RADIATION PHYSICS Work- force applied on an object over a

distance
Basic Physics Terminology
Power-rate of doing work (measured in
Matter -has form or shape and occupies
watts)
space
Atomic Structure
Mass - amount of matter in an object;
generally considered the same as weight Atomic nucleus- contains protons
(positive charges) and neutrons (no
Energy-ability to do work
charge); contains most of the mass of an
Potential energy- energy of position atom

Kinetic energy- energy of motion Atomic mass- number of protons plus

number of neutrons; represented by the
Chemical energy- energy resulting from a
letter A
chemical reaction
Electron shells- contain orbital electrons
Electrical energy- energy resulting from
(negative charges); represented by the
movement of electrons
letters K, L, M, N, O, P, and Q; in a stable
Thermal energy- heat energy resulting atom, the number of electrons and
from movement of atoms or molecules protons is equal Atomic number of an
atom equals the number of protons in the
Nuclear energy- energy resulting from
nucleus; represented by the letter Z; the
the nucleus of an atom
atomic number determines the chemical
Electromagnetic energy- energy that is element; all chemical elements are
emitted and transferred through matter represented in the periodic table of
elements
Ionizing radiation- electromagnetic
radiation that is able to remove an Isotopes - atoms with the same number
electron from an atom of protons but with a different number of
neutrons
Ionization- removal of an electron from
an atom Electron-binding energy- force that holds
electrons in orbit around the nucleus
Measurement Standards
Octet rule- outer shell of an atom may
Length- meter
not contain more than eight electrons
Mass-kilogram
Particulate radiation- alpha particles
Time- second (helium nucleus—two protons and two
neutrons); beta particles (electronlike
SI system meter, kilogram, second
particles emitted from the nucleus of a
MKS system meter, kilogram, second radioactive atom)

CGS system centimeter, gram, second Characteristics of Electromagnetic

Radiation
British system foot, pound, second
Photon- smallest amount of any type of
Velocity (speed)- how fast an object is electromagnetic radiation;also considered
moving a bundle of energy called a quantum;
Acceleration -rate of change of speed per travels at the speed of light; travels in
unit of time waves in a straight path
Sine waves- waves of electromagnetic Laws of electrostatics -unlike charges
radiation; wave height is called amplitude; attract, and like charges repel;
distance between the peaks of waves is electrostatic charges reside on the outer
called wavelength; as photon wavelength surface of a conductor and are
decreases, photon energy increases concentrated at the area of greatest
curvature; only negative charges move
Frequency- number of wavelengths
passing a given point per unit time; Methods of electrification friction, contact,
measured in hertz (Hz) Speed of travel and induction
electromagnetic radiation travels at the
Conductor- material that allows the free
speed of light (186,000 miles per second);
flow of electrons
travel at the speed of light is constant,
regardless of wavelength or frequency; Insulator- object that prohibits the flow of
wavelength and frequency of electrons
electromagnetic radiation are inversely
Electrical current- movement of electrons
proportional
along a conductor or pathway (electrical
Gamma rays- electromagnetic rays circuit); measured in amperes
produced in the nucleus of radioactive
Electromotive force (EMF)- measured in
atoms; x-rays and gamma rays differ only
volts; the force with which electrons
in their origin
move in an electrical circuit
Wave-particle duality-concept that
Electrodynamics-electrical charges in
although x-ray photons exist as waves,
motion
they exhibit properties of particles
Semiconductor- material that may act as
Attenuation- partial absorption of the
an insulator or conductor under different
energy of an x-ray beam as it traverses
conditions
an object
Electrical resistance- measured in ohms
Inverse square law- law that governs the
intensity of x-radiation; states that the Ohm’s law -voltage in the circuit is equal
intensity of the x-ray beam is inversely to the current × resistance
proportional to the square of the distance
Electrical circuits- path along which
between the source of the x-rays and the
electrons flow; may be wired as series
object
circuits or parallel circuits
Law of conservation of matter- matter
Alternating current (AC)- electrical circuit
cannot be created or destroyed, only
in which the currentof electrons oscillates
changed in form
back and forth
Law of conservation of energy - energy
Direct current (DC)- unidirectional flow of
cannot be created or destroyed, only
electrons in an electrical conductor
changed in form
Sine wave- representation of electron
Principles of Electricity and Magnetism
flow as alternating current
Electrostatics- stationary electrical
Magnetic field-energy field surrounding
charges (static electricity)
an electrical charge in motion; can
Electrification- movement of electrons magnetize a ferromagnetic material, such
between objects as iron, if the material is placed in the
magnetic field
Magnetic poles-every magnet has a north Three-phase alternating current- special
pole and a south pole wiring patterns (“wye,” “star,” “delta”)
used to create voltage waveforms that
Laws of magnetics- like poles repel, and
are placed 120 degrees out of phase with
unlike poles attract; the force of
one another; these voltage waveforms are
attraction between poles is governed by
called three-phase; three-phase
the inverse square law
waveforms may have 6 pulses per cycle
Electromagnetism- movement of or 12 pulses per cycle; three-phase, 6-
electrons in a conductor produces a pulse waveforms contain 360 pulses per
magnetic field around the conductor; a second; three-phase, 12-pulse
coiled conductor (i.e., a wire), through waveforms contain 720 pulses per
which an electrical current is flowing, has second; high-frequency generators
overlapping magnetic fields produce highfrequency electricity
(thousands of hertz)
Solenoid- stacks of wire coil through
which electrical current flows, creating Electrical motor- device that converts
overlapping force field lines; a magnetic electrical energy to mechanical energy
field is concentrated through the center
Transformer- changes electrical voltage
of the coil Electromagnet solenoid with an
and current intohigher or lower values;
iron core that concentrates the magnetic
the transformer operates on the principle
field
of mutual induction, so it requires
Electromagnetic induction -process of alternating current
causing an electrical current to flow in a
Step-up transformer -transformer that
conductor when it is placed within the
increases voltage from The primary to
magnetic field of another conductor; two
the secondary coil and decreases current
types of electromagnetic induction are
in the same proportion; a step-up
self-induction and mutual induction
transformer has more turns in the
Self-induction- opposing voltage created secondary than in the primary coil; a
in a conductor by passing alternating step-up transformer is used in the x-ray
current through it circuit to increase voltage to the
kilovoltage level for x-ray production
Mutual induction- inducing current flow in
a secondary coil by varying the current Step-down transformer- transformer that
flow through a primary coil decreases voltage from the primary to the
secondary coil and increases current in
Electrical generator-device that converts
the same proportion; a step-down
mechanical energy to electrical energy;
transformer has more turns in the primary
usual output of an electrical generator is
than in the secondary coil; a step-down
alternating current
transformer is used in the filament
Single-phase, two-pulse- alternating portion of the x-ray circuit to increase
current simplest type of current; voltage current flow to the cathode
(and accompanying current) flows as a
Autotransformer-transformer that
sine wave; voltage begins at zero, peaks
contains an iron core and a single winding
at full value at the crest of the wave,
of wire; an autotransformer is used in the
returns to zero, reverses, and again
x-ray circuit to provide a small increase
peaks on the inverse portion of the cycle
in voltage before the step-up
at the trough
transformer; the kVp settings are made at
the autotransformer
Rectification- process of changing electron moves through the
alternating current to direct current electrical potential difference.
Electricity
Line voltage compensation- x-ray circuit
depends on a constant source of power; • Thermal energy- is the energy of
power coming into the radiology motion at the atomic and molecular
department may vary; line voltage level. Temperature
compensator keeps incoming voltage
• Nuclear energy- energy contained
adjusted to proper value; usually operates
in the nucleus of an atom.
automatically but may be manually
adjusted on older equipment • Electromagnetic energy- energy in
an x-ray. Radiation.
“CONCEPT OF RADIOLOGIC SCIENCE”
Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence
Matter
equation:
is anything that occupies space and has
E= energy
mass
m= mass
A primary, distinguishing characteristic of
matter is mass (measured in kilograms) c=speed of light in a vacuum
MASS VS. WEIGHT • It is the basis for atomic bomb,
nuclear power plants and nuclear
• Mass- is the quantity of matter
medicine imaging.
described by its energy
equivalence.
Electromagnetic radiation or Radiation
• Weight- is the force exerted on the
body under the influence of gravity. • Is the transfer of energy.
ATOM VS. MOLECULES • Energy emitted and transfer
through space.
• Atom- fundamental building blocks
of matter. Ionizing vs. Non-ionizing Radiation
• Molecules- complex building blocks • R-M-I-V=U-X-G
of matter
Ionizing radiation
Energy
• Kind of radiation capable of
• Is the ability to do work. removing/ejecting an orbital
electron from the atom with which
• Measured in Joule
it interacts.
Types of Energy
Ionization
• Potential energy- is the ability to
• Occurs when an x-ray passes close
do work by virtue of position.
to an orbital electron of an atom
• Kinetic energy- energy of motion and transfers sufficient energy to
the electron to remove it from the
• Chemical energy- energy released
atom.
by chemical reaction.
• Removal of an electron from an
Types of Energy
atom.
• Electrical energy- represents the
work that can be done when an
Product of Ionization Roentgen discovered x-rays by accident
• Ion pair: negative ion and positive Working with crooks tube and barium
ion platinocyanide plate
• Example of ionizing radiation: x- • “x”- mathematical symbol for
ray, gamma ray and UV light “unknown”
• Example of particle type ionizing • Crookes tube- the forerunner of
radiation: alpha and beta particle modern fluorescent lamp and x-ray
tubes.
•
• William Crookes- Crookes tube
Sources of Ionizing Radiation
• February 1896 first medical x-
1. Natural environmental radiation/
ray image
Background radiation
• Bertha Ludwig’s hand
2. Man-made radiation/Artificial radiation
Natural environmental radiation/
General types of x-ray examination
Background radiation
1. Radiography- fixed image
• Cosmic ray (29mrem) - sun and
star (high altitude and latitude) 2. Fluoroscopy- moving/dynamic image
• Terrestrial radiation (29mrem) - Development of Modern Radiology
uranium, thorium, radionuclide
• 1896-Michael Pupin- intensifying
(geology)
screen
• Internal deposited radionuclides
• 1896-Thomas A. Edison-
(39mrem) – potassium 40
Fluoroscopy
• Radon (198mrem) - concrete,
• 1904-Clarence Dally Madison- first
bricks, gypsum wallboard
x-ray fatality in the United States
• =295mrem
• 1904-Charles L. Leonard- double
Man-made radiation/Artificial radiation emulsion film
• (60-65mrem) • Early 1900s-William Rollins-
collimator and filtration
• Diagnostic/medical x-ray
• 1907-H. C. Snook- interrupter less
• Nuclear power generator
transformer. Snook transformer
• Research application
• 1913-William Coolidge- Coolidge
• Industrial source tube

• Consumer’s items (watch dial, exit 1921-Hollis E. Potter- Potter- Bucky grid
sign, smoke detector, camping was introduced
lantern mantles, and airport
1946- Bell amplifier tube
surveillance.
• 1960-Sonography
Discovery of X-ray
• 1970- PET and CT
• Discovery was accidental
• 1980- MRI, Digital and PACS
• November 8, 1895
 • Today Fusion technology and • Measure of the effect of radiation
Magnetoencepholography (MEG) and is defined as the energy
absorbed by a unit mass of a
substance
Basic Radiation Protection
• J/kg
Because of effective radiation protection
1 rad = 100 erg/g
practices, radiology is now a safe
occupation!!. 1 rad = 10-2 Gy
• ALARA- As Low As Reasonably Erg or joule- unit of energy
Achievable.
Kg/gram- unit of mass
• Cardinal principle- Shielding, time,
distance
Rem  Sievert (Sv)
• Filtration
• Radiation Equivalent Man
• Collimator
• Dose equivalent
• Intensifying screen
• Effective dose
• Protective apparel
• Equivalent dose
• Gonadal shielding
• Used to express the quantity of
• Protective barrier
radiation received by radiation
worker and population
RADIOLOGIC QUANTITIES AND UNITS • J/kg/min
Roentgen (R)  Air Kerma (Gya) • 1 Sv = 100 rems
• The Roentgen is the unit of • 0.01 Sv = 10 mSv = 1 rem
radiation exposure or intensity
Curie (Ci) Bequerel (Bq)
• Amount of radiation and is defined
• Curie is the unit of radioactivity
as the charge liberated per unit
mass of air • Number of nuclear disintegrations
per unit time.
• Applies only to x-ray and gamma
rays and their interaction with air 1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 Bq
• Kinetic Energy Released per unit 1mCi = 3.7 x 107 Bq
Mass
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICS
• C/kg
Physics
9 3
1R = 2.08 x 10 ip/cm
• Is the study of interactions of
-4
1R = 2.58 x 10 C/kg matter and energy in all their
diverse forms.
Rad  Gray (Gyt)
• Exactness and certainty in
• Radiation Absorbed Dose
describing interaction.
• Radiation Absorbed by a patient
Base Quantities
Mass (kg)
Length (m) • Newton or pound unit British, unit
of weight.
Time (s)
Time (second)
Derived Quantities
Old unit
Energy
• 1 second  rotation of the earth on
Power (W)
its axis-the mean solar day
Work (J)
SI unit
Momentum (kg-m/s)
• 1 second  vibration of atoms of
2
Force (Kg∙m/s ) or N cesium atomic clock

Velocity (m/s) Mechanics

Acceleration (m/s2) Is a segment of physics that deals with

object at rest (statics) and objects in
Special Quantities
motion (dynamics)
• Exposure
Velocity (v)/ Speed
• Absorbed dose
Is a measure of how fast something is
• Effective dose; dose equivalent moving or, more precisely the rate of
change of its position with time
• Radioactivity
V= d/t
Length (meter)
• v= velocity (m/s)
Old unit
• d= distance (m)
• 1meter distance between 2 lines
engraved on platinum-iridium • t= time (s)

SI unit Example 2: What is the velocity of a ball

that travels 60 m in 4 sec.?
• 1meter  wavelength of orange
light emitted from an isotope of V= d/t
krypton86
V= 60m/4sec
• 1meter  distance travelled by
V= 15m/s
light
Average velocity (Ṽ)
• 1 meter  1/ 299, 792, 468 sec.
Ṽ= Vₒ + Vf
Mass (kilogram)
2
Old unit
Ṽ= average velocity
1 kilogram  1000cm3 of water in
platinum-iridium cylinder. V0 = initial velocity

SI unit Vf= final velocity

• 1 kilogram  1000cm3 of water at Example: A dragster running a race starts

4˚c from rest and finishes with a 80 m/s
velocity. What is the average velocity of
• Kilogram unit of mass
the dragster?
 Ṽ= Vₒ + Vf • Force can be thought of as a push
or pull on an object.
2
• F= ma
Ṽ= 0 m/s + 80 m/s
Newton’s Third Law: Action/ Reaction
2
• For every action, there is an equal
Ṽ= 40 m/s
and opposite reaction
Acceleration (a)
• “Action” was Newton’s word for
• The rate of change of velocity with “force”. According to this law, if
time you push on a heavy block, the
block will push back on you with
It is how quickly or slowly the velocity is
the same force that you apply.
changing
Force (F)
m/s2
• Newton (N)
a = Vf - Vo
• Kg∙m/s2
t
• F=ma
Example: What is the acceleration of the
dragster? Given: Vf = 80m/s ; t= 10.2 s • F= force
• m= mass

a = 80 m/s – 0 m/s • a= acceleration

10.2 s Force (F)

Example: find the force on a 55kg mass
accelerated at 14m/s2
a = 7.8 m/s2
F= 55kg x 14 m/s2
Newton’s Law of Motion
F= 770 N
1686; English scientist Isaac Newton
presented the 3 principles that even Weight (N) or (Pounds)
today are recognized as fundamental laws
• is a force on a body caused by the
of motion
downward pull of gravity on it.
Newton’s First Law: Inertia
• Wt = mg
A body will remain at rest or continue to
• Wt= weight
move with constant velocity in straight
line unless acted on by an external force • m= mass
(push/friction)
• g= gravity
• Gravity of earth = 9.8 m/s2
Newton’s Second Law: Force
• Gravity of moon = 1.6 m/s2
• The force (f) on acting on an
object is equal to the mass (m) • 1 lb= 4.5 N
object multiplied by the
Example: A student has a mass of 75kg.
acceleration (a) produced.
What is her weight on the earth? On the
moon?
Earth: • Joule/sec (Watt) SI unit
Wt= 75 kg x 9.8 m/s2 • Horse power (hp)  British unit
Wt= 735 N • Is the rate of doing work
Moon: • Is the quotient of work by time
Wt= 75 x 1.6 m/s2 • P= w/t
Wt= 120 N • P= Fd/t
Momentum (p) • P= (ma)(d)/t
Is the product of mass and velocity Example: A radiographer lifts a 0.8 kg
cassette from the floor to the top of a
The total momentum before any
1.5m table with an acceleration of 3m/s2.
interaction is equal to the total momentum
What is the power exerted if it takes 1.2
after the interaction
s?
p= mv
Given: mass = 0.8 kg
p=momentum
Distance= 1.5 m
m= mass
Acceleration= 3 m/s2
v= velocity
Time= 1.2 sec.
Work (w)
F= ma
• Joule
F= 0.8 kg x 3 m/s2
• The work done on an object is the
F= 2.4 N
force applied times the distance
over which it is applied.
• Work is the product of force and w= Fd P= w/t
distance
w= (2.4N) x (1.5m) P= 3.6 joule / 1.2
• w= Fd sec
• w= Fd w= 3.6 Joule P= 3
joule/sec
• w= (ma) x d
P= 3 watt
• w= work
Energy
• F= force
• Is the ability to do work
• d= distance
• Energy may be transform from one
Example: Find the work done in lifting an
to another but it cannot be created
infant patient weighting 90N (20 lbs) to a
nor destroyed.
height of 1.5m.
• Joule.
W= Fd
• The unit of energy and work is the
W= 90N x 1.5m
same, the joule.
W= 135 joule
2 forms of mechanical Energy
Power (P)
Kinetic energy
 • Energy at motion Convection
KE= __1__ • Is a mechanical transfer of hot
molecules in a gas or liquid from
2mv2
one place to another.
Potential energy
• A steam radiator or forced-air
• Stored energy of position/ furnace warms a room by
configuration convection.

• PE= mgh • Heat is convected from the housing

of an x-ray tube to air.
• PE= potential energy
Radiation/ Thermal radiation
• m= mass
• Is the transfer of heat by emission
• g= gravity
of infrared radiation.
• h= height
• An x-ray tube cools primarily by
Example: A radiographer holds a 6kg x- radiation.
ray tube 1.5m above the ground. What is
Temperature
its potential energy?
• Thermometer
PE= 6kg x 9.8 m/s2 x 1.5 m
• Temperature scale: Celsius,
PE= 88 kg∙m2/s2
Fahrenheit, Kelvin
Heat
• Celsius : C= 5/9 (F-32)
• Is the kinetic energy of the random
• Fahrenheit: F= 9/5 C + 32
motion of molecules.
• Kelvin: K= C +273
• The unit of heat, the “calorie”, is
defined as the heat necessary to
raise the temperature of 1g of
THE ATOM
water through 1˚C.
Atom
• The heat is transfer by conduction,
convection, and radiation. Is the smallest part of an element
that has all the properties of the elements.
Centuries of discovery
Conduction
1. Greek atom
• Is the transfer of heat through a
material of by touching • Democritus
• Molecular motion from a high- • Atom meaning
temperature object that touches a
• “indivisible”
lower-temperature object equalizes
the temperature of both. • A= not
• Hot water + cold water = lukewarm • Temon= cut
• Heat is conducted from an x-ray Centuries of discovery
tube anode through the rotor to
1. Greek atom
insulating oil
• Matter
 • 4 substances • 1913- Niels Bohr
• earth, water, air and fire • “Miniature solar system”
• 4 basic essences • Bohr atom contains a small, dense,
positively charged nucleus by
• wet, dry, hot, and cold
negatively charged electrons that
2. Dalton atom revolve in fixed, well defined orbits
about the nucleus.
• 1808- John Dalton
• “Miniature solar system”
• “Eye and hook affair”
5. Quantum mechanics
Dmetri Mendeleev  arranged the
periodic table in order of increasing Newer model
atomic mass.
Fundamental Particles
Group 1 alkali metal- soft metals that
Electron (-)
combine readily with oxygen and react
violently with water. Proton (+)
Group VII halogen- easily vaporized Neutron (o)
and combines with metals to form water-
1. Proton
soluble salts.
• Protons are positively charged
Group VIIInoble gases- are highly
particles found in the atomic nucleus.
resistant to reaction with other elements.
• Discovered by Eugene Goldstein
Experiments done in the late 1960's
3. Thompson atom
and early 1970's showed that protons
1890- J.J. Thompson are made from other particles called
quarks. Protons are made from two
“Plum Pudding”
'up' quarks and one 'down' quark.
Plum-represented negative electric
2. Neutron
charges (electron)
• Neutrons are uncharged particles
Pudding- shapeless mass of uniform
found in the atomic nucleus.
positive electrification.
• Neutrons were discovered by
4. Rutherford atom
James Chadwick in 1932.
• 1911- Ernest Rutherford
• Experiments done in the late 1960's
• “Nuclear model” and early 1970's showed that
neutrons are made from other
• Described the atom as continuing a
particles called quarks. Neutrons
small dense, positively charged
are made from one 'up' quark and
centre surrounded by a negative
two 'down' quarks.
cloud of electron.
3. Electron
• He called the center of the atom
“nucleus” • Electrons are negatively charged
particles that surround the atom's
• Nuclear model
nucleus. Electrons were discovered
5. Bohr atom by J. J. Thomson in 1897.
 • Electrons determine properties of • If an atom has an extra electron or
the atom. Chemical reactions had an electron removed, it is said
involve sharing or exchanging “ ionized”
electrons.
• Atoms cannot be ionized by the
• Nucleus addition or subtraction of protons
because they are bound very
• The nucleus is the central part of
strongly together and that would
an atom. It is composed of protons
changed the type of atom
and neutrons.
• An alteration in the number of
• The nucleus contains most of an
neutrons does not ionize an atom
atom's mass.
because the neutron is electrically
• It was discovered by Ernest neutral.
Rutherford in 1911.
The number of neutrons is always greater
Proton and neutron than the number of protons. The larger
the atom, the greater the abundance of
Called nucleons.
neutrons over protons.
Inside the nucleus
Composed of Quarks that are held Electron Arrangement
together by Gluons
2n2
The primary difference between proton
n= where n is the shell number.
and neutron is “ electric charge”
physicists call the shell number n the
When an atom or molecule gain or loses
principal quantum number
an electron it becomes an ion.
• Oxygen has 8 electrons; 2 occupy
A cation has lost an electron and
the k shell and 6 occupy the L
therefore has a positive charge
shell. Oxygen is in the 2nd period
An anion has gained an electron and and the 6th group of the periodic
therefore has a negative charge. table.

Atomic Structure • The number of electrons in the

outer shell of an atom is equal to its
• The atom is essentially empty
group in the periodic table.
space
• The number of electrons in the
• The atom is neutral
outermost shell determines the
• The number of protons determines valence of an atom
the “chemical elements”
• The number of the outermost
• The closer an electron is to the electron shell of an atom is equal to
nucleus, the higher its binding its period in the periodic table.
energy.
No outer shell can contain more than 8
• The total number of electron in the electrons (Octet Rule)
orbital shells is exactly equal to the
Periodic table:
number of proton in the nucleus.
8 Groups (vertical) / column
7 Periods (horizontal) /row
Centripetal force or • Atoms that have the same number
but different atomic mass numbers
“center seeking”
are isotopes
Force that keeps an electron in orbit.
Protium Deuterium Tritium
Centrifugal force or “flying out from the
Isobar (A)
center”
Atomic nuclei that have the same atomic
Force that keeps the electron maintains
mass number but different atomic number
their distance from the nucleus travelling
in a circular or elliptical path. Isotones (n)
Atoms that have the same number of
Electron binding energy neutrons but different number of protons
• The strength of attachment of an Isomers
electron to the nucleus.
• Isomers have the same atomic
• The greater the total number of number and the same atomic mass
electron in an atom, the highly each number.
is bound.
• Isomers are identical atoms except
Atomic Nomenclature that they exist at different energy
state because of differences in
• A- atomic mass number
nucleon arrangement.
(z + n= A (whole #) )
Combinations of Atoms
• Z- atomic number (# of proton
1. Covalent bonds (sharing)
- # of neutron) (A-N=Z)
2. Ionic bonds (giving)
• n- number of neutron (A-Z=n)
Covalent bonds (sharing)
• The number of protons(Z) plus the
number of neutron(n) of an atom is • Example: H₂O
called atomic mass number,
• Characterized by the sharing of
symbolized by A
elements.
• The atomic mass number is a whole
• Oxygen and hydrogen combine into
number.
water through covalent bonds.
• The atomic mass number and the
• Oxygen has six electrons in its
precise mass of an atom are not
outermost shell. It has room for two
equal.
more electrons, so in a water, two
• An atom’s atomic mass number is a hydrogen atoms share their single
whole number that is equal to the electrons with the oxygen.
number of nucleons in the atom.
135
• Ba has A=135 because its
Ionic bonds (giving)
nucleus contains 56 protons and 79
neutrons. The atomic mass of 135Ba • Example: NaCl
is 134.91amu.
• Sodium and chloride combine into
salt through ionic bonds.
Isotopes (Z)
 • Sodium has one electron in its • photons are energy disturbance
outermost shell. Chloride has space moving through space at the speed
for one more electron in its of light (c)
outermost shell. The sodium will
• The velocity of EM photons in
give up its electron to the chlorine.
British units is 186, 400 miles/sec
When it does, it becomes ionized
or the speed of light (c)
because it has lost electron and
now has an imbalance of electric • 186, 000 miles per sec or 186, 400
charges. miles per sec
Radioactivity • c= 3x108 meter/sec
Is the emission of particles and energy in Amplitude
order to become stable.
• Is one-half the range from crest to
valley over which the sine wave
Radioactive disintegration/ Radioactive varies.
decay
• Although photons have no mass and
To reach stability the nucleus therefore no identifiable form, they
spontaneously emits particles and energy do have electric and magnetic
and transforms itself into another atom. fields that are continuously moving
in sinusoidal fashion or sine wave.
Frequency (f)
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
The rate of rise and fall of a sine wave is
PHOTONS
called frequency. It is usually identified as
• Are known as electromagnetic oscillations per second or cycle
energy per second. The unit of measurement is
the Hertz (Hz).
• is the smallest quantity of any type
of electromagnetic radiation 1Hz = 1 cycle/ sec.
• Small bundle of energy, sometimes Wavelength ( or lambda)
called quantum
• the distance from one crest to
• Ex: x-ray and light energy another crest; from one valley to
another valley; or from any point
Photons
on the sine wave to the next
Properties of photons: corresponding point is the
wavelength
• frequency
• frequency and wavelength is
• wavelength
inversely proportional
• velocity
V= velocity of light (c)
• amplitude
f= frequency
• Electromagnetic radiation James
= wavelength
Clerk Maxwell

INVERSE SQUARE LAW

Velocity
 • the intensity of light is inversely is reduced by one forth, and
proportional to the square of the conversely when the distance is
distance of the object from the halved, the intensity is increased by
source a factor of four.
I1 = ( d2)2
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
I2 (d1)2
• Continuum of electromagnetic
energy
• If the source of radiation is not a
• Electromagnetic spectrum has
point but rather a line, such as
three regions of importance to
fluorescent lamp, the inverse
radiography:
square law does not hold at
distance close to the source visible light
• At great distance from the source, radiofrequency (RF)
the inverse square law can be
x-radiation (ionizing radiation)
applied.
The only difference among photons of
• As a rule, the inverse square law
these various portions of EM spectrum is
can be applied to distance greater
in the FREQUENCY and WAVELENGTH
than seven times the longest
dimension of the source. The EM spectrum contains 3 different
scales:
• The intensity of x-ray beam is
400mR at 36 inches. What will the energy (electron volt)
intensity be at 72 inches?
wavelength (meter)
frequency (hertz)
I1 = 400mR
• The velocity of all EMR is constant,
d1= 36 in but wavelength and frequency are
inversely related. In addition, the
I 2= x
energy contained in each photon is
d2= 72 in directly proportional to the
frequency.
INVERSE SQUARE LAW Visible Light
I1 = ( d2)2 When sunlight passes through a prism it
emerges not as white light but as the
I2 (d1)2
color of the rainbow
2
400mR = (72in)
Refraction deviation in the line of
2
x (36in) travel. Ex. Rainbow

5184 x = 518400 White light passing through a prism is

refracted because it is composed of
5184 5184
photons of a range of wavelength.
x= 100mR
red (700nm)  violet (400nm)
• When the distance from the source
sunlight also contains 2 types of invisible
is doubled, the intensity of radiation
light: infrared light and ultraviolet light
Infrared consists of photons with are explained by using the wave model of
wavelengths longer than those of visible EMR.
light
Visible light can similarly interact with
Ultraviolet is located in EM spectrum matter. Reflection from silver surface of a
between visible light and ionizing mirror is common. Examples of
radiation. transmission, absorption and attenuation
of light are equally early to identify.
ROYGBIV
Attenuation partial absorption of energy
Radiofrequency (Hz)
There are 3 degrees of interaction
• Electromagnetic radiation having
between light and absorbing material:
frequency from 0.3 kHz to 300GHz
1. transparency
• Because microwaves are also used
for communication, there is 2. translucency
considerable overlap between what
3. opacity
are identifiable as RF and as
microwaves. Particle Model:
Quantum Theory
Ionizing Radiation
(x-ray) Unlike other portions of EM spectrum, x-
rays are usually identified by their energy
• Radiation capable of ionization
which is measured in electron volts (eV)
• The only difference between x-
x-rays:
rays and gamma rays is their
source of ORIGIN.
• X-rays are emitted from the Energy 1keV to 50MeV
electron cloud of an atom that has -9 -12
Wavelength 10 to 10 m
been artificially stimulated. Gamma
rays on the other hand, come from Frequency 10 18 to 1021 Hz
inside the nucleus of radioactive
atom.
PLANK’S QUANTUM THEORY
• X-rays are produced in electrical
Max Planck- German Physicist
machines, whereas gamma rays are
emitted spontaneously from He received novel Prize in 1918
radioactive materials.
Photons energy is directly proportional to
WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY the photon frequency
All radiation with wavelengths longer Plank’s constant (h)=
than that of x-radiation interact primarily -15
4.15 x 10 eV-s
as a wave phenomenon. X-rays behave as
though they were particles. or
The visible-light spectrum extends from 4.15 x 10 -18 KeV-s
short-wavelength violet radiation through
E (eV) = h x f
green and yellow to long wavelength red
radiation.
E (eV) = h x f
Many familiar phenomena of light, such as
reflection, absorption and transmission E= photon energy
h= Plank’s constant • The nucleus has positively charged
protons and neutral neutrons.
f= frequency
• Negatively charged electrons move
PLANK’S QUANTUM THEORY
around the nucleus at much
E= h x f greater distance.

E= hc Ordinary atoms are neutral because there

is a balance between the number of

positively charged protons and negatively
ELECTRICITY charged electrons.

ELECTROSTATIC Electric Charge

Is the study of electric charges in Electrons move from atom to atom to
stationary form create ions..
• The smallest units of electric positively charge ions result from the loss
charge are electron and proton. of electrons and are called cations.
The electron has one unit of
Negatively charge ions result from the
negative charge and the proton has
gain of electrons and are called anions.
one unit of positive charge.
• A neutral atom has no net charge
• The electric charge with electrons
because the numbers of electrons
and proton have the same
and protons are balanced.
magnitude but opposite signs.
•
(B) Removing an electron produces
Electric Charge and Electrical Forces:
a net positive charge; the charged
• Electrons have a negative electrical atom is called a positive ion
charge. (cation).
Protons have a positive electrical
•
charge.
(C) The addition of an electron
• These charges interact to create an produces a net negative charge and
electrical force. a negative ion (anion).
• Like charges produce repulsive
forces – so they repel each other Electrification can be created by the
(e.g. electron and electron or following:
proton and proton repel each
• Contact- a connection that causes
other).
the flow electron
Unlike charges produce attractive
forces – so they attract each other • Friction- a buildup of electron
(e.g. electron and proton attract caused by rubbing object together.
each other).
• Induction- using the electric field of
• A very highly simplified model of an a charged object to confer a charge
atom has most of the mass in a on an uncharged object
small, dense center called the
• An object is said to be electrified if
nucleus.
it has too few or too many
electrons. The most familiar
 example of such electric charge is • Associated with each electric
static electricity. charges is an electric field
• Electrification occurs when an • Uncharged particles do not have an
object becomes charged by the electric field
removal or additional of electrons
• The force of attraction between
• Matter is electrically neutral unlike charges or repulsion
because in the entire between like charges is due to the
universe the total number of electric field. It is called an electric
negative charges equals the force.
total number of positive
2. The addition or removal of electron is
charges.
called ELECTRIFICATION
The outer shell electrons of some types
3. Only negative charges can move in
of atoms however are loosely bounded
solids.
and can easily be removed.
4. Coulomb’s Law:
Removal of this electron electrifies the
substances from which they were Electrostatic force is directly
removed and result in static electricity. proportional to the product of the charges
and inversely proportional to the square
• Positive electric charges do
of the distance between them
not move. The transfer of
electrons from one object to Force Fields:
another causes the first to be
The condition of space around an object
positively electrified and the
is changed by the presence of an
second to be negatively
electrical charge.
electrified.
• The EARTH (electric ground)
The electrical charge produces a force
 behaves as a huge
field, that is called an electrical field since
reservoir for stray electric
it is produced by electrical charge.
charges.
5. Electric Charge Distribution
The smallest unit of electric charge is an
electron(-). When an object becomes
electrified, the electrical charges are
The fundamental unit of electrical charge
distribution throughout the object.
is the COULOMB (C)
18 Example: thunder cloud;
1 C = 6.3 x 10 electron charges
electrified copper wire
1C
6. Electrified Charge concentration
18
6.3 x 10 electric charges
Electric charges are concentrated
-19
= 1.6 x 10 C/electric charges along the sharpest curvature of the
surface.
Electrostatic Law: Ex: Electric Cattle rod
1. Unlike charges attract; like charges Electric Potential
repel
• Stored energy
 • has the ability to the work when • is the property of limited resistance
this energy is released to electron flow below critical
temperature
• the unit of electric potential is volt
(V) • allow the flow of electron without
any resistance
• Electric potential is sometimes
termed Electromotive force (EMF)
or VOLTAGE Electric Circuit
• 100V- house When the resistance is controlled and the
electron flow over a closed path, the
• 220V- x-ray
result is electric circuit
1. Ampere (A)
ELECTRODYNAMICS
Electric current are measured in Ampere
• the study of charges in motion
(A). The ampere measures the number of
• Electricity electron flowing in the electric circuit

• Electric current 1A = 1C/s

Four Electrical state of matter 2. Volt (V)

1. Conductors Electric potential is measured in volt (V)

matter through which electrons flow Ampere vs. Voltage

easily
Example – you could say that…
copper, aluminum, water
Amps measure how much water comes
Four Electrical state of matter out of a hose.
2. Insulators Volts measure how hard the water comes
out of a hose.
• matter that inhibits the flow of
electrons OHM’s Law ()
• glass, clay, earth like material Ohm’s Law states that the voltage across
the total circuit or any portion of the
Four Electrical state of matter
current is equal to the current times the
3. Semiconductors resistance

• William Shockley, 1946 V= I X R

• matter that under some conditions V (volt) = electric potential

behaves as an insulators and under
I (electric current) = ampere
other conditions act as a
conduction R (resistance) = Ohms

• Silicon and germanium Resistance

• transistors, microchip, computer • The opposition to the flow of an
technology electric current, producing heat.

Four Electrical state of matter • The greater the resistance, the less
current gets through.
4. Superconductivity
 • Good conductors have low • The sum of the voltage across each
resistance. circuit is equal to the total circuit
voltage
• Measured in ohms.
VT = V1 + V2 + V3
What Influences Resistance?
IT = I1 = I2 = I3
• Material of wire – aluminum and
copper have low resistance RT = R1 + R2 + R3
• Thickness – the thicker the wire Example: A series circuit contains three
the lower the resistance resistance elements having values of 8,
12 and 15. If the voltage is voltage
• Length – shorter wire has lower
110V. What is the total resistance?
resistance
Current? Voltage?
• Temperature – lower temperature
RT = 8 + 12 + 15 = 35
has lower resistance
IT = 110/ 35 = 3.14 A
What Influences Resistance?
V1 = (3.14 A) (8) = 25.12 V
Example: If a current of 0.5 A flows
through a conductor that has a resistance V2 = (3.14) (12) = 36.68 V
of 6. What is the voltage across the
V3 = (3.14) (15) = 47.10 V
conductor?
2. Parallel circuit
V= I x R
• Parallel Circuit – there are several
V= (0.5A) x (6)
branching paths to the components.
V= 3V If the circuit is broken at any one
branch, only the components on
that branch will turn off.
Two basis kinds of Electric Current
A parallel circuit contains elements that
• Series Circuit
bridge conductors rather than lie in
• Parallel Circuit
a line along a conductor.
1. Series circuit
Rules for Parallel Circuit:
Series Circuit: the components are lined
• The sum of the current through
up along one path. If the circuit is
each circuit element is equal to the
broken, all components turn off.
total circuit current.
In a series circuit, all elements are
• The voltage across each circuit
connected in a line along the same
element is the same and is equal to
conductor
the total circuit voltage
• The total resistance is inversely
Rules for Series Circuit: proportional to the sum of the
reciprocals of each individual
• The total resistance is equal to the
resistance.
sum of the individual resistance
VT = V1 = V2 = V3
• The current through each circuit
elements is the same and is equal IT = I1 + I2 + I3
to the total circuit current
1 =1 + 1 + 1
 RT R1 R2 R3 • P = I2 x R
Example: A parallel circuit contains three Example: The overall resistance of a
resistance elements having values of 8, mobile x-ray unit is 10. When plugged
12 and 15. If the voltage is voltage into a 110V receptacle. How many
110V. What is the total resistance? current does it draw? And many powers
Current? Voltage? are consumed?
1 =1 + 1 + 1 I= V/R
RT 8 12 15 I= 110/ 10
1 = 33 I= 11 A
RT 120 P= I x V
RT = 120 = 3.6  P= (11A) (110V)
33 P= 1210 W
IT = VT / RT OR:
IT = 110V / 3.6  P= I2 x R
IT = 30.6 A P= (11A) 2 x (10)
I1 = 110V / 8  = 13.8 A P= 1210 W
I2 = 110V / 12  = 9.2 A MAGNETISM
I3 = 110V / 15  = 7.3 A Magnetism is the properties and
interactions of magnets
VT = V1 = V2 = V3 = 110V
HISTORY:
There are 2 types of currents:
• Around 100 BC shepherds and
1. Direct Current (DC)
dairy farmers of village of
• Electrons flowing in one direction Magnesia (what is now Western
along the conductor Turkey) discovered magnetite.

• Where electrons flow in the same • Magnetite is a magnetic oxide of

direction in a wire. iron (Fe3 O4)

2. Alternating Current (AC) • This rod like stone would rotate

back and forth when suspended by
• Current in which electrons
a string. When it came to rest on
oscillates back and forth
the string, it supposedly pointed the
• electrons flow in different way to water. It is called a
directions in a wire lodestone or leading stone.

ELECTRIC POWER • Magnetite was also used as a

compass by ancient people
• Measured in Watts (W)
• From any spot on Earth,
• One watt is equal to 1A of current
magnetite pointed toward the North
flowing through an electric
Pole and following the lodestone
potential of 1V
north would lead to water.
• P= IxV
 • The word magnetism comes from placed in a magnetic field. These domains
the name of that amount village are typically composed of billions of
Magnesia atoms.
INTRODUCTION TO MAGNETISM
Electricity and Magnetism – how are they
In a magnet we have magnetic poles –
related?
the north and the south pole.
“When an electric current passes through
A North seeking pole is called the North
a wire a magnetic field is formed”. The
Pole.
direction of the magnetic field depends on
A South seeking pole is called the South the direction of the current in the wire
Pole.
Any charged particle in motion creates a
CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETS
magnetic field.
Magnets have two ends or poles, called Magnets are classified according to the
north and south poles. At the poles of a origin of their magnetic property.
magnet, the magnetic field lines are
closer together.
Magnetic Fields:
Types of magnets:
A magnet that is moved in space near a
1. Naturally Occurring Magnets
second magnet experiences a magnetic
field. Earth
A magnetic field can be represented by
Lodestone/ Leading stone/ magnetite
field lines.
The strength of the magnetic field is
greater where the lines are closer 2. Permanent Magnets
together and weaker where they are
• Compass
farther apart.
• Permanent magnets are typically
The earth's magnetic field. Note that the
produced by charging them in the
magnetic north pole and the geographic
field of an electromagnet
North Pole are not in the same place.
Note also that the magnetic north pole • The magnetic property of a magnet
acts as if the south pole of a huge bar can be destroyed by heating it or
magnet were inside the earth. You know even by hitting it with a hammer.
that it must be a magnetic south pole
• The individual magnetic domains
since the north end of a magnetic
are jarred from their alignment and
compass is attracted to it and opposite
thus become randomly aligned
poles attract.
again.
What are magnetic domains?
3. Electromagnets
Magnetic substances like iron, cobalt, and
• Consist of wire wrapped around an
nickel are composed of small areas where
iron core.
the groups of atoms are aligned like the
poles of a magnet. These regions are • When an electric current is
called domains. All of the domains of a conducted through the wire, a
magnetic substance tend to align magnetic field is created
themselves in the same direction when
 • The intensity of magnetic field is • A ferromagnetic material can be
proportional to the electric current. made magnetic by being placed in
the magnetic field lines of a
When an electric current is passed
magnet.
through a coil of wire (solenoid) wrapped
around a metal core, a very strong • Imaginary magnetic field lines are
magnetic field is produced. This is called called magnetic lines of induction
an electromagnet. and the density of the lines is
proportional to the intensity of the
All matter can be classified according to
magnetic field
the manner in which it interacts with an
external magnetic field. 4. Magnetic Force or Maxwell Field
Theory (Gauss Law)
1. Diamagnetic
Magnetic force is proportional to the
cannot be magnetized
product of the magnetic pole strength
non magnetic divided by the square of the distance
between them
they cannot be artificially magnetized and
they are not attracted to a magnet F= k P1 x P2

Ex: wood, glass, plastic d2

2. Ferromagnetic If the distance between two bar magnets

is halved, the magnetic force will be
• can be easily magnetized
increased by four times
• strongly attracted by a magnet and can
• The SI unit of magnetic field
be usually be permanently magnetized
strength is the Tesla or Gauss
by exposure to a magnetic field
• 1 Tesla= 10, 000 Gauss
• Ex: iron, aluminum, nickel, cobalt
(ALNICO), rare earth ceramics • The Earth’s magnetic field is
proximately 50T at the equator
3. Paramagnetic
and 100T at the poles
Materials lie somewhere between
ELECTROMAGNETISM
ferromagnetic and non-magnetic. they
are slightly attracted to a magnetic field ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE

Ex: gadolinium • Electricity and magnetism are

different aspects of same
MAGNETIC LAWS:
electromagnetic forces
1. Magnetic Dipoles
• Electromagnetic force is one of the
Every magnet no matter how small has fundamental forces of nature
two poles, north pole and south pole,
• The development of the battery led
equivalent to positive and negative
to an increased understanding of
electrostatic charges
Electromagnetic phenomena
2. Attraction and Repulsion
BATTERY
Just as with electrostatic charges, like
• discovered by Italian anatomist,
magnetic poles repel and unlike magnetic
Alessandro Volta, 1700s
poles attract.
3. Magnetic Induction
 • Using zinc and copper plates, he • A charge at rest produces no
succeeded in producing a feeble magnetic field. Thus electrons
electric current. To increase the flowing through a wire produce a
current, he stacked the copper-zinc magnetic field around the wire
plates similar to a Dagwood
• The direction of the magnetic field
sandwich to form what was called
lines can be determined by using
the Voltaic pile, a precursor of the
what is called RIGHT-HAND RULE.
modern battery.
• Imagine gripping the wire with the
• Each zinc-copper sandwich is
right hand. If the thumb is pointed
called a cell of a battery
in the direction of the current flow,
• Modern dry cells use a carbon rod the fingers of your hand will then
as the positive electrode curl in the direction of the magnetic
surrounded by an electrolytic paste lines. These same rules apply if the
housed in a negative zinc cylindrical current is flowing in a circular loop.
can.
Right hand rule:
• The battery is an example of
• A coil of wire is called a SOLENOID
Electromotive Force (EMF)
• An ELECTROMAGNET is a
• Any device that converts some
ferromagnetic materials wrapped in
form of energy into electric energy
a coil of wire.
is said to be a source of EMF or
stored electric energy • The magnetic field produced by an
electromagnet is the same as that
• EMF has units of joules per coulomb
produced by a bar magnet.
or volts
• The advantage of the
electromagnet is that its magnetic
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM field can be adjusted or turned on
and off simply by varying the
1820- Hans Oersted, Danish physicist,
current flow through its coil of wire
fashioned a long, straight wire supported
near a free-rotating magnetic compass.
LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
With no current flowing through the wire,
INDUCTION
the magnetic compass pointed north as
one would expect. First law: FARADAY’S LAW
When a current was passed through the Michael Faraday’s law says that an
wire, however, the compass needle electric current will be induced to flow in
swung to point straight at the wire. a circuit if some part of that circuit is in a
changing magnetic field.
• Oersted’s experiment demonstrated
that electricity can be used to Faraday’s concluded that an electric
generate magnetic fields. current cannot be induced in a circuit
merely by the presence of a magnetic
• This was evidence of a direct link
field. To induce a flow of current using a
between electric and magnetic
magnetic field, the magnetic field cannot
phenomena.
be constant but must be changing.
• Any charge in motion induces a
magnetic field.
Second law: LENZ’ LAW
1834, a Russian scientist, Heinrich Lenz only operates with a changing
expanded on Faraday’s work. He electric current (AC)
established the principle for determining
Transformer Law for Voltage:
the direction induced current flow.
VS = NS
Heinrich Lenz’ law states that induced
current flows in a direction such that it VP NP
opposes the action that induces it.
Transformer Law for Current:
There are 2 basic types of induction
IS = NP
(production of electricity in the magnetic
field): IP NS
1. Self- induction Transformer Law for Voltage and Current:
The induction of an opposing EMF in a IS = VP
single coil by its own changing magnetic
IP VS
field.
There are 125 turns on the primary side
2. Mutual-induction
of a transformer and 90, 000 turns on the
• The process of inducing a current secondary side. If 110V AC is supplied to
flow through a secondary coil the primary winding, what will be the
passing a varying current through voltage induced in the secondary
the primary coil. winding?
125X = 9,900,000 X= 79, 200V
ELECTROMECHANICAL AND
125 125 or X=
ELECTRONIC DEVICES
79.2 kV
Electric generator
Np = 125
In a electric generator a coil of wire is
Ns= 90,000
placed in a strong magnetic field between
two poles of a magnet Vp= 110
Converts mechanical to electrical energy Vs= x
2. Electric motor Vs = Ns
• In an electric motor the electric Vp Np
energy is supplied to the current
X = 90,000
loop to produce a mechanical
motion, that is the rotation of the 110 125
loop in the magnetic field
125X = 9,900,000 X= 79, 200V
• Converts electrical to mechanical
125 125 or X= 79.2 kV
energy
Types of transformers:
3. Transformer
1. Closed-Core Transformer
• Electric potential and electric and
electric current are changed to • The closed core transformer is a
higher or lower intensities. square doughnut of magnetic
material
• Transformer operates on the
principle of mutual induction, it will
 • The closed-core transformer is not • The part of the x-ray machine
a single piece but rather is a built- most familiar to the radiographer is
up slab of laminated layers of iron. the operating console
• This layering helps reduce energy • This apparatus allows the
losses caused by the heat built up radiographer to control the x-ray
by the changing magnetic field in tube current and voltage so that the
the transformer. useful x-ray beam is of proper
quantity and quality.
2. Autotransformer
• Quantity  refers to the number of
• An autotransformer consists of an
x-rays or the intensity of the beam
iron core with only one winding of
usually expressed in mR or mR per
wire.
mAs.
• This single winding acts as both the
• Quality refers to the penetrating
primary and the secondary winding.
quality of the x-ray beam and is
• The transformer is based on the expressed by kVp or half value
self induction rather than the layer.
mutual induction.
The following are some basic
• The autotransformer is not suitable controls that every panel has:
for the use as the high-voltage
• On/ off control
transformer in an x-ray machine
• mAs selection
3. Shell-type transformer
• kVp selection
• A shell-type transformer traps
even more of the magnetic field of • Table or wall unit activation
the primary winding and is thus a
• Exposure switch
more efficient transformer than
closed-core transformer. • Line compensation
• This type of transformer used in • mA meter
modern x-ray equipment.
• Automatic –exposure control (AEC)
4. Rectifier or phototiming
• Changes AC to DC LINE COMPENSATION
• Types of rectifiers: The line compensation incorporates a
meter to measure the voltage provided to
1. Vacuum-Tube rectifiers
the x-ray machine and a control to adjust
Ex: X-ray tube (cathode & anode) that voltage to precisely 220 volts.
2. Solid-state Rectifiers Required to stabilized voltage
N-type
P- type AUTOTRANSFORMER
The autotransformer is designed to
supply a precise voltage to the filament
The following are the three components of
circuit and to the high-voltage circuit of
the x-ray units
the x-ray machine.
OPERATING CONSOLE
The autotransformer works on the electrons are released by thermionic
principle of electromagnetic induction. emission.
Because the autotransformer operates as Filament normally operates at the current
an induction device, the voltage it receive between 3 to 6 amperes.
(the primary voltage) and the voltage it
Ip = Ns
provides (the secondary voltage) are in
direct relation to the number of turns of Is Np
the transformer enclosed by the
respective connections.
EXPOSURE TIMERS
The autotransformer law is the same as
the transformer law: Exposure timer cause the x-ray tube to
emit for a specific time as determined by
Vs = Ns
the radiographer or by an automatic
Vp Np exposure control
Vp = the primary voltage S= mAs
Vs = the secondary voltage mA
Np = the number of winding enclosed
by primary connections.
FIVE TYPES OF TIMING CIRCUITS
Ns = the number of winding enclosed
1. MECHANICAL TIMER
by secondary connections.
Mechanical timers are very simple
kVp ADJUSTMENT
devices used only in some portable and
Some older x-ray operating consoles dental units.
have labelled major kVp and minor kVp,
The mechanical timer operates by
and by selecting a combination of these
clockwork.
controls the radiographer can provide
precisely the required kVp. A present exposure time is dialled by
turning a knob that winds a spring. When
kVp determines the penetrating quality
the exposure button is depressed, the
of the x-ray beam
spring is released and unwinds. The time
Prereading voltmeter it allows the required to unwind corresponds to the
voltage to be monitored before an exposure time
exposure
Mechanical timers are inexpensive but
are not very accurate.
mA CONTROL They can be used only for exposure
times greater than 250 milliseconds.
The number of electrons emitted by the
filament is determined by the temperature 2. SYNCHRONOUS TIMER
of the filament.
A special type of electronic motor, known
The filament temperature is controlled as synchronous motor, is a precision
by the filament current, which is device designed to drive a shaft at
measured in Amperes (A) precisely 60 revolutions per seconds
(rps)
As filament current increases, the
filament becomes hotter and more
In some x-ray machines, synchronous CHECKING A TIMER
motors are used as timing mechanisms.
1. Spinning top
Machines with synchronous timers are
2. Oscillator
recognizable because the minimum
exposure time possible is 1/60 seconds. B. HIGH VOLTAGE GENERATOR
Synchronous timer cannot be used for The high voltage generator of an x-ray
serial exposures because they must be machine is responsible for converting the
reset after each exposure. low voltage from the electric power
company into a kilovoltage of the proper
3. ELECTRONIC TIMER
waveform
Electronic timers are the most
VOLTAGE RECTIFICATION
sophisticated, most complicated, and most
accurate of the x-ray exposure timers. Rectification is the process of
converting alternating voltage into direct
Electronic timers consist of rather
voltage and therefore alternating current
complex circuitry based on the time
into direct current
required to charge a capacitor through a
variable resistance. FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION
They allow a wide range of time intervals In a full-wave rectified circuit the
to be selected and are accurate to negative half cycle corresponding to the
intervals as small as 1 millisecond. inverse voltage is reversed so that a
positive voltage is always directed across
They can be used for rapid serial
the x-ray tube.
exposures. Today, most exposure timers
are electronic. HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION
4. mAs TIMER Represent a condition in which the
voltage is not allowed to swing negatively
Most x-ray apparatus is designed for
during the negatively half of its cycle
accurate control of tube current and
exposure time. The product of mA and SINGLE-PHASE POWER
time (mAs) determines the number of x-
Single-phase power results in pulsating
ray emitted
x-ray beam. This is caused by the
A special kind of electronic timer, called alternating swing in voltage from zero to
an mAs timer, monitors the product of mA maximum potential 120 times each
and exposure time and terminates the second under full wave rectification
exposure when the desired mAs is
THREE-PHASE POWER
attained.
With three-phase power, multiple voltage
5. AUTOMATIC EXPOSURE CONTROLS
waveforms are superimposed on one
It automatically terminates the exposure another, which result in a waveform that
when sufficient radiation to provide the maintains a nearly constant high voltage.
required optical density has reached the
HIGH VOLTAGE GENERATOR
image receptor.
The newest development in high-voltage
The x-ray exposure is terminated when a
generator design uses a high-frequency
preselected charge, corresponding to the
circuit
desired optical density, has been reached
by the photomultiplier VOLTAGE RIPPLE
Voltage ripple is the variation in peak Is the most frequent used system. It
voltage waveform: consists of two sets of rails mounted to
the ceiling directly over the radiographic
Half wave= 100% ripple
table.
Full wave = 100% ripple
Two sets of two-rails are mounted
Three phase six pulse = 13% ripple perpendicular to each other so that the
tube can move longitudinally along the
Three phase twelve pulse = 4%
length of the table and transversely in a
ripple
perpendicular direction to the length of
HIGH FREQ. GEN= 1% the table

The most efficient method of x-ray When x-ray tube is centered above the
production also has the waveform with examination table at the standard SID, the
the lowest voltage ripple. There are many x-ray tube is in a preferred detent
advantages to x-ray tube voltage position.
generated with less ripple. The principal
b. Floor-to-ceiling support system
advantages is the higher radiation
quantity and quality, which result from Has a single column with rollers at each
the more constant voltage to the x-ray end, one attached to a ceiling-mounted
tube The radiation quality is increased rail and other attached to a floor-mounted
with low-ripple power because there are rail.
fewer low-energy projectile electrons
c. C-arm support system
passing from cathode to anode to produce
low-energy x-rays. Interventional radiology suites often are
equipped with C-arm support system, so
POWER RATING
called because the system is shaped like
The parts of an x-ray unit are identified a “C”.
by their power rating in kW.
Power = amperes x volts
2. PROTECTIVE HOUSING
P= I x V
The protective housing guards against
excessive radiation exposure and electric
shock.
“X-RAY TUBE”
Those x-rays emitted through the
A. EXTERNAL STRUCTURE
window are called useful beam.
Support structure
X-rays that escape through the protective
Protective housing housing are leakage radiation; they
contribute nothing in the way of
Glass or metal envelope
diagnostic information and result in
B. INTERNAL STRUCTURE unnecessary exposure of the patient and
the radiologic technologist.
Anode
A proper design protective housing
Cathode
reduces the level of the leakage radiation
A. EXTERNAL STRUCTURE to less than 100mR/hr at 1m when
operated at maximum condition.
1. SUPPORT STRUCTURE
a. Ceiling support
The protective housing around some x- Without a focusing cup the electron beam
ray tubes contains oil that serves as both is spread beyond the anode because
an insulator against electric shock and as mutual electrostatic repulsion among the
a thermal cushion to dissipate heat. electrons
3. GLASS/ METAL ENVELOPE OR With a focusing cup, which is negatively
ENCLOSURE charged, the electron beam is condensed
and directed to the target.
30 to 50 cm long and 20 cm in diameter
size of x-ray tube Grid-controlled x-ray tube the focusing
cup is the grid and therefore the
Pyrex glass to enable to withstand the
exposure switch. Designed to be turned
tremendous heat generated.
on and off very rapidly
The enclosure maintains a vacuum inside
Filament current the tube current is
the tube. This vacuum allows for more
adjusted by controlling the filament
efficient x-ray production and longer tube
current.
life.
Cloud of electros, called a space charge,
B. INTERNAL COMPONENTS
makes it difficult for subsequent electrons
1. CATHODE to be emitted by the filament because of
the electrostatic repulsion. This
Is the negative side of the x-ray tube
phenomenon is called the space charge
a. FILAMENT effect. A major obstacle in producing x-
rays tube with currents exceeding
Is a coil of wire similar to that in a
1000mA is the design of adequate space-
kitchen toaster, except much smaller.
charge compensating devices.
Approximately 2mm in diameter
At a given filament current, tube current
1 or 2 cm long reaches a maximum level called
saturation current.
Made of Thoriated tungsten
Saturation current is not reached at a
Tungsten provides for higher
lower kVp because of space charge
thermionic emission than other metals.
limitation. When an x-ray tube is
34100C melting point of tungsten operated at the saturated current, it is
said to be emission limited.
The addition of 1% to 2% thorium to the
tungsten filament increases efficiency of Dual focus most diagnostic x-ray tube
thermionic emission and prolongs tube has two focal spots, one large and other
life. small.

Thermionic emission an x-ray tube The small focal spot is used when
filament emits electrons when it is better spatial resolution is required.
heated. When the current through the
SFS range from 0.1 to 1mm
filament is sufficiently high, the outer
electrons of the filament atoms are The large focal spot is used when large
“boiled off” and ejected from the filament body parts are imaged and when other
techniques that produce high heat are
b. FOCUSING CUP
required.
The filament is embedded in a metal cup
LFS range from 0.3 to 2mm
called the focusing cup
2. ANODE
The anode is the positive side of the x- Induction motor an electromagnetic
ray tube, it conducts electricity and induction motor is used to turn the anode.
radiates heat and contains the target. 2 parts (stator (outside) & rotor (inside)).
There are two types of anode: stationary Line-Focus Principle results in an
and rotating anode. effective focal spot size much less than
the actual focal spot size.
Stationary anode x-rays tubes are used
in dental x-ray imaging system, some By angling the target, one makes the
portable imaging system and other special effective area of the target much special
purpose units in which high tube current than the actual area of electron
and power are not required interaction.
General purpose x-ray tubes use the
rotating anode because they must be
capable of producing high-intensity x-ray
beams in a short time.
The anode serves 3 functions in the x-
ray tube:
1. electrical conductor
2. mechanical support When the target angle is made smaller,
3. thermal dissipator. the effective focal spot size is also made
smaller.
Target is the area of the anode struck
by the electrons from the cathode. The focal spot is the actual x-ray source.

Tungsten, rhenium, molybdenum, graphite, Biangular target two focal spot

rhodium (mammography) Anode Heel Effect the heel effect
results in smaller effective focal spot and
less radiation intensity on the anode side
Three main reasons : of the x-ray beam.
a. high atomic number (74);
b. thermal conductivity (an efficient
metal for dissipating heat);
c. high melting point 34000C, can
stand up under high tube current
without pitting or bubbling.
Rotating anode the rotating anode x-ray
tube allows the electron beam to interact
with as much larger target area.
Stationary anode 1 mm x 4 mm = 4mm2 The smaller the anode angle, the larger is
Rotating anode 2π (140) mm) x 4mm = the heel effect.
3519 mm2. Revolution per minute= In general, positioning the cathode side of
3410rpm to 10, 000 rpm the x-ray tube over the thicker part of
Stem molybdenum, because it is poor the anatomy provides more uniform
heat conductor. optical density on the film
Extrafocal radiation some of the Bremsstrahlung x-rays can be considered
electrons bounce off the focal spot and radiation resulting from the braking of
then land on the other areas of the target, projectile electrons by the nucleus.
causing x-rays to be produced from
In diagnostic range, most x-rays are
outside the focal spot.
Bremsstrahlung x-rays (20 to 50 kVp)
X-RAY EMISSION SPECTRUM
“X-RAY PRODUCTION”
A discrete spectrum contains only specific
ELECTRON TARGET INTERACTION values
1. ANODE HEAT A continuous spectrum contains all
possible values
Most of the kinetic energy of projectile
electrons is converted into heat. a. Characteristic x-rays have precisely
fixed (discrete) energies and form a
Approximately 99% of the kinetic energy
discrete emission spectrum
of projectile electrons is converted to
b. Bremsstrahlung x-rays have a range of
heat
energies and form a continuous emission
Only approximately 1% of projectile spectrum
electron kinetic energy is used for
FACTORS AFFECTING THE X-RAY
production of x-radiation
EMMISION
2. RADIATION
1. Effect of mA and mAs
a. CHARACTERISTIC RADIATION
A change in mA or mAs results in a
Characteristic x-rays are emitted when proportional change in the amplitude of
an outer shell electron fills an inner-shell the x-ray emission spectrum at all
void. energies.
Only the K-characteristic x-rays of The x-ray emission spectrum will be
tungsten are useful for imaging changed in amplitude but not in shape.

b. BREMSSTRAHLUNG X-RAYS 2. Effect of kVp

Are produced when a projectile electron A change in voltage peak affects both
is slowed by the electric field of a target amplitude and the position of the x-ray
atom nucleus. emission spectrum.

Bremsstrahlung is a German word A change in kVp has no effect on the

meaning “slowed-down” radiation. position of the discrete x-ray emission
spectrum
In the diagnostic range, a 15% increase in
kVp is equivalent to doubling in mAs
3. Effect of Added filtration
The overall result added filtration is a
increase in the average energy of the x-
ray beam, with an accompanying
reduction in x-ray quantity.
4. Effect of target material
Increasing target atomic number double and therefore the number of x-
increases the efficiency of x-ray rays emitted is doubled.
production and the energy of
X-ray quantity and amperage:
characteristic and Bremsstrahlung x-
rays. I1 = mAs1
5. Effect of voltage waveform I2 mAs2
Because of reduction ripple, operation b. Kilovoltage Peak (kVp)
with three phase power or high frequency
X-ray quantity is proportional to kVp2
is equivalent to an approximate 12%
increase in kVp or almost a doubling of If kVp were double, the x-ray intensity
mAs over single-phase power. would increase by a Factor of four.
X-ray quantity and kVp:
I1 = (kVp1)2
I2 (kVp2)2
c. Distance
X-ray quantity is inversely proportional
to the square of the distance from the
source.
Inverse square law.
X-ray quantity and distance:
I1 = (d2)2
“X-RAY EMISSION”
I2 (d1)2
X- ray Emission:
When SID is increase, mAs must be
a. X-ray quantity increase by SID2 to maintain constant OD
b. X-ray quality
The square law:

A. X-RAY QUANTITY mAs1 = (SID1)2

1. X-RAY INTENSITY mAs2 (SID2)2

X-ray quantity is the number of x-rays in
d. Filtration
the useful beam
Adding filtration to the result x-ray beam
Measured in Roentgen (R or mGya)
reduces patient dose.
Radiation exposure
The purpose of these filters is to reduce
FACTORS AFFECTING X-RAY the number of low-energy x-rays that
QUANTITY reach the patient.

a. Milliampere-seconds (mAs) HVL

X-ray quantity is directly proportional to The disadvantage of x-ray beam filtration

mAs is reduced image contrast owing to beam
hardening.
When mAs is double, the number of
electrons striking the tube target is
B. X-RAY QUALITY
1. PENETRABILITY FACTORS AFFECTING X-RAY QUALITY
Penetrability is one description of the a. Kilovoltage Peak (kVp)
ability of an x-ray beam to pass through
Increasing the kVp peak increases the
tissue.
quality of x-ray beam
As the energy of an x-ray beam is
Increase in kVp= increase in beam
increased, the penetrability is also
quality= increase in HVL
increased.
APPROXIMATE RELATION BETWEEN KVP
High penetrability, high quality x-rays; AND HVL
low penetrability, low quality x-ray.
X-ray quality is identified numerically by
HVL
X-ray quality is also influenced by kVp
and filtration
Factors that affect beam quality also
influence radiographic contrast b. Filtration
The primary purpose of adding filtration
2. HALF-VALUE LAYER to an x-ray beam is selectively to remove
low-energy x-rays that have little chance
Attenuation is the reduction in x-ray of getting to the image receptors.
intensity resulting from absorption and
scattering. Increasing filtration increases the quality
of an x-ray beam
The HVL of an x-ray beam is the
thickness of absorbing materials Aluminum (Z=13), copper (Z=29), tin
necessary to reduce the x-ray intensity (Z=50), gadolinium (Z=64) and holmium
to half of its original value. (Z=67)

A diagnostic x-ray beam usually has an Aluminum is chosen because it is efficient

HVL in the range of 3 to 5 Al or 3 to 6 cm in removing low-energy x-rays through
of soft tissue. the photoelectric effect and because it is
readily available, inexpensive, and easily
The thickness of filtration that reduces shaped.
the x-ray intensity to half of its original
value is the HVL Added filtration results in increased HVL.
Types of filtration
a. Inherent filtration
Glass or metal enclosure
The inherent filtration of a general
purpose x-ray tube is approximately 0.5
mm Al equivalent
b. Added filtration
A thin sheet of aluminium positioned 1 .Coherent Scattering
between the protective x-ray tube <10 keV
housing and x-ray beam collimator is the
Sometimes called Classical or Thompson
usual form of added filtration.
scattering
The addition of filtration equal to the
J.J. Thompson described the coherent
beam HVL reduces the beam quantity to
scattering of an x-ray with an electron.
half its prefiltered value and results in a
higher x-ray beam quality. In coherent scattering, the incident x-ray
interacts with the target atom, causing it
Added filtration usually has two sources
to become excited
and totals 2 to 3 mm Al.
The target atom immediately released
First: 1 to 2 mm sheets of Al are
this excess energy as a scattered x-ray
permanently installed in the port of x-ray
with wavelength equal to that of the
tube housing, between the housing and
incident x-ray (λ=λ’), and therefore equal
the collimator
energy.
Second: 1 mm Al silver surface of the
The x-ray loses no energy but changes
mirror in the collimator.
direction slightly.
Compensating Filters
Produces scatter as a result of vibration
• Trough filter (chest radiography) of orbital electrons (excitation)
• Bow-tie (CT; shape of the head) The direction of the scattered x-ray is
different from that of the incident x-ray.
• Wedge (foot)
There is no energy transfer, therefore no
• Step wedge (long section of
ionization
anatomy; translumbar, femoral
arteriography, venography) Coherent scattering is of little importance
to diagnostic radiology
• Conic filters (digital fluoroscopy)
Contribute slightly to film fog.
Compensating filters are useful in
maintaining image quality. They are not
radiation protection devices.

FACTORS AFFECTING X-RAY QUALITY

AND QUANTITY

2. COMPTON EFFECT/ COMPTON

SCATTERING
Diagnostic range
Outer-shell electron (loosely bound
electron)
The incident x-ray interacts with an
“X-RAY INTERACTION WITH MATTER”
outer-shell electron and ejects it from the
FIVE X-RAY INTERACTION WITH atom. The ejected electron is called a
MATTER
Compton electron or a Secondary electron 3. PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
(recoil)
Diagnostic range
These primarily involves loosely bound
Inner-shell electron (tightly bound
outer-shell electrons.
electron; k-shell)
Produces scatter radiation that exits the
The electron removed from the atom,
patient and may fog the radiograph
called a photoelectron
These photon-tissue interactions
Photoelectric effect is total x-ray
necessitates the use of a grid
absorption.
Result in occupational exposure for a
These results in total absorption of an
radiographer
incident x-ray photons
Compton effect:
These is responsible for producing
Ei = Es + (Eb + EKE) contrast on the radiograph
Where: Photon-tissue interactions primarily
involves K-shell electrons
Ei = energy of the incident x-ray
Photoelectric effect:
Es = energy of the scattered x-ray
Ei = Eb + EKE
Eb = electron binding energy
Where:
EKE= kinetic energy of the e-
Ei = energy of the incident x-ray
During a Compton interaction, most of the
energy is divided between the scattered Eb = electron binding energy
x-ray and the Compton electron.
EKE = kinetic energy of the e-
The probability of the Compton Effect is
Characteristic x-rays are produced after
inversely proportional to energy (1/E) and
a photoelectric interaction.
independent of atomic number.
The ejection of k-shell photoelectron by
Compton scattering reduces contrast in an
the incident x-rays result in a vacancy in
x-ray image.
the k-shell. This unnatural state is
Compton-scattered x-ray can be immediately corrected when an outer-
deflected in any direction. As the angle of shell electron, usually from the L-shell,
deflection increases, more energy is drops into the vacancy.
transferred to the Compton electron
These characteristic x-rays are
(recoil).
secondary radiation and behave in the
same manner as scattered radiation.
4. PAIR PRODUCTION 5. PHOTODISINTEGRATION
>1.02 MeV > 10 MeV
0.51 mEv mass of an electron Photodisintegration does not occur in
diagnostic radiology
Pair production does not occur during x-
ray imaging. X-rays with energy above approximately
10 MeV can escape interaction with
The interaction between the x-ray and
electrons and the nuclear electric field
the nuclear electric field causes the x-ray
and be absorbed directly by the nucleus,
to disappear, and it its place two
when this happen, the nucleus is raised to
electrons appear, one positively charged
an excited state and instantly emits a
(positron) and one negatively charged.
nucleons or other nuclear fragment.
These involves interaction between an
incident photon and an atomic nucleus

*Of the 5 ways an x-ray can interact with

tissue, only 2 are important in Radiology:
THE COMPTON AND PHOTOELECTRIC
Positron emission tomography (PET)
EFFECT.
The electron resulting from the ion pair
production eventually fills a vacancy in an DIFFERENTIAL ABSORPTION
atomic orbital shell. The positron unites Differential absorption occurs because of
with a free electron and the mass of both Compton scattering, photoelectric effect
particles is converted to energy in a and x-rays transmitted through the
process called annihilation radiation. patient.
Three types of x-rays are important to
the making of a radiograph:
a. Those scattered by Compton
interaction (image fog)
b .Those absorbed Photoelectrically
(radiopaque)
c. Those transmitted through the patient
without interaction (radiolucent)
Differential absorption increase as the
kVp is reduced; unfortunately, reducing
the kVp to increase differential
absorption and therefore image contrast
results in increase patient dose.
Characteristics of Differential Absorption:

EXPONENTIAL ATTENUATION
The total reduction in the number of x-
rays remaining in an x-ray beam after
penetration through a given thickness of
tissue is called attenuation.
Attenuation is the product of absorption
and scattering.
Compton and Coherent  scattering
process
Photoelectric effect, pair production &
photodisintegration absorption process.