦=1

O x

𝑦 = −1
𝜋 𝜋
−2 2

In this restricted domain the sine function has an inverse function.

Therefore, the inverse function of 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 is the function that assigns
𝜋 𝜋
to each number 𝑥 ∈ [−1,1] the unique number 𝑦 ∈ [− 2 , 2 ] such that 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦.
The inverse of 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 is written

𝒚 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 𝒙 or 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 (1.7.1)

Thus,

𝒚 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 𝒙 ⇔ 𝒙 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒚

1
It should be noted that 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 ≠ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥.

20
 1
is the reciprocal of sin 𝑥 and not the inverse of sin 𝑥.
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 which is reflection of 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 in the line

𝑦 = 𝑥 is shown below.
y
𝜋
2

-1 O 1 x
𝜋
𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 2

Similarly the cosine function 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 has an inverse function only when its domain
is restricted, say to [0, 𝜋]. In this case its range is [−1,1]. Thus for every 𝑦 ∈ [−1,1]
there is a unique 𝑥 ∈ [0, 𝜋] such that 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦.

𝑦 𝑦=𝑥

1
𝜋
O 𝜋 x
2

-1

Therefore, 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 has an inverse function, which is written as

𝒚 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 𝒙 or 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙 (1.7.2)

Thus,

𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦

1
Similarly, = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 ≠ cos 𝑥 .

The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 which is reflection of 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 in the line is shown below.

𝑦=𝜋

𝜋
𝑦= 2

-1 O 1 x

21
 For the inverse function of 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥. We first consider the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥.

𝑦 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥

3𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋
− −2 𝜋 O 𝜋 x
2 2 2

The function 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 can take on values of 𝑦 in the interval (−∞, ∞). To get a
𝜋 𝜋
unique 𝑥 for given 𝑦, we restrict 𝑥 to the interval (− 2 , 2 ). Thus the function
𝜋 𝜋
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥: (− 2 , 2 ) → (−∞, ∞) is one-to-one and has an inverse function written
𝒚 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒙 or 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒙 (1.7.3)
and
y = tan−1 𝑥 ⇔ 𝑥 = tan 𝑦

𝜋 𝜋
The domain of 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 is (−∞, ∞) and its range is (− 2 , 2 ).
The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 is shown below.

𝑦
𝜋
𝑦= 2

𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥

O x
𝜋
𝑦 = −2

The other three trigonometric functions 𝑓(𝑥) = sec 𝑥 , 𝑓(𝑥) = csc 𝑥 and

𝑓(𝑥) = cot 𝑥 with restricted domains also have respectively the inverse functions
𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = sec −1 𝑥, 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = csc −1 𝑥, and 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = cot −1 𝑥. The graphs of these
inverse functions can be constructed the same way.

9.1.6 Trigonometric Equations

Examples:
1. Solve for 𝜃, if 0 ≤ 𝜃 < 360𝑜 :

22
 (a) 2 cos 𝜃 + 1 = 0
(b) cos 2𝜃 − cos 𝜃 = 0
Solutions: (a) 2 cos 𝜃 + 1 = 0 ⇒2 cos 𝜃 = −1

120°
60 60
1
−2 240°

1 1
⇒cos 𝜃 = − 2 ⇒ 𝜃 = cos −1 (− 2) = 180° − 60° = 120°
1
Or 𝜃 = cos −1 (− 2) = 180° + 60° = 240°.
(b) cos 2𝜃 − cos 𝜃 = 0 ⇒ 2 cos 2 𝜃 − 1 − cos 𝜃 = 0
⇒ 2 cos2 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 − 1 = 0
⇒ (2 cos 𝜃 + 1)(cos 𝜃 − 1) = 0
⇒ 2 cos 𝜃 + 1 = 0 or cos 𝜃 − 1 = 0
1
⇒ cos 𝜃 = − 2 or cos 𝜃 = 1
1
⇒ 𝜃 = cos −1 (− 2) or 𝜃 = cos −1 (1)
1
⇒ 𝜃 = cos −1 (− 2) = 120°, 240° or 𝜃 = cos −1 (1) = 0°, 360°.

∴ 𝜽 = 𝟎°, 𝟏𝟐𝟎°, 𝟐𝟒𝟎°, 𝟑𝟔𝟎°

2. Solve for x, if 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 2𝜋:

(a) 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 1 = 0
(b) 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 = 3
(c) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = √2
(d) sin 2𝑥 − 2 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 − 1 = 0.
Solutions: (a) 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 1 = 0
(2 sin 𝑥 − 1)(sin 𝑥 + 1) = 0
⇒2 sin 𝑥 − 1 = 0 or sin 𝑥 + 1 = 0
1
⇒sin 𝑥 = 2 or sin 𝑥 = −1

The sine is positive in the 1st and 2nd quadrants. Thus

23
 1 𝜋 5𝜋
𝑥 = sin−1 (2) = 6 , 6
3𝜋
And we know that sin 𝑥 = −1 ⇒𝑥 = .
2

𝝅 𝟓𝝅 𝟑𝝅
∴𝒙= , ,
𝟔 𝟔 𝟐
(b) 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 = 3
(1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥) + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 = 3
⇒ 2𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 + 1 = 3 ⇒ 2𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 = 2
⇒ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 = 1 ⇒tan 𝑥 = ±1
Now we know that the tangent is positive in the 1st and 3rd quadrants.
Thus,
𝜋 5𝜋
𝑥 = tan−1(1) = 4 , .
4

The tangent is negative in the 2nd and 4th quadrants. Thus,

3𝜋 7𝜋
𝑥 = tan−1(1) = , .
4 4
𝝅 𝟓𝝅 𝟓𝝅 𝟕𝝅
∴ 𝒙 = 𝟒, , , .
𝟒 𝟒 𝟒

(c) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = √2

Squaring both sides we have
2
(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)2 = (√2)
⇒ sin2 𝑥 + 2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 + cos 2 𝑥 = 2
⇒ sin2 𝑥 + 2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 + (1 − sin2 𝑥) = 2
𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋
⇒ 2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 = 1 ⇒ sin 2𝑥 = 1 ⇒2𝑥 = 𝑜𝑟 or etc.
2 2 2

Since 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 2𝜋,

𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋
𝑥= , , .
4 4 4

But since we changed the question by squaring, we need to test these angles
in the give equation.
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 √2 √2
For 𝑥 = 4 , 𝐿𝐻𝑆 = sin ( 4 ) + cos ( 4 ) = + = √2 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆
2 2
𝜋
⇒ 4 is part of the solution.
5𝜋 5𝜋 5𝜋 √2 √2
For 𝑥 = , 𝐿𝐻𝑆 = sin ( 4 ) + cos ( 4 ) = − − 2 = −√2 ≠ √2 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆
4 2
5𝜋
⇒ is not part of the solution.
4
7𝜋 7𝜋 7𝜋 √2 √2
For 𝑥 = , 𝐿𝐻𝑆 = sin ( 4 ) + cos ( 4 ) = − + = 0 ≠ √2 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆
4 2 2

24
 7𝜋
⇒ is not part of the solution.
4
𝝅
Therefore the only angle which satisfy the given equation is 𝟒 .

(d) sin 2𝑥 − 2 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 − 1 = 0

⇒ (2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥) − 2 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 − 1 = 0
⇒ 2 cos 𝑥 (sin 𝑥 − 1) + (sin 𝑥 − 1) = 0
⇒ (sin 𝑥 − 1)(2 cos 𝑥 + 1) = 0
⇒ sin 𝑥 − 1 = 0 and 2 cos 𝑥 + 1 = 0
1
⇒ sin 𝑥 = 1 and cos 𝑥 = −
2
𝜋 1 2𝜋 5𝜋
⇒ 𝑥 = sin−1(1) = and 𝑥 = cos −1 (− 2) = , .
2 3 3
𝝅 𝟐𝝅 𝟓𝝅
∴ 𝒙 = 𝟐, , .
𝟑 𝟑

General Solution of Trigonometric Equations

The general solution is an expression which represents all angles which satisfy the
given trigonometric equation. Thus, the general solution is an infinite set of angles
which satisfy the equation.
To find the general solution of a trigonometric equation , you may need to use the
following:
(i) The circular function graph,
(ii) The period of each circular function,
(iii) The principal solution, and except when the tangent ratio is involved, the
secondary solution.
Consider the equation
sin 𝜃 = 𝑠
where |𝑠| ≤ 1. The period, 2𝜋, of the sine function is covered in the interval [−𝜋, 𝜋],
which includes both the Principle Value (PV) and the Secondary Value (SV) of 𝜃. So,
by adding or subtracting any multiple of 2𝜋 to either the PV or the SV, we get another
angle with the same sine ratio.
𝑦
𝑦 = sin 𝜃
2𝜋
s

−𝜋 0 PV SV 𝜋 𝜃

25
Therefore the general solution of the equation sin 𝜃 = 𝑠, where |𝑠| ≤ 1 is

𝑃𝑉 + 2𝑛𝜋 °
𝜃={ or {𝑃𝑉 + 360𝑛° where 𝑛 ∈ ℤ.
𝑆𝑉 + 2𝑛𝜋 𝑆𝑉 + 360𝑛

A similar situation arise when we consider the equation cos 𝜃 = 𝑐 because both the
PV and the SV of the cosine function occur within one period, 2𝜋.

2𝜋
c

−𝜋 SV 0 PV 𝜋 𝜃

y = cos 𝜃

Thus, by adding or subtracting any multiple of 2𝜋 to either the PV or the SV we get

the general solution of the equation cos 𝜃 = 𝑐. However, you note that for the cosine,
the PV and the SV are equal in value but opposite sign i.e. 𝑃𝑉 = −𝑃𝑉. Therefore, the
general solution for the equation cos 𝜃 = 𝑐 is given by

𝜃 = {±𝑃𝑉 + 2𝑛𝜋 or {±𝑃𝑉 + 360𝑛° where 𝑛 ∈ ℤ.

When we consider the equation tan 𝜃 = 𝑡, we note that only the PV is included in the
𝜋 𝜋
period [− 2 , 2 ]. The other angles with the same tangent ratio are obtained by
combining multiples of 𝜋, the period.

𝑦 𝑦 = tan 𝜃
t

3𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋
−𝜋 −2 O PV𝜋 𝜃
2 2 2

Therefore the general solution of the equation tan 𝜃 = 𝑡 is given by

26
 𝜃 = {𝑃𝑉 + 𝜋 or {𝑃𝑉 + 180𝑛° where 𝑛 ∈ ℤ.

Examples Find the general solution of each of the following trigonometric equations:

1. (a) tan 𝜃 = 1 (b) tan 𝜃 = −√3

1 1
2. (a) cos 𝜃 = (b) cos 𝜃 = − 2
√2
1
3. sin 𝜃 = 2
√3
4. cos 2𝜃 = .
2
𝜋
Solutions: 1. (a) tan 𝜃 = 1 ⇒ 𝑃𝑉 = or 45°.
4
Therefore, the general solution is
𝜋
𝜃 = 4 + 𝜋𝑛, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ or 𝜃 = 45° + 180°𝑛, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ.
𝜋
(b) tan 𝜃 = −√3 𝑃𝑉 = − 3 or −60°.
Therefore, the general solution is
𝜋
𝜃 = − 3 + 𝜋𝑛, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ or 𝜃 = −60° + 180°𝑛, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ.
1 1 𝜋
2. (a) cos 𝜃 = ⇒ 𝜃 = cos −1 ( ) ⇒ 𝑃𝑉 = or 45°.
√2 √2 4
Therefore, the general solution is
𝜋
𝜃 = 4 + 2𝜋𝑛, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ or 𝜃 = 45° + 360°𝑛, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ.
1 2𝜋
(b) cos 𝜃 = − 2 ⇒ 𝑃𝑉 = ± or ±120°
3
Therefore, the general solution is
2𝜋
𝜃 = {± + 2𝑛𝜋 or {±120° + 360𝑛° where 𝑛 ∈ ℤ.
3
1 𝜋 5𝜋
3. sin 𝜃 = 2 ⇒ 𝑃𝑉 = or 30° and 𝑆𝑉 = 𝑜𝑟 150°.
6 6

Therefore, the general solution is

𝜋
+ 2𝑛𝜋 °
or { 30° + 360𝑛 ° where 𝑛 ∈ ℤ.
6
𝜃 = {5𝜋
+ 2𝑛𝜋 150° + 360𝑛
6

√3 √3 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
4. cos 2𝜃 = ⇒2𝜃 = cos−1 ( 2 ) = ± 6 ⇒ 𝜃 = ± 12 ⇒ 𝑃𝑉 = ± 12
2

or 15°.

Therefore, the general solution is

𝜋
𝜃 = {± 12 + 2𝑛𝜋 or {±15° + 360𝑛° where 𝑛 ∈ ℤ.

27
 TUTORIAL SHEET 12

1. Find the quadrant that contains the terminal side of  if the given conditions are
true:
(a) sin   0 and cos   0 (b) sin   0 and cot   0
(c) sec  0 and tan  0 (d) csc  0 and cot   0 .
2. Without using a calculator, change each of the following to radians:
(a) 420  (b) 570  (c)  45 .
3. Without using a calculator, change each of the following to degrees:

(a) 7 (b)  4 (c) 17 .

6 3 4
4. Find exact values. Do not use a calculator:

(a) sin 120  (b) cos 150  (c) tan 300  (d) csc(135 ) (e) sec 420 
 5   13   7 
(f) sin 2 (g) tan 4 (h) cos   (i) cot    (j) sec  .
3 3  3   3   6 

5. If tan    4 and sin    3 , where 𝛼 is a second quadrant angle and 𝛽 is a fourth

3 5
quadrant angle, find sin(𝛼 − 𝛽) and tan(𝛼 + 𝛽).

6. Find the exact values without using a table or a calculator:

(a) sin 15 (b) tan15 (c) tan 75 (d) cos 345 (e) cos 
12
(f) sin 7 (g) tan 11 .
12 12

7. Verify each of the following identities:

(a) sin(  90  )  cos  (b) cos(  90  )   sin  (c) sin(   )   sin 

(d) cos(   )   cos  (e) tan(   )  1  tan  (f) tan(   )  tan   1 .

4 1  tan  4 tan   1

8. Graph each of the following functions in the indicated intervals:

   3    5
(a) f ( x)  sin x  ,   x  (b) f ( x)  cos x  , x
 2 2 2  2 2 2
   5
(c) f ( x)  2  sin x,    x  2 (d) f ( x)  2  sin x  , x .
 2 2 2
9. Find the period, amplitude, and phase shift of the given function and draw the graph
of the function:
    1  
(a) f ( x)  2 sin x   (b) f ( x)  3 cos 2 x   (c) f ( x)   cos 2 x  
 3  2 2  2

28
  
(d) f ( x)  2 tan x  .
 2

10. Solve each of the following equations for  , if 0    360 . Do not use a
calculator or a table:
(a) 2 sin   2  0 (b) sin 2   1  0 (c) 2 cos 2   cos 
(d) 2 cos 3   cos  (e) 2 sin 2   cos   1  0 (f) tan  cot  .
11. Solve each of the following equations for  , if 0  x  2 . Do not use a
calculator or a table:
(a) 2 tan x sec x  tan x  0 (b) 2 cos 2   3 cos x  1  0
(c) sec 2 x  sec x  2  0 (d) sin x  1  cos x
(e) sin x cos x  cos x  sin x  1  0 (f) tan x  1  sec x .
12. Solve each of the following equation for  , where 0    2 . Do not use a
calculator or table.
(a) cos   sin 2 (b) cos 2  3sin   2  0 (c) tan 2  sec 2  1

(d) 2  sin 2   2 cos 2  (e) sin   cos   1 .

2 2

29
9.2 Exponential functions

Exponential functions occur naturally in real life. Scientists can model the growth of an
organism in any given culture by using exponential functions.

Exponential functions are ones of the form

𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑥 or 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 𝑥

Graphs of exponential functions 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑥 all pass through the point (0,1) because
𝑏 0 = 1.

Example 9.2.1: Sketch the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 for the domain 𝑥 ∈ R. Hence, state its
range.

Solution We have a table of values.

x -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

y 0.25 0.5 1 2 4 8 16 32 64

Plotting these points on the Cartesian plane yields the following graph:

y y = 2𝑥

(0,1)

O x

In general the graph of an exponential function 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑥 , for all 𝑏 > 1 and 𝑥 ∈ R, is of

the form

y y = 𝑏𝑥

(0,1)

O x

Clearly, the graph of y = 1𝑥 for all 𝑥 ∈ R is a straight line 𝑦 = 1.

The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑏 −𝑥 for all 𝑏 > 1, 𝑥 ∈ R is of the form
y

30
 𝑦 = 𝑏 −𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑏𝑥

(0,1)

O x

Note that the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 −𝑥 is the reflection in the y – axis of the graph of
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 𝑥 .

The function 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 is called the exponential function as opposed to an exponential

function 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑥 . The exponential function 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 is special in the sense that the
tangent to the curve at the point (0,1) makes an angle of 45° with the x – axis i.e. the
line 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1 is tangent to the curve at the point (0,1).

y 𝑦 = 𝑒𝑥

𝑦 =𝑥+1

45°
O x

Example 9.2.2 The price of a used car can be represented by the formula
−𝑡
𝑃 = 16000𝑒 10 ,

where P is the rice in K and t is the age in years from new.

Calculate:
(a) The new price
(b) The value at 5 years old
(c) What does the model suggests about the eventual value of the car.
Use this to sketch the graph of P against t.
−0
Solution: (a) Substituting t = 0 yields 𝑃 = 16000𝑒 10 = 16000 × 1 = 16000
Thus, the new price is K16000.
−5 1
(b) Substituting t = 5 yields 𝑃 = 16000𝑒 10 = 16000 × 𝑒 −2 = 9704.49.
The price after 5 years K9704.49
(c) As 𝑡 → ∞, → 0. Therefore 𝑃 → 16000 × 0 = 0.

31
 The eventual value is zero.
P

16000

t
O

The graph of 𝑦 = −𝑏 𝑥 , for 𝑏 > 1 is as follows:

𝑦

0 𝑥

(0, −1)

Note that the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑏 𝑥 is the reflection the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 𝑥 in the x –
axis.

The graph of 𝑦 = −𝑏 −𝑥 , for 𝑏 > 1 is as follows:

𝑦

0 𝑥

(0, −1)

Similarly, the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑏 −𝑥 is the reflection the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 −𝑥 in the
x – axis.
Example 9.2.3 The number of infected people with a disease varies according to the
formula
𝑁 = 300 − 100𝑒 −0.5𝑡 ,

32
 where N is the number of people infected with the diseases and t is the time in years
after detection.
(a) How many people were first diagnosed with the disease?
(b) What is the long term prediction of how this disease will spread?
(c) Graph N against t.

Solution: (a) Substituting t = 0 yields 𝑁 = 300 − 100𝑒 −0.5(0) = 200

Thus, the number of people first diagnosed with the disease is 200.

(b) As 𝑡 → ∞, 𝑒 −0.5𝑡 → 0. Therefore N→ 300.

The long term prediction of how long the disease will spread is 300.

(c)
𝑁 = 𝑒 −0.5𝑡 N

300

200 𝑁 = 300 − 100𝑒 −0.5𝑡

100

0 t
−100

9.2.1 Basic Properties of an Exponential function

An exponential function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 𝑥 has the following properties:
(a) 𝑓(𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ) = 𝑏 𝑥1 +𝑥2 = 𝑏 𝑥1 ∙ 𝑏 𝑥2 = 𝑓(𝑥1 ) ∙ 𝑓(𝑥2 )
(b) 𝑓(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ) = 𝑏 𝑥1 −𝑥2 = 𝑏 𝑥1 /𝑏 𝑥2 = 𝑓(𝑥1 )/𝑓(𝑥2 )
(c) 𝑓(𝑥1 ) < 𝑓(𝑥2 ) if and only if 𝑥1 < 𝑥2
i.e. 𝑏 𝑥1 < 𝑏 𝑥2 if and only if 𝑥1 < 𝑥2
(d) 𝑓(𝑥) → +∞ as 𝑥 → +∞ i.e. 𝑏 𝑥 → +∞ as 𝑥 → +∞

33
 (e) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 𝑥 → 0 as 𝑥 → −∞ or as 𝑥 → +∞

9.3 Logarithmic functions

Let b> 0 (𝑏 ≠ 1). Then the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 𝑥 has domain {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝑹} and
range {𝑦|𝑦 > 0}. It is self evident that f is one-to-one. Therefore it has
an inverse function 𝑓 −1 with domain {𝑥|𝑥 > 0} and range {𝑦|𝑦 ∈ 𝑹}. This inverse
function is denoted by
𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥,

Read as logarithm to base b of x. The function 𝑓 −1 is called the logarithmic function.

The graph of 𝑓 −1 is a reflection of the graph of f through the line 𝑦 = 𝑥.

Note that if 𝑓 −1 is the inverse 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥 of the function 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑥 (⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑦 ) then

𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑦 ,
implying that
𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑦

The graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑥 and 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥 are shown in the figure below.

y 𝑦 = 𝑏𝑥

𝑦=𝑥

𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥
1
O x

The graph of the logarithmic function 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥 passes through the point (1,0). This
follows from the fact that the graph of an exponential function 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑥 passes through
the point (0,1).

Important points about the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥:

 as 𝑥 → 0+ , 𝑦 → −∞
 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥 does not exist for negative values of x
 when 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 0
 as 𝑥 → +∞, 𝑦 → +∞ (slowly).

Since the range of 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑥 is 𝑦 > 0, the domain of 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥 is 𝑥 > 0.

34
Thus the logarithmic function is not defined for negative values of x.

The inverse of 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 is 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑥 and is called the natural

logarithmic function. Often it is written as 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑛𝑥.

Example 9.3.1 Sketch the graphs of

(a) 𝑦 = ln(−𝑥) (b) 𝑦 = ln(3 − 𝑥) (c) 𝑦 = 2 + ln(3𝑥)

Graph (a) y

𝑦 = 𝑙𝑛(−𝑥)

O x
-1

Note that 𝑦 = ln(−𝑥) is only defined for 𝑥 < 0 and passes through the
Point (-1,0).

(b) For 𝑦 = ln(3 − 𝑥),

when 𝑥 → 3, 𝑦 → −∞
y does not exist for values of 𝑥 > 3
when 𝑥 = 2, ln(3 − 2) = 𝑙𝑛1 = 0
as 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑦 → ∞ (slowly)

𝑦 = ln(3 − 𝑥) y 𝑥=3

𝑙𝑛3

O 2 x

1
(c) For 𝑦 = 2 + ln(3𝑥), as 𝑥 → 0, 𝑦 → −∞, and when 𝑥 = 3 , 𝑦 = 2 + 𝑙𝑛1 = 2.

Now as 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑦 → ∞ (slowly).

35
 y 𝑦 = 2 + ln(3𝑥)

1
(3,2)

O x

9.3.1 Basic Properties of Logarithms

Let b, u and v be positive numbers and 𝑏 > 1. Then
(a) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑦
(b) Proof
Let 𝑢 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥 and 𝑣 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑦. Then 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑢 and 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑣 .
Thus
𝑥. 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑢 . 𝑏 𝑣 = 𝑏 𝑢+𝑣 if and only if 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥. 𝑦 = 𝑢 + 𝑣
Therefore
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑦.
𝑥
(c) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑦

Proof: Let 𝑢 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥 and 𝑣 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑦. Then 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑢 and 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑣 .

Thus
𝑥 𝑏𝑢 𝑥
= = 𝑏 𝑢−𝑣 if and only if 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑦 = 𝑢 − 𝑣.
𝑦 𝑏𝑣

Therefore
𝑥
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑦.

(d) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 1 = 0

Proof: Let 𝑢 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 1. Then 𝑏 𝑢 = 1, implying that 𝑢 = 0.

Therefore,
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 1 = 0.
(e) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑏 = 1
Proof: Let 𝑢 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑏. Then 𝑏 𝑢 = 𝑏, implying that 𝑢 = 1.
Therefore,
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑏 = 1.

(f) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥

36
 Proof: Let 𝑢 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥. Then 𝑏 𝑢 = 𝑥. Thus 𝑥 𝑛 = (𝑏 𝑢 )𝑛 = 𝑏 𝑛𝑢 .
Implying that
𝑛𝑢 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥 𝑛
Therefore,
𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥 𝑛 .

The following formula is used to change the base of the logarithm to

another:
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥
(g) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑏
𝑎

Proof: Let 𝑁 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥. Then 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑁 , implying that

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑏 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑏
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥
𝑁 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑏
𝑎

Therefore,
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑏.
𝑎

The special case of (g) is obtained when 𝑥 = 𝑎.

1
(h) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑎 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑎𝑏

Clearly, by (g) and (e), we have

𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎 1
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑎 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑏 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑏.
𝑎 𝑎

Example 9.3.2 Simplify:

1
(a) 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔25 − 2𝑙𝑜𝑔3 + 2𝑙𝑜𝑔6 (b) log(𝑥 + 1) − log(𝑥 2 − 1)

1
1
Solution: (a) 𝑙𝑜𝑔25 − 2𝑙𝑜𝑔3 + 2𝑙𝑜𝑔6 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔252 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔32 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔62
2

= 𝑙𝑜𝑔5 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔9 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔36

5×36
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 9

= 𝑙𝑜𝑔20

(𝑥+1) (𝑥+1) 1
(b) log(𝑥 + 1) − log(𝑥 2 − 1) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑥 2 −1) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑥+1)(𝑥−1) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥−1 = −log(𝑥 − 1).

37
9.3.2 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations

Example 9.3.3 Solve the equations:

(a) 42𝑥+1 = 3 (b) 2(22𝑥 ) − 5(2𝑥 ) + 2 = 0 (c) 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 2 = 2.
Solution (a) 42𝑥+1 = 3
⇒ 4(42𝑥 ) = 3
3
⇒ 42𝑥 = 4
3
⇒ 𝑙𝑛42𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛 4
3
⇒ 2𝑥𝑙𝑛4 = 𝑙𝑛 4
3
⇒ 2𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛 4 /𝑙𝑛4
3
∴ 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛 4 /2𝑙𝑛4

(b) 2(22𝑥 ) − 5(2𝑥 ) + 2 = 0

2(2𝑥 )2 − 5(2𝑥 ) + 2 = 0
Letting 𝑢 = 2𝑥 we have
2𝑢2 − 5𝑢 + 2 = 0
(2𝑢 − 1)(𝑢 − 2) = 0
1
𝑢 = 2 or 𝑢 = 2
1
⇒ 2𝑥 = 2 or 2𝑥 = 2

Taking logarithms base 2 on both sides yields

1
𝑙𝑜𝑔2 2𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (2) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 1 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 2 = −1

⇒ 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔2 2 = −1
∴ 𝑥 = −1 or 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 2𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 2 ⇒ 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔2 2 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 2 ⇒ 𝑥 = 1

(c) 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 2 = 2

Changing the logarithmic base from x to 2 we have
𝑙𝑜𝑔 2
𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔2𝑥 = 2
2

1
or 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 =2
2𝑥

Multiplying through by 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥 yields

(𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥)2 + 1 = 2𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥
Letting 𝑢 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥 we have the equation
𝑢2 − 2𝑢 + 1 = 0

38
 or (𝑢 − 1)2 = 0
⇒𝑢 = 1 ⇒ 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥 = 1
∴ 𝑥 = 2.
Example 9.3.4 Solve the simultaneous equations
2𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 and 2𝑦 = 4𝑥
Solution Let 2𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 be (I) and 2𝑦 = 4𝑥 (II)
Using (II) we have
2𝑦 = 4𝑥 ⇒ 2𝑦 = (22 )𝑥 = 22𝑥 ⇒𝑦 = 2𝑥
Substituting this in (I) we have
2𝑙𝑜𝑔2𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥
⇒ log(2𝑥)2 = log 2𝑥
⇒ (2𝑥)2 = 2𝑥
⇒ (2𝑥)2 − 2𝑥 = 0 or 2𝑥(2𝑥 − 1) = 0
⇒ 2𝑥 = 0 or 2𝑥 = 1
⇒ 𝑥 = 0 or 𝑥 = 1/2
But the equation will not be defined at 𝑥 = 0, since log0 is not
defined.
1 1
∴ 𝑥 = 2 ⇒ 𝑦 = 2 (2) = 1.

39
 TUTORIAL SHEET 13

1. Solve each of the following equations.

(a) 3 x  27 (b) ( 12 ) x  161 (c) 27 4 x  9 x1 (d) 18 2t  2 t 3 .

2. Sketch the graph of each of the following functions.

(a) f ( x)  3 x (b) f ( x)   14  (c) f ( x)  2 x 1 (d) f ( x)  2  x

x

3. Suppose that in a certain bacteria culture, the equation Q(t )  1000e 0.4t expresses
the number of bacteria present as a function of time t, where t is expressed in
hours. How many bacteria are present at the end of 2 hours? 3 hours? % hours?
4. Suppose that a certain substance has a half-life of 20 years. If there are presently
2500 milligrams of the substance, then the equation Q(t )  2500(2) t / 20 yields
the amount remaining after t years. How much remains after 40 years? 50%
years?
5. Write each of the following in algorithmic form. For example, 2 4  16 becomes
log 2 16  4 .

(a) 101  10 (b)  23 3  278 (c) 10 2  0.01 (d) 10 5  100,000 .

6. Write each of the following in exponential form.
For example, log 2 8  3 becomes 2 3  8 .
(a) log 2 64  6 (b) log10 0.00001  5 (c) log 2 161   4 .
7. Solve each of the following equations:
(a) 2 2 x  3(2 x )  4  0  
(b) 32 x1  26 3 x  9  0 (c) 4 x  6(2 x )  16  0 .
8. Solve each of the following equations:
(a) log 5 x  2 (b) log 4 m  3
2 (c) log b 3  12 .
9. Express the following as a simple logarithm. For example
 x3 
3 log b  2   log b x 9  log b y 6 .
y 
(a) 2 log b x  4 log b y  3 log b z (b) 2 log b x  12 log b ( x  1)  4 log b (2 x  5)
(c) 1
2 log b x  3 log b x  4 log b y .
10. Solve each of the following equations.
(a) log10 5  log10 x  1 (b) log10 x  log10 ( x  3)  1
(c) log10 ( x  4)  log10 ( x  1)  1 (d) log10 ( x  2)  log10 x  1.
11. Solve the simultaneous equations.
(a) 2 lg y  lg 2  lg x; 2 y  4 x (b) log 3 x  y  log 9 (2 x  1) .

40
12. Solve the simultaneous equation
log( x  y)  0; 2 log x  log( y  1) .

41