Methods of Data Processing in

Research
Data processing is concerned with editing, coding, classifying, tabulating and charting
and diagramming research data. The essence of data processing in research is data
reduction. Data reduction involves winnowing out the irrelevant from the relevant data
and establishing order from chaos and giving shape to a mass of data. Data processing
in research  consists of five important  steps. They are:

1. Editing of Data
Data have to be edited, especially when they relate to responses to open-ended
questions of interviews and questionnaires, or unstructured observations. In other
words, information that may have been noted down by the interviewer, observer, or
researcher in a hurry must be clearly deciphered so that it may be coded systematically
in its entirety. Lack of clarity at this stage will result later in confusion. The edited data
should be identifiable through the use of a different color pencil or ink so that original
information is still available in case of further doubts.

Incoming mailed questionnaire data have to be checked for incompleteness and

inconsistencies, if any, by designated members of research staff. Inconsistencies that can
be logically corrected should be rectified and edited at this stage.

2. Coding of Data
The next step is to code the responses. Scanner sheets can be used for
collecting questionnaire data; such sheets facilitate the entry of the responses directly
into the computer without manual keying in of the data. However, if for whatever reason
this cannot be done, then it is perhaps better to use a coding sheet first to transcribe
the data from the questionnaire and then key in the data. This method, in contrast to
flipping through each questionnaire for each item, avoids confusions, especially when
there are many questions and a large number of questionnaires as well.
 It is possible to key in the data directly from the questionnaires, but that would need
flipping through several questionnaires, page by page, resulting in possible errors and
omissions of items. Transfer of the data first onto a code sheet would thus help.

Human errors can occur while coding. At least 10% of the coded questionnaires should
therefore be checked for coding accuracy. Their selection may follow a systematic
sampling procedure. That is, every nth form coded could be verified for accuracy. If
many errors are found in the sample, all items may have to be checked.

4. Tabulation of Data
Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying it in compact form for
further analysis. Therefore, preparing tables is a very important step. Tabulation may be
by hand, mechanical, or electronic. The choice is made largely on the basis of the size
and type of study, alternative costs, time pressures, and the availability of computers,
and computer programmes. If the number of questionnaire is small, and their length
short, hand tabulation is quite satisfactory.

Table may be divided into: (i) Frequency tables, (ii) Response tables, (iii) Contingency
tables, (iv) Uni-variate tables, (v) Bi-variate tables, (vi) Statistical table and (vii) Time
series tables.

Generally a research table has the following parts: (a) table number, (b) title of the table,
(c) caption (d) stub (row heading), (e) body, (f) head note, (g) foot note.

As a general rule the following steps are necessary in the preparation of table:

1. Title of table: The table should be first given a brief, simple and clear title which may
express the basis of classification.
2. Columns and rows: Each table should be prepared in just adequate number of columns
and rows.
3. Captions and stubs: The columns and rows should be given simple and clear captions
and stubs.
4. Ruling: Columns and rows should be divided by means of thin or thick rulings.
5. Arrangement of items; Comparable figures should be arranged side by side.
6. Deviations: These should be arranged in the column near the original data so that their
presence may easily be noted.
7. Size of columns: This should be according to the requirement.
8. Arrangements of items: This should be according to the problem.
9. Special emphasis: This can be done by writing important data in bold or special letters.
10. Unit of measurement: The unit should be noted below the lines.
11. Approximation: This should also be noted below the title.
12. Foot – notes: These may be given below the table.
13. Total: Totals of each column and grand total should be in one line.
14. Source : Source of data must be given. For primary data, write primary data.

It is always necessary to present facts in tabular form if they can be presented more
simply in the body of the text. Tabular presentation enables the reader to follow quickly
than textual presentation. A table should not merely repeat information covered in the
text. The same information should not, of course be presented in tabular form and
graphical form. Smaller and simpler tables may be presented in the text while the large
and complex table may be placed at the end of the chapter or report.

5. Report Writing
Report writing is a formal style of writing elaborately on a topic. The tone of a report is
always formal. The audience it is meant for is always thought out section. For example – report
writing about a school event, report writing about a business case, etc.

A research report is a well-crafted document that outlines the processes, data, and findings of a
systematic investigation. In many ways, a research report can be considered as a summary of
the research process that clearly highlights findings, recommendations, and other important
details. Reading a well-written research report should provide you with all the information you
need about the core areas of the research process.

Features of a Research Report 

 It is a detailed presentation of research processes and findings, and it usually
includes tables and graphs. 

 It is written in a formal language.

 A research report is usually written in the third person.

 It is informative and based on first-hand verifiable information.

 It is formally structured with headings, sections, and bullet points.

  It always includes recommendations for future actions. 

Importance of a Research Report 

 Knowledge Transfer: As already stated above, one of the reasons for
carrying out research is to contribute to the existing body of knowledge,
and this is made possible with a research report. A research report serves
as a means to effectively communicate the findings of a systematic
investigation to all and sundry.  

 Identification of Knowledge Gaps: With a research report, you'd be able to

identify knowledge gaps for further inquiry. A research report shows what
has been done while hinting at other areas needing systematic
investigation. 

 In market research, a research report would help you understand the

market needs and peculiarities at a glance. 

 A research report allows you to present information in a precise and

concise manner. 

Guide to Writing a Research Report

 Title : Your title should be concise and point to the aims, objectives, and findings of a
research report. 
 Table of Contents: This is like a compass that makes it easier for readers to
navigate the research report.
 Abstract: An abstract is an overview that highlights all important aspects of the
research including the research method, data collection process, and research
findings. The focus of your research abstract should be the 5Ws and 1H format – What,
Where, Why, When, Who and How. 
 Introduction: When writing the report introduction, it is also essential to indicate
whether the purposes of the research were achieved or would require more work.In the
introduction section, the researcher specifies the research problem and also outlines
the significance of the systematic investigation.
 Literature Review: A literature review is a written survey of existing knowledge in
the field of study. In other words, it is the section where you provide an overview and
analysis of different research works that are relevant to your systematic investigation.
 Findings: In this section, you are expected to present the results of the systematic
investigation. 

 Discussion: This section further explains the findings of the research, earlier outlined.
Here, you are expected to present a justification for each outcome and show whether
the results are in line with your hypotheses or if other research studies have come up
with similar results.

 Conclusions: This is a summary of all the information in the report. It also outlines
the significance of the entire study. 

 References and Appendices: This section contains a list of all the primary and
secondary research sources.