P

A
R
M a c h in in g Processes
and M achine Tools
T

IV
Parts manufactured by the casting, forming, and shaping processes described in
Parts II and III, including many parts made by near-net or net-shape methods, often
require further operations before the product is ready for use. Consider, for example,
the following features on parts and whether they could be produced by the processes
described thus far:

• Smooth and shiny surfaces, such as the bearing surfaces of the crankshaft shown
in Fig. IV. 1
• Small-diameter deep holes in a part, such as the fuel-injector
nozzle shown in Fig. IV.2
• Parts with sharp features, a threaded section, and specified close
dimensional tolerances, such as the part shown in Fig. IV.3
• A threaded hole or holes on different surfaces of a part for
assembly with other components
• Demanding, complex geometries, often in hard or high-
performance materials that cannot be easily or economi­
cally produced in the quantities desired through the processes
described earlier in the book (see Fig. 25.1)
• Special surface finish and texture for functional purposes or
for appearance

It soon will become clear that none of the processes described in

the preceding chapters is capable of producing parts with the specific
characteristics outlined above. Thus, the parts will require further pro­
cessing, generally referred to as secondary and finishing operations.
Machining is a general term describing a group of processes that consist
of the removal of material and modification of the workpiece surfaces
after it has been produced by various methods. The very wide variety
FIGURE IV.1 A forged crankshaft before
of shapes produced by machining can be seen in an automobile, as
and after machining the bearing surfaces.
shown in Fig. IV.4.
The shiny bearing surfaces of the part on
In reviewing the contents of Parts II and III of this text, it will
the right cannot be made to their final
be recalled that some parts may indeed be produced to final shape dimensions and surface finish by any of the
(net shape) and at high quantities. However, machining may be more processes described in previous chapters of
economical, provided that the number of parts required is relatively this book. Source: Courtesy of Wyman-
small or the material and shape allow the parts to be machined at Gordon Company.
 high rates, quantities, and with high dimensional accuracy. A good example
is the production of brass screw-machine parts on multiple-spindle automatic
screw machines.
In general, however, resorting to machining often suggests that a part could
not have been produced to the final desired specifications by the primary pro­
cesses used in making them, and that additional operations are necessary. We
again emphasize the importance of net-shape manufacturing, as described in
Section 1.5, to avoid these additional steps and reduce production costs.
FIGURE IV .2 Cross-section of a
Furthermore, in spite of their advantages, material-removal processes have
fuel-injection nozzle, showing a
certain disadvantages; they
small hole made by the electrical-
discharge machining process, as
described in Section 27.5. The • Waste material, even though the am ount may be relatively small
material is heat-treated steel. • Generally take longer than other manufacturing processes
• Generally require more energy than do forming and shaping operations
• Can have adverse effects on the surface quality and properties of
the product

As outlined in Fig. I.5e in the General Introduc­

tion, machining consists of several types of material-
removal processes:

• Cutting, typically involving single-point or multi­

point cutting tools, each with a clearly defined
shape (Chapters 23 through 25)
• Abrasive processes, such as grinding and related
processes (Chapter 26)
• Advanced machining processes, typically uti­
lizing electrical, chemical, laser, thermal, and
hydrodynamic methods (Chapter 27)
FIGURE I V . 3 A machined and threaded part, showing
various dimensions and tolerances; all dimensions are in mm. The machines on which these operations are car­
Note that some tolerances are only a few tenths of a mm. ried out are called machine tools. As can be noted in
Table 1.2 in the General Introduction, the first primitive
tools, dating back several millennia, were made for

FIGURE IV .4 Typical parts in an automobile that require machining operations to impart

desirable shapes, surface characteristics, dimensions, and tolerances
the main purpose of chipping away and cutting all types of natural materials, such
as wood, stone, vegetation, and hunted livestock. Note also that it was not until
the 1500s that developments began on making products by machining operations,
particularly with the introduction of the lathe. Compared to the rather simple machin­
ery and tools employed, a wide variety of computer-controlled machine tools and
advanced techniques are available for making functional parts as small as tiny insects
and with cross-sections much smaller than a human hair.
As in all other manufacturing operations, it is essential to view machining opera­
tions as a system, consisting of the (a) workpiece, (b) cutting tool, (c) machine tool,
and (d) operator.
In the next seven chapters, the basic mechanics of chip formation in machining
are described; these include tool forces, power requirements, temperature, tool wear,
surface finish and integrity of the part machined, cutting tools, and cutting fluids.
Specific machining processes are then described, including their capabilities, limita­
tions, and typical applications, and im portant machine-tool characteristics for such
basic operations as turning, milling, boring, drilling, and tapping.
The features of machining centers, which are versatile machine tools controlled
by computers and capable of efficiently performing a variety of operations, are then
described. The next group of processes described are those in which the removal of
material is carried out by abrasive processes and related operations, and to very high
dimensional accuracy and surface finish. For technical and economic reasons, some
parts cannot be machined satisfactorily by cutting or abrasive processes. Since the
1940s, important developments have taken place in advanced machining processes,
including chemical, electrochemical, electrical-discharge, laser-beam, electron-beam,
abrasive-jet, and hydrodynamic machining, described throughout the rest of Part IV.
C
H
A

21
P
T Fundamentals
E
R o f M achining

21.1 Introduction 566

2 1 .2 Mechanics of • This chapter is an introduction to the fundamentals of machining processes,
Cutting 567 and presents the basic concepts relevant to all machining operations.
2 1 .3 Cutting Forces and
Power 577 • The chapter opens with a description of the mechanics of chip formation
2 1.4 T em p eratu res in in machining, and includes the model typically used for the basic cutting
Cutting 580
21 .5 Tool Life: W e a r and
operations allowing the calculation of force and power in machining.
Failure 582 • Temperature rise and its importance on the workpiece and cutting tool
2 1 .6 Surface Finish and
performance, and the mechanism of tool wear, are then discussed.
Integrity 589
2 1 .7 Machinability 591 • The chapter concludes with a discussion of surface finish, the integrity of parts
produced by machining, and the factors involved in the machinability of metallic
EXAMPLES:
and nonmetallic materials.
2 1. 1 Relative Energies in
Cutting 580
2 1.2 Increasing Tool Life by
Reducing t h e Cutting
Speed 585
21.1 Introduction
21.3 Effect of C u tting Speed on
Material R em oval 586 Cutting processes remove material from the various surfaces of a workpiece by pro­
ducing chips. Some of the more common cutting processes, illustrated in Fig. 21.1
(see also Fig. I.5e), are:
• Turning, in which the workpiece is rotated
and a cutting tool removes a layer of material
as the tool moves along its length, as shown
in Fig. 21.1a
• Cutting off, in which the tool moves radially
inward, and separates the piece on the right in
(a) Straight turning (b) Cutting off Fig. 21.1b from the blank
• Slab milling, in which a rotating cutting tool
removes a layer of material from the surface
of the workpiece (Fig. 21.1c)
• End milling, in which a rotating cutter travels
along a certain depth in the workpiece and
produces a cavity (Fig. 2 1 .1d)

In the turning process, illustrated in greater

detail in Fig. 21.2, the cutting tool is set at a certain
depth o f cut (mm), and travels to the left with a
(c) Slab milling (d) End milling certain speed as the workpiece rotates. The feed,
or feed rate, is the distance the tool travels per unit
FIGURE 21.1 Some examples of common machining operations. re v o lu tio n of the w o rk p ie c e (m m /rev); this
movement of the cutting tool produces a chip, which moves up the
face of the tool.
In order to analyze this basic process in greater detail, a two-
dimensional model of it is presented in Fig. 21.3a. In this idealized
model, a cutting tool moves to the left along the workpiece at a con­
stant velocity, V, and a depth of cut, to. A chip is produced ahead of
the tool by plastic deformation, and shears the material continuously
along the shear plane. This phenomenon can easily be demonstrated
by slowly scraping the surface of a stick of butter lengthwise with a
sharp knife, and observing how a chip is produced. Chocolate shav­
ings used as decorations on cakes and pastries also are produced in a
FIGURE 2 1 . 2 Schematic illustration of the
similar manner.
turning operation, showing various features;
In comparing Figs. 21.2 and 21.3, note that the feed in turning
surface finish is exaggerated to show feed
is equivalent to to, and the depth of cut in turning is equivalent to marks.
the width of cut (i.e., the dimension perpendicular to the page). These
dimensional relationships can be visualized by rotating Fig. 21.3 clock­
wise by 90°. With this brief introduction as a background, the cutting
process will now be described in greater detail.

2 1.2 Mechanics of Cutting

The factors that influence the cutting process are outlined in Table 21.1. In order
to appreciate the contents of this table, note that the major independent vari­
ables in the basic cutting process are: (a) tool material and coatings, if any;
(b) tool shape, surface finish, and sharpness; (c) workpiece material and its pro­
cessing history; (d) cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut; (e) cutting fluids, if any;
(f) characteristics of the machine tool; and (g) the type of work-holding device and
fixturing.

FIGURE 2 1.3 Schematic illustration of a two-dimensional cutting process, also called orthog­
onal cutting: (a) Orthogonal cutting with a well-defined shear plane, also known as the
M.E. Merchant model. Note that the tool shape, the depth of cut, to, and the cutting speed,
V, are all independent variables. (b) Orthogonal cutting without a well-defined shear plane.
TABLE 21.1

Factors Influencing Machining Operations

Parameter Influence and interrelationship

Cutting speed, depth of cut, Forces, power, temperature rise, tool life, type of chip, surface finish, and integrity
feed, cutting fluids
Tool angles As above; influence on chip flow direction; resistance to tool wear and chipping
Continuous chip G ood surface finish; steady cutting forces; undesirable, especially in modern machine tools
Built-up edge chip Poor surface finish and integrity; if thin and stable, edge can protect tool surfaces
Discontinuous chip Desirable for ease of chip disposal; fluctuating cutting forces; can affect surface finish and
cause vibration and chatter
Temperature rise Influences tool life, particularly crater wear and dimensional accuracy of workpiece; may
cause thermal damage to workpiece surface
Tool wear Influences surface finish and integrity, dimensional accuracy, tem perature rise, and forces
and power
Machinability Related to tool life, surface finish, forces and power, and type of chip produced

Dependent variables in cutting are those that are influenced by changes made
in the independent variables listed above. These include: (a) type of chip produced;
(b) force and energy dissipated during cutting; (c) temperature rise in the workpiece,
the tool, and the chip; (d) tool wear and failure; and (e) surface finish and surface
integrity of the workpiece.
The importance of establishing quantitative relationships among the independent
and dependent variables in machining can best be appreciated by considering some
typical questions to be posed: Which of the independent variables should be changed
first, and to what extent, if (a) the surface finish of the workpiece being machined is
unacceptable, (b) the cutting tool wears rapidly and becomes dull, (c) the workpiece
becomes very hot, and (d) the tool begins to vibrate and chatter.
In order to understand these phenomena and respond to the question posed, it is
essential to first study the mechanics of chip formation. The subject of chip formation
mechanics has been studied extensively since the early 1940s. Several models, with
varying degrees of complexity, have been proposed describing the cutting process. As
is being done in many other manufacturing operations, advanced machining models
are being continuously developed, including especially com puter simulation of the
basic machining process. Studying the complex interactions among the numerous
variables involved, in turn, helps develop the capabilities to optimize machining
operations and minimize costs.
The simple model shown in Fig. 21.3a, referred to as the M.E. M erchant model,
and developed in the early 1940s, is sufficient for the purposes of this introduction.
This model is known as orthogonal cutting, because it is two dimensional and the
forces involved are perpendicular to each other. The cutting tool has a rake angle, α
(positive as shown in the figure), and a relief or clearance angle.
Microscopic examination of chips produced in actual machining operations has
revealed that they are produced by shearing (as modeled in Fig. 2 1 .4a), a phenomenon
similar to the movement in a deck of cards sliding against each other (see also Fig. 1.6).
Shearing takes place within a shear zone (usually along a well-defined plane, referred
to as the shear plane) at an angle ɸ (called the shear angle). Below the shear plane,
the workpiece remains undeformed; above it, the chip (already formed) moves up
the rake face of the tool. The dimension d is highly exaggerated in the figure to
show the m echanism involved in chip form ation. This dim en­
sion, in reality, has been fou n d to be only o n the order of 1 0 − 2
to 1 0 − 3 mm.
Some m aterials, notably cast irons at low speeds, do not
shear along a well-defined plane, but instead shear w ithin a
zone, as show n in Fig. 21.3b. The shape an d size of this zone
is im po rta n t in the m achining oɸ peration, as will be discussed
in Section 21.2.1.

Cutting Ratio. It can be seen from Fig. 2 1.3a th a t the chip

thickness, tc, can be determ ined from the depth o f cut, to, the
rake angle, α , and the shear angle, Φɸɸ. The ratio o f to/ t c is
k n o w n as the cutting ratio (or chip-th ickness ratio), r , an d is
related to the tw o angles Φ and α by the following relationships:

and

Because the chip thickness is always greater th a n the depth

of cut, the value of r is always less th a n unity. The reciprocal of
r is k n o w n as the chip-com pression ratio or chip-compression
factor, an d is a m easure of h ow thick the chip has become as
com pared w ith the depth of cut; thus, the chip-com pression
ratio always is greater than unity. As m ay be visualized by
reviewing Fig. 2 1 .3a, the depth of cut is also referred to as the FIGURE 2 1.4 (a) Schematic illustration of the basic
u nd efo rm ed chip thickness. mechanism of chip formation by shearing, (b) Veloc­
The cutting ratio is an im po rta n t and useful param eter for ity diagram showing angular relationships among the
evaluating cutting conditions. Since the undeform ed chip thick ­ three speeds in the cutting zone.
ness, to, is easily specified as a m achine setting, and is therefore
k n o w n , the cutting ratio can be calculated by m easuring the
chip thickness w ith a micrometer. W ith the rake angle also kn o w n for a particu ­
lar cutting operation (it is a function of the tool an d w orkpiece geom etry in use),
Eq. (21.1) allows calculation of the shear angle.
A lthough to is referred to as the depth o f cu t, note th a t in a m achining process
such as turning (show n in Fig. 21.2), this quantity is the feed or feed rate, expressed
in distance traveled per revolution of the w orkpiece. Assume, for instance, th a t the
w orkpiece in Fig. 21.2 is a thin-w alled tube, and the w id th of the cut is the same as
the thickness of the tube. Then, by ro tatin g Fig. 21.3 clockwise by 90°, the figure is
n o w similar to the view in Fig. 21.2.

Shear Strain. Referring to Fig. 2 1.4a, it can n o w be seen th a t the shear strain, γ ,
th a t the m aterial undergoes can be expressed as

or QR Code 2 1.1 Measuring

strains during metal cutting.
(Source: Courtesy of the
N o te th a t large shear strains are associated w ith (a) low shear angles or (b) with National Institute of Stan­
low o r negative rake angles. Shear strains of five or higher have been observed in dards and Technology)
 actual cutting operations. C om p ared to form ing an d shaping processes, the w o r k ­
piece m aterial undergoes greater deform ation during cutting, as is also seen in
Table 2.4. F urtherm ore, deform ation in cutting generally takes place w ithin a very
n a rro w zone; in other w ords, the dim ension d = O C in Fig. 2 1 .4 a is very small.
T hus, the rate at w hich shearing takes place is high. (The n a tu re and size of the
d efo rm atio n zone is further discussed in Section 21.3.)
T he shear angle has a m ajor significance in the m echanics o f cutting operations,
as it influences force an d p ow er requirem ents, chip thickness, an d tem perature rise
in m achining. O ne o f the earliest analyses regarding the shear angle w as based on
the assum ption th a t the shear angle adjusts itself to minimize the cutting force, or
th a t the shear plane is a plane of m ax im u m shear stress. This analysis yielded the
expression

w here β is the friction angle, an d is related to the coefficient o f friction , μ , at the to o l-

chip interface by the expression μ = tan β . A m ong several shear-angle relationships
th a t have been developed, an o th er a pp ro xim ate but useful form ula is

T he coefficient of friction in m etal cutting has been fo u n d to generally range from

a b o u t 0.5 to 2 (see also Section 33.4), indicating th a t the chip encounters considerable
frictional resistance as it moves up the rake face of the tool. E xperim ents have show n
th a t varies
μ considerably along the to ol–chip interface, because o f large variations in
c o ntact pressure an d tem perature. Consequently, μ is also called the apparent m ean
coefficient o f friction.
E quation (21.4) indicates th a t (a) as the rak e angle decreases o r the friction a t the
too l–chip interface increases, the shear angle decreases and the chip becomes thicker;
(b) thicker chips m ean m ore energy dissipation, because the shear strain is higher,
as can be noted from Eq. (21.2); and (c) because the w o rk done during cutting is
converted into heat, the tem perature rise is also higher.

V elocities in the Cutting Z on e. N o te in Fig. 21.3 th a t since the chip thickness is

g reater th a n the depth of cut, the chip velocity, V c, has to be low er th a n the cutting
speed, V . Because mass continuity has to be m aintained,

hence,

A velocity diagram also can be constructed, as show n in Fig. 2 1 .4 b, in w hich,

from trigonom etric relationships, it can be show n th a t

w here Vs is the velocity at w hich shearing takes place in the shear plane; note also th a t

Video Solution 21.1 Mec­ These velocity relationships will be utilized fu rth er in Section 21.3 w h en des­
hanics of Cutting cribing pow er requirem ents in cutting operations.
2 1. 2 . 1 Types of Chips Produced in Metal Cutting
T he types o f m etal chips com m only observed in practice a n d their photom icrographs
are show n in Fig. 21.5. T he four m ain types are:

• Continuous
• Built-up edge
• Serrated or segmented
• Discontinuous
QR Code 2 1.2 Cutting steel
showing BUE. (Source:
N o te th a t a chip has tw o surfaces. O ne surface has been in contact w ith the Courtesy of the National
rake face o f the tool, and has a shiny and burnished appearance caused by sliding Institute of Standards and
as the chip moves up the tool face. The other surface is from the exterior surface Technology)

FIGURE 21.5 Basic types of chips produced in orthogonal metal cutting, their schematic
representation, and photomicrographs of the cutting zone: (a) continuous chip, with narrow,
straight, and prim ary shear zone; (b) continuous chip, with secondary shear zone at the chip-
tool interface; (c) built-up edge; (d) segmented or nonhomogeneous chip; and (e) discontinuous
chip. Source: After M .C. Shaw, P.K. Wright, and S. Kalpakjian.
o f the workpiece. It has a jagged, rou gh appearance, as can be seen on the chips in
Figs. 21.3 and 21.5, caused by the shearing m echanism sh ow n in Fig. 21.4a.

Continuous Chips. Continuous chips usually are form ed w ith ductile m aterials,
m achined a t high cutting speeds a n d/o r a t high rake angles (Fig. 21.5a). D eform ation
o f the m aterial takes place along a n a rro w shear zone, called the primary shear
zone. C ontinu o us chips m ay develop a secondary shear zone (Fig. 21.5b) because
of high friction at the tool–chip interface. This zone becomes thicker as friction
increases.
D eform ation in continuous chips also m ay take place along a w ide prim ary shear
zone w ith curved boundaries (see Fig. 21.3b), unlike th a t show n in Fig. 2 1 .5a. N o te
th a t the low er b o u nd ary o f the deform ation zone in Fig. 2 1 .3 b projects b elow the
m achined surface, subjecting it to distortion, as depicted by the distorted vertical
lines in the m achined subsurface. This situation occurs generally in m achining soft
metals at low speeds and low rake angles. It usually results in a p o o r surface finish and
surface residual stresses, w hich m ay be detrim ental to the properties o f the m achined
p a rt in their service life.
A lthough they generally produce a good surface finish, continuous chips are no t
necessarily desirable, as they tend to become tangled a ro u n d the toolholder, the fix-
turing, and the workpiece. They also interfere w ith chip-disposal systems, described
in Section 23.3.7. This p roblem can be alleviated w ith chip breakers (see Figure 21.7),
by changing processing param eters, such as cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut, or
by using cutting fluids.

Built-up Edge Chips. A built-up edge (BUE) consists o f layers of m aterial from
the w orkpiece th a t gradually are deposited on the tool tip, hence the term built-up
(Fig. 21.5c). As it grow s larger, the BUE becomes unstable, and eventually breaks
ap art. A p o rtio n of the BUE m aterial is carried aw ay by the tool side o f the chip;
the rest is deposited rand o m ly on the w orkpiece surface. In effect, a BUE changes
the geom etry o f the cutting edge an d dulls it, as can be n o ted in Fig. 2 1 .6a. The
cycle o f BUE form ation a n d destruction is repeated continuously during the cutting
operation.
Built-up edge is a m ajo r factor th a t adversely affects surface finish, as can be seen
in Figs. 2 1.5c and 2 1.6b an d c. O n the o ther h and , a thin, stable BUE is usually
regarded as desirable, because it reduces tool w ear by protecting its rake face. Cold-
w ork ed metals generally have a lower tendency to form BUE th a n those in their
annealed condition. Because of w o rk hardening and deposition of successive layers
of m aterial, the BUE hardness increases significantly (Fig. 21.6a).
The tendency for BUE form ation can be reduced by one o r m ore of the
follow ing means:

• Increase the cutting speed

• Decrease the depth of cut
• Increase the rake angle
• Use a cutting tool th a t has low er chem ical affinity for the w orkpiece m aterial
o r use a sh arp tool
• Use an effective cutting fluid

Serrated Chips. Serrated chips, also called segm ented or nonhomogeneous chips
(Fig. 2 1 .5d), are sem icontinuous chips w ith large zones o f low shear strain an d small
zones of high shear strain, hence the latter zone is called shear localization. T he chips
FIGURE 2 1 .6 (a) Hardness distribution in a built-up edge in the cutting zone (material: 3 115
steel); note that some regions in the built-up edge are as much as three times harder than the
bulk metal of the workpiece, (b) Surface finish produced in turning 5130 steel with a built-up
edge, (c) Surface finish on 1018 steel in face milling. Magnifications: 1 5 × . Source: Courtesy
of M etcut Research Associates, Inc.

have a saw tooth-like appearance. (This type of chip should n o t be confused w ith the
illustration in Fig. 2 1 .4a, in w hich the dim ension d is highly exaggerated.) M etals
th a t have low therm al conductivity an d have strength th a t decreases sharply w ith
tem p eratu re (called therm al softening) exhibit this behavior, an d is m ost notably
observed w ith titanium and its alloys.

Discontinuous Chips. D iscontinuous chips consist of segments, attached either

firmly o r loosely to each other (Fig. 21.5e). D iscontinuous chips usually form under
the following conditions:

• Brittle w orkpiece materials, because they do n o t have the capacity to undergo

the high shear strains encountered in m achining
• W orkpiece materials th a t contain h a rd inclusions and impurities, or have
structures such as the graphite flakes in gray cast iron (see Fig. 4.13a)
• Very low o r very high cutting speed, V
• Large depth of cut, d
• L ow rake angle, α
• Lack o f an effective cutting fluid (Section 22.12)
• Low stiffness of the toolholder or the m achine tool, thus allowing vibration and
c h atter to occur (Section 25.4)

Because o f the discontinuous n atu re of chip form ation, cutting forces c o n tin u­
ally vary during m achining. Consequently, the stiffness or rigidity o f the cutting-tool
holder, the w ork-holding devices, and the m achine tool (C hapters 23 th ro u g h 25)
are significant factors in m achining w ith serrated o r discontinuous chips. If it is
n o t sufficiently rigid, the machine tool m ay begin to vibrate an d chatter, as dis­
cussed in detail in Section 25.4. This, in tu rn , adversely affects the surface finish and
dim ensional accuracy of the m achined p art, an d m ay cause p rem ature w ear o r d a m ­
age to the cutting tool. Even the com ponents of the m achine tool m ay be dam aged if
the vibration is excessive.

Chip Curl. In all cutting operations on metals, as well as o n nonm etallic m aterials,
chips develop a curvature (chip curl) as they leave the w orkpiece surface (Fig. 21.5).
A m ong the factors affecting the chip curl are:

• The distribution of stresses in the prim ary an d secondary shear zones

• T herm al effects in the cutting zone
• W ork-hardening characteristics o f the w orkpiece m aterial
• The geom etry of the cutting tool
• Processing variables
• C utting fluids

T he first four items above are com plex ph enom ena, and beyond the scope of this
text. As for the effects o f processing variables, as the d ep th o f cu t decreases, the radius
of curvature o f the chip generally decreases (the chip becomes curlier). C utting fluids
can m ake chips become m ore curly, thus reducing the too l–chip contact area (see
Fig. 21.7a) and thus concentrating the h eat closer to the tip o f the tool (Section 21.4);
as a result, tool w ear increases.

Chip Breakers. As stated above, continuous an d long chips are undesirable in

m achining operations, as they ten d to becom e entangled, severely interfere w ith
m achining operations, and can also becom e a potential safety hazard. If all of the
processing variables are un d er control, the usual procedure em ployed to avoid such
a situation is to break the chip interm ittently, w ith shapes of cutting tools th a t have
ch ip-breaker features, as sho w n in Fig. 21.7.
The basic principle of a chip breaker on a to o l’s rake face is to bend an d break
the chip periodically. C utting tools and inserts (see Fig. 22.2) n o w have built-in chip-
breaker features of various designs (Fig. 21.7). Chips also can be b roken by changing
the to ol geom etry to control chip flow, as in the turning o p erations show n in Fig. 21.8.
Experience indicates th a t the ideal chip size to be b ro k e n is in the shape o f either the
letter C or the n u m b er 9, a n d fits w ith in a 2 5 -m m square space.

Controlled Contact on Tools. Cutting tools can be designed so th a t the too l–chip
c o ntact length is reduced by recessing the rake face of the to o l some distance aw ay
from its tip. This reduction in contact length affects the chip-form ation m echan­
ics. Primarily, it reduces the cutting forces, an d thus the energy a n d tem perature.
D eterm ining an op tim um length is im p o rtan t, as to o small a co n tact length w ould
concentrate the heat at the tool tip, thus increasing wear.

Cutting N onm etallic Materials. A variety of chips are encountered in cutting

therm oplastics (Section 7.3), depending on the type of p olym er an d process p a ra m ­
eters, such as depth of cut, tool geometry, and cutting speed. The discussions
concerning metals also are generally applicable to polym ers. Because they are b rit­
tle, therm osetting plastics (Section 7.4) and ceramics (C hapter 8 ) generally produce
discontinuous chips. The characteristics of other m achined m aterials are described
in Section 21.7.3.
FIGURE 2 1 .7 (a) Machining of aluminum using an insert w ithout a chip breaker; note the
long chips that can interfere with the tool and present a safety hazard, (b) Machining of
aluminum with a chip breaker, (c) Schematic illustration of the action of a chip breaker; note
that the chip breaker decreases the radius of curvature of the chip and eventually breaks it.
(d) Chip breaker clamped on the rake face of a cutting tool, (e) Grooves in cutting tools acting
as chip breakers. M ost cutting tools now used are inserts w ith built-in chip-breaker features.
Source: (a) and (b) Courtesy of Kennametal Inc.

FIGURE 21 .8 Chips produced in turning: (a) tightly curled chip; (b) chip hits workpiece and
breaks off; (c) continuous chip moving radially away from workpiece; and (d) chip hits tool
shank and breaks off.
 21.2.2 Oblique Cutting
The m ajority of m achining operations involve tool
shapes th a t are three dim ensional, w hereby the cutting
is oblique. T he basic difference between oblique and
ortho g on al cutting can be seen in Figs. 2 1.9 a an d c. In
ortho g on al cutting, the chip slides directly up the face
of the tool and becomes like a spiral, w hereas in oblique
cutting, the chip becom es helical and leaves the w o rk ­
piece surface at an angle i, called the inclination angle
(Fig. 21.9b). N o te th a t the lateral direction o f chip
m ovem ent in oblique cutting is similar to the action
of a snow plow blade, w hereby the snow is th ro w n
sideways.
N o te th a t the chip in Fig. 2 1 .9 a flows up the rake
face of the tool at angle α c (called the chip flow angle),
an d is m easured in the plane o f the to o l face. Angle
α i is the normal rake angle, a n d is a basic geom etric
property of the tool; this is the angle betw een line oz
n orm al to the w orkpiece surface a n d line oa on the tool
face in the figure.
In oblique cutting, the w orkpiece m aterial
approaches the cutting to o l a t a velocity V a n d leaves
the surface (as a chip) w ith a velocity Vc. T he effec­
tive rake angle, α e, is calculated in the plane o f these
tw o velocities. Assum ing th a t the chip flow angle, α c, is
equal to the inclination angle, i (an assum ption th a t has
been verified experim entally), the effective rak e angle,
FIGURE 21 .9 (a) Schematic illustration of cutting with an α e, is
oblique tool; note the direction of chip movement, (b) Top
view, showing the inclination angle, i. (c) Types of chips
produced with tools at increasing inclination angles.
Since both i and α n can be m easured directly, the effec­
tive rake angle can n o w be calculated. N o te th at, as i
increases, the effective rake angle increases, the chip becom es th in n er and longer,
and, as a consequence, the cutting force decreases. T he influence of the inclination
angle on chip shape is sh o w n in Fig. 21.9c.
A typical single-point turning tool used on a lathe is sho w n in Fig. 21.10 a. N o te the
various angles involved, each o f w hich has to be selected properly for efficient cutting.
A lthough these angles have traditionally been produced by grinding (C hapter 26), the
m ajority of cutting tools are n o w widely available as inserts, as show n in Fig. 2 1 .10 b
a n d described in detail in C h ap ter 22. Various three-dim ensional cutting tools,
including those for drilling, tapping, milling, planing, shaping, broaching, sawing,
an d filing, are described in greater detail in C hapters 23 a n d 24.

Shaving and Skiving. T hin layers o f m aterial can be rem oved from straight or
curved surfaces by a process similar to the use of a plane to shave w o od . Shaving
is particularly useful in im proving the surface finish a n d dim ensional accuracy of
sheared sheet metals an d punched slugs, as show n in Fig. 16.9. A nother com m on
application of shaving is in finishing gears, using a cutter th a t has the shape of the
gear to o th (see Section 24.7). Parts th a t are long or have com plex shapes are shaved
by skiving, using a specially shaped cutting tool th a t moves tangentially across the
length o f the workpiece.
FIGURE 21.10 (a) Schematic illustration of a right-hand cutting tool. The various angles on
these tools and their effects on machining are described in Section 23.2. Although these tools
traditionally have been produced from solid tool–steel bars, they have been replaced largely
with (b) inserts made of carbides and other materials of various shapes and sizes.

21.3 C u ttin g Forces and P o w er

Studying the cutting forces and p o w e r involved in m achining operations is im po rtan t

for the following reasons:

• D a ta on cutting forces is essential so that:

a. M achine tools can be properly designed to minimize distortion of the m a ­

chine com ponents, m aintain the desired dim ensional accuracy of the
m achined part, and help select a p p rop riate toolholders an d w ork-holding
devices.
b. T he w orkpiece is capable o f w ithstanding these forces w ith o u t exces­
sive distortion.

• P ow er requirem ents m ust be k n o w n in order to enable the selection of a machine

tool w ith adequate electrical power.

T he forces acting in ortho g on al cutting are show n in Fig. 2 1 .1 1 a. The cutting

force, Fc, acts in the direction o f the cutting speed, V, and supplies the energy required
for cutting. T he ratio of the cutting force to the cross-sectional area being cut (i.e.,
the pro d u c t of w id th of cut and depth of cut) is referred to as the specific cutting
force.
T he thrust force, Ft , acts in a direction n o rm al to the cutting force. These tw o
forces produce the resultant force, R , as can be seen from the force circle diagram
show n in Fig. 21.11b. N ote th a t the resultant force can be resolved into tw o c o m p o ­
nents on the tool face: a friction force, F , along the tool–chip interface, and a normal
force, N , perpendicular to it. It can also be show n th a t

and
 N o te th a t the resultant force is balanced by an equal an d
opposite force along the shear plane, a n d is resolved into a
shear force, Fs, an d a normal force, Fn. These forces can be
expressed, respectively, as

and

Because the area of the shear plane can be calculated by

know ing the shear angle and the d ep th o f cut, the shear and
n orm al stresses in the shear plane can be determ ined.
The ratio of F to N is the coefficient o f friction, μ , at the
tool–chip interface, and the angle β is the friction angle (as in
Fig. 21.11). T he m agnitude o f μ can be determ ined as

A lthough the m ag nitud e o f forces in actual cutting o p e r­

ations is generally on the order o f a few hu nd red new tons, the
local stresses in the cu ttin g zone a n d the pressure on th e cu t­
ting tool are very high, because the contact areas are very small.
For exam ple, the to o l–chip c o n ta c t length (see Fig. 21.3) is
typically on the o rd e r o f 1 m m ; consequently, the tool tip is
subjected to very high stresses, w hich lead to wear, as well as
chipping a nd fracture o f the tool.

Thrust Force. T he thrust force in cutting is im p o rta n t

because the toolholder, the w ork -ho ldin g devices, an d the
m achine tool itself m ust be sufficiently stiff to su p p o rt th a t
force, w ith m inim al deflections. F or exam ple, if the th ru st
FIGURE 21.11 (a) Forces acting in the cutting zone
during two-dimensional cutting; note that the resul­ force is to o high o r if the m achine too l is n o t sufficiently stiff,
tant force, R, must be colinear to balance the forces, the tool will be pushed aw ay from the w orkpiece surface being
(b) Force circle to determine various forces acting in m achined. This m ovem ent will, in tu rn , reduce the depth of
the cutting zone. cut, resulting in p o o r dim ensional accuracy of the m achined
part.
The effect o f rake angle and friction angle on the m agnitude a n d direction of
th ru st force can be determ ined by noting from Fig. 2 1 .1 1 b th a t

or

T he m agnitude o f the cutting force, Fc, is always positive, as sho w n in Fig. 21.11,
because it is this force th a t supplies the w o rk required in cutting. H owever, the sign
of the th ru st force, Ft , can be either positive or negative, depending on the relative
m agnitudes o f β a n d α . N o te th a t w hen β > α , the sign o f Ft is positive (d o w n w a r d ),
and w hen β < α , the sign is negative (u p w a r d ). T hus, it is possible to have an
u p w a rd th ru st force under the conditions of (a) high rak e angles, (b) low friction
a t the tool–chip interface, o r (c) both. A negative th ru st force can have im p o rtan t
implications in the design o f m achine tools and w o rk holders an d in the stability of
the cutting process.
Power. It can be seen from Fig. 21.11 th a t the p ow er inp u t in cutting is

This p o w er is dissipated mainly in the shear zone (due to the energy required to shear
the material) an d on the rake face of the tool (due to tool–chip interface friction).
From Figs. 2 1.4b and 2 1.11, the pow er dissipated in the shear plane is

D enoting the w idth of cut as w , the specific energy for shearing, us, is given by

Similarly, the pow er dissipated in friction is

an d the specific energy for friction, u f , is

The total specific energy, u t , is thus

Because of the num erous factors involved, reliable prediction of cutting forces and
p ow er still is based largely on experim ental data, such as those given in Table 21.2.
The w ide range o f values seen in the table can be attrib uted to differences in strength
w ithin each m aterial group, an d to various other factors, such as friction, use of
cutting fluids, and a wide range in processing variables. T he sharpness of the tool tip
also influences forces and pow er; because the tip rubs against the m achined surface
an d m akes the deform ation zone ahead of the tool larger, duller tools require higher Video Solution 2 1.2 Power
forces an d power. in Cutting

Measuring Cutting Forces and Pow er. C utting forces

TABLE 21.2
can be m easured using a force transducer (typically w ith
q uartz piezoelectric sensors), a dynamometer, or a load Approximate Range of Energy Requirements in
cell (with resistance-wire strain gages placed on octagonal Cutting Operations at the Drive Motor of the
rings) m ou n ted on the cutting-tool holder. Transducers Machine Tool (for Dull Tools, Multiply by 1.25)
have a m uch higher natural frequency and stiffness th an
dynam om eters, w hich are prone to excessive deflection
an d vibration. It is also possible to calculate the cutting
Material
force from the po w er consum ption during cutting from
Eq. (21.4). Aluminum alloys 0.4– 1
It should be recognized th a t Eq. (21.4) represents the Cast irons 1.1–5.4
Copper alloys 1.4–3.2
po w er in the machining process, and the machine tool
High-temperature alloys 3.2–8
will require m ore pow er in order to overcome friction. Magnesium alloys 0.3–0.6
T hus, to o btain the cutting force from the m easured Nickel alloys 4.8–6.7
m achine p ow er consum ption, the m echanical efficiency Refractory alloys 3–9
of the m achine tool m ust be know n. The specific energy Stainless steels 2–5
Steels 2–9
in cutting, such as th a t show n in Table 21.2, also can be
Titanium alloys 2–5
used to estimate cutting forces.
 EXAMPLE 2 1. 1 Relative Energies in Cutting

Given: In an o r th o g o n a l cu ttin g o p e ra tio n , to = and

0.13 m m , V = 120 m/min, α = 10°, and the w idth of
cut = 6 mm. It is observed that tc = 0.23 mm, Fc = 500 N,
and Ft = 2 0 0 N .

Find: C alculate the percentage of the total energy Thus,

th a t goes into overcom ing friction at the to o l–chip
interface.

Solution: T he percentage of the energy can be so

expressed as

and

w here
Hence,

21.4 Temperatures in Cutting

As in all m etalw orking processes w here plastic defo rm ation is involved (C hapters 13
th ro u g h 16), the energy dissipated in cutting is converted into heat w hich, in turn,
raises the tem perature in the cutting zone and the w orkpiece surface. Temperature
rise is a very im p o rta n t factor in machining because of its m ajor adverse effects:

• Excessive tem p eratu re lowers the strength, hardness, stiffness, a n d w ear resis­
tance of the cutting tool; tools also m ay soften and undergo plastic deform ation,
thus altering the tool shape.
QR Code 21.3 Measuring
temperatures during metal • Increased heat causes uneven dim ensional changes in the p a rt being m achined,
cutting. (Source: Courtesy depending on the physical properties o f the m aterial (C hapter 3), thus m aking
of the National Institute of it difficult to co n tro l its dim ensional accuracy and tolerances.
Standards and Technology) • An excessive tem perature rise can induce therm al dam age and m etallurgical
changes (C hapter 4) in the m achined surface, adversely affecting its properties.

T he m ain sources of h eat in m achining are: (a) the w o rk done in shearing in the
p rim ary shear zone, (b) energy dissipated as friction at the tool–chip interface, and
(c) h eat generated as the tool rubs against the m achined surface, especially for dull
o r w o rn tools. M u c h effort has been expended in establishing relationships am ong
tem perature an d various m aterial an d process variables in cutting. It can be show n that,
in orthogonal cutting, the m ean tem perature, T mean, is
where Yf is the flow stress in M Pa, ρ c is the volumetric specific
heat in k J/m 3.K, a n d K is the therm al diffusivity (ratio of th e r­
mal conductivity to volum etric specific heat) in m 2/s. Because
the m aterial param eters in this e q u a tio n also depend o n tem ­
p e ra tu re , it is im p o rta n t to use a p p ro p ria te values th a t are
c o m p atible w ith the predicted tem p e ra tu re range. It can be
seen from Eq. (21.23) th a t the m ean cu tting tem p e ra tu re in ­
creases w ith w orkpiece strength, cu tting speed, an d d e p th of
cut, a n d decreases w ith increasing specific h e a t a n d therm al
conductivity o f the w orkpiece m aterial.
A simple expression for the m ean tem perature in turning
on a lathe is given by

w here V is the cutting speed and f is the feed of the tool,

as show n in Fig. 21.2. A pproxim ate values o f the exponents FIGURE 2 1 .12 Typical temperature distribution in
a an d b are a = 0.2 an d b = 0.125 for carbide tools and the cutting zone; note the severe temperature gradients
a = 0.5 and b = 0.375 for high-speed steel tools. within the tool and the chip, and that the workpiece
remains relatively cool. Source: After G. Vieregge.
Temperature Distribution. Because the sources of heat
generation in m achining are concentrated in the prim ary
shear zone and at the tool–chip interface, it is to be expected
th a t there will be severe tem perature gradients in the cutting zone. A typical tem per­
ature distribution is show n in Fig. 21.12; note the presence o f severe gradients and
th a t the m ax im u m tem perature is a b o u t halfw ay up the tool–chip interface.
T he tem peratures developed in a turning o peration o n 5 2 1 0 0 steel are show n in
Fig. 21.13. The tem perature distribution along the flank surface of the tool is show n
in Fig. 2 1.13 a, for V = 60, 90, an d 170 m /m in, as a function of the distance from the
tip of the tool. The tem perature distributions at the tool– chip interface for the same
three cutting speeds are show n in Fig. 21.13 b , as a function of the fraction of the
co ntact length. T hus, zero on the abscissa represents the tool tip, an d 1.0 represents
the end o f the to ol–chip contact length.
N o te in Eq. 21.23 th a t the tem perature increases w ith cutting speed, an d th a t the
highest tem perature is alm ost 1 100°C. T he presence o f such high tem peratures in m a ­
chining can be verified simply by observing the dark-bluish color of the chips (caused
by oxidation) typically produced at high cutting speeds. Chips can indeed become red hot,
an d hence create a safety hazard for the operator.
F rom Eq. (21.24) and the values for the ex p on en t a , it can be seen th a t the cutting
speed, V, greatly influences tem perature. The explanation is th at, as speed increases,
the time for heat dissipation decreases, and hence the tem peratu re rises, eventually
becoming alm ost an adiabatic process. This effect of speed can be sim ulated easily
by rubbing y o ur hands together faster and faster.
As can be seen from Fig. 21.14, the chip carries aw ay m ost of the heat generated.
It has been estim ated th a t in a typical m achining operation, 9 0 % of the energy is
rem oved by the chip, w ith the rest going into the tool and the workpiece. N o te in
this figure th at, as the cutting speed increases, a larger p ro p o rtio n of the total heat
generated is carried aw ay by the chip, an d less heat goes elsewhere. This is one reason
for the continued desire to increase m achining speeds (see high-speed machining,
Section 25.5). T he other m ain benefit of higher cutting speeds is associated w ith the V id eo Solution 2 1.3 Tem­
favorable economics in reducing m achining time, as described in Section 25.8. peratures in Turning
 FIGURE 21.13 Temperatures developed in turning 52100 steel: (a) flank temperature
distribution and (b) tool–chip interface temperature distribution. Source: After B.T. Chao
and K.J. Trigger.

Techniques for Measuring Temperature. Tem peratures and their distribution

in the cutting zone m ay be determ ined from thermocouples em bedded in the
tool o r the workpiece. This technique has been used successfully, although it
involves considerable effort. It is easier to determ ine the m ean tem p eratu re w ith
the thermal emf (electromotive force) a t the tool–chip interface, w hich acts as a
h o t junction between tw o different m aterials (tool an d chip). Infrared radiation
from the cutting zone m ay also be m onitored w ith a radiation p y ro m e te r; h o w ­
ever, this technique indicates only surface tem peratures a n d its accuracy depends
on the emissivity of the surfaces, w hich is difficult to determ ine accurately.
FIGURE 21.14 Proportion of
the heat generated in cutting
transferred to the tool, w ork­
piece, and chip as a function of 21.5 T o o l Life: W e a r and Failure
the cutting speed; note that the
chip removes most of the heat. The previous sections have show n th a t cutting tools are subjected to (a) high
localized stresses a t the tip o f the tool; (b) high tem p eratures, especially along
the rake face; (c) sliding o f the chip a t high speeds along the rak e face; and (d) sliding
of the tool along the newly m achined w orkpiece surface. These conditions induce
tool wear, a m ajo r consideration in all m achining o p erations, as are m old an d die
w ear in casting and m etalw orking processes. Tool w ear adversely affects too l life,
the quality of the m achined surface and its dim ensional accuracy, and, consequently,
the economics o f cutting operations.
W ear is a gradual process (see Section 33.5), m uch like the w ear of the tip of an
ord in ary pencil. T he rate of tool w ear (i.e., volum e w o rn per un it time) depends on
FIGURE 21.15 (a) Features of tool wear in a turning operation; the VB indicates average
flank wear, (b) through (e) Examples of wear in cutting tools: (b) flank wear, (c) crater wear,
(d) thermal cracking, and (e) flank wear and built-up edge. Source: (a) Terms and definitions
reproduced with the permission of the International Organization for Standardization, ISO,
copyright remains with ISO. (b) through (e) Courtesy of Kennametal Inc.

w orkpiece m aterial, tool m aterial and its coatings, tool geometry, process param eters,
cutting fluids, an d the characteristics o f the m achine tool. Tool w ear an d the resulting
changes in tool geometry (Fig. 21.13) are generally classified as flank w ear, crater
wear, nose wear, notching, plastic deformation, chipping, and gross fracture.

2 1.5 . 1 Flank Wear

Flank wear occurs on the relief (flank) face o f the tool, as show n in Figs. 21.15a,
b, and e. It generally is attrib u ted to (a) rubbing of the tool along the machined
surface, thereby causing adhesive or abrasive w ear an d (b) high tem peratures, which
adversely affect tool-m aterial properties.
In a classic study by F.W. Taylor (1856– 1915) on the m achining of steels con ­
ducted in the early 1890s, the following appro xim ate relationship for tool life, know n
as the Taylor tool-life equation, w as established:
TABLE 21.3 w here V is the cutting speed, T is the time (in m inutes) th a t it takes to develop
a certain flank wear land (show n as VB in Fig. 21.15 a), n is an ex ponent th a t
Ranges of n Values for the
depends on tool an d workpiece m aterials an d cutting conditions, and C is a
Taylor Equation ( 2 1.25) for
constant. Each com bination of w orkpiece an d too l m aterials a n d each cutting
Various Tool Materials
condition have their o w n n an d C values, b o th o f w hich are determ ined exper­
High-speed steels 0 . 08–0.2 im entally an d often are based o n surface finish requirem ents. Also, the Taylor
Cast alloys 0 . 1–0.15 equation is often applied even w hen flank w ear is n o t the d o m in a n t w ear m ode
Carbides 0 . 2–0.5 (see Fig. 21.15), o r if a different criterion (such as required m achining power)
Coated carbides 0 .4–0.6 is used to define C an d n. Generally, n depends on the too l m aterial, as show n
Ceramics 0 .5–0.7 in Table 21.3, and C on the w orkpiece m aterial. N o te th a t the m agnitude of C
is the cutting speed at T = 1 min.
To appreciate the im portance of the ex p on ent n, Eq. (21.25) can be
rew ritten as

w here it can be seen th a t for a co n stan t value of C , the smaller the value of n, the
low er is the tool life.
The m ost im p o rta n t variable associated w ith tool life is cutting speed, followed
by depth of c ut and feed, f. For turning, Eq. (21.25) can be modified as

w h e re d is th e d e p th o f cu t a n d f is th e feed in m m /rev, as sh o w n in Fig. 2 1 .2 . T he

e x p o n e n ts x a n d y m u st be d eterm in ed ex p erim en tally for each c u ttin g co n ditio n .
Taking n = 0.15, x = 0.15, and y = 0.6 as typical values encountered in
m achining practice, it can be seen th a t cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut are
of decreasing im portance. E qu atio n (21.27) can be rew ritten as

or, using typical values for the exponents, as

FIGURE 2 1 .16 Effect of workpiece hardness and microstructure on tool life in turning ductile
cast iron; note the rapid decrease in tool life (approaching zero) as the cutting speed increases.
Tool materials have been developed that resist high temperatures, such as carbides, ceramics,
and cubic boron nitride, as described in Chapter 22.
 To o btain a co nstan t tool life, the following observations can be made
from Eq. (21.29):

• If the feed or the depth of cut is increased, the cutting speed m ust
be decreased, and vice versa, and
• D epending on the exponents, a reduction in speed can result in
an increase in the volume of the m aterial rem oved, because of the
increased feed or depth of cut.

Tool-life Curves. Tool-life curves are plots of experim ental data

obtained from cutting tests on various materials and under different
cutting conditions, such as cutting speed, feed, depth of cut, tool m ate­
rial an d geometry, and cutting fluids. N o te in Fig. 2 1 .1 6 , for example,
th a t (a) tool life decreases rapidly as the cutting speed increases, (b) the
condition o f the w orkpiece m aterial has a strong influence on tool life,
an d (c) there is a large difference in tool life for different m icrostructures
of the w orkpiece material (C hapter 4).
FIGURE2 1.17 Tool-life curves for a va­
H eat treatm en t of the w orkpiece is im p o rtant, due largely to increas­ riety of cutting-tool materials. The nega­
ing w orkpiece hardness. For exam ple, ferrite has a hardness of a b o ut tive reciprocal of the slope of these curves
100 HB, pearlite 2 0 0 HB, and m artensite 300– 500 HB. Im purities and is the exponent n in the Taylor tool-life
h ard constituents in the m aterial or on the surface of the workpiece, such equation (21.25), and C is th e cutting speed
as rust, scale, and slag, also are im p o rta n t factors, because their abrasive at T = 1 min, ranging from about 60 to
action reduces tool life. 3,000 m/min in this figure.
The exponent n can be determ ined from tool-life curves (Fig. 21.17).
N o te th a t the smaller the value of n , the faster the tool life decreases
w ith increasing cutting speed. A lthough tool-life curves are som ew hat linear over a
limited range of cutting speeds, they rarely are linear over a w ide range. M oreover,
the exponent n can indeed become negative at low cutting speeds, m eaning th a t tool-
life curves actually can reach a m axim um an d then curve do w n w ard . Because of this
possibility, caution should be exercised in using tool-life equations beyond the range
o f cutting speeds to w hich they are applicable.
Because tem perature has a m ajo r influence on the physical an d m echanical p ro p ­
erties of materials (see C hapters 2 and 3), it is to be expected th a t it also strongly
influences wear. T hus, as tem perature increases, w ear increases.

EXAMPLE 2 1.2 Increasing Tool Life by Reducing the Cutting Speed

Given: Assume th a t for a given tool and w orkpiece Simplifying this equation,
com bination, n = 0.5 and C = 400.

Find: C alculate the percentage increase in tool life

w hen the cutting speed is reduced by 5 0 % , using the
Taylor equation for tool life. Thus the change in tool life is

Solution: Since n = 0.5, the Taylor equation can

be rew ritten as V T 0.5 = 400. D enote V 1 as the
initial speed an d V2 as the reduced speed; thus,
V 2 = 0 .5 V 1. Because C is a co n stan t a t 4 00, we or th a t tool life is increased by 3 0 0 % . N o te th a t
have the relationship a reduction in cutting speed has resulted in a m ajor
increase in to ol life. N o te also that, for this problem ,
the m agnitude of C is n o t relevant.
 A llow able W ear Land. A knife or a pair of scissors has to be sharpened w hen
the quality of the cut deteriorates or the forces required become to o high. Similarly,
cutting tools need to be resharpened o r replaced w h en (a) the surface finish of the
m achined w orkpiece begins to deteriorate, (b) cutting forces increase significantly, or
(c) the tem p eratu re rises significantly. T he allowable w ear land, indicated as VB in
Fig. 2 1.15 a, for various m achining conditions is given in Table 21.4. For im proved
dim ensional accuracy an d surface finish, the allow able w ear land m ay be smaller
th a n the values given in the table. The recom m ended cutting speed for a high-speed
Video Solution 2 1 .4 Tay­
steel tool (see Section 22.2) is generally the one th a t yields a tool life of 60– 120 min,
lor Tool-life Equation
an d for a carbide tool (Section 22.4), it is 30– 60 min.

Optimum Cutting Speed. Recall th a t as cutting speed increases, tool life is reduced
rapidly. O n the other hand, if the cutting speed is low, too l life is long, bu t the rate at
w hich m aterial is rem oved is also low. T hus, there is an optim um cutting speed, based
o n economic o r p rod u ction considerations, w here the tool life is long an d p rod u ctio n
speeds are reasonably high. Because it involves several other param eters, this topic
is described further in Section 25.8.

EXAMPLE 2 1.3 Effect o f Cutting Speed on Material Removal

The effect of cutting speed o n the volum e of metal ab o u t 5 m in, an d thus the tool travels 120 m /m in ×
removed between tool changes (or resharpenings) 5 m in = 600 m before it has to be replaced.
can be appreciated by analyzing Fig. 21.16. Assume Since the volum e of m aterial rem oved is directly
th a t a m aterial is being m achined in the as-cast c o n ­ pro p o rtio n al to the distance the tool has traveled,
dition, w ith a hardness of 265 HB. N o te th a t w hen it can be seen th a t by decreasing the cutting speed,
the cutting speed is 60 m /m in, tool life is a b o u t more m aterial is removed betw een tool changes. It is
40 min. Therefore, the tool travels a distance of im p o rta n t to note, however, th a t the low er the c u t­
60 m /m in × 40 m in = 2 4 0 0 m before it has to ting speed, the longer is the time required to m achine
be replaced. However, w hen the cutting speed is a p art, w hich has a significant econom ic im pact on
increased to 1 2 0 m/min, the tool life is reduced to the o peration (see Section 25.8).

TABLE 21.4 21.5.2 Crater W ear

Allowable Average Wear Land (See VB in Crater w ear occurs on the rake face of the tool, as show n in
Fig. 21.15a) for Cutting Tools in Various Figs. 2 1 .1 5 a a n d c, and Fig. 2 1 .1 8 , w hich illustrates various
Machining Operations types of tool w ear a n d failures. It readily can be seen th a t
crater w ear changes the tool–chip interface contact geom e­
Allowable wear land (mm) try. The m ost significant factors th a t influence crater w ear
Operation High-speed steel tools Carbide tools are (a) the tem p eratu re at the too l–chip interface an d (b) the
chemical affinity of the tool an d w orkpiece m aterials. A ddi­
Turning 1.5 0.4
tionally, the same factors influencing flank w ear also m ay
Face milling 1.5 0.4
End milling 0.3 0.3 affect crater wear.
Drilling 0.4 0.4 C rater w ear generally is a ttrib u ted to a diffusion mech­
Reaming 0.15 0.15 anism; th a t is, the m ovem ent o f atom s across the too l–chip
interface. Since diffusion rate increases w ith increasing tem ­
Note: Allowable wear for ceramic tools is about 50% higher;
perature, crater w ear increases as tem peratu re increases.
allowable notch wear (see Section 21.5.3), VBmax , is about twice
that for VB. N ote in Fig. 2 1 .1 9 , for exam ple, h o w rapidly crater w ear
increases w ith tem peratu re w ith in a n a rro w range. Apply­
ing protective coatings to tools is an effective means of slowing the diffusion process,
and thus reducing crater wear. Typical tool coatings are titanium nitride, titanium
FIGURE 21.18 (a) Schematic illustrations of types of wear observed on various cutting tools,
(b) Schematic illustrations of catastrophic tool failures. A wide range of parameters influence
these wear and failure modes. Source: Printed by permission of V.C. Venkatesh.

carbide, titanium carbonitride, an d alum inum oxide, and are

described in greater detail in Section 22.6.
In com paring Figs. 21.12 and 21 .1 5 a, it can be seen th a t the
location o f the m a x im u m depth of crater wear, K T, coincides w ith
the location of the m a x im u m tem perature a t the to o l–chip interface.
An actual cross-section o f this interface, for steel m achined at high
speeds, is show n in Fig. 21.20. N o te th a t the crater-w ear pattern
on the tool coincides w ith its discoloration pattern , an indication
of the presence of high temperatures.

21.5.3 Other Types of W ear, Chipping, and Fracture

N ose wear (Fig. 21.15a) is the round ing of a sharp tool due to FIGURE 21.19 Relationship between crater-
mechanical a n d therm al effects. It dulls the tool, affects chip form a­ wear rate and average tool–chip interface tem­
tion, an d causes rubbing of the tool over the workpiece, raising its perature. Note how rapidly crater-wear rate
tem p eratu re and inducing residual stresses on the m achined surface. increases with an incremental increase in tem­
perature. Source: After B.T. Chao and K.J.
A related p h en o m en on is edge rounding, as show n in Fig. 21.15a.
Trigger.
An increase in tem perature is particularly detrim ental to high­
speed steel tools, as can be appreciated from Fig. 22.1. Tools also
m ay u nd erg o plastic deformation because of te m p e ra tu re rises in the cu tting zone,
w here tem p e ra tu re s can easily reach 1 000°C in m achining steels, a n d can be higher
dep end ing on the strength o f the m aterial m achined.
N otches or grooves observed o n cutting tools, as show n in Figs. 21 .1 5 a and 21.18,
have been attrib uted to the fact th a t the region w here they occur is the boundary
w here the chip is no longer in contact w ith the tool. K now n as the depth-of-cut line
 (DOC) (see Fig. 21.15a), this b o u n d a ry oscillates, because o f
inherent variations in the cutting operation. In o rthogonal c u t­
ting or w ith low feed rates, this region is at least partially in
co ntact w ith the newly generated m achined surface; the thin
w ork -harden ed layer th a t can develop in the w orkpiece will con ­
tribute to the fo rm atio n of the w ear groove. If sufficiently deep,
the groove can lead to gross chipping of the tool tip, because of
(a) its n o w reduced cross-section an d (b) the notch sensitivity
of the tool m aterial.
Scale an d oxide layers on a w orkpiece surface also c o n ­
tribute to notch wear, because these layers are h a rd an d abrasive;
thus, light cuts should n o t be tak en o n such w orkpieces. In
Fig. 21.3, for exam ple, the depth of cut, to, should be greater
th a n the thickness of the scale on the workpiece.
In add ition to being subjected to wear, cutting tools m ay
undergo chipping, in w hich a small fragm ent from the cutting
edge o f the tool breaks away. This p h en o m en on , w hich typically
occurs in brittle to o l m aterials, such as ceramics, is similar to
FIGURE 2 1 .2 0 Interface of a cutting tool (right)
and chip (left) in machining plain-carbon steel; the chipping the tip of a pencil if it is to o sharp. The chipped frag­
discoloration of the tool indicates the presence of m ents from the cutting tool m ay be very small (called microchip-
high temperatures. (Compare this figure with the ping or macrochipping, depending on its size), or they m ay be
temperature profiles shown in Fig. 21.12.) Source: relatively large, in w hich case they are variously called gross
Courtesy of P.K. Wright. chipping, gross fracture, an d catastrophic failure (Fig. 21.18).
C hipping also m ay occur in a region of the tool where a small
crack o r defect already exists during its p ro d uctio n . Unlike wear,
w hich isa gradual process, chipping is a sudden loss of tool m aterial, thus changing
the to o l’s shape. As can be expected, chipping has a m ajo r detrim ental effect on
surface finish, surface integrity, an d the dim ensional accuracy o f the workpiece.
Tw o m ain causes of chipping are:

• Mechanical shock, such as im pact due to in terru p ted cutting, as in turning a

splined shaft o n a lathe
• Thermal fatigue, due to cyclic variations in the tem p eratu re of the tool in
interrupted cutting

Thermal cracks usually are perpendicular to the cutting edge o f the tool, as show n
on the rake face of the carbide tool in Figs. 2 1 .1 5 d a n d 21.18a. M a jo r variations in
the com position o r structure o f the w orkpiece m aterial also m ay cause chipping, due
to differences in their therm al properties.
C hipping can be reduced by selecting too l m aterials w ith high im pact a n d therm al-
shock resistance, as described in C h apter 22. H igh positive rake angles can contribute
to chipping because o f the small included angle of the to o l tip, as can be visualized
from Fig. 21.3. Also, it is possible for the crater-w ear region to progress to w a rd the
tool tip, thus w eakening the tip because of reduced volum e of m aterial.

21.5.4 Tool-condition Monitoring

W ith rapid advances in com puter-controlled m achine tools an d au to m a te d m a n u ­
facturing, the reliable an d repeatable perform ance o f cutting tools has become a
m ajo r consideration. As described in C hapters 23 th ro u g h 25 , m o d ern m achine tools
operate w ith little direct supervision by a machine operator, an d they generally are
enclosed, m aking it impossible or difficult to m o n ito r the m achining o p eratio n and
the condition of the cutting tool. It is therefore essential to continuously and indi­
rectly m on ito r the condition of the cutting tool so as to note, for exam ple, w hether
excessive wear, chipping, or gross tool failure is occurring. In m o d ern m achine tools,
tool-condition m onitoring systems are integrated into com puter numerical control
a n d program m able logic controllers.
Techniques for tool-condition m onitoring typically fall into tw o general cate­
gories: direct and indirect. T he direct method for observing the condition of a cutting
tool involves optical m easurem ents o f wear, such as periodic observation o f changes
in the tool profile. This is a co m m o n an d reliable technique, and is done using a
m icroscope (toolm akers’ m icroscope). However, this m etho d requires th a t the cutting
operation be stopped for tool observation. A nother direct m eth od involves p ro g ra m ­
m ing the tool to contact a sensor after each m achining cycle; this ap p ro ach allows
the m easurem ent o f w ear and /or the detection of broken tools. Usually, the sensor
involves a to uch p ro b e th a t m ust be depressed by the tool tip.
Indirect methods involve the correlation of the tool condition w ith param eters
such as cutting forces, power, tem p eratu re rise, w orkpiece surface finish, vibra­
tion, and chatter. A com m on technique is acoustic emission (AE), w hich utilizes a
piezoelectric transducer m o u nted on a toolholder. T he transducer picks up acoustic
emissions (typically above 100 kHz) w hich result from the stress waves generated dur­
ing cutting. By analyzing the signals, too l w ear and chipping can be m onitored. This
technique is particularly effective in precision-m achining operations, w here cutting
forces are low (because of the small am ounts of m aterial removed). A nother effective
use of AE is in detecting the fracture of small carbide tools at high cutting speeds.
A similar indirect tool-condition m onitoring system consists of transducers th at
are installed in original machine tools, or are retrofitted on existing machines. The
system continually m onitors to rqu e an d forces during cutting. The signals are p ream ­
plified, an d a m icroprocessor analyzes an d interprets their content. The system is
capable of differentiating the signals th a t come from different sources, such as tool
breakage, tool wear, a missing tool, overloading of the machine tool, or colliding
w ith m achine com ponents. The system also can com pensate autom atically for tool
wear, and thus improve the dim ensional accuracy of the p a rt being m achined.
The design o f transducers m ust be such th a t they are (a) nonintrusive to the
m achining o peration, (b) accurate an d repeatable in signal detection, (c) resistant to
abuse and rob u st for the shop-floor environm ent (see Sections 36.5.1 and 40.7), and
(d) cost effective. C ontinued progress is being m ade in the developm ent of sensors,
including the use of infrared an d fiber-optic techniques for tem perature m easurem ent
during machining.
In lower-cost com puter num erical-control m achine tools, m onitoring is done by
tool-cycle time. In a p ro du ction environm ent, once the life expectancy of a cutting
tool o r insert has been determ ined, it can be entered into the m achine control unit,
so th a t the o p e ra to r is p ro m p ted to m ake a tool change w hen th a t time is reached.
This system is inexpensive and fairly reliable, although not totally so, because of the
inherent statistical variation in tool life.

21.6 Surface Finish and Integrity

Surface finish influences no t only the dim ensional accuracy of m achined parts b ut also
their properties and their perform ance in service. T he term surface finish describes
the geometric features of a surface (see C h ap ter 33), an d surface integrity pertains
to m aterial properties, such as fatigue life and corrosion resistance, th a t are strongly
influenced by the nature of the surface produced.
 FIGURE 21.21 M achined surfaces produced on steel (highly magnified), as observed with a
scanning-electron microscope: (a) turned surface and (b) surface produced by shaping. Source:
Courtesy of JT Black and S. Ramalingam.

W ith its significant effect on changing the tool-tip profile, the built-up edge (see
Fig. 21.6) has the greatest influence on surface finish. T he surfaces produced in tw o
different cutting operations are sho w n in Fig. 21.21. N o te the considerable dam age
to the surfaces from BUE; its dam age can be noted by the scuffing m arks, w hich
deviate from the straight grooves th a t w ou ld result from n orm al m achining, as seen
in Fig. 21.2. Ceram ic and d iam o nd tools generally p roduce a better surface finish
th a n other tools, largely because of their m uch low er tendency to form a BUE.
A dull tool has a large radius along its edges, just like the tip o f a dull pencil or the
cutting edge of a knife. Figure 2 1 .2 2 illustrates the relationship betw een the radius
of the cutting edge and the depth of cu t in o rth o g o n al cutting. N o te th a t a t small
depths of cut, the rake angle effectively can becom e negative, and the tool simply
may ride over the w orkpiece surface instead of cutting it and producing
chips. This is a p h e n om en o n similar to trying to scrape a thin layer
from the surface of a stick o f b utter w ith a dull knife.
If the tip radius of the to ol (not to be confused w ith the radius R in
Fig. 21.15a) is large in relation to the depth o f cut, the too l simply will
ru b over the m achined surface. R ubbing will generate h eat and induce
residual surface stresses, w hich in tu rn m ay cause surface dam age,
such as tearing an d cracking. Consequently, the depth of cut should
be greater th a n the radius on the cutting edge.
In a tu rn in g o p eration, as in o th er cutting processes described in
the rest of Part IV of this text, the too l leaves a spiral profile (called
feed marks) o n the m achined surface as it moves across the workpiece,
as sh o w n in Figs. 2 1.2 a n d 21.23. It can be n oted th a t the higher the
feed, f, and the smaller the tool-nose radius, R , the m ore pro m in en t
FIGURE 21.22 Schematic illustration of a the feed m arks will be. It can be show n th a t the surface roughness, for
dull tool with respect to the depth of cut such a case, is given by
in orthogonal machining (exaggerated); note
that the tool has a positive rake angle, but
as the depth of cut decreases, the rake angle
effectively can become negative. The tool
w here R t is the roughness height, as described in Section 33.3.
then simply rides over the workpiece (with­
out cutting) and burnishes its surface; this A lthough n o t significant in roug h m achining operations, feed m arks
action raises the workpiece temperature and are im p o rta n t in finish m achining. (Further details on surface
causes surface residual stresses and metallur­ roughness are given for individual m achining processes as they are
gical changes. described.)
 Vibration a n d chatter are described in detail in Sec­
tio n 25.4. For now, it should be recognized th a t if the tool
vibrates or chatters during cutting, it will adversely affect
the w orkpiece surface finish. The reason is th a t a vibrat­
ing tool periodically changes the dim ensions of the cut.
Excessive chatter also can cause chipping and prem ature
failure o f the m ore brittle cutting tools, such as ceramics
an d diam ond.
Factors influencing surface integrity are:

• Tem peratures generated during processing and possi­

ble metallurgical transform ations
• Surface residual stresses
• Severe plastic deform ation and strain hardening of the
m achined surfaces, tearing, an d cracking

Each of these factors can have m ajo r adverse effects FIGURE 21.23 Schematic illustration of feed marks on
o n the m achined p art, although they can be taken care of a surface being turned (exaggerated).
by careful selection an d m aintenance of cutting tools and
co n tro l o f process variables.
T he difference between finish machining and rough machining should be e m ph a­
sized. In finish m achining, it is im p o rta n t to consider the surface finish to be produced,
w hereas in rough m achining the m ain purpose is to rem ove a large am o u n t o f m ate­
rial at a high rate. Surface finish is n o t a p rim ary consideration, since it will be
im proved during finish machining. It is im p o rta n t th a t there be no subsurface-dam age
resulting from rough m achining th a t ca n n o t be rem oved during finish m achining (see
Fig. 21.21).

21.7 M ach in ability

T he m achinability of a m aterial is usually defined in term s of four factors:

1. S urface finish a n d su rface in teg rity o f th e m a c h in e d p a r t
2. Tool life
3. Force an d p ow er requirem ents
4. The level of difficulty in chip control after it is generated

T hus, good m achinability indicates good surface finish an d surface integrity, a

long tool life, and low force and po w er requirem ents. As for chip control, and as
stated earlier regarding continuous chips, chips th a t are long, thin, stringy, an d curled
can severely interfere with the machining operation by becoming entangled in the
cutting zone (see Fig. 21.7).
Because of the com plex n atu re of cutting operations, it is difficult to establish
relationships th a t quantitatively define the m achinability o f a particu lar m aterial.
In m achining practice, tool life and surface roughness generally are considered to
be the m ost im p o rtant factors in machinability. A pproxim ate machinability rat­
ings (indexes) have been available for m any years for each type o f m aterial and
its condition; however, they are n o t particularly useful o r reliable because of their
qualitative nature. In subsequent chapters, several tables are presented in w hich, for
various groups of m aterials, specific recom m endations are given regarding such p a ra ­
meters as cutting speed, feed, depth of cut, cutting tools and their shape, an d type of
cutting fluids.
2 1. 7 . 1 Machinability of Ferrous Metals
This section describes the m achinability of steels, alloy steels, stainless steels, and
cast irons.

Steels. Because steels are am ong the m ost im p o rta n t engineering m aterials, as also
noted in C hap ter 5, their m achinability has been studied extensively. C a rb o n steels
have a wide range o f machinability, depending on their ductility a n d hardness. If a
c a rb o n steel is to o ductile, a BUE can develop, leading to p o o r surface finish. If the
steel is to o h ard , it can cause abrasive w ear of the tool, because o f the presence of car­
bides in the steel. C old-w orked carb o n steels are thus desirable from a m achinability
standpoint.
An im p o rta n t gro u p of steels is free-machining steels, containing sulfur an d
ph osp h oru s. Sulfur form s m anganese-sulfide inclusions (second-phase particles, Sec­
tion 4.2.3), w hich act as stress raisers in the p rim ary shear zone. As a result, the
chips produced break up easily a n d are small, thus im proving machinability. The
size, shape, distribution, a n d concentration of these inclusions significantly influence
machinability. Elements such as tellurium an d selenium, b o th o f w hich are chemically
sim ilar to sulfur, act as inclusion modifiers in resulfurized steels.
Phosphorus in steels has tw o m ajo r effects: (a) It strengthens the ferrite, causing
increased hardness and resulting in better chip form ation a n d surface finish a n d (b) it
increases hardness an d thus causes the form ation of sh o rt chips instead o f continuous
stringy ones, thereby im proving machinability. Soft steels can be difficult to machine
because of their tendency for BUE form ation an d the resulting p o o r surface finish.
In leaded steels, a high percentage o f lead solidifies a t the tips of m anganese-
sulfide inclusions. In nonresulfurized grades o f steel, lead takes the form of dispersed
fine particles. Lead is insoluble in iron, copper, an d alu m in u m an d their alloys, an d
because of its low shear strength, it acts as a solid lubricant (see Section 33.7.6) an d
is sm eared over the to o l–chip interface during m achining.
W hen the tem perature developed is sufficiently high, such as a t high cutting speeds
an d feeds, the lead melts directly in fron t o f the tool, acting as a liquid lubricant.
In addition to having this effect, lead lowers the shear stress in the p rim ary shear
zone, thus reducing cutting forces and po w er co nsum ption. Lead can be used w ith
every grade of steel a n d is identified by the letter “ L” betw een the second and third
num erals in steel identification (e.g., 10L45). In stainless steels, a similar use o f the
letter L m eans “low c a rb o n ,” w hich improves their co rro sio n resistance.
Because lead is a w ell-know n toxin and a pollu tan t, there are serious environm en­
tal concerns about its use in steels (estimated at 4000 metric tons of lead consumption every
year in the p ro d u ctio n o f steels). Consequently, there is a continuing trend to w a rd
eliminating the use o f lead in steels (lead-free steels). Bismuth a n d tin are substitutes
for lead in steels, b ut are n o t as effective in im proving machinability.
Calcium-deoxidized steels contain oxide flakes o f calcium silicates (CaSO) th a t
reduce the strength of the secondary shear zone, and decrease to o l–chip interface
friction an d wear. Because tem p erature increase is reduced correspondingly, these
steels produce less crater wear, especially at high cutting speeds.
Alloy steels can have a w ide variety of com positions a n d hardnesses, thus their
m achinability c a n n o t be generalized. An im p o rta n t tren d in m achining these steels
is hard turning, described in detail in Section 25.6. Alloy steels at hardness levels of
4 5 – 65 H R C can be m achined w ith polycrystalline cubic-boron-nitride (cBN) cutting
tools (see Section 22.7), producing good surface finish, integrity, an d dim ensional
accuracy.
 Effects of Various Elements in Steels. T he presence of aluminum and silicon in
steels is always harm ful, because these elements com bine w ith oxygen and form
alum inum oxide and silicates, w hich are h a rd an d abrasive. As a result, tool w ear
increases and m achinability is reduced.
Carbon an d manganese have various effects on the m achinability of steels,
depending on their com position. Plain low -carbon steels (less th a n 0 .1 5 % C) can
produce p o o r surface finish, by form ing a BUE. Cast steels can be abrasive, although
their m achinability is similar to th a t of w ro u g h t steels. Tool an d die steels are very
difficult to m achine, and usually require annealing prio r to machining. T he m ach in­
ability of m ost steels is im proved by cold w orking, which hardens the m aterial and
reduces the tendency for BUE form ation.
O th e r alloying elements, such as nickel, chrom ium , m olybdenum , an d vana­
dium, th a t im prove the properties of steels also generally reduce machinability. The
effect of boron is negligible. Gaseous elements such as hydrogen and nitrogen can
have particularly detrim ental effects o n the properties of steel. O xygen has been
show n to have a strong effect on the aspect ratio of the manganese-sulfide inclu­
sions: The higher the oxygen content, the low er the aspect ratio, an d the higher the
machinability.
In im proving the m achinability of steels, it is im po rta n t to also consider the pos­
sible detrim ental effects of the alloying elements o n the properties and strength of
m achined p arts in service. At elevated tem peratures, for example, lead causes em brit­
tlement o f steels (liquid-metal em brittlem ent an d h o t shortness; see Section 1.5.2),
although at ro o m tem perature it has no effect on m echanical properties.
Sulfur can reduce the h o t w orkability of steels severely, because of the form ation
of iron sulfide, unless sufficient m anganese is present to prevent such form ation.
At ro o m tem perature, the mechanical properties of resulfurized steels depend on
the orientation o f the deform ed m anganese-sulfide inclusions. R ephosphorized steels
are significantly less ductile, and are produced solely for the purpose of improving
machinability.

Stainless Steels. Austenitic (300 series) steels generally are difficult to machine.
C hatter can be a problem , thus necessitating m achine tools w ith high stiffness. Ferritic
stainless steels (300 series) have good machinability. M artensitic (400 series) steels
are abrasive, tend to form a BUE, an d require tool m aterials w ith high h o t hardness
an d crater-w ear resistance. Precipitation-hardening stainless steels are strong and
abrasive, thus requiring hard an d abrasion-resistant tool materials.

Cast Irons. Gray irons generally are m achinable, although they can be abrasive,
depending on com position, especially pearlite. Free carbides in castings reduce their
machinability, and can cause tool chipping or fracture. N odular and malleable irons
are machinable, using hard tool materials.

2 1.7.2 Machinability of Nonferrous Metals

The following is a sum m ary of the m achinability of nonferrous metals an d alloys, in
alphabetic order:

• Aluminum is generally very easy to m achine, although the softer grades tend to
form a BUE, resulting in p o o r surface finish; thus, high cutting speeds, high rake
angles, and high relief angles are recom m ended. W rought alum inum alloys w ith
 high silicon co n tent an d cast alum inum alloys are generally abrasive, hence they
require hard er tool m aterials. Dim ensional tolerance control may be a problem
in m achining alum inum , because it has a high therm al expansion coefficient and
a relatively low elastic modulus.
• Beryllium generally is m achinable, bu t because the fine particles produced
d uring m achining are toxic, it requires m achining in a controlled environm ent.
• Cobalt-based alloys are abrasive a nd highly w o rk hardening; they require sharp,
abrasion-resistant tool materials an d low feeds a n d speeds.
• Copper, in the w ro u g h t condition, can be difficult to m achine, because of BUE
form ation; cast copper alloys are easy to m achine. Brasses are easy to machine,
especially w ith the add itio n of lead (leaded free-machining brass); note, h o w ­
ever, the toxicity of lead and the associated environm ental concerns. Bronzes
are m ore difficult to m achine th a n brass.
• Magnesium is very easy to m achine, w ith good surface finish and prolonged
tool life; however, care should be exercised because of its high rate of oxidation
(pyrophoric) and the danger of fire.
• M olybdenum is ductile an d w o rk hardening; it can p roduce p o o r surface finish,
thus sharp tools are essential.
• Nickel-based alloys and superalloys are w o rk hardening, abrasive, a n d strong at
high tem peratures; their m achinability depends o n their condition an d improves
with annealing.
• Tantalum is very w o rk hardening, ductile, and soft; it produces a p o o r surface
finish, an d tool w ear is high.
• Titanium and its alloys have very p o o r therm al conductivity (the low est of all
metals, see Table 3.2), thus causing a significant tem p eratu re rise an d BUE; they
are highly reactive and can be difficult to m achine.
• Tungsten is brittle, strong, an d very abrasive; hence, its m achinability is low,
although it improves greatly at elevated tem peratures.
• Zirconium has good machinability, bu t it requires a coolant-type cutting fluid
because of the danger of explosion an d fire.

2 1.7.3 Machinability of Miscellaneous Materials

Thermoplastics generally have low therm al conductivity a n d low elastic m odulus,
an d they are therm ally softening. Consequently, m achining th em requires sharp tools
w ith positive rake angles (to reduce cutting forces), large relief angles, small depths
o f cut and feed, relatively high speeds, an d p roper s u p p o rt of the workpiece. E xternal
cooling of the cutting zone m ay be necessary, to keep the chips from becom ing gum m y
a n d sticking to the cutting tools. Cooling usually can be achieved w ith a jet of air, a
vapo r mist, o r using w ater-soluble oils.
Thermosetting plastics are brittle and sensitive to therm al gradients during
cutting; m achining conditions generally are similar to those of therm oplastics.
Polymer-matrix composites are very abrasive, because o f the fibers th a t are
present; hence, they are difficult to machine. Fiber tearing, pulling, an d edge delam i­
natio n are significant problem s, an d can lead to severe reduction in the load-carrying
capacity of m achined com ponents. M achining of these m aterials requires careful h a n ­
dling and rem oval o f debris, in o rder to avoid con tact w ith a n d inhaling of the fibers.
Metal-matrix and ceramic-matrix composites can be difficult to m achine, d ep en d ­
ing o n the properties of the m atrix m aterial and the reinforcing fibers.
Graphite is abrasive; it requires sharp, hard, an d abrasion-resistant tools.
Ceramics n o w have a steadily im proved machinability, particularly w ith the
developm ent of m achinable ceramics an d nanoceram ics (Section 8.2.5), an d w ith
the selection o f ap pro priate processing param eters, such as ductile-regime cutting
(described in Section 25.7).
Wood is an orthotropic m aterial, w ith properties varying w ith its grain direction;
consequently, the type of chips an d the surfaces p roduced also vary significantly,
depending on the type of w o o d an d its condition. W oodw orking, w hich dates back
to 30 0 0 B .C ., remains largely an art. T he basic requirem ents are generally sharp tools
an d high cutting speeds.

21.7.4 Thermally Assisted Machining

M e ta ls a n d alloys th a t are difficult to m ach ine a t ro o m te m p e ra tu re can be m a ­
chined m o re easily a t elevated te m p e ra tu re s. In th e rm a lly assisted m ach in ing , also
called h o t m ach in ing , a source of h e a t (such as a to rc h , in d u c tio n coil, electric c u r ­
re n t, la serb eam , electro n -b e a m , o r p la sm a arc) is focused o n to an a re a ju st ah ead
of th e c u ttin g to o l. First investigated in the early 1 940s, this o p e ra tio n typically is
c a rrie d o u t above th e h o m o lo g o u s te m p e ra tu re o f T / T m = 0.5 (see Section 1.7,
a n d Tables 1.2 a n d 3.1); thu s, steels are h o t m a ch in ed above the te m p e ra tu re range
o f 650°– 750°C .
A lthough difficult and com plicated to perform in p ro d uctio n plants, the gen­
eral advantages of h o t m achining are: (a) reduced cutting forces, (b) increased tool
life, (c) higher m aterial-rem oval rates, an d (d) a reduced tendency for vibration
an d chatter.

SU M M A R Y

• M achining processes are often necessary to im part the desired dimensional

accuracy, geometric features, and surface-finish characteristics to com ponents, p a r­
ticularly those w ith com plex shapes th a t ca n n o t be p roduced economically using
other shaping techniques. O n the other han d , m achining generally takes m ore time,
wastes some m aterial in the form of chips, doesn’t affect the bulk properties of the
w o rk p ie c e , a n d m a y h av e adv erse effects o n su rfaces p ro d u c e d .
• C om m only observed chip types in machining are continuous, built-up edge, dis­
continuous, an d serrated. Im p o rta n t process variables in m achining are too l shape
a n d tool m aterial; cutting conditions such as speed, feed, an d depth of cut; the use
of cutting fluids; and the characteristics of the w orkpiece m aterial a nd the m achine
tool. Param eters influenced by these variables are forces and p ow er consum ption,
tool wear, surface finish and surface integrity, tem p eratu re rise, an d dim ensional
accuracy of the workpiece.
• Tem perature rise in m achining is an im p o rtan t consideration, since it can have
adverse effects on tool life, as well as on the dim ensional accuracy an d surface
integrity of the m achined part.
• Two principal types of tool w ear are flank w ear and crater wear. Tool w ear depends
on w orkpiece and tool m aterial characteristics; cutting speed, feed, depth of cut,
an d cutting fluids; and the characteristics of the m achine tool. Tool failure also
m ay occur by notching, chipping, an d gross fracture.
• T he surface finish of m achined com ponents can adversely affect p ro d u c t integrity.
Im p o rta n t variables are the geom etry and condition of the cutting tool, the type
of chip produced, and process variables.
 • M achinability generally is defined in term s of surface finish, to ol life, force and
p ow er requirem ents, and chip control. The m achinability of m aterials depends on
their com position, properties, an d m icrostructure. P roper selection and control of
process variables are im portant.

KEY TERMS
Acoustic emission Depth-of-cut line Notch wear Shear plane
Allowable wear land Diffusion Oblique cutting Skiving
Built-up edge Discontinuous chip Orthogonal cutting Specific energy
Chip Feed marks Primary shear zone Surface finish
Chip breaker Flank wear Rake angle Surface integrity
Chip curl Friction angle Relief angle Taylor equation
Chipping of tool Hot machining Rephosphorized steel Thrust force
Clearance angle Inclination angle Resulfurized steel Tool-condition monitoring
Continuous chip Machinability Secondary shear zone Tool life
Crater wear Machinability ratings Serrated chip Turning
Cutting force Machine tool Shaving Wear land
Cutting ratio Machining Shear angle

BIBLIOGRAPHY
ASM Handbook, Vol. 16: Machining, ASM International, Davim, J.P. (ed.), Machining: Fundamentals and Recent
1989. Advances, Springer, 2010.
Astakhov, V.P., Metal Cutting Mechanics, CRC Press, Davim, J.P. (ed.), Surface Integrity in Machining, Springer,
1998. 2 01 0 .
Boothroyd, G., and Knight, W.A., Fundamentals of Metal Shaw, M.C., Metal Cutting Principles, 2nd ed., Oxford,
Machining and Machine Tools, 3rd ed., Marcel 2005.
Dekker, 2006. Stephenson, D.A., and Agapiou, J.S., Metal Cutting: Theory
Childs, T.H.C., M aekawa, K., O bikawa, T., and and Practice, 2nd ed., CRC Press, 2005.
Yamane, Y., Metal Machining: Theory and Applica­ Trent, E.M., and Wright, P.K., Metal Cutting, 4th ed.,
tions, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2000. Butterworth-Heinemann, 2000.
Cormier, D., McGraw-Hill Machining and Metalworking Tschatsch, H ., Applied Machining Technology, Springer,
Handbook, McGraw-Hill 2005. 2009.

REVIEW Q U E ST IO N S
21.1 Explain why continuous chips are not necess­ 21.6 Comment on the role and importance of the
arily desirable. relief angle.
21.2 Name the factors that contribute to the formation of 21.7 Explain the difference between discontinuous chips and
discontinuous chips. segmented chips.
21.3 W hat is the cutting ratio? Is it always less than 1? 21.8 Why should we be interested in the magnitude of the
Explain. thrust force in cutting?
21.4 Explain the difference between positive and negative 21.9 W hat are the differences between orthogonal and
rake angles. W hat is the importance of the rake angle? oblique cutting?
2 1.5 Explain how a dull tool can lead to negative 21.10 W hat is a BUE? Why does it form?
rake angles.
21.11 Is there any advantage to having a built-up edge on a 21.15 List the factors that contribute to poor surface finish
tool? Explain. in cutting.
21. 12 W hat is the function of chip breakers? H ow do they 21.16 Explain w hat is meant by the term machinability and
function? Do you need a chip breaker to eliminate continuous w hat it involves. W hy does titanium have poor machinabil­
chips in oblique cutting? Explain. ity?
21.13 Identify the forces involved in a cutting operation. 21.17 W hat is shaving in machining? When would it be used?
Which of these forces contribute to the power required?
21.14 Explain the characteristics of different types of
tool wear.

QUALITATIVE PROBLEMS
21.18 List reasons that machining operations may be 21.35 Comment on your observations regarding the hardness
required, and provide an example for each reason. variations shown in Fig. 21.6a.
21.19 Are the locations of maximum temperature and crater 21.36 W hy does the temperature in cutting depend on the
wear related? If so, explain why. cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut? Explain in terms of the
21.20 Is material ductility im portant for machinability? relevant process variables.
Explain. 21.37 You will note that the values of a and b in Eq. (21.24)
21.21 Explain why studying the types of chips produced is are higher for high-speed steels than for carbides. W hy is
im portant in understanding cutting operations. this so?
21.22 W hy do you think the maximum temperature in 21.38 As shown in Fig. 21.14, the percentage of the total cut­
orthogonal cutting is located at about the middle of the tool– ting energy carried away by the chip increases with increasing
chip interface? (Hint: N ote that the two sources of heat are cutting speed. Why?
(a) shearing in the primary shear plane and (b) friction at the 21.39 Describe the effects that a dull tool can have on cutting
tool–chip interface.) operations.
2 1.23 Tool life can be almost infinite at low cutting speeds. 2 1.40 Explain whether it is desirable to have a high or low
Would you then recommend that all machining be done at (a) n value and (b) C value in the Taylor tool-life equation.
low speeds? Explain. 2 1.4 1 The Taylor tool-life equation is directly applicable to
21.24 Explain the consequences of allowing temperatures to flank wear. Explain whether or not it can be used to model
rise to high levels in cutting. tool life if other forms of wear are dominant.
2 1.25 The cutting force increases with the depth of cut and 2 1.42 The tool-life curve for ceramic tools in Fig. 21.17 is to
decreasing rake angle. Explain why. the right of those for other tool materials. Why?
2 1.26 W h y is it n o t a lw a y s a d v is a b le t o in c re a s e th e c u ttin g 2 1 . 4 3 W h y a r e to o l te m p e r a tu r e s lo w a t lo w c u ttin g sp eed s
sp e e d in o r d e r t o in cre ase th e p r o d u c tio n rate? a n d h ig h a t h ig h c u ttin g speeds?
21.27 W h a t a re th e c o n se q u e n c e s if a c u ttin g to o l ch ip s? 2 1.44 Can high-speed machining be performed w ithout the
21.28 W hat are the effects of performing a cutting operation use of a cutting fluid?
with a dull tool? A very sharp tool? 2 1.45 Given your understanding of the basic metal-cutting
21.29 To w hat factors do you attribute the difference in process, w hat are the im portant physical and chemical
the specific energies in machining the materials shown in properties of a cutting tool?
Table 21.2? W hy is there a range of energies for each group 2 1.46 Explain why the power requirements in cutting depend
of materials? on the cutting force but not the thrust force.
21.30 Explain why it is possible to remove more material 2 1.47 State whether or not the following statements are true,
between tool resharpenings by lowering the cutting speed. explaining your reasons: (a) For the same shear angle, there
21.31 N oting that the dimension d in Fig. 21.4a is very small, are tw o rake angles that give the same cutting ratio, (b) For
explain why the shear strain rate in metal cutting is so high. the same depth of cut and rake angle, the type of cutting
21.32 Explain the significance of Eq. (21.9). fluid used has no influence on chip thickness, (c) If the cut­
ting speed, shear angle, and rake angle are know n, the chip
2 1.33 Com ment on your observations regarding Figs. 21.12
velocity can be calculated, (d) The chip becomes thinner as
and 21.13.
the rake angle increases, (e) The function of a chip breaker is
2 1.34 Describe the consequences of exceeding the allowable to decrease the curvature of the chip.
wear land (Table 21.4) for various cutting-tool materials.
Q U A N T IT A T IV E PROBLEMS
21.48 Let n = 0.5 and C = 400 in the Taylor equation for and the feed is 0.05mm/rev. W hat is the approxim ate tem ­
tool wear. W hat is the percent increase in tool life if the cutting perature if the speed is doubled? W hat speed is required to
speed is reduced by (a) 50% and (b) 75%? lower the maximum cutting tem perature to 4 8 0K?
2 1.49 Assume that, in orthogonal cutting, the rake angle is 2 1.64 The following flank w ear data were collected in a se­
15° and the coefficient of friction is 0.2. Using Eq. (21.4), ries of machining tests, using C6 carbide tools on 1045 steel
determine the percentage increase in chip thickness when the (HB = 192). The feed rate was 0.38 mm/rev, and the width of
friction is doubled. cut was 0.75 mm (a) Plot flank w ear as a function of cutting
21.50 Derive Eq. (21.14). time. Using a 0.3 8 mm wear land as the criterion of tool failure,
determine the lives for the tw o cutting speeds. (b ) Plot your re­
21.51 Taking carbide as an example and using Eq. (21.24),
sults on log–log plot and determine the values of n and C in the
determine how much the feed should be reduced in order to
Taylor tool-life equation. (Assume a straight line relation­
keep the mean temperature constant when the cutting speed
ship.) (c) Using these results, calculate the tool life for a cut­
is doubled.
ting speed of 90 m/min.
21.52 Using trigonometric relationships, derive an expres­
sion for the ratio of shear energy to frictional energy in
Cutting speed, Cutting time, Flank wear,
orthogonal cutting, in terms of angles α , β , and Φ only.
m/min min mm
21.53 An orthogonal cutting operation is being carried out
under the following conditions: to = 0.1 mm, tc = 0.2 mm, 120 0.5 0.035
width of cut = 4 mm, V = 3 m/s, rake angle = 10°, 2.0 0.0575
Fc = 500 N , and Ft = 200 N. Calculate the percentage 4.0 0.075
of the total energy that is dissipated in the shear plane. 8.0 0.1375
2 1.54 Explain how you would go about estimating the C and 16.0 0.205
n values for the four tool materials shown in Fig. 21.17. 24.0 0.28
21.55 Derive Eqs. (21.1) and (21.3). 54.0 0.375

21.56 Assume that, in orthogonal cutting, the rake angle, 180 0.5 0.045
α , is 20° and the friction angle, β , is 35° at the chip–tool 2.0 0.0875
interface. Determine the percentage change in chip thickness 4.0 0.15
when the friction angle is 45°. [Note: do not use Eq. (21.4) 8.0 0.25
or Eq. (21.5).] 13.0 0.3625
2 1.57 Show that, for the same shear angle, there are two rake 14.0 0.4
angles that give the same cutting ratio.
240 0.5 0.125
21.58 With appropriate diagrams, show how the use of 2.0 0.25
a cutting fluid can change the magnitude of the thrust 4.0 0.35
force, Ft , in Fig. 21.11. Consider both heat transfer and 5.0 0.4
lubrication effects.
21.59 In a cutting operation using a – 5° rake angle, the mea­ 300 0.5 0.25
sured forces were Fc = 1330 N and Ft = 740 N. When a 1.0 0.325
cutting fluid was used, these forces were Fc = 1200 N and 1.8 0.375
Ft = 710 N. W hat is the change in the friction angle resulting 2.0 0.4
from the use of a cutting fluid?
2 1.60 For a turning operation using a ceramic cutting tool, if 2 1.65 The following data are available from orthogonal cut­
the speed is increased by 50% , by w hat factor must the feed ting experiments. In both cases depth of cut (feed) to =
rate be modified to obtain a constant tool life? Use n = 0.5 0.13 mm, width of cut b = 2.5 mm, rake angle α = – 5°,
and y = 0.6. and cutting speed V = 2 m/s.
21.61 In Example 21.3, if the cutting speed V is doubled,
will the answer be different? Explain. Workpiece material
21.62 Using Eq. (21.30), select an appropriate feed for R =
1 mm and a desired roughness of 0.5 μ m. H ow would you Aluminum Steel
adjust this feed to allow for nose wear of the tool during
Chip thickness, tc, mm 0.23 0.58
extended cuts? Explain your reasoning. 890
Cutting force, Fc, N 430
2 1.63 With a carbide tool, the temperature in a cutting oper­ Thrust force, Ft , N 280 800
ation is m easured as 650K w hen the speed is 90 m/min
Determine the shear angle ɸɸɸɸΦ, friction coefficient μ , shear 21.67 Assume that you are an instructor covering the top­
stress τ , shear strain γ on the shear plane, chip velocity Vc, ics described in this chapter, and you are giving a quiz
and shear velocity Vs, as well as energies uf , u s, and ut . on the numerical aspects to test the understanding of the
21.66 Estimate the cutting temperatures for the conditions students. Prepare two quantitative problems and supply
of Problem 21.65 if the following properties apply: the answers.

Workpiece material

Aluminum Steel

Cutting energy,
u, N -m m /m m 3 1320 2740
Thermal diffusivity,
K, mm2/s 97 14
Volumetric specific heat,
ρ c, N /m m 2°C 2.6 3.3

SYNTHESIS, DESIGN, A N D PROJECTS

21.68 Tool life is increased greatly when an effective means wide, which would be similar to the dimensions of a rolled
of cooling and lubrication is implemented. Design methods sheet. Materials have been aluminum, magnesium, and stain­
of delivering this fluid to the cutting zone, and discuss the less steel. A typical setup would be similar to orthogonal cut­
advantages and limitations of your design. ting, by machining the periphery of a solid round bar w ith a
21.69 Design an experimental setup whereby orthogonal straight tool moving radially inward. Describe your thoughts
cutting can be simulated in a turning operation on a lathe. regarding producing thin metal sheets by this m ethod, taking
21.70 Describe your thoughts on whether chips produced into account the metal’s surface characteristics and properties.
during machining can be used to make useful products. Give 2 1.74 Describe your thoughts regarding the recycling of chips
some examples of possible products, and comment on their produced during machining in a plant. Consider chips pro­
characteristics and differences if the same products were duced by dry cutting versus those produced by machining with
made by other manufacturing processes. Which types of chips a cutting fluid.
would be desirable for this purpose? 2 1.75 List products that can be directly produced from metal
21.71 Recall that cutting tools can be designed so that the chips or shavings.
tool–chip contact length is reduced by recessing the rake face 21.76 O btain a w ood planer and some wood specimens.
of the tool some distance away from its tip. Explain the Show that the chips produced depend on the direction of cut
possible advantages of such a tool. with respect to the w ood grain. Explain why.
2 1.72 Recall that the chip-formation mechanism also can be 21.77 It has been noted that the chips from certain carbon
observed by scraping the surface of a stick of butter with a steels are noticeably magnetic, even if the original w ork­
sharp knife. Using butter at different temperatures, including piece is not. Research the reasons for this effect and write
frozen butter, conduct such an experiment. Keep the depth of a one-page paper explaining the im portant mechanisms.
cut constant and hold the knife at different angles (to simulate 21.78 As we have seen, chips carry away the majority of
the tool rake angle), including oblique scraping. Describe the heat generated during machining. If chips did not have
your observations regarding the type of chips produced. Also, this capacity, w hat suggestions would you make in order to
comment on the force that your hand feels while scraping and be able to carry out machining processes w ithout excessive
w hether you observe any chatter when the butter is very cold. heat? Explain.
21.73 Experim ents have show n th a t it is possible to p r o ­
duce thin, wide chips, such as 0.08-m m thick and 10-mm
 22
CHAPTER

C utting-tool
M aterials and
C utting Fluids

22.1 Introduction 600

22 .2 High-speed Steels 604 • C o ntinuing the coverage of the fundam entals o f m achining in the preceding
22.3 Cast-cobalt Alloys 60S chapter, this chapter describes tw o essential elements in m achining operations:
22 .4 Carbides 605
22 .5 Coated Tools 609
cutting-tool materials and cutting fluids.
2 2 .6 Alumina-based • T he chapter opens w ith a discussion o f the types and characteristics o f cutting-
Ceramics 612
2 2 .7 Cubic Boron Nitride 613
tool m aterials, including high-speed steels, carbides, ceramics, cubic boron
2 2 .8 Silicon-nitride-based nitride, diam ond, and coated tools.
Ceramics 614
• The types of cutting fluids in com m on use are then described, including their
2 2 .9 Diamond 614
2 2 .1 0 Whisker-reinforced functions an d h o w they affect the m achining operation.
Materials and
Nanomaterials 615
• Trends in near-dry and dry m achining, an d in m ethods for cutting fluid appli­
2 2 . 11 Tool Costs and cation are also described, an d their significance w ith respect to environm entally
Reconditioning of friendly m achining operations are explained.
Tools 616
2 2 .12 Cutting Fluids 616

EXAMPLE: 22.1 Introd uction

2 2 .1 Effects of Cutting Fluids
on M achining 61 7 T he selection o f cutting-tool m aterials for a particu lar a pplication is am ong the m ost
im p o rta n t factors in m achining operations. This chap ter describes the relevant p ro p ­
erties a n d perform ance characteristics of all m ajor types of cutting-tool m aterials, as a
guide to tool selection. However, because o f its com plex n atu re, this subject does n o t
readily render itself to the precise determ ination of a p p ro p ria te to o l m aterials for a
particu lar application. Consequently, general guidelines and recom m endations have
been established in industry over m an y years. M o re detailed in fo rm atio n o n recom ­
m endations for specific w orkpiece m aterials and m achining operations are presented
beginning w ith C hap ter 23.
As noted in the preceding chapter, the cutting tool is subjected to (a) high tem ­
p eratures, (b) high c o n tact stresses, and (c) rubbing along the to o l–chip interface and
along the m achined surface. Consequently, the cutting-tool m aterial m u st possess the
following characteristics:

• H ot hardness, so th a t the hardness, strength, and w ear resistance of the tool

are m aintained a t the tem peratures encountered in m achining operations. This
p ro p erty ensures th a t the tool does n o t undergo any plastic deform ation, and
thus retains its shape an d sharpness. Tool-m aterial hardness is a function of
tem perature, as show n in Fig. 22.1; note the w ide response of these m aterials,
h o w rapidly carb o n to ol steels lose their hardness (meaning th a t they can n ot
be used for m any operations), an d h o w well ceram ics m ain tain their h a rd ­
ness at high tem peratures. C a rb o n tool steels (Section 5.7) were com m only
used as tool m aterials until the developm ent of high-speed steels in the early
 1900s; high speed m eaning th a t m achining speeds
can be high, hence higher productivity.
• Toughness and impact strength (mechanical shock
resistance, Section 2.9), so th a t im pact forces on
the tool encountered repeatedly in interrupted c u t­
ting operations (such as milling and turning a
splined shaft on a lathe) or forces due to vibra­
tion and chatter during machining do n o t chip or
fracture the tool.
• Thermal shock resistance, to w ithstand the rapid
tem perature cycling (Section 3.6), as encountered
in interrupted cutting.
• Wear resistance (Section 33.5), so th a t an accept­
able tool life is obtained before replacem ent
is necessary.
• Chemical stability and inertness w ith respect to
the w orkpiece m aterial, to avoid o r minimize
any adverse reactions, adhesion, an d tool–chip
diffusion th a t w o uld contribute to tool wear.

To respond to these dem anding requirem ents, a

variety of cutting-tool m aterials, w ith a wide range of
FIGURE 22.1 The hardness of various cutting-tool mate­
mechanical, physical, and chemical properties, have
rials as a function of temperature (hot hardness); the wide
been developed over the years, as show n in Table 22.1. range in each group of materials is due to the variety of tool
T he properties listed in the first colum n of this table are compositions and treatments available for that group.
useful in determ ining desirable tool-m aterial character­
istics for a p articular application. For example:

• H ardness and strength are im po rta n t w ith respect to the mechanical properties
of the w orkpiece m aterial to be machined.
• Im pact strength is im p o rtant in m aking interrupted cuts in m achining, such as
in milling.
• M elting tem perature of the tool m aterial is im po rtan t, especially com pared to
the tem peratures developed in the cutting zone.
• T herm al conductivity an d coefficient of therm al expansion are im p o rtan t in
determ ining the resistance of the tool materials to therm al fatigue and shock.
Wear
V id eo Solution 2 2 . 1
Resistance of Cutting-tool
It will be recognized th a t a particu lar tool m aterial m ay n o t have all of the desired Materials
properties for a particular machining operation. This situation can readily be seen
from Table 22.2, by observing the opposite directions o f the long horizontal arrow s
show ing trends. N ote, for example, th a t (a) high-speed steels are tough, but they have
limited h o t hardness and (b) ceramics have high resistance to tem perature an d wear,
b ut they are brittle and can easily chip. N o te also h o w the cost of tools increases
from HSS to diam ond.
T he operating characteristics of tool m aterials are show n in Table 22.3, listed
in the o rder in w hich they were developed and im plem ented in industry. N o te th a t
m any of these materials also are used for dies and molds in casting, form ing, and
shaping metallic and nonmetallic materials.

1. High-speed steels
2. C ast-cobalt alloys
3. Carbides
TABLE 2 2 . 1

General Characteristics of Tool Materials

Carbides
High-speed Cast-cobalt Cubic boron Single-crystal
Property steels alloys WC TiC Ceramics nitride diamond*

Hardness 83– 86 HRA 82– 84 HRA 90–95 HRA 91–93 HRA 91–95 HRA 4000–5000 HK 7000– 8000 HK
46–62 H RC 1800–2400 HK 1800–3200 HK 2000– 3000 HK
Compressive strength,
MPa 4100–4500 1500–2300 4100–5850 3100–3850 2750–4500 6900 6900
Transverse rupture
strength,
MPa 2400–4800 1380–2050 1050–2600 1380– 1900 345–950 700 1350
Impact strength,
J 1.35– 8 0.34– 1.25 0.34– 1.35 0.79– 1.24 <0.1 <0.5 < 0.2
Modulus of elasticity,
GPa 200 _ 520–690 310–450 310–410 850 820– 1050
Density,
kg/m3 8600 8000–8700 10,000– 15,000 5500–5800 4000–4500 3500 3500
Volume of hard phase, % 7– 15 10–20 70– 90 — 100 95 95
Melting or
decomposition
temperature,
°C 1300 1400 1400 2000 1300 700
Thermal conductivity,
W/m-K 30–50 42– 125 17 29 13 500–2000
Coefficient of thermal
expansion, × 10– 6/°C
12 _ 4–6.5 7.5–9 6– 8.5 4.8 1.5–4.8

*The values for polycrystalline diam ond are generally lower, except for impact strength, which is higher.
TABLE 22.2

General Characteristics of Cutting-tool Materials (These Materials Have a Wide Range of Compositions
and Properties; Overlapping Characteristics Exist in Many Categories of Tool Materials)

High-speed Cast-cobalt Uncoated Coated Polycrystalline cubic

steels alloys carbides carbides Ceramics boron nitride Diamond
H ot hardness
Toughness
Impact strength
Wear resistance
Chipping resistance
Cutting speed
Thermal-shock
resistance
Tool material cost
Depth of cut Light to Light to Light to Light to Light to Light to heavy Very light for
heavy heavy heavy heavy heavy single-crystal
diamond
Processing method Wrought, Cast and Cold CVD or Cold High-pressure, High-pressure,
cast, HIP* HIP pressing PVD** pressing high-temperature high-
sintering sintering and and sintering temperature
sintering sintering sintering
or HIP
sintering

Source: After R. Komanduri.

*Hot-isostatic pressing.
**Chemical-vapor deposition, physical-vapor deposition.

TABLE 22.3

General Operating Characteristics of Cutting-tool Materials

General Modes of tool

Tool materials characteristics wear or failure Limitations

High-speed steels High toughness, resistance to Flank wear, crater wear Low hot hardness, limited
fracture, wide range of hardenability, and limited wear
roughing and finishing cuts, resistance
good for interrupted cuts
Uncoated carbides High hardness over a wide Flank wear, crater wear Cannot use at low speeds
range of temperatures, because of cold welding of chips
toughness, wear resistance, and microchipping
versatile, wide range of
applications
Coated carbides Improved wear resistance over Flank wear, crater wear Cannot use at low speeds
uncoated carbides, better because of cold welding of chips
frictional and thermal and microchipping
properties
Ceramics High hardness at elevated Depth-of-cut line Low strength and low
temperatures, high abrasive notching, microchipping, thermomechanical fatigue
wear resistance gross fracture strength
Polycrystalline cubic High hot hardness, toughness, Depth-of-cut line Low strength, and lower
boron nitride (cBN) cutting-edge strength notching, chipping, chemical stability than ceramics
oxidation, graphitization at higher temperature
Diamond High hardness and toughness, Chipping, oxidation, Low strength, and low chemical
abrasive wear resistance graphitization stability at higher temperatures

Source: After R. Komanduri and other sources.

 4 . C oated tools
5. A lum ina-based ceramics
6 . Cubic boro n nitride
7. Silicon-nitride-based ceramics
8. D iam ond
9. W hisker-reinforced m aterials an d nanom aterials

C a rb o n steels are the oldest tool m aterials, and have been used widely for drills,
taps, broaches, an d ream ers since the 1880s. Low -alloy and m edium -alloy steels
w ere developed later for similar applications, bu t w ith longer too l life. A lthough
inexpensive an d easily shaped an d sharpened, these steels do n o t have sufficient h o t
hardness and w ear resistance for m achining at high speeds, w here the tem perature
rises significantly. T heir use is limited to very low speed cutting operations, p artic­
ularly in w o o dw o rkin g, hence they are n o t o f any particu lar significance in m odern
m achining operations.
In this chapter, the following topics are described:

• The characteristics, applications, an d lim itations o f cutting-tool m aterials, in­

cluding the required characteristics and costs
• The applicable range of process variables for optim al perform ance
• The types and characteristics of cutting fluids an d their specific applications in
a w ide variety of m achining operations

22.2 H ig h -sp ee d S te els

H igh-speed steel (HSS) tools are so nam ed because they w ere developed to m achine at
higher speeds th a n w as previously possible. First p ro d u ced in the early 1900s, high­
speed steels are the m ost highly alloyed o f the tool steels (Section 5.7). They can be
h ardened to various depths, have good w ear resistance, a n d are relatively inexpensive.
Because of their toughness, and associated high resistance to fracture, high-speed
steels are suitable especially for (a) high positive rake-angle tools (those w ith small
included angles), (b) in terru p ted cuts, (c) m achine tools w ith low stiffness th a t are
subject to vibration an d chatter, an d (d) com plex tools, such as drills, ream ers, taps,
an d gear cutters. T heir m o st im p o rta n t lim itation, due to their low er h o t hardness, is
th a t the cutting speeds are low com pared w ith those of carbide tools, as can be seen
in Fig. 22.1.
T here are tw o basic types of high-speed steels: molybdenum (M-series) an d tung­
sten (T-series). T he M -series contains up to a b o u t 1 0 % M o , w ith Cr, V, W, and Co as
alloying elements. The T-series contains 1 2 -1 8 % W, w ith Cr, V, a n d Co as alloying
elements. Carbides form ed in the steel constitute a b o u t 10– 2 0 % by volum e. The
M -series generally has higher abrasion resistance th a n the T-series, undergoes less
distortion during h eat treating (Section 4.7), a n d is less expensive. Consequently,
9 5 % of all high-speed steel tools are m ade o f the M-series steels. Table 5.6 lists three
of these steels and their characteristics.
High-speed steel tools are available in w ro u g h t (rolled o r forged), cast, an d p o w ­
der m etallurgy (sintered) forms. T hey can be coated for im proved perform ance,
as described in Section 22.5. High-speed steel tools also m ay be subjected to sur­
face treatm ents (such as case hardening for im proved hardness an d w ear resistance;
see Section 4.10) o r steam treatm en t a t elevated tem peratures to develop a h ard,
black oxide layer (b luing) for im proved perform ance, including a low er tendency for
built-up edge form ation.
 The m ajo r alloying elements in HSS are chrom ium , vanadium , tungsten, cobalt,
and m olybdenum . To appreciate their role in cutting tools, refer to Table 5.2 on the
effects of various elements in steels and note the following:

• C hrom ium improves toughness, w ear resistance, a n d high-tem perature strength

• Vanadium improves toughness, abrasion resistance, and ho t hardness
• Tungsten a n d cobalt have similar effects, namely, im proved strength and ho t
hardness
• M o ly b d e n u m improves w ear resistance, toughness, and high-tem perature
strength and hardness

22.3 C a st-cob alt A llo y s

Introduced in 1915, cast-cobalt alloys have the following com position ranges:
3 8 % – 5 3 % C o, 3 0 % – 33 % Cr, and 1 0 % –2 0 % W. Because of their high hardness,
typically 58– 64 H R C , they have good w ear resistance and can m aintain their h a rd ­
ness at elevated tem peratures. They are n o t as to ug h as high-speed steels a n d are
sensitive to im pact forces; consequently, they are less suitable than high-speed steels
for interrup ted cutting operations. C om m only k n o w n as Stellite tools, these alloys
are cast an d gro u n d into relatively simple shapes. T hey are n o w used only for special
applications th a t involve deep, continuous roughing cuts a t relatively high feeds and
speeds, by as m uch as twice the rates possible with high-speed steels.

22.4 Carbides
The tw o groups of tool materials just described possess the required toughness,
im pact strength, and therm al shock resistance, b u t they also have im p o rta n t limi­
tations, particularly w ith respect to strength a n d h o t hardness. Consequently, they
c a n n o t be used as effectively where high cutting speeds, hence high tem peratures, are
involved; such speeds often are necessary to improve plant productivity.
To m eet the challenge for increasingly higher cutting speeds, carbides, also k no w n
as cem ented o r sintered carbides, w ere introduced in the 1930s. Because of their
high hardness over a wide range of tem peratures (Fig. 22.1), high elastic m o d u ­
lus, high therm al conductivity, and low therm al expansion, carbides are am ong
the m ost im p o rtan t, versatile, a n d cost-effective tool an d die materials for a wide
range o f applications. The tw o m ajo r groups of carbides used for m achining are
tungsten carbide and titanium carbide. In order to differentiate them from the
coated tools described in Section 22.5, plain-carbide tools usually are referred to
as uncoated carbides.

22.4.1 Tungsten Carbide

Tu n g sten carb ide (W C) ty p ically co n sists o f tu n g ste n -c a rb id e p a rtic le s b o n d e d
to g e th e r in a c o b a lt m a trix . T hese to o ls are m a n u f a c tu r e d u sing p o w d e r m e ta l­
lurg y te c h n iq u e s , hence th e te rm sin te re d carbides o r c e m e n te d carbides, as d e ­
sc rib e d in C h a p te r 17. T u n g ste n -c a rb id e p a rtic le s are first c o m b in e d ty p ically
w ith c o b a lt, re su ltin g in a c o m p o site m a te ria l w ith a c o b a lt m a tr ix s u rro u n d in g
th e c a rb id e p a rtic le s. T hese p a rtic le s, w h ic h are 1– 5 μ m in size, are th e n pressed
an d sintered into the desired insert (see Section 22.4.3 and Fig. 22.2) shapes. Tungsten
 carbides frequently are also co m p o u n d e d w ith
titanium carbide an d niob ium carbide, to
im part special properties to the m aterial.
The a m o u n t o f c o b alt present, ranging ty p ­
ically from 6 to 1 6 % , significantly affects the
properties of tungsten-carbide tools. As the
cobalt content increases, the strength, h a rd ­
ness, and w ear resistance o f W C decrease, while
its toughness increases, because of the higher
toughness of cobalt. T ungsten-carbide tools
generally are used for cutting steels, cast irons,
an d abrasive nonferrous m aterials, a n d largely
have replaced HSS tools because o f their better
perform ance.

M icrograin Carbides. C u ttin g to o ls also are

m a d e o f s u b m ic r o n a n d u ltr a - f in e - g r a in e d
(m i c r o g r a in ) c a r b id e s , in c lu d in g tu n g s te n
c a r b id e , tita n iu m c a r b id e , a n d t a n t a lu m c a r ­
b id e . T h e g r a in size is ty p ic a lly in th e ra n g e
FIGURE 2 2.2 Typical cutting-tool inserts with various shapes and f r o m 0 . 2 to 0 .8 μ m . C o m p a r e d w ith th e t r a ­
chip-breaker features; round inserts also are available, as can be seen
d itio n a l c a rb id e s , d e s c rib e d p rev iou sly , th ese
in Figs. 22.3c and 22.4; the holes in the inserts are standardized for
tool materials are stronger, harder, and m ore wear
interchangeability in toolholders. Source: Courtesy of Kennametal Inc.
r e s is ta n t, th u s im p ro v in g p ro d u c tiv ity . In o n e
a p p lic a tio n , m ic ro d rills , w ith d ia m e te rs on
th e o r d e r o f 1 0 0 μ m , a re b eing m a d e fro m m ic ro g ra in c a rb id e s a n d u s e d in th e
f a b r ic a tio n o f c irc u it b o a r d s (Section 2 8 .1 3 ).

Functionally Graded Carbides. In these tools, the com position of the carbide in the
insert has a gradient th ro u g h its near-surface depth, instead o f being uniform as it is in
com m on carbide inserts. The gradient has a sm ooth distribution of com positions an d
phases, w ith functions similar to those described as desirable properties of coatings
on cutting tools. G raded m echanical properties eliminate stress concentrations and
QR Code 2 2 . 1 Production of p ro m o te too l life an d perform ance; they are, however, m ore expensive an d cann o t
inserts. (Source: Courtesy of
be justified for all applications.
Sandvik Coromant)

2 2 .4 .2 Titanium Carbide
Titanium carbide (TiC) consists of a nickel–m oly bd en um m atrix. It has higher w ear
resistance th a n tungsten carbide but is n o t as tough. T itanium carbide is suitable for
m achining h a rd m aterials, m ainly steels an d cast irons, a n d for m achining at speeds
higher th a n those ap p ro p riate for tungsten carbide.

2 2 .4 .3 Inserts
A lthough a supply of sharp, o r resharpened, tools is usually m aintained in plants,
tool-changing operations can be time consum ing an d th us inefficient. The need for
a m ore effective m eth od has led to the developm ent of inserts, w hich are individual
cutting tools w ith several cutting points (Fig. 22.2). T hus, a square insert has eight
cutting points, an d a triangular insert has six. Inserts usually are clam ped on the
to olh older, w ith various locking m echanism s (Fig. 22.3); w h e n one p o in t of the
insert is w o rn , it is indexed (rotated in its holder) to m ake a n o th e r cutting p o in t
FIGURE 2 2 .3 M ethods of mounting inserts on toolholders: (a) clamping and (b) wing lock-
pins. (c) Examples of inserts mounted with threadless lockpins, which are secured with side
screws. Source: Courtesy of Valenite.

FIGURE 22 .4 Relative edge strength and tendency for chipping of inserts with various shapes;
strength refers to the cutting edge indicated by the included angles. Source: Courtesy of
Kennametal Inc.

available. In addition to the exam ples in this figure, a wide variety o f other to o lh o ld ­
ers is available for specific applications, including those w ith quick insertion and
rem oval features.
C arbide inserts are available in a variety of shapes, such as square, triangle,
diam o nd , and ro un d . The strength of the cutting edge of an insert depends o n its
shape; the smaller the included angle (see to p of Fig. 22.4), the low er is the strength
of the edge. In ord er to further im prove edge strength and prevent chipping, insert
edges usually are honed, cham fered, or produced w ith a negative land (Fig. 22.5).
M o st inserts are honed to a radius of a b o u t 0.025 mm.
Chip-breaker features (see Fig. 21 .7 and Section 21.2.1) on inserts are for
the purposes of (a) controlling chip flow during m achining, (b) eliminating long
chips, (c) reducing heat generated, and (d) reducing the tendency for vibration
an d chatter. C arbide inserts are commercially avail­
able w ith a wide variety of com plex chip-breaker
features, typical examples of w hich are show n in
Fig. 22.2. The selection of a particu lar chip-breaker
feature depends on the feed an d depth o f cut of the
o peration, the w orkpiece m aterial, the type of chip
produced during cutting, and w hether it is a ro u g h ­
ing or finishing machining. O p tim u m chip-breaker
geometries continue to be developed by com puter-
aided design an d finite-element analysis techniques.
Stiffness of the m achine tool (Section 25.3) is of FIGURE 22.5 Edge preparation for inserts to improve edge
m ajor im portance in using carbide tools. Light feeds, strength. Source: Courtesy of Kennametal Inc.
 low speeds, and chatter are detrim ental, because they tend to dam age the to o l’s
cutting edge. Light feeds, for example, concentrate the forces and tem p erature closer
to the edges of the tool, increasing the tendency for the edges to chip off.

22.4.4 Classification of Carbides

C arbide tool grades are classified using the letters P, M , K, N , S, a n d H (as show n in
Tables 2 2.4 a n d 22.5) for a range of applications, including the trad itio n al C grades
used in the U nited States. Because of the w ide variety of carbide com positions
available an d the b ro a d range of m achining applications a n d w orkpiece materials
involved, efforts a t ISO classification continue to be a difficult task.

TABLE 22.4

ISO Classification of Carbide Cutting Tools According to Use

Designation in order of
decreasing wear and
toughness in each category
(in increments of 5)

Symbol Workpiece material Color code Uncoated Coated

P Ferrous metals w ith long chips Blue P01, P05–P20 P20–P50

M Stainless steels w ith long or Yellow M 10–M20 M 20–M 40
short chips
K Cast iron w ith short chips Red K05–K20 K05–K30
N N onferrous metals Green N 10–20 N 05–N 30
S High-temperature alloys Orange S10–20 S20–S30
H H ardened materials Gray — H 10

TABLE 22.5

Classification of Tungsten Carbides According to Selected Machining Applications

ANSI
classification Materials
ISO number to be Machining Type of Characteristics of
standard (grade) machined operation carbide Cut Carbide
K30–K40 C1 Cast iron, Roughing Wear-resistant
nonferrous grades;
metals, and General generally
K20 C2
nonmetallic purpose straight
materials Light W C–Co
K10 C3 requiring with varying
finishing
abrasion grain sizes
Precision
KO1 C4 resistance
finishing
P30–P50 C5 Steels Roughing Crater-resistant
requiring General grades; various
P20 C6 crater and W C -C o
purpose
deformation compositions
Light
P10 C7 resistance with TiC
finishing
and/or TaC
Precision alloys
P01 C8
finishing

Note: The ISO and ANSI comparisons are approximate.

22.5 Coated T o o ls

As described in Part I, new m etal alloys and engineered m aterials are being developed
continuously, particularly since the 1960s. These materials have high strength and
toughness, b u t generally are abrasive an d chemically reactive w ith tool m aterials. The
difficulty of m achining these m aterials efficiently an d the need for im proving their
perform ance have led to im p o rta n t developments in coated tools. C om p ared w ith
the too l materials themselves, coatings have advantageous properties, such as:

• L ow er friction
• H igher resistance to w ear and cracking
• H igher h o t hardness an d im pact resistance
• Acting as a diffusion barrier between the tool and the chip

C oated tools can last 10 times m ore th a n those o f uncoated tools, thus allowing
for high cutting speeds and reducing both the time required for m achining operations
an d p ro du ction costs. As can be seen from Fig. 22.6, machining time has been reduced
steadily by a factor of m ore th a n 100 since 1900. This im provem ent has had a m ajor
im pact on the economics of machining operations, in conjunction w ith continued
im provem ents in the design and construction of m odern machine tools and their
co m p uter controls (see C hapter 25 an d Part IX). As a result, coated tools n ow are
used in as m uch as 80% o f all m achining operations, particularly turning, milling,
an d drilling.

2 2 .5 .1 Coating Materials and Coating Methods

C o m m o n ly u s e d c o a t in g m a t e r i a ls a re t i t a n i u m n itr id e ( T iN ), ti ta n iu m
carbide (TiC), tita n iu m ca rb o nitrid e (T iC N ), a n d a lu m in u m o x id e (Al 2 O 3 ).
T h e s e c o a t i n g s , typically in the thickness range from 2 to 15 μ m , are applied

FIGURE 22.6 Relative time required to machine with various cutting-tool materials, indi­
cating the year the tool materials were first introduced; note that machining time has been
reduced by two orders of magnitude within a 100 years. Source: Courtesy of Sandvik.
 o n cutting tools an d inserts by tw o principal techniques, described in greater detail
in Section 34.6:

1. Chemical-vapor deposition (CVD), including plasma-assisted chemical-vapor

deposition
2 . Physical-vapor deposition (PVD)

The CVD process is the m o st com m on ly used m eth o d for carbide tools w ith m u l­
tiphase a n d ceram ic coatings, b o th of w hich are described later in this section. H o w ­
ever, the PV D -coated carbides w ith T iN coatings have h igher cutting-edge strength,
lo w e r frictio n , a n d a lo w e r te nd en cy to fo rm a b u ilt-u p edge, a n d th e c o atin g s are
s m o o th e r a n d m o re u n ifo rm in th ick n ess, w h ic h g en erally is in th e ra n g e fro m 2 to
4 μ m. A n o th e r technology, used p a rtic u la rly for m u ltip h a s e c o a tin g s, is medium-
temperature chem ical-vapor deposition (M T C V D ), dev elop ed to m ach ine ductile
(no d u la r) iro n a n d stainless steels, a n d to p ro v id e h ig h er resistan ce to crack p r o p ­
a g a tio n th a n CV D co ating s provide.
C oatings for cutting tools an d dies should have the following general
characteristics:

• High hardness at elevated tem peratures, to resist w ear

• Chemical stability an d inertness to the w orkpiece m aterial, in o rd er to reduce
w ear
• Low thermal conductivity, to prevent tem p eratu re rise in the substrate
• Compatibility and good bonding, to prevent flaking o r spalling from the
substrate, w hich m ay be carbide o r high-speed steel
• Little or no porosity, to m aintain its integrity an d strength

T he effectiveness o f coatings is enhanced by the hardness, toughness, and high

therm al conductivity o f the substrate. H o n in g (Section 26.7) of the cutting edges is an
im p o rta n t procedure for the m aintenance of coating strength; otherw ise, the coating
m ay peel or chip off a t sharp edges an d corners.

Titanium-nitride Coatings. Titanium -nitride coatings have low friction coeffi­

cients, high hardness, resistance to high tem perature, an d good adhesion to the sub­
strate. Consequently, they greatly im prove the life of high-speed steel tools, as well as
the lives of carbide tools, drill bits, an d cutters. Titanium -nitride-coated
tools (gold in color) p erform well at higher cutting speeds an d feeds.
Flank w ear is significantly low er th a n th a t o f u nco ated tools (Fig. 22.7),
and flank surfaces can be reg ro u nd after use, since regrinding the flank
face does n o t remove the coating on the rake face o f the tool. However,
these coated tools do n o t perform as well a t low cutting speeds, because
the coating can be w o rn off by chip adhesion, thus the use of app rop riate
cutting fluids to minimize adhesion is im p o rtan t.

Titanium-carbide Coatings. T itanium -carbide coatings on tungsten-

carbide inserts have high flank-w ear resistance in m achining a b ra ­
sive m aterials.

FIGURE 22 .7 Schematic illustration of

typical wear patterns on uncoated high­ Ceramic Coatings. Because of their chemical inertness, low therm al
speed steel tools and titanium-nitride- conductivity, resistance to high tem perature, and resistance to flank and
coated tools; note that flank wear is crater wear, ceramics are suitable coating m aterials for cutting tools.
significantly lower for the coated tool. The m ost com m only used ceramic coating is alu m in u m oxide (Al2 O 3 ).
However, because they are very stable (not chemically reactive), oxide coatings
generally bond w eakly to the substrate.

Multiphase Coatings. T he desirable properties of the coatings just described can be

com bined and optim ized using m ultiphase coatings. C arbide tools are available w ith
tw o or more layers of such coatings, an d are particularly effective in machining cast
irons an d steels. For exam ple, TiC can first be deposited over the substrate, followed
by Al2 O 3 , and then TiN. The first layer should bond well w ith the substrate, the outer
layer should resist w ear and have low therm al conductivity, and the interm ediate layer
should bond well and be com patible w ith both layers.
Typical applications of m ultiple-coated tools are:

• High-speed, continuous cutting: T iC/Al2 O 3

• Heavy-duty, continuous cutting: TiC/Al 2 O 3 /TiN
• Light, interrupted cutting: TiC/TiC + TiN /T iN

Coatings also are available in alternating multiphase layers; the thickness of

these layers is on the o rd er of 2 – 2 0 μ m, thinner th a n regular m ultiphase coatings
(Fig. 22.8). The reason for using th inn er coatings is th a t coating hardness increases
w ith decreasing grain size, a pheno m eno n similar to the increase in the strength of
metals w ith decreasing grain size (see Section 1.5.1); thus, thinner layers are harder
th a n thicker layers.
A typical m ultiphase-coated carbide tool m ay consist o f the following layers,
starting from the top, along w ith their prim ary functions:

1. TiN: low friction

2. A l2 O 3 : high therm al stability
3. T iCN : fiber reinforced, w ith a good balance o f resistance to flank w ear and
crater wear, effective particularly for interrupted cutting
4 . A thin-carbide substrate: high fracture toughness
5. A thick-carbide substrate: hard and resistant to plastic deform ation at high
tem peratures

FIGURE 22 .8 Multiphase coatings on a tungsten-carbide substrate; three alternating layers

of aluminum oxide are separated by very thin layers of titanium nitride. Inserts with as many
as 13 layers of coatings have been made. Coating thicknesses are typically in the range from
2 to 20 μ m. Source: Courtesy of Kennametal Inc.
Diamond Coatings. The properties an d applications o f d iam o nd , diam o n d c o a t­
ings, an d diam ondlike carbon are described in Sections 8.7 a n d 3 4.13, and the use
of these materials as cutting tools is given in Section 22.9. Polycrystalline d ia m o nd
is used widely as a coating for cutting tools, particularly on tungsten-carbide and
silicon-nitride inserts. D iam ond-coated tools are particularly effective in machining
(a) nonferrous metals, (b) abrasive m aterials, such as alum in um alloys containing
silicon, (c) fiber-reinforced and m etal-m atrix com posite m aterials, a n d (d) graphite.
As m uch as 10-fold im provem ents in tool life have been obtained over the lives of
other coated tools.
Diamond-coated inserts, available commercially, have th in films deposited on
substrates th ro u g h PVD or CVD techniques. T hick d iam on d films are obtained by
grow ing a large sheet of pure diam ond, w hich is then laser cut to shape and brazed to
a carbide insert. M ultilayer nanocrystal d ia m o n d coatings also are being developed,
w ith interlocking layers o f diam on d th a t give strength to the coating. As w ith all
coatings, it is essential to develop good adhesion of the diam on d film to the sub­
strate, and to minimize the difference in therm al expansion between the diam o nd
an d substrate m aterials (see Section 3.6).

22.5.2 Miscellaneous Coating Materials

M a jo r advances are taking place in fu rth er im proving the perform ance of coated
tools. Titanium carbonitride (TiCN) an d titanium-aluminum nitride (TiAlN ) are
effective in cutting stainless steels. T iC N (deposited th ro u g h physical-vapor d epo ­
sition) is hard er an d tou g her th a n T iN , an d can be used on carbides a n d high-speed
steel tools. TiAlN is effective in m achining aerospace alloys. C h rom ium -based c o a t­
ings, such as chromium carbide (CrC), have been foun d to be effective in m achining
softer metals th a t have a tendency to adhere to the cutting tool, such as alum inum ,
copper, and titanium . O th e r coating materials include zirconium nitride (ZrN ) and
hafnium nitride (HfN).
M ore recent developm ents include (a) n anolayer coatings, such as carbide, boride,
nitride, oxide, o r some com bination thereof (see also Section 8 . 8 ) a n d (b) com pos­
ite coatings, using a variety of m aterials. The hardness of som e of these coatings
approaches th a t of cubic boron nitride (see Fig. 2.15).

22.5.3 Ion Implantation

In this process, ions are introduced into the surface o f the cutting tool, im proving its
surface properties (Section 34.7); the process does n o t change the dim ensions of tools.
Nitrogen-ion im planted carbide tools have been used successfully o n alloy steels and
stainless steels. Xenon-ion im plan tation o f tools is also under developm ent.

22.6 A lu m in a -b a se d Ceramics

Ceram ic tool m aterials, introduced in the early 1950s, consist prim arily of fine­
grained, high-purity aluminum oxide (Section 8.2). T hey are cold pressed into
insert shapes u n der high pressure, then sintered a t high tem perature; the end
p ro d u c t is referred to as white (cold-pressed) ceramics. A dditions of titanium
carbide an d zirconium oxide help improve properties, such as toughness and
therm al-shock resistance.
A lum ina-based ceramic tools have very high abrasion resistance an d h o t hardness
(Fig. 22.9). Chemically, they are m ore stable th a n high-speed steels a n d carbides, so
they have less tendency to adhere
to m etals during machining, and a
correspondingly lower tendency to
form a built-up edge. Consequently,
in machining cast irons and steels,
g o o d surface finish is obtained using
ceramic tools. O n the other hand,
ceramics generally lack toughness,
an d their use can result in p re m a ­
ture too l failure, by chipping o r in
catastrophic failure.
Ceram ic inserts are available in
shapes similar to those o f carbide
inserts (Section 22.4.3). T hey are
effective in high-speed, uninterrupted
cutting operations, such as finishing
o r semifinishing. To reduce therm al
shock, cutting should be perform ed
either dry or w ith a copious am o u n t
o f cutting fluid, applied in a steady
stream (Section 22.12). Im proper or
in term ittent applications of the fluid FIGURE 22.9 Ranges of mechanical properties for various groups of tool
can cause therm al shock and fracture materials. HIP = hot isostatically pressed. (See also Tables 22.1–22.5.)
o f the ceramic tool.
Ceramic too l shape an d setup are im p ortant. N egative rake angles (large included
angles) generally are preferred in order to avoid chipping, due to the p o o r tensile
strength of ceramics. Tool failure can be reduced by increasing the stiffness an d d a m p ­
ing capacity of machine tools, m ountings, and w ork-holding devices, thus reducing
v ibration an d chatter.

Cermets. Cermets (from the w o rds ceramic and m eta l) consist o f ceramic particles
in a metallic m atrix. They were introduced in the 1960s an d are referred to as black or
hot-pressed ceramics (carboxides). A typical cermet consists of 7 0 % alum inum oxide
and 3 0 % titanium carbide; other cermets contain m olybdenum carbide, niobium
carbide, an d tan talu m carbide. A lthough they have chemical stability and resistance
to built-up edge form ation, the brittleness an d high cost of cermets have been a
lim itation to their w ider use.
Further developments and refinements of these tools have resulted in improved
strength, toughness, an d reliability. T heir perform ance is som ew here between th at
o f ceramics an d carbides, an d has been particularly suitable for light roughing
cuts and high-speed finishing cuts. C hip-breaker features are im p o rtan t for cermet
inserts. A lthough cermets can be coated, the benefits o f coated cermets are som ew hat
controversial, as the im provem ent in w ear resistance appears to be marginal.

22.7 Cubic Boron N itride

N e x t to d ia m o n d , cubic b o ro n nitride (cBN) is th e h a rd e s t m a te ria l available. In ­

tro d u c e d in 1 96 2 u n d e r the tra d e n a m e B o ra zo n , cubic b o ro n n itrid e is m a d e by
b o n d in g a 0 .5 -1 m m layer of polycrystalline cubic boron nitride to a c arb id e su b ­
stra te , by sinterin g u n d e r high pressure a n d high te m p e ra tu re . W hile the carbid e
p rov ides sh o ck resistance, the cB N layer prov ides very high w e a r resistance an d
cuttin g -ed ge stren g th (Fig. 2 2.10 ).
 T he th e rm o c h e m ic a l stability o f cBN
is a significant a d v a n ta g e ; it can be used
safely up to 12 0 0 °C . Also, a t elevated te m ­
p e ra tu re s , cBN m a in ta in s high chem ical
inertness to iron a n d nickel, th u s th ere is
no w e a r due to diffusion. Its resistance to
o x id a tio n is h igh, m a k in g it p a rtic u la rly
su itab le for m a c h in in g h a rd e n e d ferrous
a n d h ig h -tem p eratu re alloys (see hard m a ­
ch in in g , Section 2 5 .6 ) a n d for high-speed
m a c h in in g o p e ra tio n s (Section 2 5 .5).
cBN also is used as an abrasive; however,
because these tools are brittle, the stiffness
of the machine tool and the fixturing is im ­
portant in order to avoid vibration and chatter.
Furtherm ore, in ord er to avoid chipping and
cracking, due to therm al shock, machining
generally should be perform ed dry, p artic­
ularly in in terru p ted cutting operations,
such as milling, which repeatedly subject
the tool to therm al cycling.
FIGURE 22.10 Cubic boron nitride inserts, (a) An insert of a poly­
crystalline cubic boron nitride or a diamond layer on tungsten carbide,
(b) Inserts with polycrystalline cubic boron nitride tips (top row), and
solid-polycrystalline cBN inserts (bottom row). Source: (b) Courtesy of
Valenite.

22.8 Silico n -n itrid e-b a sed Ceram ics

Developed in the 1970s, silicon-nitride (SiN)– based ceramic tool materials consist of
silicon nitride w ith various additions of alum inum oxide, y ttriu m oxide, and titanium
carbide. These tools have high toughness, h o t hardness, and good therm al-shock
resistance. An exam ple of an SiN-based m aterial is sialon, nam ed after the elements
o f w hich it is com posed: silicon, a lum inum , oxygen, a n d n itrogen. Sialon has higher
therm al-shock resistance th a n silicon nitride, an d is recom m ended for m achining cast
irons and nickel-based superalloys, at interm ediate cutting speeds. Because of their
chemical affinity to iron at elevated tem peratures, however, SiN-based tools are not
suitable for m achining steels.

22.9 D ia m on d

O f all k n o w n m aterials, the h ardest substance is d iam o n d, described in Section 8.7.

As a cutting tool, it has highly desirable properties such as low friction, high w ear
resistance, and the ability to m aintain a sharp cutting edge. D ia m o n d is used w hen
g o o d surface finish and dim ensional accuracy are required, p articularly w h en m ach in­
ing soft n onferrous alloys an d abrasive n onm etallic a n d metallic m aterials, especially
some alum inum –silicon alloys. Synthetic o r industrial d ia m o n d is w idely used because
n a tu ra l diam o n d has flaws, an d thus its perform ance can be unpredictable.
A lthough single-crystal diamond of various carats (for precious stones,
1 carat = 2 0 0 mg) can be used for special applications, they have been replaced
largely by polycrystalline diamond (PCD) tools, called compacts (also used as dies
FIGURE 22.11 M icrophotographs of diamond compacts, (a) Fine-grained diamond, with
mean grain size around 2 μ m; (b) Medium grain, with mean grain size around 10 μ m; (c)
Coarse grain, with grain size around 25 μ m. Grain sizes ranging from 0.5 to 30 μ m are
commercially available. Source: Courtesy of Kennametal Inc.

f o r fine w ire d ra w in g , Section 15.7). T hese d ia m o n d to o ls co n sist o f very sm all

synthetic crystals (Fig. 22.11), fused by a high-pressure, high-tem perature process, to
a thickness of a b o u t 0.5– 1 m m , an d bonded to a carbide substrate; this p ro d uct is sim­
ilar to cBN tools (Fig. 22.10). Fine grains are used w hen a high cutting edge quality and
higher strength are required; coarse grains are preferred for increased abrasion resis­
tance. The random orientation of the diam ond crystals prevents the propagation of cracks
th ro u g h the structure, thus significantly im proving its toughness.
Because diam ond is brittle, tool shape and sharpness are im portant. Low rake
angles generally are used to provide a strong cutting edge, because o f the larger
included angles. Special attention should be given to p ro p e r m ounting and crystal
orientation in order to o btain optim um tool life. W ear m ay occur thro ug h microchip-
ping (caused by therm al stresses and oxidation) and th ro u g h transfo rm atio n to
carb o n (caused by the h eat generated during machining). D iam o nd tools can be
used satisfactorily at alm ost any speed, but are m ost suitable for light, uninterrupted
finishing cuts. In ord er to minimize to o l fracture, the single-crystal d iam on d m ust
be resharpened as soon as it becomes dull. Because of its strong chemical affinity
at elevated tem peratures (resulting in diffusion), diam ond is n o t recom m ended for
m achining plain-carbon steels or for titan ium , nickel, and cobalt-based alloys.

22.10 W h isk er-reinforced M aterials and N a n o m a te r ia ls

In o rd er to further improve the perform ance an d w ear resistance of cutting tools,
particularly in m achining new materials an d composites, continued progress is being
made in developing new tool m aterials w ith enhanced properties, such as:

• H igh fracture toughness

• Resistance to therm al shock
• Cutting-edge strength
• Creep resistance
• H o t hardness

Advances include the use of whiskers as reinforcing fibers in co m pos­

ite cutting-tool materials. Examples of whisker-reinforced cutting tools include
(a) silicon-nitride-based tools reinforced w ith silicon-carbide whiskers and
(b) alum inum -oxide-based tools reinforced w ith 2 5–4 0 % silicon-carbide whiskers,
sometimes w ith the additio n o f zirconium o xid e (Z rO 2 ). Silicon-carbide whiskers
are typically 5 - 1 0 0 μ m long an d 0.1– 1 μ m in diameter. However, the high reactiv­
ity of silicon carbide w ith ferrous metals m akes SiC-reinforced tools unsuitable for
m achining irons an d steels.
Nanom aterials also are becom ing im p o rta n t in advanced cutting-tool materials
(see Section 8 . 8 ); suitable nanom aterials are carbides and ceramics. O ften, n a n o m a ­
terials are applied as a thin coating, usually in an a ttem pt to obtain a reasonable tool
life w ith o u t the use o f a coolant (see dry m achining, Section 22.12.1) o r to machine
at high speeds (see Section 25.5).

2 2 . 11 T o o l C o sts and R e c o n d itio n in g o f T o o ls

T oo l costs vary widely, d e p e n d in g o n th e to o l m a te ria l, size, sh a p e , c h ip -b re a k e r

f e a t u r e s , a n d q u a lity . T h e a p p r o x i m a t e c o s t f o r a ty p ic a l 1 2 .5 - m m in s e r t is
a p p ro x im a te ly (a) $ 1 0 – $15 for u n co ated carbides, (b) $ 1 0 – $25 for co ated carbides,
(c) $ 30– $50 for ceram ics, (d) $ 5 0 – $90 for d ia m o n d -c o a te d carbides, (e) $ 1 3 0 – $180
for cubic b o ro n n itride, a n d (f) $ 1 5 0 – $ 20 0 for a d ia m o n d -tip p e d insert.
After reviewing the costs involved in m achining a n d considering all of the aspects
involved in the to tal operation, it can be seen th a t the cost of a n individual insert is
relatively insignificant. Tooling costs in m achining have been estim ated to be on the
order of 2–4 % of the m anufacturing costs. This small a m o u n t is due to the fact th at
a single cutting tool, for exam ple, can p erform a large a m o u n t of m aterial removal
before it is indexed to use all the cutting edges o f an insert, a n d eventually recycled.
Recall from Section 2 1.5 th a t the expected to ol life can be in the range of 30– 60 min;
thus, considering th a t a square insert has eight cutting edges, a to o l can last m any
hours before it is rem oved from the m achine to ol a n d replaced.
C utting tools can be reconditioned by resharpening them , using tool and c u t­
ter grinders w ith special fixtures (Section 26.4). This op eratio n m ay be carried ou t
by han d or on com puter-controlled tool an d cutter grinders. A dvanced m ethods of
shaping cutting tools also are available, as described in C h ap ter 27. R econditioning
of coated tools also is done by recoating them , usually in special facilities available
for these purposes; it is im p o rta n t th a t reconditioned tools have the same geometric
features as the original tools. O ften, a decision has to be m ade w h eth er further recon­
ditioning of tools is econom ical, especially w hen the costs o f typical small inserts are
n o t a m ajor con trib u tio n to to tal costs. Recycling of tools is always a significant c o n ­
sideration, especially if they contain expensive an d strategically im p o rta n t m aterials,
such as tungsten an d cobalt.

22.12 C u ttin g Fluids

C utting fluids are used extensively in m achining o perations for the following
purposes:

• Reduce friction an d wear, thus im proving the to ol life an d surface finish of the
w orkpiece
• Cool the cutting zone, thus im proving tool life and reducing the tem perature
and therm al d istortion o f the w orkpiece
• Reduce forces a n d energy consum ption
 • Flush aw ay the chips from the cutting zone, thus preventing the chips from
interfering w ith the cutting operation, particularly in drilling an d tapping
• Protect the m achined surface from environm ental corrosion

Depending on the type of m achining operation, the cutting fluid needed m ay be a

coolant, a lubricant, or both. T he effectiveness of cutting fluids depends on a num ber
of factors, such as the type of m achining operation, tool an d w orkpiece materials,
cutting speed, and the m ethod o f application. W ater is an excellent coolant, and
can effectively reduce the high tem peratures developed in the cutting zone; however,
w ater is n o t an effective lubricant an d hence, it does n o t reduce friction an d can cause
corrosion of workpieces an d m achine-tool com ponents.
The necessity for a cutting fluid depends on the severity of the p articu lar m achin­
ing operation, defined as (a) the tem peratures and forces encountered a n d the ability
o f the tool m aterials to w ithstand them , (b) the tendency for built-up edge form ation,
(c) the ease w ith w hich chips produced can be rem oved from the cutting zone, and
(d) h o w effectively the fluids can be supplied to the p ro p e r region at the to ol–chip
interface. The relative severities of specific machining processes, in increasing order of
severity, are sawing, turning, milling, drilling, gear cutting, th read cutting, tapping,
and internal broaching.
T here are operations, however, in w hich the cooling action o f cutting fluids can
be detrim ental. It has been show n, for example, th a t cutting fluids m ay cause the
chip to become m ore curly (see Fig. 21.9c), and thus concentrate the heat closer to
the to o l tip, reducing tool life. M oreover, in interrupted cutting operations, such
as milling w ith m ultiple-tooth cutters, cooling o f the cutting zone leads to therm al
cycling o f the cutter teeth, w hich can cause therm al cracks, by the m echanism s of
therm al fatigue o r therm al shock.

Cutting-fluid A ction. The basic m echanism s of lubrication in m etalw orking oper­

ations are described in greater detail in Section 33.6. Studies have show n th a t the
cutting fluid gains access to the to ol–chip interface by seeping from the sides of the
chip (perpendicular to the page in Figs. 21.11 and 21.12), th ro u g h the capillary action
o f the interlocking netw ork o f surface asperities in the interface.
Because o f the small size of this capillary netw ork, the cutting fluid should have
a sm all molecular size and possess p ro p er w etting (surface tension) characteris­
tics. T herefore, for example, grease ca n n o t be an effective lubricant in machining,
w hereas low-molecular-weight oils, suspended in w ater (em ulsions), are very effec­
tive. N o te th a t in discontinuous m achining operations, cutting fluids have more
access to too l–chip–w orkpiece interfaces, bu t then the tools are m ore susceptible to
therm al shock.

EXAMPLE 2 2 . 1 Effects o f Cutting Fluids on Machining

Given: A m achining operation is being carried out 1. Friction at the tool–chip interface will increase.
w ith a cutting fluid th a t is an effective lubricant. 2 . The shear angle will decrease, in accordance
w ith Eq. (21.3).
Find: Describe the changes in the cutting operation 3. The shear strain will increase, as seen from
mechanics if the fluid supply is interrupted. Eq. (21.2).
Solution: Since the cutting fluid is a good lubricant, 4. The chip will become thicker.
the following chain of events will take place after the 5. A built-up edge is likely to form.
fluid is shut off:
 As a result of these changes, the following events 4 . The tem p eratu re in the cutting zone will rise,
will occur: causing greater tool wear.
1. The shear energy in the prim ary zone will 5. Surface finish o f the w orkpiece will begin to
increase. deteriorate, and dim ensional accuracy may be
2 . The frictional energy in the secondary zone will difficult to m aintain, because o f the increased
increase. tem p eratu re and th erm al expansion of the w o rk ­
3. The total energy will increase. piece during machining.

T yp es o f Cutting Fluids. The characteristics and applications of m etalw orking flu­

ids and their trends are described in Section 33.7. Briefly, fo u r general types o f cutting
fluids are com m only used in m achining operations:
1. Oils, also called straight oils, include mineral, anim al, vegetable, com po u nd ed ,
an d synthetic oils; typically are used for low-speed operations w here tem p era­
ture rise is n o t significant.
2 . Emulsions, also called soluble oils, are a m ixture o f oil a n d w a te r an d additives;
they generally are used for high-speed operations w here the tem perature rise is
significant. T he presence o f w a te r m akes em ulsions highly effective coolants,
and the presence of oil reduces o r eliminates the tendency of w ater to cause
o xidation of w orkpiece surfaces.
3. Semisynthetics are chemical emulsions containing little m ineral oil, diluted in
water, and w ith additives th a t reduce the size of oil particles, thus m aking them
m ore effective.
4. Synthetics are chemicals w ith additives, diluted in water, and containing no oil.

Because of the com plex interactions a m ong the cutting fluid, the w orkpiece m ate­
rials, tem perature, time, and cutting-process variables, the selection an d application
o f fluids can n ot be generalized. In C hapters 23 and 24, recom m endations for cutting
fluids for specific m achining operations are given.

M ethods o f Cutting-fluid Application. There are four basic m ethods of cutting-

fluid applications in machining:
1. Flooding. This is the m ost co m m on m ethod, as show n in Fig. 2 2 .1 2 an d indicating
good and p o o r flooding practices. Flow rates typically range from 10 L/min for
single-point tools to 225 L/min per cutter for m ultiple-tooth cutters, as in milling.
In some operations, such as drilling an d milling, fluid pressures in the range from
700 to 14,000 kPa also are used to flush aw ay the chips p roduced, to prevent
interfering w ith the operation.
2. Mist. This type o f cooling supplies fluid to inaccessible areas, in a m anner
sim ilar to using an a e ro so l can , a n d p ro v id es b e tte r visibility o f th e w ork p ie c e
being m ac h in e d , as c o m p a re d w ith flood cooling. T his m e th o d is p a rtic u la rly
effective w ith w ater-based fluids a n d at air pressures ranging from 70 to 600 kPa.
However, it has limited cooling capacity, andrequiresventingto prevent the inhalation
of airborne fluid particles by the m achine o p e ra to r an d o ther personnel nearby.
3. High-pressure systems. W ith the increasing speed a n d p o w er o f com puter-
controlled m achine tools, heat generation in m achining has become a significant
factor. Particularly effective is the use o f high-pressure refrigerated coolant
system s to increase the rate o f h eat rem oval. H ig h pressures also are used in
delivering the cutting fluid via specially designed nozzles th a t aim a pow erful jet
FIGURE 2 2 .1 2 Schematic illustration o f the m e th o d s o f applying cutting fluids (by flooding)
in various m achining operations: (a) turnin g, (b) milling, (c) th read grinding, an d (d) drilling.

of fluid to the cutting zone, particularly into the clearance or relief face of the
tool (see Fig. 21.3). The pressures are usually in the range from 5.5 to 35 MPa,
and also act as a chip breaker in situations where the chips produced would
otherwise be long and continuous, interfering with the cutting operation.
Proper cycling and continuous filtering of the fluid is essential to m aintain
workpiece surface quality.
A more recent design is shown in Fig. 22.13, which achieves good perfor­
mance with more modest pressure requirements. This method has been found
to be especially effective in machining titanium and other difficult-to-machine
materials, where tool life can be increased by over 300% . Instead of applying
coolant to the workpiece surface or chip at a distance remote from the cutting
zone, the coolant is applied on the side of the insert. For controlled depths of
cut, the temperature rise in the tool and chip can be reduced significantly, as
seen in Fig. 22.13b.
4 . T h r o u g h th e cu ttin g -to o l sy ste m . For a more effective application, narrow pas­
sages can be produced in cutting tools, as well as in toolholders, through which
cutting fluids can be supplied under high pressure. Two applications of this
method are (a) gun drilling, shown in Fig. 23.22; note the long, small hole
through the body of the drill itself, and (b) boring bars, shown in Fig. 23.17a,
where there is a long hole through the shank (toolholder), to which an insert
is clamped. Similar designs have been developed for cutting tools and inserts,
and for delivering cutting fluids through the spindle of the machine tool.

Effects of Cutting Fluids. The selection of a cutting fluid should also include
considerations such as its effects on

• Workpiece material
• Machine tool components
• Biological considerations
• The environment
FIGURE 22 .13 (a) A tu rn in g insert w ith co o lan t applied th ro u g h th e tool; (b) C o m p ariso n of
te m p e ra tu re d istrib u tio n s fo r c o n v e n tio n a l a n d th r o u g h -th e -to o l ap p lic a tio n . T h e w o rk p iec e
m a te ria l is In co n e l 7 1 8 ; c u ttin g speed = 1 80 m /m in , feed = 0 .5 0 m m /rev an d to o l c o a tin g =
T iC . Source: C o u rte sy o f K e n n a m e ta l Inc.

In selecting an appropriate cutting fluid, one should consider whether the

machined component may be subjected to stresses and adverse effects during its ser­
vice life, possibly leading to stress-corrosion cracking. For example, (a) cutting fluids
containing sulfur should not be used with nickel-based alloys and (b) fluids con­
taining chlorine should not be used with titanium, because of increased corrosion.
Moreover, machined parts should be cleaned and washed, in order to remove any
cutting-fluid residue, as described in Section 34.16. Because the cleaning operation
can be significant in time and cost, the trend is to use water-based, low-viscosity fluids
for ease of cleaning and filtering the fluids. Because cutting fluids also may adversely
affect the machine tool components, their compatibility with various metallic and
nonmetallic materials in the machine also must be considered.
The health effects on machine operators, in contact with fluids, also should
be of primary concern. Mist, fumes, smoke, and odors from cutting fluids can
cause severe skin reactions and respiratory problems, especially in using fluids with
chemical constituents such as sulfur, chlorine, phosphorus, hydrocarbons, biocides,
and various additives. Much progress has been made in ensuring the safe use of cut­
ting fluids in manufacturing facilities, including reducing or eliminating their use by
considering the more recent trends in dry or near-dry machining techniques, as well as
in the design of machine tools with enclosed working areas (see Figs. 25.2 and 25.12).
Cutting fluids, as well as other metalworking fluids used in manufacturing oper­
ations, may undergo chemical changes as they are used repeatedly over time. These
changes may be due to environmental effects or to contamination from various
sources, including metal chips, fine particles produced during machining, and tramp
oil (oils from leaks in hydraulic systems, on sliding members of machines, and from
lubricating systems for the machine tools). The changes can also involve the growth of
microbes (bacteria, molds, and yeast), particularly in the presence of water, becom­
ing an environmental hazard, and also adversely affecting the characteristics and
effectiveness of the cutting fluids.
Several techniques, such as settling, skimming, centrifuging, and filtering, are
available for clarifying used cutting fluids. Recycling involves treatment of the fluids
with various additives, agents, biocides, and deodorizers, as well as water treatment
(for water-based fluids). Disposal practices for these fluids must comply with federal,
state, and local laws and regulations.

22.12.1 N ear-dry and Dry M achining

For economic and environmental reasons, there has been a continuing worldwide
trend, since the mid-1990s, to minimize or eliminate the use of metalworking fluids.
This trend has led to the practice of near-dry machining (NDM), with significant
benefits such as:

• Alleviating the environmental impact of using cutting fluids, improving air

quality in manufacturing plants, and reducing health hazards
• Reducing the cost of machining operations, including the cost of maintenance,
recycling, and disposal of cutting fluids

The significance of this approach becomes apparent when one notes that, in the
United States alone, millions of gallons of metalworking fluids are consumed each
year. Furthermore, it has been estimated that metalworking fluids constitute about
7– 17% of the total machining cost.
The principle behind near-dry cutting is the application of a fine mist of an air–fluid
mixture, containing a very small am ount of cutting fluid, which may be reformulated
to contain vegetable oil. The mixture is delivered to the cutting zone through the spindle
of the machine tool, typically through a 1 -mm-diameter nozzle and under a pressure of
600 kPa. It is used at rates on the order of 1– 100 cc/h, which is estimated to be, at most,
one ten-thousandth of that used in flood cooling. Consequently, the process is also
known as m inimum-quantity lubrication (MQL).
Dry machining also is a viable alternative. With major advances in cutting
tools, dry machining has been shown to be effective in various machining opera­
tions, especially turning, milling, and gear cutting, on steels, steel alloys, and cast
irons, although generally not for aluminum alloys.
One of the functions of a metal-cutting fluid is to flush chips from the cutting zone.
Although this function appears to be a challenge with dry machining, tool designs
have been developed that allow the application of pressurized air, often through the
tool shank. Although the compressed air does not serve as a lubricant, and provides
only limited cooling capacity, it is very effective at clearing chips from the cutting
zone.
 Cryogenic Machining. M ore recent developments in machining include the use
of cryogenic gases, such as nitrogen or carbon dioxide, as a coolant. W ith small-
diam eter nozzles and at a tem perature of – 200°C liquid nitrogen is injected into
the cutting zone. Because of the reduced tem perature, tool hardness is m aintained
and hence tool life is improved, thus allowing for higher cutting speeds. The chips
also are less ductile, thus machinability is increased. There is no adverse environ­
m ental impact, and the nitrogen simply evaporates.

SUM M ARY

• Cutting tool materials have a broad range of mechanical and physical properties,
such as hot hardness, toughness, chemical stability and inertness, and resistance
to chipping and wear. A wide variety of cutting-tool materials are now available,
the most commonly used ones being high-speed steels, carbides, ceramics, cubic
boron nitride, and diamond.
• Several tool coatings have been developed, resulting in major improvements
in tool life, surface finish, and the economics of machining operations. Com ­
mon coating materials are titanium nitride, titanium carbide, titanium carboni-
tride, and aluminum oxide. The trend is toward multiphase coatings for even
better performance.
• The selection of appropriate tool materials depends not only on the material
to be machined, but also on process parameters and the characteristics of the
machine tool.
• Cutting fluids are important in machining operations, as they reduce friction, wear,
cutting forces, and power requirements. Generally, slower cutting operations and
those with high tool pressures require a fluid with good lubricating characteristics.
In high-speed operations, where the temperature rise can be significant, fluids with
good cooling capacity and some lubricity are required. The selection of cutting
fluids must take into account their possible adverse effects on the machined parts,
on machine tools and their components, on personnel, and on the environment.

KEY TERMS
A lum ina-based ceram ics C u ttin g fluids M u ltip h a se coatings Stellite
C arbides D ia m o n d coatings N anocrystalline T ita n iu m carbide
C ast-cobalt alloys D iam o n d tools N ear-dry m achining T itan iu m nitride
Ceram ics D ry m achining Polycrystalline cubic Tool costs
C erm ets Finishing cuts b o ro n nitride T ool reconditioning
C hem ical stability Flooding Polycrystalline d ia m o n d T oughness
C hip breaker H igh-speed steels R econditioning o f tools T un g sten carbide
C o ated tools Inserts R oug hin g cuts U n c o a te d carbides
C oolants L ubricants Sialon W ear resistance
C ryogenic m achining M icrograin carbides Silicon-nitride-based W hisker-reinforced tools
C ubic b o ro n nitride M ist ceramics

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A S M H a n d b o o k , Vol. 16: M achining, ASM International, Astakhov, V.P., Tribology o f Metal Cutting, Elsevier, 2007.
1989. Astakhov, V.P., and Joksch, S., M etalworking Fluids for
A S M Specialty H a n d b o o k: T ool Materials, ASM Interna­ Cutting and Grinding: Fundamentals and Recent
tional, 1995. Advances, Woodhead, 2012.
Byers, J.P. (ed.), Metalworking Fluids, 2 n d ed., C R C Press, R oberts, G.A., K rauss, G., an d Kennedy, R., T ool Steels, 5 th
2 0 06. ed., ASM In ternational, 1997.
Jack so n , M .J., a nd M orrell, J., Machining w ith N anom ate­ Shaw, M .C ., M etal Cutting Principles, 2nd ed., O x fo rd ,
rials, Springer, 2009. 2 0 05.
K om an du ri, R., Tool Materials, in Kirk–Othmer Encyclo­ Smith, G.T., Cutting Tool Technology: Industrial Handbook,
pedia of Chemical Technology, 4 th ed., Vol. 24, Springer, 20 08.
1997. T rent, E .M ., an d W right, P.K., Metal Cutting, 4 th ed.,
N a c h tm a n , E.S., a nd K alpakjian, S., Lubricants and Lubri­ B u tterw o rth -H einem an n, 2 0 00.
cation in Metalworking Operations, M arcel Dekker,
1985.

REVIEW Q U E S T IO N S

22.1 W h a t are the m a jo r properties req u ired o f cutting-tool 2 2 . 9 E xplain h o w cutting fluids penetrate the to o l-c h ip
m aterials? W hy? interface.
22.2 W h a t is the com position o f a typical carbide to o l ? 22.1 0 List the m e thods by w hich cutting fluids are typically
2 2 . 3 W h y w ere cutting-tool inserts developed? applied in m achining operations.
2 2 . 4 W h y are som e tools coated? W h a t are the co m m o n 2 2 . 11 Describe the advantages an d lim itations o f (a) single­
coating m aterials? crystal a n d (b) polycrystalline d ia m o n d tools.
2 2 . 5 E xplain the applications a n d lim itations o f ceram ic 2 2.12 W h a t is a cerm et? W h a t are its advantages?
tools. 2 2 . 13 E xplain the difference betw een M -series a n d T-series
22.6 List the m a jor functions o f cutting fluids. high-speed steels.
2 2 . 7 W hy is toughness im p o rta n t for cutting-tool m aterials? 2 2 . 1 4 W h y is cB N generally preferred over d ia m o n d for
2 2.8 Is the elastic m o d u lus im p o rta n t for cutting-tool m a te­ m achining steels?
rials? Explain. 2 2 . 1 5 W h a t are the advantages to dry machining?

Q U A L IT A T IV E PROBLEMS

2 2 . 16 E xplain w h y so m any different types o f cutting-tool 2 2 . 2 5 C an cu tting fluids have any adverse effects in m a ch in ­
m aterials have been developed over the years. W h y are they ing? If so, w h a t are they?
still being developed further? 2 2 . 2 6 Describe the tren ds you observe in Table 22.2.
2 2 . 1 7 W hich too l-m aterial properties are suitable fo r inter­ 2 2 . 2 7 W hy are chem ical stability an d inertness im p o rta n t in
ru p ted cutting operations? Why? cutting tools?
2 2 . 1 8 Describe the reasons for an d advantages o f coating 2 2 . 2 8 T itanium -nitride coatings o n tools reduce the coef­
c uttin g tools w ith m ultiple layers of different m aterials. ficient o f friction a t the too l–chip interface. W h a t is the
2 2 . 19 M a k e a list o f the alloying elements used in high-speed significance o f this property?
steels. E xplain w h a t their functions are an d w h y they are so 2 2 . 2 9 Describe the necessary conditions fo r o ptim al utiliza­
effective in cu tting tools. tio n o f the capabilities o f dia m o n d an d cu b ic-boron-nitride
22.20 As stated in Section 22 .1 , to o l m aterials can have cu tting tools.
conflicting properties w hen used fo r m achining operations. 2 2 . 3 0 N egative rak e angles generally are preferred for
Describe y o ur observations regarding this matter. ceram ic, d iam on d , a n d cubic-boron-nitride tools. W hy?
22.21 E xplain the econom ic im p act o f the tren d show n in 2 2 .3 1 D o you th in k th a t there is a relationship betw een the
Fig. 22.6. co st o f a cu tting to o l a nd its h o t hardness? Explain.
22.22 W h y does te m p erature have such an im p o rta n t effect 2 2 . 3 2 M ak e a survey o f the technical literature, an d give
o n to o l life? som e typical values o f cutting speeds for high-speed steel tools
2 2 . 2 3 C eram ic a n d cerm et cutting tools have certain a d v a n ­ a n d fo r a variety o f w orkpiece m aterials.
tages over carbide tools. Why, then, are they n o t com pletely 2 2 . 3 3 In Table 2 2 .1 , the last tw o p roperties listed can be
replacing carbide tools? im p o rta n t to the life o f a cutting tool. W hy?
2 2 . 2 4 W h a t precau tio ns w ould you take in m achining w ith 2 2 . 3 4 It has been stated th a t titanium -nitride coatings allow
brittle to o l m aterials, especially ceramics? Explain. cutting speeds an d feeds to be higher th a n tho se for unco ated
tools. Survey the technical literature an d p rep are a table (Hint: T em peratures rarely rise to 4 0 0 ° C in w o o dw o rkin g .)
show ing the percentage increase o f speeds a n d feeds th a t Explain.
w o u ld be m ad e possible by coating the tools. 2 2 . 3 9 W h a t are th e consequences o f a co atin g o n a to ol
2 2 . 3 5 N o te in Fig. 2 2.1 th a t all to o l m aterials, especially having a different coefficient of th e rm a l e x pansio n th a n the
carbides, have a w ide range o f hardnesses for a p articu lar sub strate m aterial?
tem perature. D escribe each o f th e factors th a t are responsible 2 2 .4 0 Discuss the relative ad v antages an d lim itations o f near-
for this w ide range. dry m achining. C onsider all relevant technical and econom ic
2 2 . 3 6 Referring to Table 2 2 .1 ,
state w hich to o l m a te ri­ aspects.
als w ou ld be suitable fo r in terru p ted cutting operations. 2 2 .4 1 Em ulsion cu tting fluids typically consist o f 9 5 % w a ter
Explain. an d 5 % soluble oil and chem ical additives. W hy is the ratio
2 2 . 3 7 W h ich o f the properties listed in Table 22.1 is, so unbalanced? Is the oil needed a t all?
in y o u r o pinion, th e least im p o rta n t in cutting tools? 2 2 .4 2 List an d explain the co nsideration s involved in deter­
Explain. m ining w h e th er a cu tting to o l sho u ld be reconditioned,
2 2 . 3 8 If a drill b it is intended only fo r w o o d w o rk in g a p p li­ recycled, o r discarded after use.
cations, w h a t m aterial is it m o st likely to be m ade from?

Q U A N T I T A T I V E PROBLEMS

2 2 . 4 3 Review the co ntents o f Table 22 .1 . P lot several curves 2 2 . 4 5 T h e first co lu m n in Table 2 2 .2 show s 10 properties
to sh o w relationships, if any, a m o n g param eters such as th a t are im p o rta n t to c u tting tools. F or each o f the to ol
hardness, transverse ru p tu re strength, an d im pact strength. m aterials listed in the table, a d d num erical d a ta fo r each of
C o m m en t on y o u r observations. these properties. D escribe y o u r observations, including any
2 2 .4 4 O b ta in d a ta o n the th erm al p roperties of various c o m ­ d ata th a t overlap.
m only used cutting fluids. Identify tho se w hich are basically
effective coolants (such as w ater-b ased fluids) a n d those
w hich are basically effective lubricants (such as oils).

S YNTH E SIS, DESIG N, A N D PROJECTS

2 2 .4 6 Describe in detail y o u r th o u g h ts regarding th e techn i­ an d developm ent is being carried o u t o n all these m a te ­
cal an d econom ic factors involved in to ol-m aterial selection. rials. Discuss w h y yo u th in k such studies are being
2 2 . 4 7 O ne o f the principal concerns w ith co olants is d eg ra­ conducted.
d atio n due to biological attac k by bacteria. To p rolo n g the 22 .5 1 A ssum e th a t y o u are in charge o f a la b o ra to ry for
life o f a co olant, chem ical biocides often are add ed , b u t these developing new o r im p ro ved cu ttin g fluids. O n the basis of
biocides greatly com plicate the disposal of the coolant. C o n ­ the topics presented in this c h ap ter an d in C h a p ter 2 1 , sug­
d uct a literature search concerning th e latest developm ents in gest a list o f topics for y o u r staff to investigate. E xplain w hy
the use o f environm entally benign biocides in c u tting fluids. y ou have chosen th o se topics.
2 2 .4 8 H o w w o u ld y ou go a b o u t m easuring the effectiveness 2 2 . 5 2 Tool life could be greatly increased if an effective
of cutting fluids? Describe y o u r m e th o d a nd explain any m eans o f cooling an d lub ricatio n w ere developed. Design
difficulties th a t y ou m igh t encounter. m e th o ds o f delivering a cu tting fluid to th e cu tting zone, an d
2 2 . 4 9 C o n tac t several different suppliers o f cu tting tools, o r discuss the advantages an d sho rtco m in gs o f y o u r design.
search their websites. M a k e a list o f th e costs o f typical cutting 2 2 . 5 3 List the concerns yo u w o u ld have if y o u needed
tools as a fu nction o f v ario u s sizes, shapes, an d features. to econom ically m achine carb o n-fib er reinforced polym ers
2 2 . 5 0 T here are several types o f cutting-tool m a terials avail­ o r m etal–m a trix com posites w ith g rap h ite fibers in an
able to da y for m ach in in g o p eration s, yet m uch research alu m inu m m atrix.