Generator Principle

An electric generator is a machine which converts mechanical energy (or power )

into electrical energy (or power) ( other way of defining a machine as generator is that a
machine in which direction of armature current and armature induced emf are same is
called ‘generator’ , otherwise ‘motor’ )

The energy conversion is based on the production of dynamically induced emf.

According to the faradays laws of electromagnetic
induction, whenever a conductor is rotated in a
stationary magnetic field or a magnetic field is rotated
around a stationary conductor , an mf is generated in
conductor. The magnitude of this emf is equal to the rate
of change of flux linkages and its direction is given by
Flemings Left hand Rule. This induced emf causes a current to flow when the circuit is
closed. Hence, the basic essential parts of an electric generator are:
1.Magnetic field ( or field winding )
2.Conductor(s) ( or Armature winding)
3. Relative motion ( or Prime-mover)
Simple Loop Generator :
Consider a single turn rectangular conductor loop ABCD rotating in a magnetic
field of density ‘B’ wb/m2 provided by a magnet about its own axis. The two ends of
coils are joined to two slip rings ‘a’ and ‘b’ which are insulated from each other and also
from shaft. Two brushes are used to collect the currents from rotating coil and to convey

11
it to an external load ‘R’. The rotating coil may be called as ‘Armature’ and magnets as
‘Field magnets’

Imagine the coil to be rotating in clockwise direction. As the coil rotates in the
magnetic field, the flux linkages with the coil change. Hence, an emf is induced in the
dϕ
coil which is proportional to the rate of change of flux linkages( e = ). In the position
dt
shown, as the coil sides AB and CD are moving parallel to flux lines, no emf is induced.
Let us take this position as reference and angle of rotation of coil is measured from this
position.
As the coil to continues to rotate the rate of flux linkages increases till the position
90o is reached. At this position, as the coil sides are moving at right angle to flux lines
maximum emf are generated in them.
In the next quarter revolution, ie., from 900 to 1800, the rate of change of flux
linkages decreases, hence, emf induced gradually decreases and becomes zero at position
of 1800. So, we find that in first half revolution of coil, the emf induced in it increases
from zero and becomes maximum at 900 and again decreases to zero . The direction of

12
current according to Flemings left Hand Rule is ABMLCD. The direction of current
through the load resistance is from ‘M’ to ‘L’.

In the next half revolution, ie., from 180 0 to 3600, the variations in induced emf
are similar to those in first revolution, but in opposite direction ie., from L to M in
external load resistance. So, it is cleared from above that the basic nature of emf induced
in d.c generator is also alternating. To convert this alternating current into unidirectional,
slip rings are replaced by ‘Split rings’ or ‘Commutator’.

A two segment commutator is shown. A commutator is made out of conducting

cylinder which is cut into segments and these segments are insulated from each other by a
thin sheet of mica insulation.
The operation of above simple loop generator is explained here with Commutator.
Even the segments ‘a’ and ‘b’ change their positions along with coil sides, the direction
of current through external resistance will be maintained always from M to L as shown
and it is found to be unidirectional.

13
 The direction of current is always positive irrespective of position of
coil as shown below. The above wave form
is with a single coil. The above wave form
is with a single coil. If more no. of coils are
placed in series between brushes( as in a
practical generator), the output wave form
approaches d.c as shown. As no. of series
coils between two brushes increases, the ripple content reduces and resultant voltage
increases.

14
Construction:
The main parts of a .c machine are represented below.

1.Yoke:
The outer frame is called yoke which provides mechanical support to the poles
and acts as protective cover for the whole machine. It also acts as return path for flux
produced by poles. Hence, it must be made with a magnetic material ie., cast iron. But.
for larger machines, rolled steel is employed. The yoke is not laminated as it carries a
fixed amount of flux in a fixed direction.
2. Pole Cores and Pole Shoes :
The pole shoes serve two purposes.
i) they spread out the flux in the air gap and also being of larger cross
section, reduces the reluctance of the magnetic circuit.
ii) They support the field coils.

15
 The pole cores and pole shoes are built of thin laminations of annealed steel to
reduce the eddy current loses. ( any metal which has got mechanical stresses has more
eddy current losses). The thickness of lamination varies from 1mm to 0.25 mm.
3. Field Coils:
The field coils or pole coils re made with copper wire. When current is passed
through these coils, they magnetize the poles which produce required flux.
4. Armature Core:
It houses armature conductors or coils and causes them to rotate and hence cut
the magnetic flux produced by poles. Its most important function is to provide a low
reluctant path from ‘N’ pole to ‘S’ pole through armature. This is made up of circular
laminations of silicon steel. The thickness of laminations will be maintained around
0.5mm. generally Varnish insulation is placed between the laminations. The armature is
provided with air ducts to permit the axial flow of air though armature core for necessary
cooling.
5.Brushes and Bearings:
The function of brushes is to collect currents from commutator. These are made
up of Carbon or Graphite.
6. Armature Windings :
If a single conductor is rotated in a magnetic circuit, it may produce very low
voltage which may not sufficient for many purposes. To produce high value of emfs,
many n. of conductors must be rotated simultaneously. These conductors are connected in
series/parallel pattern to get required voltages and currents. This combination of
conductors is called ‘Armature winding’.
There are two types of armature windings viz. 1. Lap winding and 2.Wave
winding. Before going to discuss these windings clearly, we define few terms.
1. Homo-Polar and Hetero-Polar machines :
Homo-Polar machines are machines in which all poles are similar ie., either
North poles or south poles whereas in hetero polar machines, the poles are alternatively
North and South. No Commutator is required in homo-polar machines. Iron losses are
almost zero as there is no flux reversals. These machines require two slip rings per
conductor and are suitable for low voltages. These machines are expensive.

16
 In Hetero-Polar machines, Commutator is required as emf induced in a conductor
changes when it passes from one pole to next pole . End connections are easy to make
( no crossings) . These are cheap comparatively and hence normally used.
2. Pole Pitch :
It may be defined as the distance measured in terms of armature slots or
conductors between two adjacent poles. If there are 48 conductors and 4 poles in a
48
machine. Then, the pole pitch Y p = = 12 slots or 1800 electrical.
4
3.Conductor:
The effective length of a wire lying in the
magnetic field and in which an mf is induced is called as
‘Conductor’.
The two conductors AB and CD along with their
end connections constitute one coil of armature winding.
The coil may be single turn or multi turn coil. A single
turn coil has two conductors whereas a multi turn coil
has two coil sides and there are many conductors per
coil side.
Since, the ‘start’ of one coil is connected to the
‘finish’ of next coil and this point is connected to a
commutator bar, no. of commuator segments is equal to the no. of coils. Minimum no. of

17
commutator segments is two. Single coil also requires two segments otherwise the coil
will be short-circuited.

4. Coil-Pitch or Coil-Span or Back Pitch :

This is the distance measured in
coil sides or armature slots between two
coil sides connected at the back end of
armature ( commutator end is called
front end and other end is called back
end) to forma coil.
If coil span is equal to the pole
pitch, then, that armature winding is
called ‘Full-pitched’. In this case, the

18
coil span is equal to 1800 (elec). If the coil span is less than the pole-pitch (or 1800elec),
then, the armature is said to be short pitched. Similarly, if coil-span is more than pole-
pitch or 1800 elec, that armature winding is ‘Over-pitched’.
5. Front-Pitch (YF) :
The distance measured in terms of armature slots spanned by a coil on
commutator end is called ‘Front-pitch’.
6. Resultant Pitch (YR):
The distance between the start of one coil to the start of next coil to which the end
of first coil is connected.
7. Commutator Pitch (YC):
It is the distance between two commutator segments to which the ends of a coil
are connected. And also no. of commutator segments is equal to the no. of coils.
If YC = +1, the winding is progressive and if is -1, that winding is retrogressive.
And also, for lap winding, YC = 1,2,3,4 etc for Simplex, Duplex, Triplex, Quadruplex etc.
Types of Armature winding :
Two types of armature windings are most commonly used in D.C machines. They
are 1. Lap winding and 2. Wave winding.
1. Lap winding :
In a Lap winding, the finishing end of one
coil is connected to (lapped on ) the start of adjacent
coil situated under the same pole. This is shown for
a single turn coil in figure. It is cleared from figure
that the Resultant pitch YR is given by
YR = YB ~ YF
If YB >YF, the winding is progressive
winding and if YB < YF, the winding is said to be
retrogressive. Coils in lap winding are continuously
connected as per the above rule and in end it closes
on to itself. In this process, all coils are connected.
In lap winding, a particular a coil at any time includes the conductors covered by one pair
of poles only.

19
Example : Draw the lap winding diagram in developed form for a 4-pole, 12 slots
armature with two coil sides /slot. Assume single turn coils, indicate the
number and position of brushes on commutator. Also identify total umber of
parallel paths.
Solution : No. of ploes (P) = 4
No. of conductors = Z = 12 x 2 = 24
No. of commutator segments = C = 12
Z 24
Pole Pitch = YP = = =6
P 4
YB + YF
Average Pitch Yave = = YP or YB + YF = 2 x6 = 12
2
And for simplex progressive winding , YB − YF = 2

By solving above two equations, YB = 7 and YF = 5

Using above information, the developed winding diagram is drawn.
All coil sides or belt under one pole have emfs induced in them in the same
direction and the pattern alternates.
Parallel paths or Brushes :
The three coils ( 1-8, 3-10,5-12) are located under one pole pair and are in series
so that their emfs add up. This constitute one parallel path. Similarly, the coil groups ( 7-
14,9-16,11-18), (13-20,15-22,17-24) and (19-2,21-4,23-6) are series connected under
successive pairs of poles respectively. There are four parallel paths. The total no. of
brushes is found to be also 4. It is therefore concluded that the total no. of parallel
paths(A) and no. of brushes (B) in a lap winding is equal to the no. of poles (P) ie., A=P.
The above discussion is represented as a closed ring in following diagram and the
following inferences are drawn.
1. The no. of commutator segments is equal to the no. of coils ie., 12
2. No.of brushes = no. of parallel paths = P = 4
3. Brushes are placed at magnetically neutral axes
4. Two Equalizer bars are used to avoid circulating currents ( this number is
obituary)

20
Equalizer Rings :
The poles in a d.c machine can not be made identical exactly so as to achieve
same value of flux under every pole. Any dissymmetry among poles leads to inequalities
in parallel path emfs. As a result, the potential of the positive and negative brush sets are
no longer equal so that circulating current flows through armature paths via brushes to
equalize brush voltage even though armature is not connected to load and causes for
continuous power loss. It also causes unbalance loading of parallel paths when armature
is loaded. The circulating current interferes with commutation process and results serious
sparking at brushes.

The remedy is to allow the circulating currents to flow through the low
resistive paths called ‘equalizer rings’. These bars are placed at back end of armature and
are rotating along with armature winding. Several sets of equi-potential points are
connoted to these rings. Now, the circulating currents will flow through the low resistive

21
equalizer rings instead of armature parallel paths and hence losses are avoided. These
circulating currents are alternating. Equipotential points are 3600 (elec) apart and it is too
expensive to use them equal to no. of equipotential points. A much small number is
employed in actual practice ( P/2 nos). Refer developed winding diagram.
2.Wave winding :
In wave winding, the finish end of one coil under one pair of poles is
connected to the start of coil under next pole pair as shown figure.

The process is continued till all the conductors are included and the winding
closes on to itself. The winding has appearance of wave and hence it has got the name. In
this winding, the coils are divided into two groups. All the coils of clockwise direction
are series connected and all conductors of anti-clockwise direction constitute second
group. These two groups are connected in parallel because the winding is closed. Thus a
wave winding has always two parallel paths and hence two brushes irrespective of no. of
poles. That is A = 2.
Example : For 6-pole d.c machine with 16 slots having two coil sides per slot and single
turn coils, calculate relevant pitches for a wave winding and draw a
developed winding diagram and also show the brush position.
Z ± 2 16 x 2 ± 2
Solution : Average Pitch ( YA) = = = 5 (considering –ve sign)
P 6
Taking YA = YB = YA = 5 , the developed winding diagram is drawn.

22
 It is observed that the armature winding has two parallel branches.
Conductors16 and 32 have negligible emfs as they are not covered by any pole. The
direction of currents through these conductors are determined by that of conductors 11
and 27 respectively.
The no. of parallel paths and brushes is always 2 irrespective of no. of poles.
The generator emf is equal to the emf produced in any of two parallel paths.
The armature conductors of each parallel path are under the influence of all
poles so that the effect of magnetic dissymmetry is equal in two parallel paths resulting
equal parallel path emfs. Thus equalizer rings are not required for wave connected
machines.
It not possible to make wave winding for any no. of slots ( as in case of lap
winding ). When requirements of winding are not met with the standard armature slots
available in armature winding shops, ‘Dummy Coils’ or ‘Idle Coils’ are used. These coils
are not included in electrical circuit, but these are used to provide simply the mechanical
balance to the armature. For example, no. of armature slots on a available armature is 15,
each containing 4 sides and no. of poles being 4. for simplex wave winding,
Z ± 2 (15 x 4 ) ± 2
YA = = = 15.5 or 14.5 which does not give integer.
P 4
We make one coil dummy so that we have 58 effective conductors. Then,
58 ± 2
YA = = 14 or 15 which makes winding possible.
4
Choice between Lap and Wave windings :
Let us consider a d.c machine having 100 conductors and 4 pole. When these
conductors are rotated at rated speed, each conductor can produce an emf of 2 V and each
can carry a current of 5 A. All these conductors can be connected in Lap or Wave pattern.
a) when conductors are connected in Lap :
There are four parallel paths and each path having 25 conductors. Total emf
induced in any one parallel path is 25x2=50 V and total current can be supplied by it is
4x5= 20 A.

23
b) When conductors are connected in Wave :

There are two parallel paths and each path having 50 conductors. Total emf
induced in any one parallel path is 50x2=100 V and total current can be supplied by it is
2x5= 10 A. So, it concluded from above discussion that for low voltage high current
requirements, the windings are connected in Lap whereas for high voltage, low current
applications, wave connection is preferred.

24
Comparison between Lap and Wave connections :
S.No Lap Winding Wave Winding
1 The front and back pitches are odd The front and back pitches are odd and of
and of opposite sign same sign

2 YB and YF can not be equal YB and YF can be equal

3 YB + YF Z ±2
Average pitch = YA = which Average pitch = Y A =
2 P
Z
is equal to pole pitch =
P

4 Resultant Pitch YR= YB~YF Resultant Pitch YR= YB + YF

5 No. of commutator segments is No. of commutator segments is equal no.

equal no. of coils of coils

6 No. of armature parallel paths = No. of armature parallel paths = 2

No.of poles.

7 No.of brushes = A = P No.of brushes = 2

8 Equalizer Rings are required Equalizer Rings are not required

9 Dummy coils are not required Dummy coils are required

10 Low Voltage and high current High Voltage and low current

11 More expensive Comparatively less expensive

25
Emf equation of D.C generator or Emf generated :

Let ‘Φ’ be the flux per pole

‘Z’ be the total no. of
conductors
=No. of slots x no. of
conductors per slot
‘P’ be the no. of poles
‘A’ be the no. of parallel paths
‘N’ be the speed of prime-
mover
‘e ‘ be the ave. emf induced in a
conductor
dφ
Therefore, ave. emf induced per conductor e =
dt
Let the conductor ’A’ be moving through a distance of one pole pitch. So, it links
with flux of φ Weber. So, dφ = φ . Since, the conductor ‘A’ is moving at ‘N’ rpm, it
takes one minute to complete ‘N’ revolutions.
60
For one revolution, it takes . sec and it covers ’P’ no. of pole pitches in this
N
60
time. Hence, the time taken for covering one pole pitch = dt = . sec .
NP
dφ φ φNP
Therefore, Emf generated / Conductor e = = = Volts
dt ⎛ 60 ⎞ 60
⎜ ⎟
⎝ NP ⎠
Emf generated out of generator = E = Emf induced per conductor x No. of
conductors per parallel path
φNP Z φZN P
E= x = x
60 A 60 A

26
 Where A = 2 for Wave connected generator
A = P for Lap connected generator
Example : A Four Pole generator having wave connected armature has 51 slots, each slot
containing 20 conductors. What will be the generated emf in the machine when
driven at 1500 rpm assuming the flux per pole as 7 mwb.
Solution : No. of poles = P = 4
Total no. of conductors = Z = No. of slots x conductors per slot
= 51 x 20 = 1020
Flux per pole = Φ = 7 x 10-3 wb
Speed of prime-mover = N = 1500 rpm
No. of parallel paths = A = 2 ( since wave connection )
φZN
P 7 x10 −3 x1020 x1500 x 4
Then, Emf generated = E = x = = 178.5 V
60 A 60 x 2
Circuit model :
The parallel paths of d.c machine
armature are symmetrical and each has an
induced emf ‘Ea’ and a resistance ‘Rp’. The
armature can be represented by a circuit
model with voltage ‘Ea’ and a series
resistance ‘Ra’ as shown.
Rp
Where Ra =
A
The circuit model I shown below.

The armature is designed to have very low resistance to minimize the copper
losses and voltage drop due to armature resistance ( since it carries heavy currents ). The

27
field coil is placed at 900to the brush axis as per actual
arrangement in the machine. From the circuit point of
view, it is not necessary to follow this scheme rigidly.
The inductance effect is neglected.
φZN P
Where E g = x
60 A
Therefore, the terminal voltage ‘V’
V = E g − I a Ra − B.D

Where I a Ra is voltage drop due to armature

resistance and B.D is brush drop due to contact resistance at brushes. The voltage drop at
brush-commutator contact is fixed (1-2V) , independent of Ia as the conduction process is
mainly through numerous short arcs. Generally this resistance is included in armature
resistance Ra.
Two modes of operations of a d.c machine :

Types of D.C generators :

One of the three basic requirements of a d.c generator is magnetic field. This field
can be obtained from a permanent magnets. But for getting control over flux, electro-
magnets are used. The process of giving current to field winding so that flux is produced
is called ‘Excitation’. Generators are usually classified according to the manner in which
their field coils are excited. Generators may be divided into two types. They are
1. Separately excited D.C generators
2. Self excited D.C generators

28
1. Separately excited generators :
These Separately excited generators are generators whose field windings are
excited from a separate d.c source as shown. It is called voltage excitation. There
will be no electrical connection between armature and field windings.
Vf
If =
Rf

φ ∝ If

Eg ∝ I f N

V = E g − I a Ra − B.D

2. Self-excited generators:
These generators are excited by the currents generated by generators themselves.
Hence, some electrical connection exists between field and armature windings. There
are three types of self excited generators named according to the manner in which
their field coils are connected with armature windings
a) Shunt Generator :
The field winding is connected to the armature in parallel or shunt and have
the full voltage of generator applied across it. It is also called voltage
excitation. The following figure shows the connection diagram.

29
 V
I sh =
Rsh

φ ∝ I sh
I a = I sh + I a

E g ∝ φN

V = E g − I a Ra − B.D

b) Series Generator :
In this case, field winding is connected in
series with the armature winding. As it carries full
load current, it consists of relatively less number of
turns of thick wire. Hence, the resistance of series
field winding is less.
I se = I a = I L

φ ∝ I se
V = E g − I a Ra − I se R se − B.D

C) Compound Generators :
These generators have both series and shunt field windings. These generators can
be long shunt or short shunt compound generators.

30
In long shunt compound generators,
I a = I se

I a = I L + I sh

V
I sh =
Rsh

V = E g − I a Ra − I se R se − B.D

= E g − I a ( Ra + Rse ) − B.D

In Short shunt Compound generators,

I L = I se

I a = I se + I sh

V AB E g − I a Ra V + I se Rse
I sh = = =
Rsh Rsh Rsh

V = E g − I a Ra − I se R se − B.D

= E g − I a ( Ra + Rse ) − B.D

Another classification of compound generators is

i) Cumulative compound and ii) Differential compound generators

If the series field flux and aids the shunt field

flux, s that resultant flux increases, then, that generator
is said to be cumulatively compounded.

If series field flux opposes the shunt field flux so

that the resultant flux is decreased, then, the generator is
said to be differentially compounded. The emf generated
in a cumulatively compounded generator is more than
that of differential compound generator for same prime-
mover speed and armature conductors.

31
Example: A shunt generator delivers 450 A at 230 V and the resistance of shunt field
and armature are 50 Ohm and 0.03 ohm respectively. Calculate generated emf.
Solution :

V 230
Shunt field current = I sh = = = 4 .6 A
Rsh 50

Armature Current I a = I L + I sh = 450 + 4.6 = 454.6 A

Generated Emf E g = V + I a Ra + B.D = 230 + (454.6 x0.03) + 0 = 243.6 V

Example : In long shunt compound generator, the terminal voltage is found to be 230 V
when it delivers 150 A to a load. Determine i) Induced emf in armature ii) Total
power generated . Given that shunt, series and armature resistances are 92 ohm,
0.015 ohm and 0.032 ohm respectively.
Solution :
Shunt field current = Ish
V 230
= = = 2 .5 A
Rsh 92

I a = I L + I sh

= 150 + 2.5 = 152.5 A

E g = V + I a (Ra + Rse )

= 230 + 152.5(0.032 + 0.015) = 237.16 V

Power generated Pg = E g I a = 237.16 x152.5 = 36.16 KW

32
Example : A 4 pole lap wound d.c shunt generator has a useful flux per pole of 0.07 wb.
The armature winding consist of 220 turns each of 0.004 ohm resistance.
Calculate the terminal voltage when running at 900 rpm if the armature current is
50 A
Solution :
No. of poles = P = 4
Flux per pole = φ = 0.07 wb
Total no. of turns = 220
Total no. of conductors = Z = 220 x 2 = 440
No. of parallel paths = A = 4 ( since lap connection )
220
No. of turn per parallel path = = 55
4
Resistance of each path = R p = 55 x 0.004 = 0.22 ohm

Rp 0.22
Armature resistance Ra = = = 0.055 ohm
A 4
φZN P 0.07 x 440 x900 x 4
Emf generated E g = x = = 462 V
60 A 60 x 4
Terminal Voltage V = E g − I a Ra = 462 − (50 x0.055) = 459.25 V

Example : A Separately excited d.c generator when running at 1200 rpm supplies 200 A
at 125 V to a circuit of constant resistance. What will be the current when speed
of generator dropped to 1000 rpm and field current reduced to 80 % ? Assume
armature resistance is to be 0.04 ohm and total brush drop to be 2 V.
Solution :
Armature resistance
Ra = 0.04 ohm

Load-resistance RL
125
RL = = 0.625 ohm
200
Total Brush drop = 2 V

33
 Generated voltage under normal conditions is given by
E g = V + I a Ra + B.D = 125 + (2000.04 ) + 2 = 135 V

And, this E g ∝ φ .N or 135 ∝ φ .1200 ---------- 1

Now, the speed is reduced to 1000 rpm and fild current and hence, flux reduced to
80 %. Then, E g 2 ∝ 0.8φ1000 = φ .800 ----------- 2

2 Eg2 Eg2 800.φ

Then, = = = or E g 2 = 90 V.
1 Eg 135 1200.φ

90 − 2
The load current for these conditions, I 2 = = 132.33 A
0.04 + 0.625
Example : A 6 pole d.c generator runs at 1200 rpm on no load and has a generated emf of
250 V. its armature diameter is 350 mm and radial air gap between the field poles
and armature is 3 mm. the axial length of the pole is 260 mm and the field pole
effective coverage is 80 %. If armature has a 96 coils having 3 turns per coil and
is wound duplex lap. Calculate i) flux per pole ii) effective pole arc length iii) air
gap flux density.
Solution ;
Generated emf E g = 250 V

No. of armature parallel paths =

A = P x plex = 6 x 2 = 12
( duplex)
Total no. of conductors = Z = 96 x 3 x 2
= 576
φZN P
Since, E g = x
60 A
φ .575.1200 6
250 = x
60 12
φ = 0.0434 wb
350
Inner radius of pole shoe circle = + 3 = 178 mm
2
Circumference = 2.π .178 = 1118.4 mm

34
 1118.4
Length of pole pitch = = 186.4 mm
6
Effective pole arc = 186.4 x0.8 = 149.12 mm
Pole surface area = 149.12 x 260 = 38771.2 mm2
φ 0.0434
Therefore, air gap flux density = = = 1.119 x10 −6 wb/mm2.
A 38771.2

Different losses in a D.C machine :

As a d.c machine is responsible for electro-mechanical energy conversion through
a coupling magnetic field, three varieties of losses viz., electrical ( ohmic ), mechanical
(friction) and magnetic ( iron) losses occur. These losses are further divided into:
1. Copper losses :
This loss is due to flow of current through different windings having some
resistance and these are current dependent. These losses are sub-divided into;
a. Armature Copper loss : This due to armature resistance and is equal to I a2 Ra

b. Shunt field Copper loss : This due to shunt field resistance and is equal to I sh2 Rh

c. Series field Copper loss : This due to series field resistance and is equal to I se2 R se

There fore, total Copper losses = I a2 Ra + I sh2 R sh + I se2 I se2

These losses are about 20 to 30 % of full load losses.
2. Magnetic Losses :
These losses are also known as iron losses or Core losses and are associated with
reversing flux. There are two types of iron losses.
i) Hysteresis loss and ii) Eddy current loss
These losses are about 20 to 30 % of full load losses.
a) Hysteresis Loss ( Wh):

35
 These losses are due to reversal of
magnetization of armature core. Every portion of
armature core passes through N and S poles
alternatively, hence, armature core subjected to
magnetic reversals, and require coercive force to
nullify residual flux for each reversal. So, this
energy required for this purpose is nothing but a loss
which is due to the property of hystereses, this loss
is called hystereses loss. The friction between dipoles when the magnetic material
subjected to magnetic reversals is also include in this loss. The empirical formula for this
loss is as follows.
Wh = η .Bmax
1 .6
. f .v watts

Where η is Steinmetz Hystereses Coeff.

Bmax is Max. flux density
f is frequency of magnetic reversals
PN
=
120
v is volume of core in m3.
These losses are minimized by selecting a magnetic material having a very low
hysteresis loop area.

b) Eddy Current losses :

When armature core rotates, it also cuts with the magnetic flux along with
armature conductors. Hence, an emf is induced in armature core. Even though these emf
are of very small magnitude, they cause for large currents in the body of core due to its
larger diameter. These currents take the shapes of eddies, hence, these currents are called
‘Eddy currents Ie’. The power loss ( I e2 Rc ) due to these currents are called ‘Eddy Current
losses’. Where ‘Rc’ is the resistance of core to these eddy currents.
The empirical formula for eddy current losses is We = K .Bmax
2
. f 2 .t 2 .v 2 watts

Where K is a constant

36
 Bmax is maximum flux density
t is the thickness of lamination
v is the volume of core material in m3
f is the frequency of magnetic reversals.
Eddy current losses are minimized by increasing the electrical resistance of the
core without affecting its magnetic properties. To increase its resistance, the core is
laminated as shown below. The laminations are insulated from each other by mica
insulation.

As the thickness of lamination decreases, the eddy current los also decreases. The
material used for armature core must be a good magnetic conductor and at the same time,
it must be a very poor electrical conductor. But, unfortunately, all magnetic conductors
are electrical conductors too.
3.Mechanical losses :
These losses are i) friction losses at bearings and commutator
ii) air friction losses
Usually, magnetic losses and mechanical losses are collectively known as ‘Stray
losses’.
Power Stages :

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 B Eg I a
Mechanical Efficiency = η m = =
A Mech.input
C V .I L
Electrical Efficiency = η e = =
B Eg I a
C V .I a
Overall Efficiency or Commercial efficiency = η o = =
A Mech.input

= η m .η e

Example : A long shunt generator running at 1000 rpm supplies 22 KW at a terminal

voltage of 220 V. Armature resistance = 0.05 ohm, shunt field resistance = 110
ohm and series field resistance = 0.06 ohm. The Overall efficiency at the above
load is 88 %. Find i) Copper losses ii) iron and friction losses. Also find electrical
power generated in armature and electrical efficiency.
Solution :
22 x10 3
Load current = I L = = 100
220
Shunt field current = Ish
220
= =2 A
110
I a = I L + I sh = 100 + 2 = 102 A

Armature Cu. Losses = I a2 Ra = 102 2 x 0.05 = 520.2 watts

Series field Cu. Losses = I se2 Rse = 102 2 x0.06 = 624.24 watts

Shunt field Cu. Losses = I sh2 R sh = 2 2 x110 = 440.00 watts

Total Cu. Losses = 1584.44 watts

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Electrical power generated in armature = E g I a

= (220 + 102 x(0.06 + 0.05))x102

= 23.584.KW
220.KW
Electrical Efficiency = x100 = 93.28 %
23.584.KW
22
Overall Efficiency = = 0.88
Mech.input
22
Then, Mechanical input = = 25 KW
0.88
Friction and Windage losses = mech. Input – elect. Power generated
= 25 − 23.584 = 1.416 KW
Eg I a 23.584
Mechanical efficiency = x100 = x100 = 94.33 %
Mech.input 25

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