ZNOTES.

ORG

UPDATED TO 2021-23 SYLLABUS

CAIE AS LEVEL
COMPUTER
SCIENCE (9618)
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE SYLLABUS
CAIE AS LEVEL COMPUTER SCIENCE (9618)

Convert binary number to two’s complement (add 1)

|1010101 + 1 = 11010110
1. Information Representation Converting binary two’s complement into denary (ex.
11010110) 
Flip all the bits | 00101001
1.1. Data Representation
Add 1 | 00101010
The basis of any number system consists of: Convert binary to denary and put a –ve sign) | -42
A base: the number of digits that a number system Maximum positive number in 8 bits: 127
can use to represent numbers Maximum negative number in 8 bits: -128
Place value for each digit: digits in certain positions Hexadecimal Systems - Base 16
have a specific value Possible digits: 0 to 9 and A to F, where A to F
Denary - Base 10 integer digits represent denary digits 10 to 15
Binary Systems - Base 2 Practical applications:
Possible bits (binary digits): 0 and 1 Defining colours in HTML
All data and characters are represented in binary Defining Media Access Control (MAC) addresses 
Assembly languages and machine code
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 Debugging via memory dumps
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 E.g. A5 in Denary = (16×10) + (1×5) = 165
E.g. 65 in Hexadecimal = 65÷16=4 Remainder 1∴ = 41
Character Sets
E.g. 65 in binary is 1000001
A character set generally includes upper & lower case
Denary vs. Binary prefixes:
letters, number digits, punctuation marks and other
DenaryPrefix factor value BinaryPrefix factor value characters.
Character sets use different binary representations
kilo- (k) ×103   kibi- (Ki) ×210
for each character via character encoding
mega- (M) ×106 mebi- (Mi) ×220 Character Encoding Standards:
giga- (G) ×109 gebi- (Gi) ×230
tera- (T) ×1012 tebi- (Ti) ×240 ASCII Extended ASCII Unicode
ASCII’s extension - Superset for ASCII
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) Only English Also includes most & extended ASCII -
Binary representation where each positive denary alphabets can be European recognized by
digit is represented by a sequence of 4 bits (nibble) represented languages’ various global
Only certain digits are converted to BCD, because alphabets languages
particular digits represent a digit greater than 9. Each character ASCII extended to 8 Greater range of
Ex. 429 in BCD: encoding takes up 7 bits, hence 256 characters, as it
Convert each digit to their binary equivalents bits, hence 128 possible uses 2 or 4 bytes
410 = 0100 | 210 = 0010 |910 = 1001 possible characters characters. per character.

Concatenate the 3 nibbles (4-bit group) to produce BCD: 0100 2 or 4 times more
Smaller storage
0010 1001 storage space per
space.
character.
Practical applications
A string of digits on any electronic device displaying
numbers (eg. Calculators)
1.2. Multimedia
Accurately measuring decimal fractions
Bitmap Images
Electronically coding denary numbers
Data for a bitmapped image is encoded by assigning a
Two’s Complement
solid colour to each pixel, i.e., through bit patterns.
We can represent a negative number in binary by
Bit patterns are generated by considering each row of
making the most significant bit (MSB) a sign bit, which
the grid as a series of binary colour codes which
indicates whether the number is positive or negative.
correspond to each pixel’s colour.
Converting negative denary into binary (ex. -42)
These bit patterns are ‘mapped’ onto main memory
Find the binary equivalent of the denary number (ignoring
Pixels: smallest picture element whose colour can be
the -ve sign) | 42 = 101010
accurately represented by binary
Add extra 0 bits before the MSB, to format binary number
Bitmap image also contains the File Header which
to 8 bits | 00101010
has the metadata contents of the bitmap file,
Convert binary number to one’s complement (flip the bits)
including image size, number of colours, etc.
| 11010101
Image Resolution

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Pixel density which is measured by no. of pixels/cm Sampling Resolution

If image resolution increases, then image is Number of bits used to encode each sample
sharper/more detailed Increasing sampling resolution increases accuracy of
Screen Resolution digitized sound wave but increases the file size
Number of pixels which can be viewed horizontally & Bit Rate: no. of bits for storing 1 second of sound
vertically on the device’s screen
Number of pixels = width × height Bit Rate = Sampling Rate × Sampling Resolution
E.g. 1680 × 1080 pixels File Size=Bit Rate * Length of Sound
Colour depth: number of bits used to represent the colour
of a single pixel 1.3. Compression
An image with n bits has 2n colours per pixel
E.g. 16-colour bitmap has 4 bits per pixel ∵ 2 4 = 16 Compression is the process of reducing file size without a
Colour depth↑: colour quality↑ but file size↑ significant loss in quality which results in
File Size = Number of Pixels × colour depth Reducing the time needed to search for data. 
Convert bits to bytes by dividing by 8 if necessary. Faster transfer of compressed files, which uses less
Applications: scanned images and general computer bandwidth than uncompressed files.
usage ∵ small file size and can be easily manipulated. Lossless Compression
Vector Graphics Type of compression that allows original data to
Made up of drawing objects perfectly reconstructed from compressed file when
Drawing objects:  a mathematically defined construct the file is opened by utilizing some form of
(of shapes like rectangle, line, circle, etc.) replacement.
Drawing list: set of commands defining the vector E.g. bitmap (.bmp), vector graphic (.svg) and .png
Properties of each object are the basic geometric data images, text file compression, database records
which determine the shape and appearance. Run-length Encoding (RLE)
Data is encoded using mathematical formulas to Form of lossless compression which is used for
generate properties in order to draw lines & curves to compressing text files and bitmap images.
create the image Reduces file size of a sequence of elements which
If object is resized, properties are recalculated. has adjacent, identical elements (characters in text
file and pixels in bitmap images).
∴ Scalable without losing quality unlike bitmaps Repeating sequence of elements encoded in two
values: run count and run value.
Applications: company logos
 E.g. RLE of bitmap image:
Sound
We can represent the first row as a sequence of
Analogue data is continuous electrical signals
pixels: “W B B W W B B W” | W: white and B: black
whereas digital data is discrete electrical signals.
Sound signals are vibrations through a medium.
Hence are analogue in nature as there can be an
infinite amount of detail for sound.
Analogue signals converted (encoded) to digital
signals by sampling:
Sound wave’s amplitude (height) sampled at set
time intervals
These samples (amplitudes) are encoded as a
binary number sequence
This sequence provides a digital representation of
the sound wave

After applying RLE: “W 2B 2W 2B W”. 

In ‘2B’ 2 is the run count and B is the run value,
Sampling Rate which represents a run of two adjacent black pixels
Number of samples taken per unit time Process is repeated for other rows.
Increasing the sampling rate increases accuracy of Lossy Compression
digitized sound wave representation but increases the Type of compression which irreversibly eliminates
file size unnecessary data

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File accuracy/quality lower than that of lossless but file Thin Clients Thick Clients
size is lower (~10% of lossless).
A client that solely runs on the
E.g. Sound files (.mp3), .jpeg images An independent client that
resources provided by the
Sound files compression (.mp3) utilizes Perceptual does not require the server to
server and has no local
Coding to remove certain parts of sound that are less run
storage
audible/discernible to human hearing.
Only provides input and
Thick client processes most of
receives output; processing
the application
2. Communication done by server
Smaller purchase cost:
Can function even if no server
expensive, demanding
2.1. Networks including the Internet hardware is not required
is connected (works offline)

Networking devices are interconnected devices that allow Improved security: cannot run
No lag related to network
a fast means of data transmission within the network.  unauthorized, harmful
problems
Networking benefits: software
File sharing - you can easily share data between
different interconnected devices Peer-to-peer network model (P2P)
Resource sharing - using network-connected output Decentralised network where each connected
devices like printers, or can share the same software computer stores data and operates independently as
within the network a ‘peer’, and can act as both a client & server.
Higher storage - can store files in network-connected Applications: Internet and Ad hoc networks
storage mediums. Client-server vs. Peer-to-peer models
LAN(Local Area Network) vs. WAN(Wide Area Network)
Client-server Peer-to-peer
LAN WAN Centralized backup Lesser initial setup cost
Network that connects Network that connects Lesser network traffic: each
Files & resources centralized
devices within a small devices within a larger peer can simultaneously
in server: prevents illegal
geographical area geographical area receive data from different
resource usage 
Only private ownership Private or public ownership sources
Transmission medium: Improved security: files are Can work even if a device
Transmission medium:  PSTN stored on central server goes down, but Client-server
twisted pair cable, coaxial
or satellite link which would be regularly model can’t work if server
cable or Wi-Fi
Higher data transfer rate  Lower data transfer rate  scanned for malware goes down

Lesser congestion  Higher congestion 

Network Topologies
Bus 
Client-server Model
Server based network: dedicated server provides an
application (administration of users, security and
resources) for the client computer to utilize
Client-server Applications 
Printer: manages print jobs from client computers
File Sharing: the client accesses software and user’s
data files stored on the server
Proxy server
Email server: for sending, receiving & storing emails
Database server: manages DBMS
Domain controller server 
Management of user accounts (IDs & passwords)
Client sends login request to server which
processes and grants request if user ID &
password recognized
Thin Clients vs. Thick Clients

Thin Clients Thick Clients Single line (bus) connecting all devices with
terminators at each end.
Other computers can read the data being sent
from one to another computer.

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Unsuitable for heavy traffic since collisions occur. Benefits Drawbacks

Star
Less expensive and Doesn’t perform well
easier to with small
Copper Cable
install FlexibleEasier to charges.Affected by
make terminations  electromagnetism
Greater
bandwidthImproved
security Lightweight: Needs expensive
Fiber-Optic
easy to installLess optical transmitters
Cables
signal boosting and receivers. 
required; used in long
distance comm.

Wireless Networks: use radio waves (including WiFi),

microwaves, satellites to connect devices to networks
without cables.

Benefits Drawbacks
Can travel over large
Consists of a central server (‘Switch’) and all other distances since they Low frequency so
computers connected with a dedicated connection have largest range of transmits less data at
to each, hence server can send packets to Radio
wavelengthRelatively one time.Affected by
different devices simultaneously and bi- waves
inexpensive.Used for TV radio stations with
directionally. signals & mobile phone similar frequency
No collisions possible. comms.
Mesh 
Emitting towers
Network setup where every device (node) is Larger bandwidth, can
Micro- expensive to
directly interconnected to the each of the other transfer more data at a
waves build Physical obstacles
devices (nodes) time
can interfere
Cheap with long
Easy to
distanceUsed for
Satellites interfereExpensive set
Satellite phones,
up
satellite radio broadcast

Ethernet
Most common wired medium of transmission, that can
be used to transfer data between LANs or WANs
Usually used in bus topology; since all data travelled
on a single wire there is a possibility of data corruption
by the “collision” of signals
This collision is prevented by the CSMA/CD (Carrier
Sense Multiple Access Collision Detection) method:
Before transmitting, device checks if channel is
busy
It is commonly used for wireless networks (such as If busy, device calculates a random wait time and
the Internet), via the mesh connection of routers waits that time, after which it begins transmission
Hybrid  Then during transmission, the device listens for
Combination of two or more topologies. other devices also beginning transmission
 E.g. when there is a connection between 2 or If collision, transmission is aborted and both
more LANs of different topologies devices wait different random times, then tried
Wired Networks: use (copper (twisted-pair cable or again
coaxial cable) or fibre-optic) cables connected to an Bit Streaming
Ethernet port on the network router Sequence of digital signals (bits) transferred over a
communication path at high speeds
Benefits Drawbacks Requires a fast broadband connection and some form
of buffers (short-term memory)
Bits arrive in the same order they are sent

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Bit rate: number of bits transmitted per second benefits drawback

Two methods of bit streaming:  Cannot access the
Relatively less technical
resources/data stored on the
Real-time  On-demand knowledge required and easy
cloud, if there are bandwidth
Existing digital files converted to implement
issues
Event captured live via video to encoded bit-streaming
Poor data privacy, since there
camera that is connected to a format for broadcasting on Flexibility: Cloud Can Be
may be data leakage in the
computer the internet by uploading to a Scaled To Match The
multi-tenant architecture
dedicated server Organization’s Growth
(public clouds)
A link for encoded video is
Video signal converted to an
placed on website and the
encoded streaming video World Wide Web (WWW)
user clicks on link to view
signal Collection of web pages stored on websites 
encoded streaming video
Protocols are used to transmit data across the WWW
Encoded video signal The data is streamed to a Internet (Interconnected network)
uploaded from computer to a buffer in user’s computer and Massive, open network of networks
dedicated streaming server the buffer stops the video Uses TCP/IP protocol, which uses IP addresses to
via cables or high-speed from being paused as the bits identify devices connected to the internet
wireless internet connection are streamed Access provided by Internet Service Provider
Server then sends live images As the buffer is emptied, it’s Communication used: wired, radio and satellite
to all users requesting it as a filled again thus providing Router in a network
real-time video continuous viewing Connects two networks together which may operate
Cannot be paused, fast- Can be paused, fast- on different protocols
forwarded, etc. forwarded, etc. Allows internal connections between LANs OR allows
external connection from the main LAN to a WAN 
Importance of high broadband speed / bit-rate Router acts as gateway & firewall
User has to download and display bits at same time Usually will be attached to server or switch in a LAN
If media is of higher quality, then higher broadband Router translates private IP addresses to public IP
speed needed since each “frame” is of a larger size addresses AND vice versa.
Real-time needs faster broadband speeds as LAN-supporting hardware
compared to on-demand, since there are a greater Switch: Connected to all devices in a LAN and can
number of users simultaneously requesting same simultaneously broadcast information to all devices
data Server: device/software provides specific function for
Cloud Computing computers in the network
Refers to the on-demand provision of computing Network Interface Card (NIC)
services through the internet Provides each device (an end-system) in the wired
Services provided include LAN with a unique (MAC) address to uniquely
identify it on the network
Infrastructure: Storage capacity and higher
processing power Allows each individual device to connect to
Platform: Software, testing & debugging resources network
Public cloud vs. Private cloud Wireless Network Interface Card (WNIC): Provides
each end-system of a wireless (WiFi) LAN a unique
Public cloud private cloud network address to identify it.
3rd-party cloud service A private cloud is owned by Wireless Access Points (WAP):
provider grants access to one organization and is not Allows devices to connect to the LAN via WiFi
multiple parties, accessible shared with any other (wireless radio communication) instead of using a
cable
via a browser organization
Usually built into router
The private cloud can either
Cloud service provider owns, Cables: A wired transmission medium that allows
be created and maintained by
develops and manages the communication in wired networks
the organization itself or it
public cloud through large Bridge
can outsource these tasks to
server farms Connects two LANs which work use the same
a third-party protocol, which can be two segments of the same
network
Benefits and drawbacks of cloud computing Stores network addresses for all devices (end-
systems) between the 2 networks
benefits drawback
 A bridge looks for the receiving device before it
sends the message.

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Repeater Identifies the network to which the host (device) is

Connects two cables connected to
regenerates the sent data signal over the same Host Identifier (hostID): Identifies the host within
network before the signal weakens (attenuation) to the network
prevent it from being corrupted ‘Classfull’ addressing used for IPv4 where different bit
Internet-supporting hardware lengths for identification and impose restrictions on
Modems available address
Allows a device to connect to the Internet via a Subnetting 
telephone line.  Practice of dividing a network into two or more
A transmitter uses a modem to convert digital networks
signals (from the transmitting device) to analogue IP addresses are broken down to 3 parts by not
signals that are then sent down the telephone line.  changing the netID but partitioning the host ID into a
A receiver uses a modem on the other end to subnet ID and host ID
convert the analogue signals to digital signals so These subnet ID bits are used to identify each subnet
the receiving device can understand the data. within the network. 
PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network) Subnet masks are numbers that hides (masks) the
Refers to all telephone networks netID of a system's IP address and leaves only the
Channel used between 2 endpoints for the call host part as the machine identifier, allowing data to be
duration via circuit switching routed within the subnet to the appropriate host.
Lines active even during power outage Public and Private IP address
Bi-directional communication Public IP is provided by the ISP while Private IP issued
Dedicated lines by the LAN’s router 
Telecommunication path between endpoints Public IP is unique and can be across the internet
Not shared with multiple users; it’s bought/leased whereas Private IP is only unique within LAN and
Able to host websites as well as carry phone calls hence can only be accessed within LAN
Allows continuous, uninterrupted access on Web NAT (Network address translation) required for
Cell phone network private IP addresses to access internet directly.
Wireless network spread over land areas divided Private IP more secure than public IP, since they are
into (hexagonal) ‘cells’ not directly accessible on the Internet and are hidden
Each cell is served by at least one base station by NAT
(transceiver), which uses a different frequency Range of IP addresses used for private IP addressing
range, as compared to adjacent cells, to transmit can never be assigned to public IP addresses
data Static vs. Dynamic IP addresses
Larger capacity possible since same frequencies
can be used, in non-adjacent cells Static Dynamic
Radio waves are usually used for transmission IP address will change at
IP address never changes.
Can be broadcast in all directions over a wide area regular time periods.
Portable transceivers (e.g. mobile phones) are Static IP addresses are useful Dynamic IP address is
able to communicate and access internet via base when websites need to relatively more secure, hence
stations remember a device for a long used where data privacy is
IPv4 vs. IPv6 time. Eg) VPNs whitelisting important
Faster upload/download Maintaining cost of dynamic
IPv4 IPv6
speeds IP address is lesser
32 bit address, split into 4 128 bit address divided into
blocks by “.”  eight 16-bit blocks by “:”.
URL (Uniform Resource Locator)
Each block could have a value Each block can have 4 hex Unique reference address for the exact location of an
between 0 and 255 (00 to FF values ranging from 0000 to internet resource on the WWW
in hex). FFFF
IPv6 can be shortened by
removing >=2 blocks
E.g.255.0.1.255 containing solely Protocol: enables browser to know what protocol is used
zeroesE.g.2001:0db8:85a3::8a to access info in domain
2e:0070:7334 Hostname: Domain name
Location of server: path
IPv4 functionality Domain Name Service (DNS)
each IP address has 2 parts: naming system used for computers or resources
Network Identifier (netID) having internet connection  

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Consists of a hierarchy of DNS servers which have a Vibrations cause coil to move past a magnetic core
URLs database of and their corresponding IP Electrical current generated which is then digitized
addresses Speaker
Takes electrical signals and translates into
physical vibrations to create sound waves
3. Hardware Electric current in voice coil generates an
electromagnetic field
3.1. Computers and their components Change in digital audio signal causes current
direction to change which changes field polarity
General-purpose computer system consists of a Electromagnet is either attracted or repelled to a
processor, memory, I/O functionality. permanent magnet, causing a diaphragm that is
Understanding the need for attached to the coil to vibrate
Input: take in data from the outside world Vibration transmitted to air in front of speaker
Output: display data for humans’ understanding Degree of vibration determines amplitude and
Primary storage: computer’s main memory which frequency of sound wave produced
stores a set of critical program’s instructions & data Magnetic Hard Disk
Secondary storage: non-volatile storage for noncritical Hard disk has platters whose surfaces are covered
data that will not be frequently accessed with a magnetisable material.
Removable secondary storage: Platters are mounted on central spindle and rotated at
File backup and archive high-speed
Portable transfer of files to second device Surface of platters divided into concentric tracks &
Embedded systems sectors, where data is encoded as magnetic patterns
Small computer systems such as microprocessors Each surface is accessed by read/write heads
that are often a part of a larger system When writing, current variation in head causes
Each embedded system performs a few specific magnetic field variation on disk
functions unlike general-purpose computers When reading, magnetic field variation from disk
produces current variation in read head
benefits drawbacks Solid State (Flash) Memory
Difficult to program functions Most use NAND-based flash memory
Reliable since there are no Consist of a grid of columns & rows that has 2
since there is either no
moving parts transistors at each intersection
interface
Two transistors:
Expensive expert help needed
Require less power Floating Gate: stores electros and the presence or
for repair
absence of charge (electrons) represents either 1 or 0
Cheap to mass-produce Control Gate: controls charge (electrons) flow for
read/write
Principle Operations of Hardware Devices Optical Disc Reader/Writer
Laser printer Disc surface has reflective metal layer and is spun
A laser beam and rotating mirrors are used to Tracking mechanism moves laser assembly
draw image of the page on a photosensitive drum Lens focuses laser onto disc
Image converted into electric charge which Laser beam shone onto disc to read/write
attracts charged toner such that it sticks to image Tracks have sequences of amorphous and crystalline
Electrostatic charged paper rolled against drum states on the metallic layer
Charge pulls toner away from drum and onto When reading, the reflected light from the different
paper states on the track are encoded as bit patterns
Heat applied in the fuser to fuse toner to the paper When writing, laser changes surface to crystalline and
Electrical charge removed from drum and excess amorphous states along the track, which correspond
toner collected to 1s or 0s.
3D printer Touchscreen
Process starts from saved digital file that holds the Considered as both an input & output device
blueprint of object to be printed 2 types:
Object is then built by sequentially adding layers of
a material (e.g. polymer resin) until object created Resistive capacitive
Object is then cured (e.g. resin-made objects are Consists of two charged Made from materials that
hardened by UV light) plates store electric charge
Microphone
Pressure causes plates to When touched, charge
Incoming sound waves enter wind screen and
touch, completing circuit transferred from finger
cause vibrations about a diaphragm

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Resistive capacitive No changes made to environment by the system

Point of contact registered and hence no feedback
with coordinates used to Control System
calculate position Regulates the behaviour of other devices or
systems.
Event-driven system: the controller alters the state
Virtual (Reality) headset
of the system in response to some event.
Virtual headsets consist of 2 lenses, (LCD) display,
Time-driven system: the controller takes action at
circuit board with sensors, cover and foam padding
a specific point in time
The display provides a simulation of a 3D
Hardware typically used in a system
environment, generated by a 3D graphics package
Sensor: measures an (analogue) property and
The user can ‘move’ in the virtual environment by
transmits it to a processing unit, generally as an
moving their head or using controllers
electrical or optical signal.
Buffers: short-term memory storage that stores data right
Actuators: switch on/off heavy appliances (e.g.
before it’s used, typically in RAM.
heater to heat/fan to cool)
Random Access Memory vs. Read Only Memory
ADC: converts analogue signals to digital signals
RAM rom Transmission cable: to transfer signals
Feedback Systems
Volatile memory: loses Non-volatile memory: does
Output from system affects the input of sensors.
content when power turned not lose content when power
Ensures system operates within the given criteria
off turned off
By enabling the system output to affect
Can be read and altered Can only be read subsequent system inputs, it may cause a change
Used to store currently Used for storing OS kernel in the actions taken by the system
executing program and boot up instructions Thus enables the system to automatically adjust
conditions in a continuous process
Types of RAM - Static RAM vs. Dynamic RAM

sram dram
3.2. Logic Gates and Logic Circuits
Doesn’t need to refresh hence Has to be refreshed, hence Logic Gates: use one or more inputs and produces a
uses less power and faster has slower access times and single logical output
access time needs higher power AND gate: If both inputs high, output is high ( A•B)
Only single transistor &
More complex circuitry, hence
capacitor, hence less A B Output
more expensive
expensive to purchase 0 0 0
Each bit stored in flip-flop Each bit stored as a charge 0 1 0
Has lower data density Has higher data density 1 0 0
Used in cache memory Used in main memory 1 1 1

Types of ROM – PROM vs. EPROM vs. EEPROM

pROM EPROM EEPROM

\n
Electrically
Erasable A B Output
Programmable Erasable
Programmable 0 0 0
ROM Programmable
ROM 0 1 1
ROM
Can be Can be erased by Can be erased by 1 0 1
programmed only UV light exposure an electrical signal 1 1 1
once after it is and can then be and can then be
created reprogrammed reprogrammed OR gate: If either inputs high, output is high ( A+B)
Chip has to be Can update data
Data cannot be
removed for without removing
erased or deleted
reprogramming chip.

Monitoring and Control Systems NOT gate: an inverter (A)

Monitoring System
Monitors some state external to computer system A Output

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A Output General Purpose registers

1 0 Used to temporarily store data values which have
been read from memory or some processed result
0 1
Can be used by assembly language instructions
Special Purpose Registers
Some are accessible by assembly language
instructions
Only holds either data or memory location, not both
A B Output Special purpose registers include:
0 0 1 Program Counter (PC): holds address of next
0 1 1 instruction to be fetched
1 0 1 Memory Data Register (MDR): holds data value
fetched from memory
1 1 0
Memory Address Register (MAR): Holds address of
memory cell of program which is to be accessed 
Accumulator (ACC): holds all values that are
processed by arithmetic & logical operations.
NAND gate: (A•B) \n Index Register (IX): Stores a number used to
change an address value
A B Output Current Instruction Register (CIR): Once program
0 0 1 instruction fetched, it is stored in CIR and allows
0 1 0 the processor to decode & execute it
1 0 0 Status Register: holds results of comparisons to
decide later for action, intermediate and
1 1 0
erroneous results of arithmetic performed 
The Processor (CPU)
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): part of processor that
processes instructions which require some form of
NOR gate: (A+B) \n arithmetic or logical operation
Control Unit (CU): part of CPU that fetches instructions
A B Output
from memory, decodes them & synchronizes
0 0 0 operations before sending signals to computer’s
0 1 1 memory, ALU and I/O devices to direct how to respond
1 0 1 to instructions sent to processor
1 1 0 Immediate Access Store (IAS): memory unit that can
be directly accessed by the processor
System Clock: timing device connected to processor
that is needed to synchronize all components.
Buses
XOR gate: ( A ⨁B) \n set of parallel wires that allow the transfer data
between components in a computer system
4. Processor Fundamentals
4.1. Central Processing Unit
Architecture
Von Neumann model
Von Neumann realized data & programs are
indistinguishable and can therefore use same
memory.
Von Neumann architecture uses a single processor.  Data bus: bidirectional bus that carries data
It follows a linear sequence of fetch–decode–execute instructions between processor, memory, and I/O
operations for the set of instructions i.e. the program.  devices. 
In order to do this, the processor uses registers. Address bus: unidirectional bus that carries
Registers: smallest unit of storage of microprocessor; address of main memory location or input/output
allows fast data transfer between other registers

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device about to be used, from processor to VGA ports allows only the transmission of video
memory address register (MAR) streams, but not audio components
Control bus  Fetch-Execute (F-E) cycle
Bidirectional and unidirectional Fetch stage
used to transmit control signals from control unit PC holds address of next instruction to be fetched
to ensure access/use of data & address buses by Address in PC is copied to MAR
components of system does not lead to conflict PC is incremented
Performance of Computer System Factors Instruction loaded to MDR from address held in
Clock Speed MAR
number of pulses the clock sends out in a given Instruction from MDR loaded to CIR
time interval, which determines the number of Decode stage: The opcode and operand parts of
cycles (processes) CPU executes in a given time instruction are identified
interval Execute stage: Instructions executed by the control
usually measured in Gigahertz (GHz) unit sending control signals
If the clock speed is increased, then execution time Register Transfer Notation (RTN)
for instructions decreases. Hence, more cycles per MAR ← [PC]
unit time, which increases performance. PC ← [PC] + 1
However, there is a limit on clock speed since the MDR ← [[MAR]]
heat generated by higher clock speeds cannot be CIR ← [MDR]
removed fast enough, which leads to overheating  Decode
Bus Width Execute
Determines number of bits that can be Return to start
simultaneously transferred  Square brackets: value currently in that register
Refers to number of lines in a bus Double square brackets: CPU must do a logical
Increasing bus width increases number of bits process and then copy this value
transferred at one time, hence increasing Interrupts
processing speed and performance since there  A signal from a program seeking processor’s
Cache Memory attention 
Commonly used instructions are stored in the Interrupt Service Routine (ISR):
cache memory area of the CPU.  Handles the interrupt by controlling the processor
If cache memory size is increased, more Different ISRs used for different sources of
commonly executed instructions can be stored and interrupt
the need for the CPU to wait for instructions to be Typical sequence of actions when interrupt occurs:
loaded reduces, hence CPU executes more cycles The processor checks interrupt register for interrupt
per unit time, thus improving performance at the end of the F-E cycle for the current instruction
Number of Cores If the interrupt flag is set in the interrupt register, the
Most CPU chips are multi-core — have more than interrupt source is detected
one core (essentially a processor)  If interrupt is low priority: then interrupt is disabled
Each core simultaneously processes different If interrupt is high priority: 
instructions through multithreading, improving All contents of registers of the running process are
computer performance saved on the stack
Ports PC is loaded with the ISR, and is executed
Hardware which provides a physical interface Once ISR is completed, the processor restores
between a device with CPU and a peripheral device registers’ contents from the stack, and the
Peripheral (I/O) devices cannot be directly connected interrupted program continues its execution
to CPU, hence connected through ports Interrupts re-enabled and 
Universal Serial Bus (USB): Can connect both input Return to start of cycle
and output devices to processor through a USB port
High Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) 4.2. Assembly Language
Can only connect output devices (e.g. LCD display)
to the processor through a HDMI port Assembly language: low-level programming language
HDMI cables transmit high-bandwidth and high- with instructions made up of an op code and an operand
resolution video & audio streams through HDMI Machine code: code written in binary that uses the
ports processor’s basic machine operations
Video Graphics Array (VGA) Relationship between machine and assembly language:
Can only connect output devices (e.g. second every assembly language instruction (source code)
monitor/display) to the processor through a VGA translates into exactly one machine code instruction
port (object code)

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Symbolic addressing Op Code Operand Explanation

Symbols used to represent operation codes  Unconditional Jumps
Labels can be used for addresses  
JMP Jump to given address
Absolute addressing: a fixed address in memory
Assembler I/O Data
Software that changes assembly language into Input any character and store
IN
machine code for the processor to understand ASCII value in ACC
The assembler replaces all mnemonics and labels Output character whose
with their respective binary values (that are OUT
ASCII value is stored in ACC
predefined before by the assembler software) Ending
One pass assembler
Return Control to operating
Assembler converts mnemonic source code into END
system
machine code in one sweep of program
Cannot handle code that involves forward referencing
Two pass assembler: software makes 2 passes thru code #denotes immediate addressing
On the first pass: B denotes a binary number, e.g. B01001010
& denotes a
hexadecimal number, e.g. &4A
Symbol table created to enter symbolic addresses
and labels into specific addresses Modes of Addressing
All errors are suppressed Direct Addressing: loads contents at address into ACC
On the second pass: Indirect Addressing: The address to be used is at given
Jump instructions access memory addresses via address. Load contents of this second address to ACC
table Indexed addressing: form the address to be used as
Whole source code translates into machine code + the contents of the IR (Index Register)
Error reported if they exist Relative addressing: next instruction to be carried out
Grouping the Processor’s Instruction Set is an offset number of locations away, relative to
address of current instruction held in PC; allows for
Op Code Operand Explanation
relocatable code
Adressing Conditional jump: has a condition that will be checked
LDM #n Immediate: Load n into ACC (like using an IF statements)
Direct: load contents at Unconditional jump: no condition to be followed,
LDD
address into the ACC simply jump to the next instruction as specified
Indirect: load contents of
LDI address at given address into 4.3. Bit Manipulation
ACC
Indexed: load contents of Binary numbers can be multiplied or divided by shifting
LDX Left shift (LSL #n)
given address + IR into ACC
Bits are shifted to the left to multiply
Data Movement
E.g. to multiply by four, all digits shift two places to left
Store contents of ACC into
STO Right shift (LSR #n)
address Bits are shifted to the right to divide
Arithmetic E.g. to divide by four, all digits shift two places to right
Operations Logical shift: zeros replace the vacated bit position
Add contents of register to
ADD
ACC
Add 1 to contents of the
INC
register
Comparing
Compare contents of ACC
CMP
with that of given address
Compare contents of ACC
CMP #n
with n
Conditional Jumps
Jump to address if compare
JPE
TRUE
Jump to address if compare
JPN
FALSE

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Matching: an operation that allows the

accumulator to compare the value it contains to
the given value in order to change the state of the
status register.
Practical applications of Bit Masking:
Setting an individual bit position:
Mask the content of the register with a mask
pattern which has 0 in the ‘mask out’ positions and
1 in the ‘retain’ positions.
Set the result with the match pattern by using the
AND command with a direct address.
Testing one or more bits:
Mask the content of the register with a mask
pattern which has 0 in the ‘mask out’ positions and
1 in the ‘retain’ positions.
Compare the result with the match pattern by
using the CMP command or by “Checking the
pattern”.
Checking the pattern
Arithmetic shift: Used to carry out multiplication and Use AND operation to mask bits and obtain
division of signed integers represented by bits in the resultant.
accumulator by ensuring that the sign-bit (usually the Now subtract matching bit pattern from resultant.
MSB) is the same after the shift. The final ‘non-zero’ result confirms the patterns
are not the same else vice versa.

5. System Software
5.1. Operating System
Need for OS
A set of programs designed to run in the background
on a computer system which
Controls operation of computer system
Provides a user interface
Cyclic shift: the bit that is removed from one end by the Controls how computer responds to user’s
shift is added to the other end. requests
Controls how hardware communicate
Provides an environment in which application
software can be executed
OS hardware is unusable without an OS, as the OS
acts as an interface since it controls communication
between user and hardware
Key Management Tasks
(Main) Memory Management
Memory protection to ensure 2 programs do not
try to use same memory space
Paging
Use of virtual memory
Bit Masking File Management
Each bit can represent an individual flag. Provides file naming conventions
∴ by altering the bits, flags could be operated upon. Maintains a directory structure
Bit manipulation operations: Allocates space to particular files
Masking: an operation that defines which bits you Security Management
want to keep and which bits you want to clear. Proves usernames & passwords
Masking to 1: The OR operation is used with a 1. Ensures data privacy
Masking to 0: The OR operation is used with a 0. Prevents unauthorized access

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Carries out automatic backup Can provide synchronization between devices

Hardware (input/output/peripherals) Management Program Libraries
Installation of appropriate driver software Pre-written code that can be linked to a software
Controls access to data sent to and from under development without any amendments
peripherals Can perform common or complex tasks
Receives & handles interrupts from hardware Takes the form of classes
devices Benefits:
Processor Management Saves time: less code needs to be written
Enables multiprogramming and multitasking Smaller testing time: pre-tested and used by
Resolution of conflicts when 2 or more processes others
requires the same resource Library file be a complex algorithm which the user
E.g. via Round-robin method need not understand for using it
Utility Software Dynamic Link Library (DLL) files
Disk Formatter Shared library file that contains code and data
Prepares a hard disk to allow data to be stored on Code saved separately from the main .EXE file,
it reducing the .EXE file’s size
Deletes any existing data on disk Code only loaded to main memory when required
Performs formatting, process where computer DDL file can be made available to several applications
‘draws lines’ on disk surface to split it into small simultaneous, thus reducing strain on memory
areas DLL files act as modules in more complex programs,
Virus checker making it easier to install and run updates
Checks for and then removes any viruses found
Constantly checks all incoming and outgoing files 5.2. Language Translators
Defragmentation Software
Files can be big so have to be stored in multiple Assembler
sectors, which can result in fragmentation Software that translates assembly language
(contents of file scattered across >2 non- statements into machine code (binary) for execution
contiguous sectors) The mnemonics used translates into machine opcodes
Fragmentation slows down disk access and thus Process simple because assembly language has a
the performance of the entire computer. one-to-one relationship with machine code. 
Defragmenting software works by physically Compiler and Interpreter
reorganizing disk contents (files) such that they
are stored in contiguous sectors. compiler Interpreter
This defragmentation reduces number of Translates a high-level Translates and executes a
movements of the read/write heads require to language program to high-level language program,
access the disk contents, hence increasing machine code. line-by-line.
computer performance
Creates a .exe file which can
The defragmentation also creates larger No .exe file created.
be easily distributed.
contiguous free space regions
Disk contents analysis/disk repair software Once compiled, .exe file does
Execution very slow –
Software utility for visualization of disk space not need to be compiled
translated each time program
usage again, resulting in faster
run.
Gets size for each folder and files, and generates a execution.
graphical chart showing disk usage distribution Debugging easier/faster,
Reports all errors at the end
according to folders or other user defined criteria. since it stops translating when
of compilation: difficult to
Allows disk to report errors (e.g. “bad sector”) it reaches an error. This
locate errors∴ development
Software will attempt to offer a solution allows real time error
process long.
File Compression correction.
Reduces file size by removing redundant data in Only be produced when all Can run program any time,
files errors are fixed. even before code finished.
Causes improvements in the computer’s Used when development is
performance by reducing the data that needs to be Used during development.
completed.
stored
Back-up Software
Two-step translation
Makes copy of files on another storage medium in
Java and some other high level language programs
the event of a hard drive failure, user error,
may require two-step translation, i.e., they will be
disaster or accident.
partially compiled and partially interpreted
Should be a regular process

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Java code first translated to bytecode by Java compiler Source code of an open-source software is readily
Bytecode finally interpreted by the Java Virtual available to users under a copyright; does not
Machine to produce machine code enable user to re-distribute the software
Integrated Development Environment (IDE) features Concept of open-source program relies on fact
Coding that user can review source-code for eliminating
Context-sensitive prompts: Displays choice of bugs in it
keywords and available identifiers appropriate at Shareware:
current insertion point and provides choices in Demonstration software that is distributed for free
alphabetical order but for a specific evaluation period only
Highlights undeclared/unassigned variable Distributed on trial basis and with an
identifiers understanding that sometime later a user may be
Initial Error Detection interested in paying for it
Dynamic syntax checks: Automatic checking and Used for marketing purposes
highlighting of syntax errors, as soon as line typed Commercial: Requires payment before it can be used,
Type checking & parameter checking but includes all program's features, with no
Presentation  restrictions
Prettyprint: Automatic indentation and color- Artificial Intelligence (AI): ability of a computer to perform
coding of keywords tasks in such a way that are conventionally associated
Expand and Collapse code blocks: Saves excessive with human intelligence:
scrolling if collapsed, and easy to see global AI can learn from past mistakes
variable declarations and main program body they adapt to stop the same problem occurring
when collapsed again
Debugging  they learn to predict what might happen & raise
Single stepping: Executes program line-by-line to alert
see the effect of each statement on variables AI can learn to work more efficiently
Breakpoints: Pauses program at a specific line to when an action slows the system down, it can
ensure program operates correctly up to that line prevent this happening again
Variables/expressions Report Window: Monitors when an action increases the speed of the system,
variables for comparing values. it can repeat this when necessary to improve
efficiency
AI Applications
6. Ethics and Ownership Developing autonomous mechanical products
Machine learning through data sets
Ethics: a system of moral principles that guide behaviour AI Impacts
based on philosophical views Social
Computer Ethics Replacement of manual labour with automation
Regulate how computing professionals should make could lead to massive unemployment
decisions regarding professional & social conduct. However, could lead to increased leisure time
A computing professional can be ethically guided by Economic: Due to increased innovation and efficiency
joining a professional ethical body such as the BCS with automation provided by AI, there’d be lower
and IEEE, which have codes of conduct. manufacturing costs in general
Ownership Environmental: Detrimental impact on environment
Data ownership: having legal rights and complete due to robot manufacture with limited resources and
control over a single piece or set of data elements. its waste disposal
Copyright gives the creators of some types of media
rights to control how they're used and distributed.
Programming ideas and methods can be stolen by 7. Database and Data
competitors, software can easily be copied and
bootlegged (sold illegally) hence legislation is needed Modelling
to protect the ownership, usage and copyright of data.
Software Licencing
7.1. File Based System
Free Software Foundation:
License gives user freedom to run, copy, distribute,
Data stored in discrete files, stored on computer, and can
study, change and improve software.
be
accessed, altered or removed by the user
Condition: any redistributed version of software
must be distributed with original terms of free use, Disadvantages of File Based System:
modification, and distribution (aka copyleft)
The Open Source Initiative: No enforcing control on organization/structure of files

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Data repeated in different files; manually change each Tuple: a row or a record in a relation
Sorting must be done manually or must write a program Attribute: a field or column in a relation
Data may be in different format; difficult to find and use Primary key: attribute or combination of them that
Impossible for it to be multi-user; chaotic uniquely
define each tuple in relation
Security not sophisticated; users can access everything Candidate key: attribute that can potentially be a primary
key
7.2. Database Management Systems Foreign key: attribute or combination of them that relates
2
different tables
(DBMS) Referential integrity: prevents users or applications from
entering inconsistent data
Database: collection of non-redundant interrelated data Secondary key: candidate keys not chosen as the primary
DBMS: Software programs that allow databases to be key
defined,
constructed and manipulated Indexing: creating a secondary key on an attribute to
provide
fast access when searching on that attribute;
Features of a DBMS:
indexing data must be
updated when table data changes
Data management: data stored in relational databases -
tables
stored in secondary storage 7.4. Relational Design of a System
Data dictionary contains:
List of all files in database
No. of records in each file
Names & types of each field
Data modeling: analysis of data objects used in database,
identifying relationships among them
Logical schema: overall view of entire database, includes:
entities, attributes and relationships
Data integrity: entire block copied to user’s area when
being
changed, saved back when done 7.5. Normalization
Data security: handles password allocation and
verification,
backups database automatically, controls 1st Normal Form (1NF): contains no repeating attribute or
what certain user’s view by
access rights of individuals or
groups of attributes. Intersection of each tuple and attribute
groups of users
contains
only 1 value. Example:
Data change clash solutions:

Open entire database in exclusive mode – impractical with

several users
Lock all records in the table being modified – one user
changing
a table, others can only read table
Lock record currently being edited – as someone changes
something, others can only read record
User specifies no locks – software warns user of
simultaneous
change, resolve manually
Deadlock: 2 locks at the same
time, DBMS must
recognize, 1 user must abort task

Tools in a DBMS: 2nd Normal Form (2NF): it is in 1NF and every non-primary
key attribute is fully dependent on the primary; all the
Developer interface: allows creating and manipulating incomplete
dependencies have been removed. Example:
database
in SQL rather than graphically
Query processor: handles high-level queries. It parses,
validates, optimizes, and compiles or interprets a query
which
results in the query plan.

7.3. Relational Database Modelling

Entity: object/event which can be distinctly identified
Table: contains a group of related entities in rows and
columns
called an entity set

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Adding a primary key:

PRIMARY KEY (field)

Adding a foreign key:

FOREIGN KEY (field) REFERENCES <table>(field)

Example:

CREATE DATABASE ‘Personnel.gdb’

CREATE TABLE Training

(EmpID INT NOT NULL,

CourseTitle VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL,

CourseDate Date NOT NULL,

PRIMARY KEY (EmpID, CourseDate),

FOREIGN KEY (EmpID) REFERENCES Employee(EmpID))

7.7. Data Manipulation Language (DML)

Query and maintenance of data done using this language
– written in
SQL

Queries:

Creating a query:

SELECT <field-name>

FROM <table-name>

WHERE <search-condition>

3rd Normal Form (3NF): it is in 1NF and 2NF and all

non-key
elements are fully dependent on the primary key. No
inter- SQL Operators:
dependencies between attributes.
= Equals to
MANY-TO-MANY functions cannot be directly normalized > Greater than
to 3NF, must
use a 2 step process e.g. < Less than
>= Greater than or equal to
<= Less than or equal to
becomes: <> Not equal to
IS NULL Check for null values

Sort into ascending order:

7.6. Data Definition Language (DDL)
ORDER BY <field-name>

Creation/modification of the database structure using this

Arrange identical data into groups:
language
written in SQL GROUP BY <field-name>

Creating a database:
Joining together fields of different tables:
CREATE DATBASE <database-name>

INNER JOIN

Creating a table:
Data Maintenance:
CREATE TABLE <table-name> (…)

Adding data to table:

Changing a table:
INSERT INTO <table-name>(field1, field2, field3)

ALTER TABLE <table-name>

VALUES (value1, value2, value3)

ADD <field-name><data-type>
Deleting a record:

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DELETE FROM <table-name>

Pharming
WHERE <condition>
Redirects user to a fake website that appears
legitimate to gain confidential data
Updating a field in a table: Risk restriction: use a reliable ISP; check that links
are genuine and ensure https is present in the URL
UPDATE <table-name>

Computer System Security Measures

SET <field-name> = <value>

User Accounts and Passwords

WHERE <condition>

Usernames & passwords to deny access to

unauthorized users
8. Data Integrity User assigned privilege which access to only the
user’s workplace, preventing the user to have
admin rights.
8.1. Data Security Can assign privilege to files so users with low
privileges do not have access.
Data Security: making sure that data is protected against Firewalls
loss and unauthorized access. Hardware or software that filters information
Data Integrity: making sure that data is valid and does not traveling between the computer system and the
corrupt after transmission internet
Data Privacy: ability to determine what data is shared with (software) firewall can make decisions about what
a third party to allow and block by detecting illegal attempts by
Data Security and Computer System Security specific softwares to connect to the internet
Authentication ⦁ Process of determining whether
Data Security System Security
someone is who they claim to be ⦁ Helps prevent
Protection of data on a Protection of the computer unauthorized access ⦁ Log-on using digital signatures,
computer system system passwords and biometric scans.
To prevent access of viruses Anti-virus software
To prevent corruption of data
to the system and prevent Runs in background to detect & remove viruses.
and prevent hackers from
hackers to enter your Checks files for known malicious patterns
using data
computer system Anti-spyware software: detects & removes spyware.
E.g. encryption E.g. ID & Password Encryption:
Conversion of data to code by encoding it
Threats to Computer & Data Security Doesn’t stop illegal access but appears
Malware meaningless
software intentionally designed to damage a Necessary to use decryption software to decode
computer or computer network data
Includes Virus & Spyware Data Security Measures
Virus: Software that replicates itself by inserting a Encryption
copy of itself into another piece of software, which Access Rights to data (authorization): different
may cause computer to crash and can lead to users assigned different authorization levels which
deletion or corruption of data prevent them from accessing all data ∴ increases
Spyware: software that gathers information about security
user’s online and offline activity including accessed Data Backup
sites, applications, and downloaded files. An exact copy of an original piece of data in case
Risk restriction: Ensure anti-virus and anti-spyware the original is lost or corrupted
software is installed, regularly updated and run. Within the same computer system or at different
Hacking site
illegal access to a computer system Disk-mirroring strategy
Hackers can obtain user’s confidential data which Real-time strategy that writes data to two or more
can cause identity theft disks at the same time.
Can lead to deletion or corruption of data If one fails, the other is still there to be read off of
Risk restriction: Use strong passwords and ensure
firewall 8.2. Data Integrity
Phishing
Attempt through emails to obtain user’s Data validation and data verification help protect the
confidential data which can cause identity theft integrity of data by checking whether the data entered is
Risk restriction: Ignore suspicious mails and sensible and accurate, respectively.
ensure firewall criteria include SPAM filters, Data Validation: checks if data entered is valid, but not its
blacklist, etc. accuracy

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Data Validation Methods All data transmitted as bits

Range check: data must be between a set of values Number of 1s in a byte must always be either an
Format check: data must follow correct pattern/order odd number or an even number
Length check: data must have exact no. of characters Parity can be set either as even or odd
Presence check: checks if some data has been E.g. two communicating devices decide there will
entered always be an odd number of 1s. A byte is received
Existence check: data entered must exist that has even number of 1s so error occurred and
Limit check: checks whether a value entered is within receiving device would ask for it to be sent again
acceptable minimum and maximum values. Used also when data sent between parts of the
Check digit: A digit is used as the answer to an CPU
arithmetic operation of other digits in data. If not Not foolproof: if 2 bits are transposed, data
matched, then data entered incorrectly accepted
Data Verification: checks data entered is accurate during Checksum Check
data entry and data transfer Data sent from one place to another as block of
Data Entry Verification Methods bytes rather than individual bytes
Visual Check: Person manually compares original data Computer adds together all bytes being sent
with that entered to check if correct Any bits lost at most-significant end as carry
Double Entry: Enter data into computer twice and ignored so answer is an 8-bit number
compares. Checksum calculated before and after data sent
If differences found, go back to raw data to fix error If two bytes different, error occurred therefore
Data Transfer Verification Methods block of bytes must be sent again
Errors may occur when data moved in system.
Parity Check

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