Chapter : HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE

Topic: Human Reproduction

Reproduction in Human Being: Human beings show sexual reproduction. Male

parent produces male gametes called sperms. Female parent produces female
gametes called ova. Sperms have tail and are therefore, motile. They are produced
in large numbers in the testes. Ovum is bigger, non-motile and only one ovary
produces one ovum in one month. There is no food stored in the sperms whereas
ova contain stored food. Both the gametes are microscopic unicellular and have half
the number of chromosomes as compared to the body cells. Male Reproductive
System: Male reproductive system consists of the following components

• 1 pair of testes
• A system of ducts
o Epididymis
o Vas deferens or the sperm duct
o Urethra
• A system of glands
o Seminal vesicles
o Prostrate gland
o Cowper’s gland
• A copulatory organ called a penis.

TESTES : One pair of testes are present in a bag-like structure called scrotum
which lies outside the abdominal cavity, hence they are extra abdominal in position.
This is so because the testes have to be maintained at 1-3 degree lesser
temperature than the body in order to produce functional sperms. Each TESTIS is
made up of 150 -200 seminiferous tubules which are lined by two types of cells :
germ cells and sertoli cells. Germ cells undergo the process of spermatogenesis and
give rise to the formation of sperms whereas sertoli cells or nurse cells provide
nourishment to the developing sperms

In between the seminiferous tubules are present interstitial cells or Leydig cells
which secretes testosterone.
Function of testes

• To produce male gametes i.e. the sperms.

• To produce a male reproductive hormone called testosterone which is
responsible for producing sperms as well as secondary sexual characteristics
in males.

EPIDIDYMIS : Attached to each testis is a highly coiled tube called epididymis. The
sperms are temporarily stored for 6to 8 hrs in epididymis and they undergo
physiological maturation in the .

VASA DIFFERENTIA : Each epididymis leads into the sperm duct or the vas-
deferens. Each vas-deferens rises up and enters into the abdominal cavity. It unites
with the duct coming from the urinary bladder to form a common duct called urethra
which passes through the penis and opens to the outside. Along the way the ducts of
the three glands also open and pour their secretions into the vas deferens.

Function of the vas-deferens: It is meant for the passage of the sperms in the male
body.

Functions of the glands: They produce different secretions which provide nutrition
as well as medium for locomotion to the sperms.
The secretions of the three glands along with the sperms is known as semen.

Function of the urethra: It is the common passage for both semen and urine from
the body to. the outside.

Penis: It is the organ which is used to introduce semen into the female body. It is
richly supplied with blood vessels.

Female Reproductive System: It consists of the following components

• 1 pair of ovaries
• 1 pair of fallopian tubes or oviducts
• A uterus/womb
• A vagina/birth canal.
 OVARY : Each ovary is almond shaped and present inside the abdominal cavity.
At the time of birth each girl child already contains thousands of immature ova.
These ova start maturing only from the time of puberty. Each ovary is lined by
germ cells which undergo the process of oogenesis to form ova. Only one ovum
is produced by one ovary in one month and each ovary releases an ovum in
alternate months. The release of an ovum from the ovary into the abdominal
cavity is known as ovulation.

Functions of ovary

• To produce and release ova

• To produce female reproductive hormones: estrogen and progesterone.

FALLOPIAN TUBE OR OVIDUCT : There are two fallopian tubes. The end lying
close to the ovary has finger like structures called fimbriae which open into ampulla
where the egg is fertilized.The two fallopian tubes unite to form an elastic bag like
structure called uterus.

Function : It is the site of fertilization between the male and the female gametes and
formation of the zygote early embryo.

UTERUS : It is a pear shaped , highly muscular, sac like structure consisted of three
layers : outer perimetrium which forms the protective covering , middle myometrium
which undergoes forceful contractions during parturition under the secretion of
hormone oxytocin and inner endometrial lining which is richly supplied with blood
vessels and forms a connecting link between the mother and foetus called as
placenta . The narrow end of the uterus is called cervix.

Function: The embryo formed in the fallopian tube comes down and gets attached
to the endometrium (implantation) and develops for the next nine months till the baby
is delivered.

Vagina: The uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix. The vagina is a
muscular tube through which the baby is delivered at the end of nine months. It also
serves as the canal for receiving the semen at the time of copulation.

The semen is discharged into the vaginal tract during copulation. The sperms travel
upwards and reach the fallopian tube where one sperm fuses with the ovum to form
the zygote. The zygote divides and redivides as it descends into the uterus and the
embryo gets implanted in the endometrium. The endometrium thickens so as to
receive the embryo.

The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue
called placenta, which is a disk-like structure embeded in the uterine wall. It contains
finger-like villi on the embryo side, while on the mother’s side blood spaces surround
the villi. Villi provides a large surface area for glucose and oxygen to pass from the
mother to the developing embryo and the wastes to pass from the embryo to the
mother through the placenta. When the embryo starts resembling a human is
formed, it is termed as a foetus. The foetus continues
to develop inside the uterus for almost nine months after which the baby is delivered
as a result of rhythmic contractions of the uterine muscles.

Menstruation: It is the loss of blood, mucous along with the unfertilized ovum and
the ruptured cells and tissues of the endometrium through the vagina of the female.
It is a 28-day cycle which occurs in every reproductively active female (from
puberty). The flow of blood continues for 2 to 8 days. If the ovum does not get
fertilized, then the endometrium starts sloughing off and there is loss of blood and
mucous etc. through the vagina. In case the ovum gets fertilized, then the
endometrium becomes thick and spongy for nourishing the embryo and hence
menstruation does not occur. A lady with a developing embryo in her womb is
termed as pregnant. The beginning of menstruation at puberty is known as
menarche. The stopage of menstruation when the woman is 45-55 yrs of age is
called menopause.

Reproductive Health: Sexually transmitted diseases and birth control.

A number of diseases occur as a result of sexual intercourse if one of the partners is
infected. These are known as sexually transmitted diseases (STD’s). They can be
caused by bacteria for example; syphilis, gonorrhoea; or caused by a virus for
example; HIV-AIDS, warts etc. The transmission of these diseases can be avoided
by using birth control measures such as wearing a condom during the sexual act.

Birth control measures: They can be mechanical, chemical and surgical.

Mechanical methods: These are used to prevent the passage of semen to the
follopian tube :
(i) Use of condoms: Condoms are thin rubber tubes worn over the penis before
sexual intercourse. The semen gets collected in this and is not discharged into the
vagina.
(ii) Diaphragm: It is a thin rubber fixed over a flexible metal ring which is fitted over
the cervix in a woman’s body by a doctor.
(iii) Intra Uterine Contraceptive Device (IUCD) or loop: It is inserted in the uterus and
its insertion causes certain secretion which prevents the implantation of the embryo
in the uterine wall.
Both methods (ii) and (iii) cause side effects.

Chemical methods

• Use of spermicides: These are strong sperm-killing chemicals available in the

form of creams, jellies etc. which are injected into the vagina just before
copulation.
• Oral contraceptive pills: These are hormonal pills which prevent ovulation but
do not stop menstruation.

Surgical methods

• Vasectomy: It involves cutting and ligating the vas deferens in males.

• Tubectomy: It involves cutting and ligating Reproductive organs the fallopian
tubes in females.
• Medical termination of pregnancy (MTP) or abortions is carried out to eliminate
the developing embryo. This practice can, however, be misused to carry out
female foeticide which involves the killing of the female foetus. It should be
avoided at all cost as it disturbs the male-female ratio in a population.