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THE
SYMBOL
DETECTIVE
HOWTO DECIPHER MYSTICAL MOTIFS
AND KNOW WHERE TO FINDTHEM
 Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2017 with funding from
Kahle/Austin Foundation

https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781844836178
 SYMBOL
DETECTIVE
HOWTO DECIPHER MYSTICAL MOTIFS
—AND KNOW WHERE TO FIND THEM

TONY ALLAN

DUNCAN BAIRD PUBLISHERS

LONDON

SAN BRUNO PUBLIC LIBRARY

 The Symbol Detective
Tony Allan

Distributed in the USA and Canada by

Sterling Publishing Co., Inc.
387 Park Avenue South
New York, NY 10016-8810

This edition first published in the UK and USA in 2008 by

Duncan Baird Publishers Ltd.
Sixth Floor, Castle House
75-76 Wells Street
London WIT 3QH

Copyright © Duncan Baird Publishers 2008

Text copyright ©Tony Allan 2008
For copyright of photographs see page 1 60, which is

to be regarded as an extension of this copyright

The right of Tony Allan to be identified as the Author of this text has been
asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act of 1 988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any
electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems,
without permission in writing from the publisher, except by a reviewer
who may quote brief passages in a review.

Managing Editor: Christopher Westhorp

Managing Designer: Daniel Sturges
Editor: James Hodgson
Picture Researcher: Susannah Stone

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data available

ISBN- 1 3: 978- -84483-6 7-8

1 1 ISBN- 1 0: I -84483-6 7-7 1

13 5 79 10 8 6 4 2

Typeset in Gill Sans

Color reproduction by Colourscan, Singapore
Printed in China by SNP Leefung Printers Limited

For information about custom editions, special sales, premium and corporate purchases, please
contact Sterling Special Sales Department at 800-805-5489 or [email protected].

Notes:
Abbreviations used throughout this book:
bce Before the Common Era (the equivalent of bc)
ce Common Era (the equivalent of ad)
 0 4

CONTENTS
Introduction 6

o
PART ONE: PART TWO:
©
TYPES OF SYMBOL BELIEF SYSTEMS
Fraternal Societies

Religions and Secretive Cults

Patterns and Shapes 1 Ancient Civilizations 80 Gnostics and Cathars I 30

The Human Body I 6 The Classical World 86 Knights Hospitaller

Cosmic Elements 22 Hinduism 92 and Templar 134

Natural Features 26 Buddhism 98 Alchemy 138

Structures 28 Jainism 104 Rosicrucianism and

Trees and Shrubs 32 Sikhism 106 Hermeticism 1 42

Flowers and Plants 36 Confucianism and Taoism 108 Freemasonry 146

Fruits 42 Shintoism I I 2 Wicca and Neo-Paganism I 50

Land Creatures 44 Judaism I 1

Reptiles and Insects 50 Christianity I I 8

Creatures of the Air 54 Islam 124

Water Creatures 60 Baha'ism 128

Stones and Minerals 62

Implements 64

Weapons 68 Further Reading 154

Emblems of Authority 70 Index 156

Light and Fire 74 Acknowledgments and

Time and Death 76 Picture Credits I 60
 INTRODUCTION
Symbols are a hidden language, working not by direct reference but

rather by a subtle process of allusion. Understanding them properly

sometimes requires background knowledge stretching across cultures

and centuries, for they may draw on stories and traditions whose

origins range back into the mists of time. Tracking them to their

sources requires careful detective work, and this book sets out to

serve as a guide.

Sometimes, of course, a symbol can be so familiar that the

meaning is plain for all to see. There is nothing uncertain, for example,

about the significance of the Stars and Stripes flag or the images

on motorw/ay signs or airport information panels. Yet behind these

instantly recognizable images lies a hinterland of more mysterious

signs and signals whose full purport is not always obvious, even when
the general drift is acknowledged as a matter of convention.

These more obscure symbols are the subjects of this book, which
sets out to untangle some of their unexpected connotations and

connections. What links owls with wisdom, for example, or olive

branches with peace? Why was a small animal often sent over a

newly built bridge before any human would dare use it? As the world
of myth, legend and folklore that nany symbols reference recedes

further into the past, they increasingly need explanation to spell out

their secret meanings.

Most of the symbols in this book imply their message rather than
stating it directly. Generally they tend to suggest interpretations,

based on hints and associations, rather than insisting on them

unambiguously. Sometimes the people who first used them had

good reason for choosing clandestinity over clarity. For example, the
 INTRODUCTION 7

early Christians who drew fish designs on the walls of the Roman
catacombs faced brutal persecution if they openly avowed the beliefs

that the image symbolized.

To tease out the associations of the world’s better-known symbols,

this book divides into two principal parts. The first addresses the

different types of symbol, broken down by their sources, say in

abstract patterns and shapes or in the natural world. It also covers

some major fields of symbolism, such as light and fire, and time and

death. Many of the individual emblems covered are cross-referenced

in the book's second part, which examines the use of symbols in the

world’s religions and belief systems, traditionally the most widespread

and prolific users of symbolic imagery to convey key elements of their

ideology and doctrines. This is the section to consult to find out why
ancient Egyptians viewed the humble dung beetle as a solar symbol,

to learn about the Gnostic origins of the incantation “abracadabra",

or to check out the Vel of Murugan and discover why it is worshipped

in temples in southern India.

The book, then, is organized as a user’s manual. Anyone seeking

to understand the basic outward emblems of, say, Jainism or the

Rosicrucian order can seek out the information in the latter part

of the book. To learn more about the significance of the Rosy Cross

that gave the latter movement its name, they can then turn to entries

respectively on the Rose and the Cross in the earlier section, where

they will find further material on the wider associations of each

symbolic object.

This book is a wide-ranging introduction to an endlessly fascinating

world of hidden meanings. It seeks to entertain and to inform, and

in so doing to cast an often unexpected light on details of the world

around us as we experience it from day to day.

 o
PART ONE

TYPES OF SYMBOL

Symbols divide between abstract and physical.

All language, for instance, falls in the first

category. Others, though, have a concrete

reality over and above the concept they stand

for - a flaming torch rpay be just that unless

,
the occasion is the Olympic Games, when it

represents the Olympic spirit. In this way many

objects take on secondary meanings that can

vary in different settings. This section of the

book examines some common groupings.

 10 TYPES OF SYMBOL

PATTERNS AND SHAPES

Basic building-blocks of meaning

Almost every shape known to humankind has some symbolic

significance, from the dot (the still point of origin and regression)

through the square (four-sided, solid, balanced) to the mystic circle,

unbroken and suggestive of the infinite and the universal.The numbers

are almost limitless: one scholar claims to have collected 60,000 signs

and marks from all the world's cultures. Ways of organizing space,

patterns and shapes can draw on subconscious mental responses

to convey meaning. Thus, a fon//ard-pointing triangle becomes an

arrowhead suggesting direction and onward motion. Yet, purely

abstract concepts can also be expressed - witness the mathematical

symbol for infinity orthe familiar Chinese yin-yang mark. Consequently,

patterns and shapes have always figured strongly in religious imagery,

EYEOF and also in such fields as astrology and magic.

PROVIDENCE
Enclosed in

a triangle,
Circle
connoting the The circle always had cosmic significance. Early sky-gazers observed
Christian Trinity,
not only the Sun and the full Moon, but noted the rotation of the
the all-seeing
eye features planets. These early astronomers visualized the universe itself as a

in Mormon series of flat discs or as a sphere. Having no beginning or end, the

and Masonic
circle also came to stand for completeness, perfection and eternity.
imagery as well

as appearing Then again, all points on its circumference are equidistant from its

on US dollar centre, suggesting equality and a lack of hierarchy, as in King Arthur’s

bills and the US
Great Seal (see
Round Table, as well as inclusion and protection (see box, opposite).

page 148). All these varied qualities helped early on to lend the circle a mystical

aura. Folklore had its fairy rings, Neolithic art its mysterious cup

and ring markings. Stupas - Buddhist shrines - are circular in cross-

 PATTERNS AND SHAPES

section, and the faithful circumambulate them as an act of worship.

Interlocking circles are a symbol of union, as in the Olympic logo.

Triangle
An equilateral triangle conveys the coming
together of three equal parts, a quality that

led to its use as a symbol of the Christian

Trinity. Other religions too developed a

tripartite concept of godhead, often featuring

three separate deities. The Hindu trimurti combined Brahma, Vishnu

and Shiva, bringing together the figures of creator, preserver and

destroyer, sometimes represented as a single being with three heads.

Later Zoroastrian tradition also recognized three divinities as ahuras,

gods worthy of worship, while modern Wiccans venerate a triple

\
THE HELM OF AWE
Incorporating crosses, a circle - or themselves with the device as part of

cosmic wheel - and forks, the Norse a cult of invincibility before going into

motif known as the “helm of awe”, or battle, displaying it either on their

aejilshir, also invoked qualities helmets or their foreheads.

associated with the numbers In Wagner’s Ring cycle, the

three, four and eight. The magic helmet Tarnhelm

aejilshir was mentioned in was derived from the

the Icelandic Eddas as a aejilshir. Norse myth

symbol that protected the related how this symbol

wearer and induced fear in belonged to Odin, and there

the viewer. In Germanic art the motif was another tale explaining how
was depicted as an eight-pointed star. Loki stole it from the treasure hoard

In both regions, warriors adorned guarded by the dragon Fafnir.

V J
 12 TYPES OF SYMBOL

goddess, sometimes interpreted as incorporating in herself three

aspects of womanhood: maiden, mother and crone. Reversed, the

triangle recalls the pudenda, often serving as a female symbol.

In general, the triangle's religious symbolism emphasized stability

MALTESE and balance. Yet, by a visual pun, the shape could also resemble an
CROSS arrowhead, suggesting movement. The Viking valknut or walknot,
Formed of four
arrowheads incorporating three linked triangles (see illustration, page I I), seems
joined at to have drawn on this imagery to denote Odin’s power to release
their tips, this
warriors' spirits. Upward- and downward-pointing triangles were the
symbol was
the emblem alchemical symbols for, respectively, fire and water.
of the Knights
Hospitallers,

later known
Cross
as

the Knights of Ubiquitous as a Christian symbol, the cross began life much earlier as

Malta.
a sign denoting quartets: the four winds, the phases of the Moon, the
points of the compass. Cross shapes appear on megalithic monuments
(the intersecting lines providing four points of direction). While

Christianity drew on the cross as an instrument of torture and death,

another tradition linked it to theWorldTree orTree of Life connecting

Earth and Heaven. Crosses could also symbolize conjunction or

coming together. Chinese symbolism saw five elements in a cross,

SQUARE counting the centre point as a position of power. Similarly, folk tradition

Each of the
around the world accorded magical significance to the crossroads,
intersecting

woodpecker’s invariably a place of evil omen. In the Classical world crossroads were

heads on this the haunts of Hecate, an underworld goddess who wandered at night
Mississippian
accompanied by ghosts, demons and howling dogs.
gorget
represents
a cosmic Square
direction.
The symbol systems of India and China, two of humankind's most

venerable cultures, both used the square as the sign for the Earth.
 PATTERNS AND SHAPES

It symbolized permanence, balance, solidity and rationally organized

space. Today, city planners with a taste for order often conceive new
towns in terms of square blocks and right-angle junctions, emphasizing

the rational over the accidental or natural in the communities they

build. By a logical extension, squareness is also associated with moral

rectitude in such phrases as “a square deal".

Cube
A square in three dimensions, the cube represents the

same principles as the square to an even greater

degree. Its six faces are identical; when they

cease to be so through the addition of

different numbers of dots, the cube becomes

a die, a symbol of random chance. The cube
also features as an emblem of centrality,

notably in one of the world’s most famously

symbolic structures - the Kaaba in Mecca,

focal point of the Muslim world.

Pentagram
The pentagram may have originally acquired its reputation from

astronomy: seen from Earth, Venus appears to move around the

zodiac in a pentangle shape every eight years. The connection with

Venus dates back at least to Babylonian times, when the pentagram

was associated with Ishtar, who manifested herself in the planet.

Pythagoreans called the pentagram hygieia, the name also given

to the goddess of health, and saw it as a symbol of mathematical

perfection. Their followers identified the five points with the elements

water, earth, air, fire and spirit. Cornelius Agrippa and other European
 14 TYPES OF SYMBOL

occultists revived that connection in early Renaissance times, paving

the way for the symbol in modern magick. While Christians saw it

as a protection against Satan and the evil eye, Satanists adopted a

BIRDMAN version with two points facing up and a goat’s head inscribed within
An image of Baphomet, a powerful maleficent force. More recently
as the Sigil
from Easter
Island shows Wiccans and some Neo-Pagans have chosen a more beneficent form,
a birdman with a single point in the ascendant, as a common symbol.
cradling an

egg. The figure

relates to an Hexagram
annual contest Formed of two interlocking equilateral triangles, one pointing up and
to fetch the
the other down, the hexagram is best known as the Jewish Star of
first seabird's

egg of the
year from
an offshore f
islet. The THE INFINITE
winner was
Early cultures had difficulty coming “I am Alpha and Omega” (letters,
crowned as
to terms with the notion of infinity; centre) to indicate the totality of His
Tangata manu
(Birdman). the Chinese for one tended to creation. Others, more prosaically,

circumvent the problem have suggested that it was

A
by using “10,000” or some a matter of convenience: in

other very large number the days when typesetting

in its place. The man who was done by hand, the

devised the symbol (°°) now character could easily be

used to denote the concept composed by placing an

was a 17th-century English “8” on its side. A third

mathematician named John possibility is suggested

Wallis. Some authorities by the word “lemniscate”

speculate that he derived that is sometimes used for
it from the letter w (omega), the the symbol; lemniscus was Latin for

last in the Greek alphabet; in the “ribbon”, and the figure suggests an

biblical Book of Revelation, God says endless band.

V J
 PATTERNS AND SHAPES

David, but it also appears decoratively in Muslim, Hindu and Buddhist

contexts. Occultists used it as a talisman and to conjure spirits.

Egg
An obvious symbol of gestation and birth, an egg featured in many
creation myths in the form of the Cosmic or World Egg. Eggs can also

suggest rebirth, as in the Orphic mystery religion or the Christian

habit of giving Easter eggs at the season of Christ's resurrection.

Wheel
As an image of perpetual motion, the wheel has widely different

associations in different cultural contexts. The Romans

linked it with Fortuna, the blindfolded goddess of

fate, creating the image of the ever-turning Wheel

of Fortune. Buddhists saw in it the Wheel of

Destiny, rolling through the eternal cycle of

birth, death and rebirth. Another tradition

viewed it as an instrument of punishment: in

Greek myth Ixion was condemned by Jove for

lusting after Hera to spend eternity turning on a

wheel of fire, and in Christian tradition St Catherine

of Alexandria narrowly avoided a similar fate, subsequently

lending her name to the familiar “Catherine wheel'' firework.

Spiral

Spiral motifs appear around the world as a decorative feature. They

are particularly associated with Celtic art, famously appearing on the

entrance slab of the Newgrange burial complex in Ireland. They also

show up in Polynesian designs, especially tattoos (see page 21).

 16 TYPES OF SYMBOL

THE HUMAN BODY

Images of the individual's potential

By a natural process of association, parts of the human body came

to symbolize the functions most commonly linked with them.

So an open mouth could stand for speech or for hunger,

an eye for sight and, by extension, inner vision. Other

connotations were more mysterious, such as the

longstanding association of long hair with strength as

reflected in the Sikh refusal to trim hair or beard or

the biblical story of Samson. The body as a whole could

carry a significance of its own. Leonardo daVinci's famous

sketch of Vitruvian Man encased within a square and a

PROPORTION circle came to represent not just the Quattrocento obsession

Leonardo da
with proportion but also the sense of possibility contained within the
Vinci drew
the original
concept of Renaissance Man itself. In other contexts, nakedness could

Vitruvian Man imply either of the extremes of carnality or radical innocence.

symbol, seeking
to illustrate a
suggestion by Nudity
the Roman A symbol of primeval innocence in the Garden of Eden story,
architect
nakedness was subsequently adopted by sects like the Adamites
Vitruvius that

perfect human and Dukhobors seeking to regain that state. Wiccans who perform
proportions quest of a closer communion
their rituals skyclad are generally in
corresponded
to unchanging
with nature. The sense of “natural" or "unadorned" also underlies

geometric laws. such phrases as "the naked eye" or "the naked truth". Yet, through its

power to shock, nakedness can also be a form of power.The Roman

author Pliny the Elder reported that a woman could drive away

storms by uncovering herself, and in southern India farmers used to

stand naked on drainage dykes and beat drums to stop the rain.
 THE HUMAN BODY

Head
A symbol for the rational mind, as in phrases such as “to keep (or

lose) one's head", the head could also stand as a microcosm for the

individual as a whole. Headhunters decapitated enemies to capture

their vital essence.

Hair
When the Sikh Khalsa brotherhood vow not to cut off their hair or

beard, they are making a statement about strength and masculinity.

Yet long hair can equally well be symbolic of rebellion and freedom

from convention, as it was for the “hippies" in the 1960s. In

f \
THE POT-BELLIED GOD
A pot belly was seen in many historic Budai and is often called the Laughing

cultures as a sign of good living. This Buddha. Everywhere he is associated

was nowhere more true than in the with plenty and contentment - traits

figure of Hotei, the most popular of symbolized by his protruding belly. A

Japan’s Seven Gods of Good Fortune. folk tradition persists that rubbing

Hotei was in fact a Japanese version the stomach of a statue of the god

of a character venerated across brings good luck.

much of East Asia, by Buddhists

and Taoists as well as by followers

of the Shinto religion. He seems to

have originated in India as a monk

who attained enlightenment for

his good deeds - specifically,

catching venomous snakes

to stop them biting passers-

by. In China he is known as

V
 18 TYPES OF SYMBOL

contrast, a shaved head is in several religions a sign of humility and

renunciation of worldliness. When enforced by others, as on criminals

or women collaborators in occupied Europe at the end of World

War II, it becomes rather a mark of humiliation. Tearing one's hair

TRISKELION was a traditional mark of mourning in the Middle East; scalping, like

From the
headhunting, was a way of removing an enemy’s potency.
Greek for

“three-legged”
- as in the Eye
three-legged
One of the most ancient ocular symbols was the Eye of Horus (see
tables crafted

by Hephaestos opposite) from ancient Egypt. Originally the all-seeing Eye of Ra,
and mentioned the sun god, the image was transferred to the falcon god Horus
in the Iliad

- this leg motif

is a regional

symbol in Sicily,
HAND
Brittany and
the Isle of Man. Endlessly useful and multi-functional, becomes the hamsa warding off the
It also exists in
the hand - together with speech Evil Eye (see page 126). In contrast,
a spiral variant
- is probably the evolutionary a hand raised in blessing
which has solar
adaptation that does most suggests the transfer
associations

(see pages to distinguish humankind of spiritual energy, for

150-151). from the quadrupeds. example in the Christian

Unsurprisingly, then, tradition of laying on hands.

it generally serves Some similar hand signals

as an image of power. can have very different

A raised fist can be meanings: two fingers

a symbol of brute raised with the palm

force, as in the Nazi turned out constitutes

salute. An outstretched Sir Winston Churchill’s

palm generally signifies famous “V for victory”, but

interdiction, unless there is an with knuckles foremost the digits

eye inscribed in it, in which case it form a gesture of bitter abuse.

 THE HUMAN BODY

as he rose in popularity up the Egyptian pantheon. A sign of divine

omniscience and protection, it was used in mummification rites to

promote rebirth under the god's supportive aegis.

The Third Eye of later traditions

was an organ of spiritual perception,

that denoted special insight. For

Muslims it represented clairvoyance

and knowledge of the future, for

Buddhists powers of meditation and

a deep understanding of dharma and

the four noble truths. For Hindus it

was the brow chakra (energy point), the eye of knowledge whose
possession was indicated by a mark on the forehead of yogis and

sages.

Yet eyes were not always beneficent. In North Africa and the Near
East people feared the Evil Eye, representing the gaze of jealousy and

malice, and took elaborate precautions to avert its invidious influence

(see box, opposite).

Nose
Symbolizing the sense of smell just as the eye represented vision,

the nose was also for peoples around the world a dangerous orifice

through which the soul might takes its leave or evil spirits could

enter. In ancient times corpses of Chinese noblemen had the noses

plugged with jade.

Beard
In the ancient Middle East, beards were symbols of authority and

dignity. Egypt's rare female pharaohs were sometimes portrayed

 20 TYPES OF SYMBOL

with false beards to emphasize their claim to royal title. In Muslim

lands swearing by one’s beard was once a mark of good faith, while

plucking another man's beard was a deadly insult.

SMILEY FACE
The smiley-face
Breast
icon was first

popularized
As with a woman’s womb, represented by a swollen stomach, breasts

in the 1 970s were an obvious emblem of fecundity, most notably in statues of

as a means of
100-breasted Artemis, the Earth Mother figure of ancient Ephesus.
selling novelty
items. Modern- In Classical myth, milk from the breast of the goddess Hera was
day texting has said to have formed the Milky Way, when she was suckling the
led to a rise in
infant Herakles and he pulled on the nipple too hard. Roman legend
similar-looking

emoticons. told of the women of defeated cities exposing their breasts to the

conquerors as a plea for compassion and mercy.

Feet
Bare feet have long been a sign of poverty and humility. In the

Middle Ages, the excommunicated Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV

is said to have gone to Canossa barefoot in 1 077 to beg forgiveness

of Pope Gregory VII at the height of the Investiture Contest. Jesus

similarly displayed humbleness by washing the feet of his disciples.

HAIR In a very different spirit, defeated warriors might cast themselves at

Long hair
the feet of the victors, seeking mercy. In many traditions footprints
was prized
by Native
had magical significance; some African peoples would even sweep the
American ground behind them lest the ground they trod on might be used by
warriors
enemies for hostile magic. A foot-shaped indentation in a rock on the
and, at times,

ancient summit of Samanala, or Adam’s Peak, a sacred mountain on Sri Lanka,

Greeks, such has been variously interpreted by Hindus as the footprint of Shiva,
as Alexander
by Buddhists the Buddha's, and by Christians and Muslims as that of
(above).
Adam the first man.
 THE HUMAN BODY

Heart
Ubiquitous on Valentine cards in the West as

a symbol of sentimental love, the heart also

plays a part in Christian iconography as the

sacred heart of Jesus (representing Christ's

redeeming love), as shown in a vision to a

17th-century French nun, Sister Margaret Marie

Alacoque. A flaming heart is a symbol of charity.

Another tradition associates the heart with courage - British sailors

were traditionally said to have “hearts of oak” - or with innermost

truth, as in the phrases “at heart” or “to take to heart”. In similar vein,

the French scientist and philosopher Blaise Pascal wrote in his Pensees

that: “The heart has its reasons of which reason knows nothing.”

More sinisterly, the Aztec belief that the Sun needed human blood
to sustain it led their priests to rip out the hearts of an estimated

20,000 sacrificial victims annually, offering them as tokens to the gods.

r \
TATTOOS

The decoration of human skin is an tradition of body art, using the marks

ancient practice. The “Iceman”, from as signs of social status. The moko
about 3300bce, found in the Alps in spiral facial tattoos of the Maori

1991, had 57 separate tattoos. The were fertility symbols, linked to the

corpse of a Scythian chief that was unfolding of fern fronds. Tattoos

unearthed in the Altai mountains of generally were seen as enhancements,

southern Russia in the 1920s was advertising the courage of warriors

covered with elaborate designs of or the beauty of maidens. They are

beasts. The New Zealand Maori and still used today to display messages

other Oceanian peoples have a long about an individual’s identity.

V
22 TYPES OF SYMBOL

COSMIC ELEMENTS
Signs in the sky

The sky and the elemental forces of nature lay so far outside most

early peoples' frame of reference that they were instinctively assigned

to the realm of the gods and spirits. So lightning was a weapon hurled

from the hand of Zeus or Thor, thunder the rumble of a divine

chariot careering through the heavens. Sun and Moon and stars were
all visible emblems of godhead. In symbolic terms all the celestial

features, from the planets and comets to rainbows and the wind,

always retained something of the atavistic power they had before

r T
MISSISSIPPIAN SPIDER GORGET
Celebrated by the Navajo as the The mound culture of the

deity who gave them the gift of American southeast identified the

weaving. Spider Woman is but one spider with the Sun and often used

manifestation in the Americas - from it as a decorative motif. Native

the Mississippians of Cahokia to American Mississippian myth claimed

the Moche of Peru - of a popular that the spider brought fire to

reverence for this silk-producing humankind and this connection was

arachnid. The spider and its evoked in Hopewell culture shell

:l ~
web, seemingly so frag gorgets (ca. I 00 bce-500ce)

yet so strong, made with a rayed design

the creature a - and sometimes

popular talisman a cross, for four

for those seeking cosmic directions

protection from the - to replicate the

destructive power Sun’s rays and the

of the elements. flames of a fire (left).

V. J
 COSMIC ELEMENTS

modern science successfully explained them. Stars remained guiding

lights or images of unattainable yearning, the rain the divine life-force

- even, as some Gnostics believed, the semen of angels.

Sun
The Sun’s primacy in the heavens inevitably made it a symbol of

power, whether divine or terrestrial. Many religions gave the sun god

5 of place - examples include the Babylonian Shamash,

he Persian Mithra and the late Roman cult of Sol Invicta.

The first monotheistic cult was that of the aten or

solar disk in ancient Egypt. In times of the divine right

of kings, obvious parallels were also drawn between

the sun’s splendour and that of earthly monarchs.

“Heaven cannot support two suns, nor Earth two

masters", Alexander the Great is said to have exclaimed

to emissaries of the Persian emperor Darius, making the comparison

explicit. Few people took the solar connection more seriously than

the Inca of Peru, who traced their ruler’s descent to the Sun and

ritually celebrated the link in daily ceremonies. In Europe, France had

its own Sun King, Louis XIV, as recently as the I 7th century.

Moon
Seen in ancient times as the Sun’s celestial consort, the Moon tended
to be viewed as female, the Queen of the Heavens - a link reinforced

by the coincidence that the duration of the

female menstrual cycle approximates to a

lunar month. The unblemished splendour

of the full moon, at least as seen with the

naked eye, led Buddhists to view it as a

 24 TYPES OF SYMBOL

symbol of perfection, while its somewhat chilly purity also led to an

association with chastity - Rome’s moon goddess, for example, was

the virginal huntress Diana. A similar line of thought made the Moon
an emblem of unattainability.

HEPTAGRAM The Moon has also always been emblematic of transience because
The seven-
of the endlessly repeated lunar cycle, from new to full and back. One
pointed star
was a symbol phase that attracted particular attention was the crescent, which
in the Kabbalah, alchemists used to symbolize the metal silver (gold was represented
and later used
by the Sun). In more recent times the crescent has been identified
by the cult
Ordo Templi with Islam, though only through a distant historical accident - Muslims
Orientis. In
acquired it from the Ottomans, who had inherited it from Christian
Christianity it

Constantinople, whose emblem it had been since Classical times.

symbolized the
seven days
of creation
Thunder
and was used
popularly to
Thunder and lightning were hugely important to
ward off evil. early cultures, which generally interpreted them
In the modern
as signs of divine wrath. Symbolically they were
USA the
emblem forms associated with superhuman powers, along
part of the with the thunderbolts supposedly hurled
police badge
by the gods in the course of storms. The
of the Navajo
nation. Hebrew God spoke to Moses in thunder
when he gave him the Ten Commandments;
Roman Jupiter was portrayed holding

thunderbolts in his right hand, while the

missiles were also the favoured weapon

of the Norse god Thor. To Buddhists, the

pronged thunderbolt, or vajra (right), is an

emblem of the indestructibility of the final state

of reality, known as sunyata.

 COSMIC ELEMENTS

Star
Star-watching is an ancient activity, along with

the conviction that what happens in the heavens

affects lives on Earth. In fact, most attention was

always paid to the moving bodies - Sun and

Moon along with the five planets known to the

early world (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and

Saturn). While many cultures personified the five as gods - today

they still bear the names of the associated Roman divinities - other

peoples linked them with the souls of the dead. Algonquian peoples

of North America referred to the stars as “grandfathers”, and some

early cultures claimed the Milky Way marked the path to Heaven.

Comet
Like other dramatic celestial phenomena, comets were traditionally

seen as ominous, foretelling great events. Halley’s Comet appeared in

the BayeuxTapestry as a portent of the Norman Conquest of Britain,

while many scholars have suggested that the Star of Bethlehem might

actually have been a comet. Early peoples tended to conceptualize

comets in animal form as serpents or dragons.

Clouds
Most fundamentally, clouds were linked with rain and hence agricultural

fertility. Yet in lands that had enough rainfall, they became symbols of

sadness. Their serene position in the sky connected them to Heaven;

the Pueblo people of southwestern USA, for instance, associated the

Shiwanna or Cloud People with the spirits of the dead. Yet they also

represented unreality; people still talk of an individual having his “head

in the clouds” or dismiss dreamers as “living in Cloud-Cuckoo-Land”.

 26 TYPES OF SYMBOL

NATURAL FEATURES
A geography of the mind

Even though they are more accessible than their cosmic counterparts,

natural features such as mountains, caverns and the sea also often

stood for concepts on a more-than-human scale. Mountains were the

homes of gods, as in ancient Greece; in China, emperors made regular

pilgrimages up the sacred slopes of Taoism, notably Taishan. Caves

were places of origin, for South American peoples the access points

through which successive reincarnations of humankind emerged into

the outer world. As for the sea, it was, like the sky, an image of nirvana ,

the collective unconscious or world-soul, everything that dwarfed

the individual human ego. As the French poet Arthur Rimbaud put
it in A Season in Hell: “Elle est retrouveel/Quoi? I'eternite./C’est la

WAVES mer melee/Au soleil" (“It is found againl/What? Eternity./lt is the Sun/
The seigaiha 1

Joined with the sea ').

is a traditional

Japanese
pattern of Sea
stacked waves
The source of life in many creation myths, the sea was also long a
redolent of the
rippling sea. symbol of eternity - the destination of all souls, just as all rivers run

into the sea. Yet the embracing ocean waters were also home to

storms and monsters - an image of the unconscious mind. Seemingly

endless and unchanging yet also unpredictable and violent, the sea

contained multitudinous contradictions, an emblem of primeval

Chaos yet ultimately a place of rest.

Islands

From time immemorial people projected images of the happiness

they sought somewhere beyond the horizon onto islands. Classical
 NATURAL FEATURES

geographers spoke of the Fortunate Islands located in the Western

Ocean, perhaps picking up the idea from Celtic legends of the Islands

of the Blessed. St Brendan set off in search of them in the 6th century

ce; accounts of his voyage seem quickly to have been confounded

with the myth of Tir-na-Nog, the Land of Youth where sickness

and ageing were unknown. Curiously, the Chinese had similar stories,

in their case located in the east.The First Emperor, Shi Huangdi, sent

an expedition in search of Penglai, the Island of the Immortals, in

the 3rd century bce, hoping to find the Elixir of Life; none of the
hundreds of young men and women dispatched on the ships was

ever seen again.

r A
SACRED MOUNTAINS

Distant, ancient and r to have been a mountain,

mountain peaks were surrounded by a vast

by many early cultu ocean, and peaks are

as the home of the venerated by both

gods. The Greeks Chinese Taoists

had Mt. Olympus; and Buddhists, who

Moses went up identify a group

Sinai to receive t of five and one

Ten Commandment of four sacred

Hindu cosmology mac mountains respectively. The Chinese

Mt. Meru the centre of word for pilgrimage is a contraction

the universe and the dwelling-place of “respecting a holy mountain”.

of Brahma and other deities. The This calligraphic symbol (above)

closely allied Sumeru occupied a represents the word “immortal” and

similar position in Buddhist thought. it includes the Chinese characters

In China the first land was thought for man (left) and mountain (right).

V. J
 28 TYPES OF SYMBOL

STRUCTURES
Towers of strength and stairways to Heaven

A farming people, the ancient Chinese had a symbolic ideogram for

“home” - a pig under a roof. Among structures themselves, however,

the ones carrying the richest associative meanings tended to be those

built for non-practical purposes: obelisks, labyrinths, pyramids, stupas.

ZIGGURAT Such edifices were in many cases conceived as concrete expressions

The stepped - the Cosmos, for
of abstract ideas as stylized representations of
temples of
Mesopotamia instance, or as pointers directing the eyes heavenward. By a process

were, like the of reinforcement, they themselves sometimes came to stand for the
pyramids of
Egypt, artificial

mountains,
designed to LABYRINTHS
raise the eye
and the mind Myth records that the original The adjective “labyrinthine”,
toward the Labyrinth was built in ancient Crete denoting endless complexity, suggests
numinous
to house the Minotaur, half man, half why labyrinths have come to be seen
heavens.
bull and cannibalistic in its appetites. as symbols of the unconscious mind;

Taking its name from the journey through them

the labrys or double- becomes analogous to

headed axe that was the psychoanalytical

emblematic of the quest for self-discovery.

Minoan civilization, it The idea of an

may actually reflect inner, spiritual journey

later Greek memories explains why ground-

of the island’s bull cult, pavement labyrinths exist

honoured in the dangerous in some medieval Gothic

sport of bull-leaping. Later the cathedrals, such as Amiens, Chartres

word came to be applied to any and Siena - and more recently in

complicated maze. Grace Cathedral, San Francisco.

 STRUCTURES

idea they were built to embody - stupas as visual mementoes of

Buddhist enlightenment, ziggurats (opposite) as stairways to Heaven.

Tower
With their strong walls and high-rise design, towers

were at once protective and aspirational. In fairy-tales

of immured maidens, they essentially preserved chastity.

In his poem The Tower, W.B. Yeats chose the image to

symbolize the sage's lonely quest for wisdom. By

reaching too close to Heaven, the Tower of Babel

became a symbol of human presumption. The Zoroastrian towers of
silence where Parsees put out their dead to be consumed by birds of

prey sought to separate the world of the dead from that of the living,

preventing the defilement of the one by the other.

Pyramid
The pyramids of Egypt were funerary monuments that sought to

immortalize the memory of the pharaohs responsible for building

them - a task they have largely accomplished. They took the form
of man-mountains, artificial hills rising toward the sky. The upward-
pointing shape had significance in view of the belief that the pharaoh’s

spirit was reunited after death with the sun god, his heavenly

equivalent. In their massive bulk they represented a defiant response

to the inevitability of death at the same time as seeking to expedite

the soul's passage beyond mortality.

Pillar

Ever since Freud, obelisks, pillars and columns have been viewed

generically as phallic symbols, yet each also has specific implications.

 30 TYPES OF SYMBOL

Obelisks - four-sided columns with pyramidal tops - were placed in

pairs outside the portals of ancient Egyptian temples, partly to signify

the importance of the edifices but also to serve a solar purpose

- their gilded tips caught and reflected the Sun's rays. Pillars held up

buildings and were emblems of strength; when Samson sought to

assert his might against the Philistines, he did so by bringing down the
temple pillars. Of the three, commemorative columns were perhaps
PAGODA the most obviously phallic in their intent. Built to honour great men
Representing
(rarely women), they soared skyward as unambiguous celebrations
the sacred
mountain, of masculine pride.

a pagoda is

a form of
Walled garden
tiered tower,

traditionally The word "paradise” originally denoted the walled parks and
built with an pleasure-grounds of the Persian kings, and most ideas of an earthly
odd number
paradise have since had a garden setting.The biblical Garden of Eden
of floors and
often octagonal symbolized the primal innocence of the natural world, yet gardens
in ground plan.
as we know them are artificial constructs, symbolizing a happy
cooperation between man and nature. Early Renaissance paintings

made walled gardens the setting in which the rituals of courtly love

were played out, perhaps recalling Eastern traditions of the sensual

Perfumed Garden. Yet in the Christian tradition the image could

also symbolize chastity: "A garden enclosed is my sister, my spouse,”

claimed the Song of Solomon, and painters often showed the Virgin

Mary herself receiving the Annunciation in a walled garden.

Bridge
Bridges link what would otherwise remain apart, their connecting

role emphasized in phrases such as "building bridges” or "bridge

over troubled waters”. So it seems strange that in folk tradition they

 STRUCTURES 31

tended to be viewed with fear. People

claimed that those who parted on a

bridge would never meet again, and that

the Devil would claim the soul of the

first person to cross a new bridge (a

small animal was usually sent over to allay the threat). Perhaps such

fears hid memories of the bridges that in ancient religious tradition

led to the Afterlife: the Muslim Al-Sirat, narrow as a sword’s edge, or

the Persian Chinvat, wide only as the deceased’s own thoughts and

deeds had been generous.

Triumphal arch
Roman emperors erected triumphal arches to celebrate their military

successes, and the legions marched through them in victory parades.

The form may have echoed ancient folk beliefs about the curative

power of natural arches, particularly of brambles, which were thought

to snag evil spirits and pathogenic agents when sick people passed

beneath them. In similar fashion, passage through a triumphal arch

may have separated the soldiers from the stain of bloodshed, not to

mention the vengeful spirits of the men they had killed.

Stupa
Dome-shaped structures containing relics of the Buddha or
of Buddhist holy men, stupas evolved from simple burial

mounds into womb-like spaces sheltering precious souvenirs

of sainthood and eventually into pagodas (opposite). A

central mast rising from the top evoked memories of

the bodhi tree under which Gautama himself found

enlightenment.
 32 TYPES OF SYMBOL

TREES AND SHRUBS

Images of growth and fruition

Trees are among the biggest and most enduring of all living things, so

from a human standpoint they naturally became symbols of strength

and stability. Britain's sailors had hearts of oak, graveyard yews stood

for perpetual remembrance. Norse myth spoke of the World Tree

Yggdrasil, an ash that served as the axis of the universe. Yet trees in

CEDAR OF the plural could be threatening: South American shamans showed

LEBANON their hardihood by venturing out alone into the tropical jungle, while
Prominent
on the flag of only intrepid knights were prepared to brave the Forest Perilous.

Lebanon, the
cedar is ancient
Tree of Life
and durable
- immortal and A symbol known to cultures worldwide, the Tree of Life typically

incorruptible. represented the continuity and fecundity of the natural world. Yet
Cedar resin
the actual species depicted varied widely - Babylonian and Assyrian
was used
by the artwork usually showed a date palm, a vital source of human
Egyptians for
sustenance at the time, while Chinese myth honoured the peach tree
mummification,
as the source of the fruit of immortality. Phrygian legends favoured
and its rot-

proof timber the almond tree, while the ancient Celts revered the alder. The
built Noah’s
Mayans generally visualized the trunk supporting the world as that
ark, King

Solomon's of a ceiba tree. Naturally enough, each civilization adopted a species

temple and essential to its own survival to express a universal truth.

the Ark of the
Covenant.
F'g

Another sacred tree, the fig was venerated in Islamic lands because

the Prophet Muhammad was recorded to have sworn by it. The tree
also had a special place in Buddhism since Gautama Buddha found
enlightenment under the bodhi tree, a Sacred fig (Ficus religioso).
 TREES AND SHRUBS

In Hinduism figs symbolized fecundity, being associated with the

procreative powers ofVishnu and Shiva - a link perhaps suggested by

the young fig's phaliic shape and milky juice.

Almond
The almond tree traditionally had male progenitive associations,

perhaps because of the semen-like juice exuded from its fruits. The
Phrygian god Attis, worshipped in orgiastic rites across the Classical

world, was supposedly born of an almond seed. Ancient tradition

maintained that a virgin who fell asleep beneath an almond tree

risked waking up pregnant. And in the Old Testament, Aaron’s rod

OAK: FIRST AMONG TREES

The most widely venerated tree of likely to be struck by lightning, and

all, the oak was, according to the Scandinavians associated them with
ancient Greeks, also the first to Thor, god of thunder. The durability

be created. It played a central part of oakwood was also legendary,

at the oracle of Dodona in Epirus, causing the tree to be associated

where priests interpreted prophetic from early times with strength and

messages whispered to them by a fortitude, hence the use

sacred grove of trees. The oak was of oak-leaf clusters in

also holy to the Celtic Druids, who martial awards for

held their gatherings among oaks, valour.

and associated acorns (now

usually symbols of patience

and hard work) with

hidden truth. Northern

tradition maintained that

oaks were the trees most

 34 TYPES OF SYMBOL

miraculously put forth ripe almonds overnight as a sign that his tribe

of Levi was the fittest to provide priests for the Israelite people.

Pine
PLUM Strength and toughness have made the pine pre-eminent in China as a

BLOSSOM symbol of longevity. In Mesopotamia, the male generative force of the

Known in

China as one,
hero-god Marduk was symbolized by the phallic-shaped pine cone.

with pine and

bamboo, of
Olive
the "three
friends of Olive wreaths symbolized victory when placed on the brows
winter", plum of winners at the ancient Olympic Games. Yet a more enduring
is an emblem
association was with peace, perhaps because the olive tree and its
of resilience
and marital fruit represented the sustenance and prosperity threatened by war.
happiness. branch as the emblem of the Pax Romana,
Romans used an olive

and delegates from rebellious provinces bore one with them as an

indication of submission. In the Christian tradition, the olive branch

borne by a dove back to Noah's ark served as a peace pledge that

God would send no more all-consuming floods.

Laurel
Whereas victors in the ancient Olympics wore crowns of olives,

winners at the Pythian Games were awarded laurel wreaths (see page

89), hence the phrase “to look to one’s laurels”, meaning to protect

one's competitive edge. Laurel was also viewed as a protective

plant, warding off evil or (in the physical world) lightning

- Emperor Tiberius always wore a crown of laurel

during storms. In China the laurel was associated

with longevity, ceding precedence only to the

peach as the plant of immortality.

 TREES AND SHRUBS 35

Holly
Holly’s link with Christmas perpetuates the role

it played in earlier midwinter festivals such as

the Roman Saturnalia, when its green leaves

and bright red berries symbolized hope

in times of darkness. Christians adapted the

symbolism to equate the redness with Christ’s blood,

given to redeem the souls of man to the eternal life

suggested by the shrub’s evergreen leaves.

Date palm
A masculine symbol in the Middle East, where it served as the Tree

of Life for the Arab peoples, the date palm was associated in China

with female fecundity. Romans carried palm branches in triumphal

processions and accorded them as symbols of victory to successful

gladiators, a habit commemorated in the phrase "to win the palm".

Something of the symbolism of the conquering hero carried over into

the behaviour of the crowd that strewed palm fronds before Jesus

at the time of his entry into Jerusalem, as recorded in John’s gospel.

Thereafter the plants entered Christian tradition as the emblem of

pilgrims to the Holy Land, known as "palmers" from their custom of

bringing a frond back with them to decorate their local church.

Hawthorn
The white flowers of the early-blooming hawthorn were traditionally

associated with girls in the springtime of their youth. Athenian

maidens attending weddings wore crowns of hawthorn flowers,

and the marriage torch itself was made of hawthorn wood. In the

Victorian language of flowers, hawthorn stood for "Good Hope".

 36 TYPES OF SYMBOL

FLOWERS AND PLANTS

Flora’s bouquet

"Faire Daffadills, we weep to see/You Fiaste away so soone...”

(Robert Herrick, To Daffodils). Glamorous and evanescent, flowers
were natural symbols of the transience of earthly beauty.They could

also stand for their own inherent qualities - the purity of the lily, the

FLEUR-DE-LYS sensuous complexity of the rose. In China the peony was an emblem
This heraldic
of wealth and honour, while in Japan the chrysanthemum with its
form of the
iris was the radiating petals represented an imperial line tracing its descent from
emblem of the the sun goddess. And no flower had a more wide-ranging symbolism
kings of France
than the lotus. One of the Eight Auspicious Signs of Buddhist tradition,
for more than
500 years. it was a metaphor for spiritual fulfilment for Hindus and an image of

the original creation in ancient Egypt.

Rose
The cynosure of beauty in the Western tradition, roses were also

indelibly associated with love in all its forms. The flowers were strewn
through Aphrodite’s temples in Classical times, and they turn up

on innumerable Valentine cards to this day. Yet they also took on

a mystical significance for the medieval authors of The Romance of

ROSE the Rose, which portrayed the quest for love in spiritual terms, and
The white
the Christian Church identified them with the Virgin Mary and many
rose was the
emblem of the female saints. While the red rose in particular signified passion, the

House ofYork blooms were also associated with the pains of love, as in the phrase
in England's
"No rose without a thorn". The pleasure-loving Sybarites of Classical
medieval Wars
of the Roses. times slept in the original beds of roses, literally stuffed with the

petals, and a story tells of a man tossing restlessly all night because

a single one was crumpled. Yet even though most rose imagery was
 FLOWERS AND PLANTS 37

positive, a blown rose symbolized the transience of beauty, and

Romans scattered the flowers on loved ones' graves.

Chrysanthemum
Japan's imperial flower is the spreading yellow chrysanthemum,

widely seen as a symbol of order and perfection. The plant

also became associated with longevity, possibly because

it blooms late in the year. Yet white chrysanthemums

are flowers of mourning in both Japan and China,

commonly seen at funerals and on graves.

Iris

The iris was associated with the Virgin Mary, its sword-shaped leaves

suggesting the pain of her grief at Christ’s crucifixion. It also provided

the inspiration for the fleur-de-lys (literally but inaccurately "flower of

the lily”), a stylized image of an iris flower that became the symbol of

the French monarchy from the 12th century on. The royal flag once

featured an entire field of fleurs-de-lys, pruned down to just three by

Charles V in the 14th century in honour of the Christian Trinity.

Lotus
tij
Much of what the rose stood for in the Western lands was
represented in the East by the lotus. The name is in fact now applied

to a number of different flowers, from the Common

bird's-foot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus ) to several

varieties of water lilies. The most symbolically

important species, the Indian or Sacred lotus, also

grows on water but is now assigned a family of

its own, the Nelumbonaceae. Like the rose, much

38 TYPES OF SYMBOL

of its symbolism had deep sexual roots, deriving from an unspoken

resemblance between the unfurling blossoms and the human female

sexual organs. So the flower came to play a central part in Hindu

creation myths, which describe a single, giant lotus blossom emerging

from the navel ofVishnu, bearing within it the creator god Brahma.

Known as Padma, the name also of an associated goddess, the plant

came to symbolize fruitfulness and creative power. And, again like the

rose, it also served as a love token; Indian art is full of representations

of Krishna presenting the flower to his lover, Rama.

THE BLOOD-RED POPPY

In Britain and other Commonwealth link with the blood shed around

countries, the poppy has become them. The association with death

indelibly associated with the dead of was not new; some early Christian

World War I, serving as the flower authorities had suggested that the

of remembrance for those who lost plant initially sprang from Christ’s

their lives in the conflict. Poppies blood on the cross. An even stronger

grew freely on the killing fields of link was with sleep, suggested by

Flanders, thriving on the chopped- the soporific effects of the opiates

up soil, and the scarlet colour of derived from Papaver somniferum, the

the flowers naturally suggested a Opium poppy.

 FLOWERS AND PLANTS

A separate tradition related to the lotus tree, a shrub of uncertain

species mentioned in Greek mythology. It was the fruit of this latter

plant that Homer’s Lotus-eaters consumed, leading them to forget

friends and duties and devote themselves to idleness and pleasure.

Peony
The peony takes its name from Paean, the surgeon

of the gods in Homer but in other Classical authors

a cognomen for Apollo in his capacity as a healer.

Appropriately, the plant was long considered to have

medicinal uses; in Japan, for instance, the roots were
used to prepare anti-convulsants. It was also viewed as

a protective plant in a more general sense - superstitious Europeans

wore its seeds in necklaces as charms against epilepsy, cramps and

the powers of darkness. Mostly, though, the flower has always been

associated with showy beauty, being particularly admired in the Far

East, In Japan it is still popular in bridal bouquets, while China has

recently been considering adopting it as the national flower.

Lily

The immaculately white lily is a widely recognized symbol of innocence

and purity that is perfect of its kind - to ‘‘paint the lily” is to foolishly

seek to better what needs no improvement. Also linked to chastity, the

flower became an emblem of the Virgin Mary, frequently appearing in

Renaissance paintings of the Annunciation, often clutched in the hand

of the Archangel Gabriel himself. Unsurprisingly, lilies later became

favoured plants for church decoration. The flower can also symbolize

innocence before the law; in parts of Europe a tradition arose that

lilies would spring from the graves of wrongly executed felons.

40 TYPES OF SYMBOL

Anemone
With a name from the Greek for "of the wind", the anemone’s short-

lived bloom was particularly associated with transience. The plant

also linked with the death of Adonis in Classical myth, supposedly

springing up from the nectar dropped by Venus on the bloodied

ground where her loved one was fatally gored by a boar.

Amaranth
"The amaranth flower is the symbol of immortality," the Church father

Clement of Alexandria recorded. The very word meant "that does

not wither" in Greek, and Aesop in a fable contrasted the long-lasting

blossom with the short-lived rose. The plant's reputation comes from
its deep-red flowers - one of the best-known varieties, Amaranthus

caudatus, is commonly known as Love-lies-bleeding - which retain

their hue long after other surrounding blooms have faded.

Acanthus
Popular across the Classical Mediterranean world as an architectural

and decorative motif (below, in an ornamental scroll), the acanthus

shrub was identified with triumph over difficulties. In Christian

iconography its thorns represented pain and punishment.

 FLOWERS AND PLANTS

Thistle
The thistle’s defensive prickles led to its

adoption as the emblem of Scotland,

first recorded in the I 5th-century reign

of James III. Its hardiness and tenacity

caused it to be regarded in the East as a

symbol of long life.

Ivy

Clinging and evergreen, ivy became a symbol

of fidelity, and for Christians it also connoted

eternal life. The ancient Greeks made it sacred to Bacchus,

perhaps because of a folk belief that its poisonous berries slowed

the onset of drunkenness.

Mistletoe
The complex symbolism of mistletoe draws on the plant’s inherent

botanical contradictions. A parasitical evergreen, it flourishes even

when the host tree supporting it is seemingly dead. Although

venomous, its branches and berries contain medicinal substances that

once led it to be known as “all-heal"; even today, mistletoe lectins

are used in Europe for cancer treatment. The spear that killed the

beloved god Balder in Norse mythology was made of mistletoe wood,

as was the golden bough that the Roman hero Aeneas carried as a

protective talisman on his journey into the Underworld. Cursed and

venerated in almost equal measure, Shakespeare’s “baleful mistletoe"

was held sacred by the Druids as an emblem of potency and fertility

- an association that still lingers in Christmas traditions of kissing

under the mistletoe bough.

 42 TYPES OF SYMBOL

FRUITS
Gifts of nature's bounty

As the most useful of plants, sustaining people physically as well

as spiritually, fruit generally conveyed a positive message. In China

the Tree of Immortality was a peach, and it bore fruit once every
APPLE 3,000 years. The succulent pomegranate was naturally sacred to
Indelibly
love goddesses, the intoxicating grape to divine trouble-makers
associated with
biblical Eden,
like Dionysos. Yet the apple, wholesome enough to keep doctors
the apple was at bay, could also serve as the Apple of Discord offered by Paris to
an object of
Aphrodite, Hera and Athene.
desire in Greek
myth. The fleet-
footed Atalanta Apple
agreed to
Apples bear the scent of Paradise about them. Even though the fruit
marry any man
who could that Eve tasted in the Garden of Eden is never specified in the biblical

outrun her.
text, the Celtic othen/vorld of Avalon meant "isle of apples”, while in
One suitor

distracted her
North America an apple tree was the central focus of the Iroquois

by throwing heaven. The connection with health was also long-established: an

apples in her
Arabian Nights tale told of Prince Ahmed's apple that cured all ills,
path, thus

winning both while the Norse gods started to age uncontrollably when Iduna,

the race and guardian of the golden apples of perpetual youth, was
the girl.
lured from her post by the malicious Loki.

Pomegranate
The luscious flesh and multiple seeds of

the pomegranate early linked the fruit to

fecundity. Chinese women made offerings

of pomegranates to Guan Yin, the goddess

of mercy, when praying for children, while in Turkey brides

 FRUITS

would throw a pomegranate to the ground then count the seeds to

find how many children they would bear.

Grape
Vines and the grapes that grow on them have generally served as an

emblem of plenty. Like the “land flowing with milk and honey”, the

vineyard became a symbol of the biblical Israel, while in the New

Testament St John's Gospel recorded Jesus as proclaiming, “I am the

true vine, and my Father is the husbandman”.

Orange
Evergreen and fructiferous throughout the year, the orange is a potent,

international symbol of fecundity. Oranges were cultivated in China

long before they reached the West, and the fruit is still associated

there with luck and long life. In the 19th century, orange blossom

became a conventional bridal decoration in Britain, symbolizing both

the hope of fertility and the purity implied by the white blossom.

Peach
As the Chinese fruit of eternal life, the peach was associated with

the Eight Immortals of Taoist legend. Gifts of porcelain bearing

peach designs carried an unspoken wish that the recipient might

enjoy long life and prosperity. Another association was with fertility

- young brides were once commonly referred to as “peaches”.

 44 TYPES OF SYMBOL

LAND CREATURES
Beasts of the fields and forests

Human beings have lived near animals long enough to have formed

firm, often contradictory, views of their characters and temperaments.

Much of the symbolism of mammals springs from these perceived

traits, ranging from the courage and strength of the lion, king of the

beasts, to the legendary greed of the pig. Powerful individuals even

LION sought to take on some of the characteristics for themselves. In animist

RAMPANT religions, for example, it was common for shamans to don pelts as a
Unusual for a
carnivorous way of assuming the attributes of the beasts they imitated. In similar

quadruped, the vein, ancient Mexico's Olmec rulers traced their lineage to were-
standing lion
jaguars, half-animal figures that laid claim to some of the strength and
rampant forms
part of many ferocity of the top predators of the Mesoamerican jungle.
European coats
of arms and a
Bear
variant is part
of the royal flag Bears have inspired as much fear as lions and tigers, but their almost
of Scotland,
human appearance, especially when raised on two legs, has made
introduced by
King William I
the relationship with people much closer. Along with

(
1165 - 1214 ), the Ainu of Japan, several North American peoples
one of many
traced their ancestry from bears, and folktales told
rulers to view
themselves as of bears mating with women and fathering human
“lion-hearted". children. Although a bear with a sore head became a

comic symbol of irritability the creatures could also

be protective. Yet the main thrust of bear symbolism

remained geared to brute force: Norse berserkers

wore bear skins to go into battle, and the West’s

favoured Cold War image of Russian military power

was of an angry bear.

 LAND CREATURES

Tiger
“Tyger, tyger, burning bright/ln the forests

of the night ..." (William Blake, The Tyger).

Another top predator, the tiger was less

reputed for generosity of spirit than for its

grace and power. In its haunts in southern Asia,

where it served as the mount of the Hindu

warrior goddess Durga, there were many stories of shapeshifters

taking on tiger form. In Korean folk medicine tiger bones ground into

wine were supposedly fortifying in the literal sense.

Lion
Legendary for its strength and courage, the lion was a natural

emblem of royalty from the earliest times. The Great Sphinx at Giza

combined a lion’s body with the head of the Pharaoh Khafre, while

the lion-headed Sekhmet was a divine protectress of ancient Egypt’s

rulers. Assyrian kings celebrated their own power in magnificent

bas-relief sculptures of themselves on lion-hunts. The analogy with

power survived into modern times, as the lions in Trafalgar Square,

symbolizing British imperial might, still attest. Yet for all its ferocity

the lien could be generous to those who helped it, the story of

Androcles being probably the best known of many folktales attesting

to leonine gratitude.

Wolf
The big, bad wolf of fairytale is firmly fixed in the collective

imagination as a symbol of rapacity and greed. In Norse myth the

Fenrir wolf swallowed the sun in the climactic battle of Ragnarok,

German submarines in World War II roamed in wolf-packs, and

 46 TYPES OF SYMBOL

werewolves famously brought out the beast in man (only rarely

woman). For more positive lupine images one has to look either to
dubious sources like the Turkish ultra- nationalists who have made
the fascistic Grey Wolves heroes of their cause, or more promisingly
to she-wolves like the one that nurtured Romulus and Remus, fierce

BOAR warriors but also the legendary fathers of Rome.

The reverse
of the boar’s
nobility was its
Boar
brute ferocity: Strength and resolution were the traditional qualities represented
Shakespeare
by boars, which featured strongly in myth from the Celtic to the
styled Richard

III - who used Classical worlds, both of which had tales of epic boar-hunts. In Hindu
the animal
as a heraldic

emblem - "the ( \
wretched, LORDS OF THE GLEN
bloody and
usurping boar". Associated in popular culture today

with Bambi-style innocence, deer in

the past had a more assertive symbolic

presence. To judge from cave paintings,

stags played an important part in

hunting rituals even in prehistoric times.

The Celts worshipped the horned god

Cernunnos (right), while later British

legend remembered the antlered figure

of Herne the Hunter. Harts - male red

deer - were emblems of nobility in

heraldic days, while stags retained from

early times an image of virility that

was celebrated in the Victorian era by

Landseer’s famous painting The Monarch

of the Glen.

v J
 LAND CREATURES 47

legend Vishnu took the guise of the boar Varaha to dive into the

abyssal depths and rescue the Earth from the demonic Hiranyaksha,

while the Norse god Freyr rode on Gullinbursti, a boar with golden

bristles fashioned by the dwarves.

Lamb
An image of innocence and purity

foredestined to an early death, the lamb

was a natural symbol of Jesus Christ, called

by John the Baptist (according to St John’s

Gospel) "the Lamb of God, who takes away

the sin of the world".

Fox
Despite the insistence by shepherds and hunters that foxes are

vermin, most cultures had a nuanced approach to them. "Crafty as

a fox,” people said, and there was always a sneaking respect, as well

as righteous indignation, for these domestic predators living outside

the law. Popular anti-heroes of North American trickster tales,

foxes featured in Japanese legend as kitsune, shapeshifters that took

the form of beautiful women to drain men of their vital essence.

And when medieval satirists wanted to lampoon the ruling class of

churchmen, knights and lawyers, they did so through the figure of

Reynard the Fox, endlessly subverting the established order.

Dog
Man’s best friend received a mixed press in the world's symbology.

Contemptuous references, particularly in Middle and Far Eastern

sources, contrasted with images of loyalty, like Greyfriars Bobby or

 48 TYPES OF SYMBOL

the dog that brought bread daily to St Roch as he lay in

the wilderness, sick with plague. The canine presence in

myth most often took the form of guard dogs, emblems

of ferociously protective vigilance; three-headed Cerberus

watched over the entrance to the Classical Underworld,

while in Norse legend Garm was the original hound of Hel.

Cat
Cats had largely feminine associations, whether in the adjective

UNICORN "catty" or in their traditional role as witches' familiars. More positively,

According to
they had enduring links with grace and beauty. Ancient Egyptians
legend this
horned hybrid worshipped the cat-headed goddess Bastet, and the gigantic Cat of
could be Heliopolis guarded the sun god Ra on his nocturnal journey through
captured only
the Underworld from the attacks of the chaos-serpent Apophis.
by a virgin. In

her company,
the wild beast p 'g
became meek.
Pigs were traditionally vilified as emblems of greed. Considered
As such,

the unicorn unclean in Jewish and Islamic tradition, they became symbols of
symbolizes
gluttony and sloth for the medieval bestiarists. The pork-eating
male and
female chastity
Chinese took a more benevolent view; a pig under a roof was the
through initial ideogram for the concept of "home".
the idea of
a love not
consummated. Elephant
Imposing, gentle and reliable, elephants

in India served as the mounts of

maharajahs and gods, notably thunder-

bearing Indra. The elephant-headed

deity Ganesha was always popular,

noted for his kindness and wisdom.

 LAND CREATURES 49

Monkey
Fascinating to humans as a distorted self-image, monkeys were
usually deemed tricksters and mischief-makers. Hanuman, one

of the protagonists of India’s great epic the Ramayana,

was a humanoid monkey. He in turn probably

provided the inspiration for Sun Wukong, the

Monkey King hero of the novel Journey to

the West (often known in the West simply as

Monkey), a classic of Chinese literature.

Bull

Like the boar, the bull was traditionally an

emblem of uncontrollable force, as the phrase

"a bull in a china shop” suggests. Yet their sheer

power and economic importance ensured them a

leading place in myth; the principal gods of most of the nations of

the Fertile Crescent had links to bulls. In Hindu tradition the sacred

bull Nandi was Shiva’s mount and the chief of his attendants, while

Persian Mithraists venerated a primeval bull whose semen fecundated

the entire world. Zeus took bull form to ravish Europa, and Queen

Pasiphae of Crete mated with a bull to produce the hybrid Minotaur

Cow
The symbolism of the placid cow could hardly have been more
different from that of the rampant and destructive bull, but both

reflected in their separate ways images of fecundity.The cow was the

gentle life-giver whose milk in Norse myth fed the primordial frost-

giant Ymir, and it was venerated in Buddhist and Jainist tradition as

well as in Hinduism for its long-suffering patience and equanimity.

 50 TYPES OF SYMBOL

REPTILES AND INSECTS

Creatures of hidden places

In comparison with mammals and birds, most reptiles and insects

were poorly viewed in myth, often treated with a distaste bordering

on revulsion.Toads featured as witches' familiars, lizards and scorpions

BUTTERFLY signified barrenness and desolation, and in the Judaeo-Christian

Delicate and
tradition at least snakes took on an aura of positive evil: “That old
beautiful,

butterflies
serpent, who is called the Devil and Satan". Yet some creatures bucked
symbolized the the trend. Bees were famously busy and productive, and the biblical
soul in lands
Book of Proverbs recommended to lazy individuals “Go to the ant,
as far apart as

Mesoamerica O sluggard. Consider her ways and be wise". Even snakes had their
and Japan. New admirers: the Rainbow Serpent of Aborigine lore helped shape the
Zealand Maoris
landscape of Outback Australia, and the nagas of India were guardian
and the Nagas
of Assam both figures controlling hidden reserves of power and wealth.
believed that
the spirits of
dead people
Snake
returned Snakes haunted people's imaginations from the earliest times, and a
to earth in
complex symbolism developed around them. Figures of evil in the
butterfly form.

In Christianity Christian tradition because of their connection with the serpent

the butterfly in the Garden of Eden, they were viewed more positively in other
symbolizes
cultures, sometimes even as guardian figures; snakes
resurrection.
featured on the caduceus, or winged wand of
the Roman god Mercury, and on the rod of

Asculepius, deity of healing (see pages 88-89).

The snake-bodied nagas of Indian myth lived in

magnificent underwater palaces and were regarded

with respect, if not affection, while the Aztec plumed serpent was

only the greatest of many Mesoamerican serpentine gods. Snakes’

 REPTILES AND INSECTS

ability to slough their skin attracted attention, suggesting a link with

rejuvenation; a superstition held that eating a sn&ke could restore a

person’s youth. Snake cults were found around the world, sometimes
with a distinctly phallic element. Yet there was also a widespread

association with envy, jealousy and deceit; North American peoples

accused liars of speaking with forked tongues and in the world’s

oldest literary work, the Epic of Gilgamesh, a snake stole the plant of

immortality that the hero had laboured to discover.

Dragon
Primeval products of the human imagination, dragons were familiar

around the world, although their symbolism differed widely from

land to land. In general, oriental dragons were creatures of power

a \
THEVIRTUOUS BEE
A universal emblem of industry, the of Sophocles. The orderly nature of

bee also had imperial connotations. the hive, the social organization of

Napoleon adopted the insect as its occupants and their production

his personal emblem, following the of the healthy honeycomb made

example of France’s early Merovingian beehives - symbol of St Ambrose - a

and Carolingian kings. An ancient popular metaphor for Christian

tradition held that bees settling

\ monastic communities. Tales

on the mouth of an infant in from around the world,

its cradle guaranteed from North America to

future eloquence: Japan, presented bees

Plato was called the as helpers in time of

Athenian Bee for this trouble, swarming to

reason, and similar attack any enemies

stories were told who threatened.

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52 TYPES OF SYMBOL

that, if treated with respect, could

be benevolent protectors. In the

heavens dragons were regarded as

rain-bringers, while on Earth they

became an imperial symbol (left) -

China’s emperors sat on the Dragon

Throne. In Classical myth dragons

were fearsome and vigilant guardians of

treasure - the name came from the Greek

drakos, meaning “eye" - confronted by heroes like Jason and

Herakles. Drawing on the Book of Revelation's red dragon with seven

heads and 10 horns, the Christian tradition regarded the beasts as

demonic, prey for dragon-slayers like St Michael and St George.

Tortoise
A byword for slowness and patience in the West, as in the story of

its race with the hare, the tortoise occupied a grander position in

Eastern myth, where it personified reliability and strength. In China

the BlackTortoise was one of four symbols of the constellations (see

page III), while in Hindu cosmology the tortoise Chukwa bore on

its back the elephant that supported the world.

Toad
Long regarded as ugliness personified, the

harmless toad endured a wretched symbolic

fate as the creature of witches and sorcerers.

One ancient superstition held that toads

were poisonous; the original “toadies" or

toad-eaters were quack medicine-sellers’

 REPTILES AND INSECTS

f
THE OUROBOROS

From the Greek for “tail-devourer”, in it an image of life that continually

the word “ouroboros” referred to a renews itself from its own resources

snake or dragon looped in a circle (this engraving is from Johann Daniel

with its tail in its mouth. Mylius’s Anatomia auri, 1 628).

The image was found in Dahomean legend had a

mythology around the more sinister take on

world, from Central the same theme. Their

America to Europe, world serpent, Aido

Africa and India Hwedo, was said to be

- one of the best- living off the Earth’s

known examples being mineral resources, but

Jormungandr, the Norse when they were finally

world serpent that grew to encircle used up would instead

the Earth. The symbol also fascinated devour itself, tail first, bringing on the
philosophers and mystics, who saw end of the world.

V J

assistants who purported to swallow live toads in order to be

miraculously revived by the cure-all concoction. On a more positive

note, toads were also sometimes thought to have medicinal uses,

on the homeopathic principle that a very small amount of a harmful

substance could produce a beneficial effect. Even more bizarrely, they

were popularly reputed to have jewels in their foreheads.

Scorpion
Synonymous with malice and envy for its venom, the scorpion was

also thought to produce an antidote for the ills it caused. In the words

of the 1 7th-century satirist Samuel Butler: "Tis true a scorpion's oil is

said/To cure the wounds the venom made”.

 54 TYPES OF SYMBOL

CREATURES OF THE AIR

Winged intermediaries of the gods

The heavens were traditionally seen as the realm of the gods, so

the creatures that inhabited them were often accorded a spiritual

dimension. Souls were sometimes shown in Christian iconography

with wings, as were angels and other semi-divine beings. In the

Classical world too, Romans looked to the sky and to the flight

FALCON of birds to decode the heavens’ will through augury. Long before
Symbol of
the age of aviation, shamans donned feathered costumes to take
Homs, this

predatory lord soul journeys. In general birds represented the element of air: light,

of the skies ethereal and touched with celestial splendour.

was famed
for its keen
eyesight and Eagle
lethal stoop. The eagle ruled the skies much as the lion was king of mammals, so it

Falcons were
comes as no surprise that both shared similar associations with royalty
symbols of
vigilance and and empire. Eagles served as emblems for the Byzantine Empire,
aggression.
imperial France and Russia, Germany, Austro- Pfungary and Prussia,

and the Bald eagle is the symbol of the USA. In myth

the bird was associated with Zeus and

Jupiter and appeared on the standards

of the Roman legions; at emperors'

funerals an eagle was released from

the pyre to symbolize the dead

ruler’s passage to the afterlife. In

Christian art the eagle represents St

John the Evangelist, hence its frequent

appearance on church lecterns. "Eagle

eyes" have symbolized keen vision at

 CREATURES OFTHE AIR

least since Old Testament times, when Job in the book of that name
remarked of the bird that its “eyes behold far off”.

Raven
Few birds carried a more complex and
contradictory symbolism than the raven,

seen both as a symbol of destruction and

a protective spirit. Edgar Allan Poe’s poem

of that name summed up the bird's long-

standing reputation as a harbinger of

doom. The tradition itself dated back at

least to Roman times, when ravens were

said to have predicted the death of both Julius Caesar and the

Emperor Augustus; one was even said to have entered the orator

Cicero's house on the day of his murder, disarranging the coverlets

on his bed. The bird’s prophetic aspect was recognized by the ancient
Greeks, who made it sacred to Apollo, and later to the Arabs, who
nicknamed it abu zajir, father of omens.

Both Scandinavian and Celtic myth associated ravens with battles,

no doubt because of their appetite for carrion. The Celtic war

goddess the Morrigan sometimes took raven form on the battlefield,

while the Norse deity Odin relied on two ravens, Hugin and Munin,

to act as his spies, reporting to him all that happened in the world.

Yet the birds also had a more positive symbolism, based chiefly on

their intelligence and cunning.The ravens at the Tower of London are

considered to this day protective birds whose presence guarantees

the national well-being; they supposedly trace their lineage back to

Bran the Blessed (the name means “raven”), a Welsh hero whose
head (according to the Mabinogion ) was buried at the Tower.
 56 TYPES OF SYMBOL

In the Bible ravens fed the prophet Elijah in the wilderness, while

in the legends of America’s North Pacific Coast Raven was a trickster

culture hero (see illustration, page 55), famed for his voracious

appetites, who shaped the landscape and provided most of the

necessities on which humans depend for their survival.

PEACOCK
Some
Peacock
traditions

associated the
Forthe author of the Physiologus, the chief inspiration forthe medieval
decorations on bestiaries, the peacock with its glorious tail display was an emblem
the peacock's
of vanity. The symbolism was duly taken up by monarchs eager to
tail with
vigilance or show off their own magnificence, and until the revolution of 1979

even with the the shahs of Persia sat on the Peacock Throne. The greatest of the
Evil Eye, and in
seven holy beings venerated by the Kurdish Yazidis of Iraq was the
many European
countries it Peacock Angel.
was considered
bad luck to
have a peacock
feather in the OWL OF ERUDITION
home.

The wise old owl was Athene’s was generally considered a bird of ill

bird, sacred to the Greek goddess omen, listed among the unclean fowl

of knowledge and adopted as in the Book of Leviticus. In Europe

the emblem of Athens, the owls sometimes served as witches’

city dedicated in her name. familiars, while in parts of Africa

Even today, scholars may be they were linked to sorcerers.

characterized as “owlish”. Ancient Romans regarded

Elsewhere, however, the bird’s the birds as particularly

reputation was less auspicious. baleful. An owl supposedly

Its nocturnal habits, predatory entered Commodus’s
lifestyle and haunting cry all led it room shortly before he

to be associated with death, and it was assassinated.

 CREATURES OFTHE AIR

Vulture
Almost universally regarded as a bird of ill omen whose presence
betokened death, the vulture had more positive attributes in ancient

Egypt.There the bird was personified as Nekhbet, patroness of Upper

Egypt, and her protective image regularly appeared on the pharaoh’s

double crown.

Crane
Graceful birds famed for their elaborate mating

rituals, cranes were mostly seen as auspicious

presences. In the Far East they were symbols of

longevity (at right is a Japanese mon or crest),

and in China it was claimed that the Immortals

of Taoist legend travelled on cranes across the

heavens. They were also associated with fidelity for

their custom of retaining the same mate for many years, if not for

life. In Western bestiaries they won a reputation for vigilance, from a

story from Pliny that sentry cranes stood guard at night with a pebble

clutched in a raised claw; if they fell asleep, they were woken by the
sound of splashing.

Crow
As fellow corvids, crows share many of the qualities of ravens,

including their coal-black hue, and they traditionally conveyed a

similarly divergent symbolism. Like ravens, they were often seen as

birds of ill omen; the poison-pen letter-writers who from time to

time plagued French villages were often dubbed The Crow, after

Henri-Georges Clouzot’s wartime film of that name. The association

with battlefields also carried over, as in the border ballad of The

 58 TYPES OF SYMBOL

Two Corbies, in which two crows discussed how best to dispose of

the body of a new-slain knight. Yet the more benign aspects also

fed through. For the Chipewayan people of Arctic Canada, Crow

BAT played a similar role to that of Raven in the tales of their West Coast
In China
neighbours. Chinese myth described how in early times supranatural
bats were
associated with
crows carried no fewer than 10 separate suns across the Earth on a

good luck and rotational basis. It was left to the makers of the cartoon film Dumbo
happiness: five
to create the streetwise crow, updating the image of the intelligent,
bats shown
as a group opportunistic bird for modern times.

represented
respectively
Magpie
the blessings of
health, wealth, Cousin of the crow and raven, the magpie also inspired mixed
love of virtue,
emotions. Generally considered unlucky in the West and often
old age and a

natural death.
condemned for its pilfering habits, as in Rossini’s Thieving Magpie,

the bird was also reluctantly admired for its ingenuity, rather in the

manner of the fox. In contrast, the brilliantly-coloured magpies of the

Far East were usually viewed as propitious, and they crop up to this

day on greeting cards as emblems of good luck and good fortune.

Cock
The national emblem of France, the cock was
generally seen as a symbol of vigilance, keeping

watch forthe dawn. Its cry reached the spirit world,

for ghosts and vampires took flight before cockcrow.

Dedicated to Apollo in Classical times because oftheir

connection with the rising sun, the birds also served as

a symbol of masculinity; bridegrooms in Hungary used

to carry them to church before a wedding. In Christian

tradition cocks frequently appeared on weathervanes on

 CREATURES OFTHE AIR 59

church steeples, symbolically summoning the faithful to worship; an

Islamic tradition maintained that when the great cock in the First

Heaven ceased to crow, the Day of Judgment would be at hand.

Swan
The very image of beauty and grace, swans

found their way into folklore in tales of swan

maidens - lovely women who put on feathered

finery to take swan form. An ancient legend

insisted that swans sang once in their lives as

V
a sign of approaching death - the notion that

lay behind the phrase “swan song", describing

a final performance. In almost all lands where

it was known, the swan was an emblem of
loveliness, whether spiritual - in India mystics

were sometimes called Paramahamsa or “Supreme Swan’’- or artistic,

as the symbol of the Modernismo movement in Latin American poetry

or in Ben Jonson's description of Shakespeare as the Swan of Avon.

Bat
Sharing the owl’s dislike for daylight, bats found themselves tarred

with the same superstitious brush; dead bats, like dead owls, were

sometimes nailed to barn doors to scare off evil spirits. The blood-
feeding vampire bats of South America further darkened the animals'

reputation, and in the Mayan supernatural epic the Popol Vuh a death

bat decapitated one of the Hero Twins on a visit to the Underworld.

Yet some cultures took a more favourable view:Tongans treated bats

with respect as reincarnations of dead souls, while in China they

were associated with good luck and happiness.

 60 TYPES OF SYMBOL

WATER CREATURES
Denizens of the deep

The waters are the least charted part of the Earth’s surface; parts of

COWRIE the oceans and of some lakes remain relatively little known to this
Femininity
day. So the symbolism of the creatures that live in them remained
and fertility

are conjured
darker and more opaque than the imagery associated with the beasts

up by the with whom people shared the land. An aura of mystery surrounded
cowrie shell,
the denizens of the deep, and tales of sea serpents and monsters
the decorative
use of which stretched back to the earliest times. Yet fish also became a symbol
sometimes of Christ, the fisher of souls, and individual species too had positive
serves to
connotations: the Celts told tales of the Salmon ofWisdom, while the
signify love.

carp was an image of good fortune and longevity in the Far East.

Salmon
In the tales told by peoples of America’s North Pacific Coast, Salmon

Boy was a hero, for the salmon was admired as a symbol of courage

and persistence, battling as it does to return to its native river to

spawn. Some similar logic may have underlain Irish tales of the

SCALLOP Salmon ofWisdom, implying that knowledge too was only attained
The scallop
by long and patient effort.
shell was the
symbol of
pilgrims making Carp
their way to
Carp can live for up to 65 years, so it is no
the shrine of
St James at surprise that they became symbols of
Santiago de longevity in China.They can also leap as much
Compostela in

northwestern
as 3m (I Oft) high, giving rise to the saying “Carp

Spain. jumps over the Dragon Gate”, applied to someone

of humble station gaining an unexpected honour.

 WATER CREATURES

Koi - a domesticated variety of the Common carp - are popular

ornamental fish, above all in Japan, where they are associated with

love and friendship.

Whale
One likely origin for the biblical Leviathan, the whale also entered

Old Testament legend as the creature that swallowed the prophet

Jonah, who spent three days in its belly before

being spewed out. Meanwhile the hunting

of whales spawned an elaborate ritual,

particularly among the coastal Inuit, who

relied on the beasts as a vital source of food

and oil. Much care was taken to propitiate the prey

animals, by songs, incantations and ritual enactments

of the hunt. After one had been killed, its carcass would
be welcomed ashore with singing and dancing, and the community

would observe three days of mourning to placate the whale’s spirit

before they feasted.

Dolphin
Famously friendly to humans, dolphins appeared in artwork from

Minoan Crete, and a well-known Greek legend told how the poet

Arion threw himself into the sea to escape from pirates and was

carried back to land by a dolphin. The creatures also served as

messengers for the sea god Poseidon. In India the legendary makara

that was used as a mount by Ganga, goddess of the Ganges River,

was sometimes depicted as a river dolphin. South American tales

described the boto or Amazon river dolphin as a shapeshifter that

could take human form to mate with women and sire children.
 62 TYPES OF SYMBOL

STONES AND MINERALS

Assets from the earth

For many ancient cultures stones and minerals were the handiwork of

the gods and so retained a numinous quality from their suprahuman

origins. The Inca and other Andean peoples venerated huaco s, natural

IRON shrines that often took the form of bare outcrops of rock. Precious
Wellington was
stones were even more highly prized as evidence of a divine delight
the Iron Duke,
Bismarck the in crafting objects of beauty. Metals gained value in relation to their

Iron Chancellor rarity, so copper and its alloy, bronze, were generally more esteemed
and Thatcher
than iron. For the Chinese, jade represented longevity, and prominent
the Iron Lady.
A common individuals were at one stage buried in suits of the precious green
element in
stone in the hope of prolonging their spiritual existence. But no
the Earth’s
substance could rival the worldwide prestige of gold, the metal of
crust, the
metal stood majesty whose sheen emulated the sun’s radiance.
metaphorically
for anything

strong,
Gold
effective, The Aztecs called it teocuitlatl ,
the excrement of the gods, and linked
unyielding
this most precious of metals with the Sun, an association also made by
and inflexible

- qualities medieval European alchemists. Otherwise, gold's symbolism split two

that might be ways. On the one hand it expresses supreme glory, as in Olympic gold
admired but
medals or the various golden ages that have graced human history.
were rarely

loved. On the other it was associated with greed and false gods, as in

the biblical image of the Golden Calf.The Roman naturalist

Pliny, who recorded with scorn that Mark Antony

habitually relieved himself in golden chamber pots,

expressed the hostile view in claiming that “the

first person to put gold on his fingers committed

the worst crime against human life”.
 STONES AND MINERALS

rTHE FLAMING PEARL

A frequent image in Chinese art was

a dragon pursuing a pearl giving off

flamelike swirls of light. The Tang-

era (6I8-907ce) motif (right) seems

to have come from Central Asia.

Western scholars used to see celestial

symbolism in the emblem, believing it

represented a sky dragon swallowing wisdom for Buddhists and Hindus. In

the Moon, signifying an eclipse. the popular imagination the flaming

Eastern interpreters tended rather to pearl took on a simpler significance

view the pearl as a spiritual emblem, as the Pearl of Potentiality, a gem that

representing spiritual perfection could grant wishes and that had the

for Taoists and transcendental power to multiply itself endlessly.

V J
Diamond
Diamonds, the hardest of natural materials, took their name from

the Greek adamas, "invincible”. Even so, Pliny had the curious notion

that they dissolved in goat’s blood. For the Romans they were the
most precious of all luxuries and most other cultures also accorded

them a high place, although in Persia they were considered unlucky.

In India the gems often served for eyes in statues of the gods. The
vajra or thunderbolt wielded by the Hindu god Indra literally meant
"diamond”, while the world’s oldest printed book, a 9th-century

Chinese edition ofthe Buddhist Diamond Sutra, was so cal led because the

text was intended to serve as a"diamond blade to cut through worldly

illusion”. In the West they became the stone of choice for engagement

rings for their durability, which not only suggested marital constancy

but more practically meant that the stones retained their value.
 64 TYPES OF SYMBOL

IMPLEMENTS
Everyday objects that acquired special meaning

Fairly obviously, the symbolic value of man-made implements came

mostly from the uses to which they were put. The extraordinary

veneration accorded to the Holy Grail in medieval times, for example,

stemmed from the belief that Jesus had drunk from it at the Last

KEY Supper. In other contexts, however, the cup shape could be a simple
A traditional
image of conviviality with no more resonance than the crossed knife
symbol of
authority, keys
and fork and teacup logos that appear on motorway information
are presented panels to indicate a nearby service station, in general, the utensils
to newly
that carried the strongest associative message were those that came
elected popes
in memory of to be linked with basic human qualities: a ladder for aspiration, an
Jesus' promise anchor for firmness of purpose, scales for balanced justice.
to Peter that
"I will give you
the keys of the Cup
kingdom of
"My cup runneth over. Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me
Heaven”.
all the days of my life.” As the psalm suggested, a full cup was a

potent symbol of repletion and of all that life could offer. In contrast,

an overturned cup indicated emptiness and the vanity of sensual

pleasure. Cups also stood for conviviality ("the cup of good cheer"),

and in recent times became associated with victory as the

prize of choice for sporting events, from school sports days

all the way up to the FIFA World Cup.

Compasses
Compasses shared something of scales' symbolism, in their case

implying reason and measure. The Romantic William Blake

satirized the image in his famous engraving of Sir Isaac Newton,

 IMPLEMENTS 65

showing a naked figure representing the scientist using compasses in

an ultimately futile attempt to quantify God’s limitless creation.

Bell

Bells have had ritual significance from early times, being used to signal

the start of religious ceremonies at least from Assyrian days. They

have also long been considered consecrated instruments

with the power to drive away evil spirits. In Sibe

shamans regularly wore bells to protect them

on spirit journeys; in western Europe it was
claimed that the sound of church bells drove

the trolls out of Scandinavia and caused flying

witches to fall from the sky. For many centuries

a "passing bell" was rung as individuals lay

dying to protect them from demons as well as to

encourage passers-by to pray for their souls. Church

bells were also sometimes sounded to banish plague or to cause

storms to abate. In the days when clocks were scarce, bells marked
the passage of time; and while the tolling knell gave notice of deaths

and funerals, happy peals announced christenings and marriages.

Yoke
Armies conquered by Rome were forced to march underthree spears,

two upright and one set across, "passing under the yoke" to express

submission. Even since that time the implement has been the ultimate

symbol of defeat and subjection, associated with slavery as well as

with military defeat. When the prophet Jeremiah opined that "It is

good for a man that he bear the yoke in his youth", he was expressing
the view that humility can help prepare the soul to receive God.
 66 TYPES OF SYMBOL

Scales
Scales are the main insignia of justice around the world, suggesting

TRUMPET the careful weighing of evidence involved in conducting a fair trial.

The ringing
The association goes back at least as far as Roman times, when
notes of this
instrument Justitia, goddess of justice, was shown blindfolded (to indicate her

were used impartiality) and clutching a sword and scales. Even further back in

to herald
time, a similar image had suggested the fate of the human soul in the
events such as
medieval jousts, hands of the gods. Ancient Egyptian imagery from the Book of the
but became Dead showed a judgment scene in which the heart of the deceased
an emblem of
was weighed against a feather representing truth in the presence of
importance
in general, the dread judge Osiris. If the heart proved the lighter of the two, the
the attribute
dead person could pass on into the company of the gods, but if it

of Fame
personified.
was heavier he or she was consumed for all eternity by a crocodile-

headed monster. A similar thought informed the biblical writing on

the wall that foretold the downfall of King Belshazzar of Babylon:

"Thou art weighed in the balance and found wanting".

Anchor
St Paul described hope as "a sure and steadfast anchor

of the soul", reflecting the implement’s significance as an

emblem of security and stability. In early Christian times

the anchor also served as a crux dissimulata, a disguised

cross whose cruciform shape was recognized by

believers but evaded their Roman persecutors.

Lyre
The lyre is the oldest of all stringed instruments, featuring on

Sumerian monuments dating back 5,000 years. The earliest examples

were large, towering over the players who sat before them, but
 IMPLEMENTS 67

smaller, portable lyres appeared in Egypt from about

IOOObce on. In Classical Greece the lyre was the

instrument of Apollo, in whose hands it became a

symbol of the magic power of music; legend claimed

that the god played on one when Troy was being built

and the stones danced into their allotted positions of

their own accord. Orpheus used his lyre to entrance

the birds and beasts and even to soften the heart of

the dread Hades himself; Arion played so enticingly that a dolphin

rose from the deep to rescue him when he was cast into the sea by

pirates. Even now lyres can often be seen in concert-hall festoons

representing the triumph of harmony.

THE HOLY GRAIL

No trophy was ever more ardently guarded by a sworn brotherhood

sought than the Holy Grail, said to of knights. The mission undertaken
be the chalice employed at the Last by knights of King Arthur’s court

Supper and subsequently used to to find it became the great fictional

collect the blood of Christ narrative of the Middle

at the Crucifixion. Ages. Today the word

According to one “grail” is used

common version metaphorically

of the story, Joseph to describe any

of Arimathea then long-sought goal

carried the Grail to involving dedication

Britain; another held and effort, particularly

that angels brought it from if the quest has a spiritual

Heaventoamountaintop as well as a practical

stronghold, where it was dimension.

68 TYPES OF SYMBOL

WEAPONS
A panoply of arms

Weapons were first and foremost symbols of power, reflecting the

authority conceded to force majeure through most of human history.

Thor’s hammer and Neptune’s trident stood, like the swords wielded

by innumerable sculpted kings, for dominion through might. Yet some

arms transcended their violent origins to represent wider principles

guaranteed by the threat of duress, like the arrow of truth or the

sword of justice. And non-violence also had identifying images of

its own, from the broken arrow and calumet to the familiar circular

logo of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, adopted by peace

campaigners everywhere.

Sword
Across Eurasia swords were until recently the prime symbol of war.

"Fire and the sword" meant military devastation, while “to put to the

sword" was to kill. Someone girding on their sword was preparing for

battle, while returning the sword to the sheath indicated peace was at

hand - maybe even that a time might be coming to turn swords into

ploughshares, as foreseen in the biblical Book of Isaiah. Most heroes

of legend had their own special sword - Arthur’s was Excalibur,

Roland's Durandel — while the real-life samurai warriors of Japan

viewed their blades as their most prized possessions.

Yet the sword also had wider symbolic meanings. It

could be the arm of truth cutting through falsehood;

St Paul described God's word as "the sword of the

spirit". Statues of Lady Justice showed her carrying a

sword to punish evil-doers.

 WEAPONS 69

Arrow
American myth in particular associated arrows wi

thunderstorms. Mesoamerican sky god Mixcoatl

carried a bundle of arrows, perhaps because he was

also linked with hunting, while the Cheyenne of the Great
Plains guarded four sacred medicine arrows, said to have

been theirs since the creation of the world. Broken arrows

signified peace, while Cupid’s darts stood for the pain that love could

cause. When William Blake called for his "arrows of desire", he was

demanding tools to help him to create an English Jerusalem.

Bow
When Ulysses returned to Ithaca after two decades away fighting

the Trojan War, he used his old bow to prove his identity. Only he

was able to fire an arrow through the loops on a dozen axe handles;

none of his wife's unwanted suitors even managed to string the bow.

Bows were generally associated with strength and skill, although the

unknown warrior who killed Ahab of Israel in the biblical Book of

Kings did so merely by drawing his bow "at a venture". To have two

strings to one’s bow was a wise precaution against an emergency.

Trident
The trident was indelibly linked with the

Roman sea god Neptune. The figure

of Britannia, adopted as an emblem

of the British Empire, deliberately

harked back to the deity to invoke

British sea power alongside the

nation’s imperial ambitions.

 70 TYPES OF SYMBOL

EMBLEMS OF AUTHORITY
Temporal power and its trappings

One of the defining trends of modern political life has been the

desacralization of power. The discreet business suits and first-name

forms of address favoured by modern democratic leaders are a far

cry from the splendour of early monarchs - from the Muisca heirs

of what is now upland Colombia, who were coated from head to

foot in gold dust on their accession, to the pharaohs of ancient Egypt,

worshipped as earthly gods. The symbols of secular majesty were

also translated to the celestial sphere, and the panoply of thrones,

CROZIER crowns and sceptres adopted by temporal kings were imagined to

A staff with
adorn the deities in Heaven.
a shepherd's

crook at its

tip, the crozier Rod

served in the
Royal sceptres (see pages 72-73) were sophisticated refinements of
Christian world

as a symbol the humbler rod or staff traditionally associated with lesser grades
of Church of authority. Of the two, staffs had gentler connotations, linking them
dignitaries’
to people travelling by foot, notably pilgrims and oriental monks. In
pastoral role as

shepherds to contrast, rods suggested punishment: "Spare the rod and spoil the
their flocks.
child"; "Kiss the rod"; or, as Jehovah told the king of Israel in the

psalm, "You shall break them with a rod of iron". A more positive

take on rods came from their association with living trees. There was
a tradition in Germany for young people on certain feast days to

playfully scourge members of the opposite sex with "rods of life" -

freshly cut budding boughs - in the belief that they conferred health,

energy and fertility. In the Bible, Aaron’s rod flowered and brought

forth almonds as a divinely-inspired sign that he and his tribe were

the legitimate high priests of Israel.
 EMBLEMS OF AUTHORITY

Crown
The ultimate mark of royalty, the crown

owed its primacy to the head’s role as

seat of the brain, the wellspring of all

human activity. The tradition dated back at

least to the first pharaohs, who wore an elaborate double crown

symbolizing their rule over both Upper and Lower Egypt. Elsewhere,

the original crowns may have been open-topped diadems, themselves

a development of the custom of adorning people with wreaths. The

(
THE CAP OF LIBERTY

Contemporary illustrations of the it appeared in earlier Greek art as

French Revolution show working- the mark of someone foreign and

class street fighters wearing a exotic. Much later the Phrygian cap,

distinctive red cap. Floppy in texture, as it became known, was adopted as

it was easily recognized from its a symbol of American independence

drooping tip, hanging down to the by forces fighting the British crown.

front or side. Known Displayed on top of a “liberty

at the time as the pole” in a town or

liberty bonnet, it village, it served as a

drew on memories public declaration of

of ancient Rome, revolutionary intent.

where just such a French volunteers

cap had been worn who fought alongside

by freedmen - slaves Washington’s armies

emancipated by their took the emblem

masters and granted citizenship. home, and to this day Marianne, the

The headgear originated in Phrygia, national symbol of France, is often

a kingdom in central Anatolia, and shown wearing a liberty cap.

V J
 72 TYPES OF SYMBOL

Romans had a gradation of eight different crowns, ranging from

simple garlands of wild flowers up to golden coronets, to reward

different degrees of military achievement. Like other emblems of

power, crowns conferred cares as well as glory. Shakespeare made
the stresses of high office one of his main themes, coining the phrase

"the hollow crown" to describe the uncertainties of rule and making

Henry IV memorably remark: "Uneasy lies the head that wears a

crown". A coronet could even be made an instrument of mockery, as

when Roman soldiers made a crown of thorns for Jesus at the time

of the Crucifixion, ironically hailing him as king of the Jews.

Flail

The pharaohs of ancient Egypt used to carry a crook and a threshing

flail as emblems of their authority. Elsewhere in Africa fly-whisks were

symbols of monarchy; Jomo Kenyatta, the founder of modern Kenya,

carried one as a traditional Maasai emblem of power.

FLAIL
The pharaohs'
Portia in The Merchant of Venice said of rulers,
use of the
crook and “His sceptre shows the force of temporal

flail in ancient power, /The attribute to awe and majesty/

Egypt indicated
Wherein doth sit the dread and fear
their role as

guarantors of of kings.” It was left to the Cavalier

the people’s dramatist James Shirley to spell out
food supply,
the limitations of power: "Sceptre and
pastoral and

arable. crown/Must tumble down, /And in the dust

be equal made/With the poor crooked

scythe
s and spade". As symbols of majesty,

sceptres could equally well illustrate the

 EMBLEMS OF AUTHORITY

glories or the downfall of high estate. In myth, Agamemnon

bore a staff of office shaped by Hephaestos, the god of

craftsmen and metallurgy, and successively owned by Zeus,

Hermes, and the kings Pelops, Atreus and Thyestes.

The vajra ("thunderbolt") held by Hindu priests during

religious ceremonies, and the equivalent Tibetan dorje,

were both often referred to as small sceptres. To this

day the bejewelled golden sceptre of the British monarchs

is topped by a cross and orb (illustration, right), which represents

the globe, mounted above the celebrated Culinnan I diamond, taken

from the largest gem-quality diamond ever discovered.

Throne
Literally the seat of regal might, the throne in time became
synonymous with the office of kingship; those who visualized God
as a heavenly monarch generally pictured him seated on a celestial

throne. Solomon sat on a throne of ivory overlaid with gold that was

approached up six steps, for one function of thrones through the

ages has been to raise the occupants physically above the level of

those around them. Such exaltation was not for the plain-speaking

Samuel Johnson, who took the view that the throne of human felicity

was a tavern chair.

Girdle
A girdle was an ancient emblem of fidelity, perhaps recalling the belt

made for Venus by her husband Vulcan, which fell off as she dallied

with the war god Mars. In later times belts were sometimes claimed

to provide protection against witches, while ones blessed by a priest

purportedly guaranteed to ease the labour of childbirth.

 74 TYPES OF SYMBOL

LIGHT AND FIRE

The imagery of illumination

"And God said, ‘Let there be light'; and there was light.'The symbolism

of illumination was far-reaching, covering spiritual as well as physical

revelation, and it almost always had positive connotations, drawing

as it did on the primordial radiance of the Sun. Fire shared some of

NIMBUS the same prestige, although the brightness of flames could also have
This aureole
a threatening or destructive aspect. Cinders or ashes, reflections of
of light that

sometimes mortality in many cultures, signified the fate of those consumed by

surrounds the too much heat and light.

Sun or Moon is

caused by the
refraction of

light through FLAME

mist. An
association
For many peoples in many different bush was but one example - while
between light
lands, flames were an agent of in Chinese and Muslim art a flame
and divinity

led to the use purification, burning away blemishes sometimes served to represent the

of nimbuses and sins. Zoroastrian fire worship divine presence. In the secular

and haloes to seems to have grown out of world flames have long been
indicate the
the early Persian custom used to symbolize physical
sanctity of
of ordeal by heat. Those passion, a sentiment
figures such
who survived the trial preserved in the phrase
as Christian

saints.
were not only absolved “an old flame”. For

of any crime but also alchemists, fire was an

emerged physically and agent of transformation

mentally strengthened, a vital to the creation of the

claim also made for modern Philosopher’s Stone; for the

fire-walkers. In Jewish and apocalyptically minded, it was the

Christian belief God sometimes agent of destruction that one day

spoke from fire - Moses’ burning would consume the Earth.

 LIGHT AND FIRE

Torch
A beacon of freedom in the hand of the Statue of Liberty,

a torch symbolically was a flame raised high for all to see.

Reviving an ancient tradition, the modern Olympic torch

signifies the ideals of chivalry, sportsmanship and striving

for excellence, and "passing the torch" has come to mean

the handing on of any high ambition.

Dawn
A universal symbol of hope and fresh starts, the dawn marked the
return of light as the night's darkness was dispelled. Japan appropriated

the image for its rising-sun motif, also reflected in its name of Nippon

(literally "the Sun's origin"), which referred to the island nation's

easterly location in relation to China and Eurasia.

Ashes
"Ashes to ashes and dust to dust," English clergymen say when

burying the dead, emphasizing ashes' role as an image of the vanity

of human illusions. Around the world ashes were symbols of humility

and abasement, from the OldTestament custom of donning sackcloth

and ashes in penitence to the Brahman custom of rubbing the body

with ashes in preparation for religious ceremonies. Hindu yogi

sometimes appeared naked but for ashes to signify their contempt for

the material world. There was also a long-standing connection with

death and mourning; ancient Egyptians and Greeks all heaped ashes

on their heads as a mark of grief. In the 20th century the American

poet Carl Sandburg asked rhetorically, "What is the past but a bucket

of ashes?", and today Catholic priests still mark the foreheads of

penitents with ashes on Ash Wednesday, the first day of Lent.
 76 TYPES OF SYMBOL

TIME AND DEATH

Mementoes of mortality

9
Mortality had one of the world's most instantly recognizable symbolic

repertoires, replete with bones, skulls and skeletons. Time too, which

led individuals toward death, acquired a familiar imagery of sundials

and hourglasses, most of them signalling a memento mori awareness of

the transience of human and animal existence. In Hindu and Buddhist

DANGER cultures the Wheel of Life, turning through the cycle of birth and
During the
dying, conveyed our impermanence while also carrying the message
1 9th century
it became of rebirth through reincarnation.

common
practice
Father Time
to label
containers Usually shown with a long white beard and holding an hourglass, Father

of deadly Time traced his origins back to the Roman god Saturn and his Greek
substances
predecessor Kronos, both associated with time and shown carrying
with the skull-

and-crossbones a sickle. The figure came to represent the Old Year in New Year's Eve
emblem of the
celebrations, supplanted by a baby when midnight sounded.
pirate flag, the
Jolly Roger.

This is now Hourglass

the standard
Designed to permit sand to flow from
universal

symbol for one end to the other and then back again,

poison and hourglasses measured the passage of time

toxic materials.
and suggested its endless continuation. In the

Hindu tradition Shiva possessed a sir

shaped drum, used for ritual purposes. In

Buddhism the drums were made of two

skulls, one male and the other female to ensure

balanced yin and yang.
 TIME AND DEATH

Skull

The skull served across cultures as a memento mori indicating the

transitory nature of life. Golgotha, where Christ was crucified, meant

“place of the skull", while a Christian hermit pictured with a skull

signified the contemplation of death. Ancient Celts afforded cultic

significance to human heads, believing they were the seat of the life-

force, and in some non-Western cultures head-hunting was practised

because the head was regarded as the repository of the soul. In

pre-Columbian Mesoamerica human sacrifice was an important part

of religious practice, and skulls adorned the grounds of many temple
sites, such as Chichen Itza's sculpted “wall of skulls". The skull-and-

crossbones symbol has long been used by soldiers in defiance of

mortal danger (see box), and certain secret societies, such as the

Skull and Bones at Yale University in the US, also use the motif.

( \
DEATH OR GLORY
The motto of the Queen’s Royal the Light Brigade at Balaclava in the

Lancers, and the accompanying skull- Crimea in 1854.

and-crossbones cap badge, date back Known as the totenkopf, the death’s

to 1759. In that year the precursors head motif was also used by cavalry

of this British regiment, the 1 7th in Prussia from the mid 1700s to

Lancers, won the name of the “Death 1918. A variant was resurrected in

or Glory Boys” in honour of their the 1930s, most notoriously by a

commanding officer General James Waffen-SS Panzergrenadier division.

Wolfe, who died leading his men to Some modern US reconnaissance

victory over the French at Quebec. battalions still informally sport the

The Lancers later matched defiant skull and crossbones, although now
words to deeds when many of them usually in honour of its familiar

rode to their deaths in the Charge of intimidatory use on pirate flags.

V J
 PART
© TWO

BELIEF SYSTEMS

Symbols play a significant role in human affairs,

from politics to commerce. Yet they are most

central in belief systems. Almost all the world’s

religions employ visual icons to convey spiritual

ideas. Societies and sects also use pictorial

imagery to embody core notions and bond their

members in a shared identity.The symbols may

even become objects of devotion, standing in

for the abstract concepts that they incarnate.

 80 BELIEF SYSTEMS: RELIGIONS

ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS
Keepsakes of the earliest cultures

Easily memorable and endlessly suggestive, some symbols have a

lifespan that outdates any other form of human communication.

Images that were familiar to the earliest civilizations still put in an

appearance today. Some preserve an aura of primeval mystery;

others may be purely decorative, featuring as amulets, corporate

logos, even tattoos. A few designs dating back to prehistoric times

ANKH are also still recognizable now. The obese female figure known as
The Egyptian
the Venus ofWillendorf may have been carved as early as 20,000bce,
hieroglyph that
represents but her rotund image still retains its power as a representation of

“life", the ankh fecundity identifiable as such around the globe.

remains a
Of the imagery of historic times, the iconography of ancient Egypt
popular symbol
today among has become particularly familiar since the pharaonic civilization was
neo-Pagans as rediscovered by the West in the 18th and 19th centuries. For all

well as with
its influence on later cultures, Mesopotamia remains by comparison
goths and
hippies. less remembered and less explored. Other worlds that have left a

heritage of symbols include Minoan Crete and ancient Persia.

Aten
Depicted as a solar disk radiating rays of light, the aten was venerated

as the representation of Egypt’s only deity during the 14th-century

bce reign of the pharaoh Akhenaten, considered a heretic because

of his monotheism. After the ruler’s death, he and all his works were
anathematized and the traditional, multitudinous pantheon was

restored. The aten symbolized the life-giving energy flowing from Ra-

F-lorus, the creator god, whose name was written in a cartouche like

a pharaoh's to signify Ra's sovereign role as ruler of the universe.

 ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 81

f THE PECTORAL OFTHETWiN GODDESSES

;

Found in the tomb of Tutankhamun, was god of the Underworld and the
this chest decoration shows the merciful bestower of eternal life. The
young king as Osiris, protected by pharaoh carries the crook and flail

the wings of vulture-headed Nekhbet, that served as the god’s emblems of

p rotecto r of U ppe r Egypt, an d Wad et, j

authority and wears the atef crown
cobra goddess of Lower Egypt. Osiris associated with his cult.

The uraeuses (I) at each side of the

pectoral were associated with Wadjet

(2) as well as with royal authority,

represented by the pharaoh (3). The

ankh (4)
- here as a glyph meaning
"life” - appears in the text panel

adjoining the image of Nekhbet (5).

A
 82 BELIEF SYSTEMS: RELIGIONS

Scarab
An unlikely solar symbol, the humble dung-beetle was linked to Khepri,

god of the rising sun. Much as the scarab rolls its ball of manure, so

Khepri was thought to push the Sun through the Underworld each

SCARAB night before launching it on its daily journey across the heavens with
This symbol of
the dawn. Just as the Sun was reborn daily, so the scarab itself was
transformation
and renewal
,
was used
prominently in
PROTECTIVE POWERS
mummification
ceremonies.
A funerary Many Egyptians wore amulets to ward of Osiris, and the ankh. Also featured

scarab - placed off evil and bring happiness or good here are cowrie shells, indicating

on the chest fortune. A talismanic necklace like female sexuality and fertility; fish,

of the dead this one (below) might have various worn to ward off drowning; and
to encourage
tutelary motifs, usually including the the looped, ankh-like so sign, the
rebirth of the
djed pillar, representing the backbone hieroglyph for “protection”.
soul - was
discovered
in the
wrappings of
Tutankhamun.

4 4
J T -
k k
*
JOY

COWRIE SHELL ANKH

 ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS

thought to be self-regenerating, born from animal carcasses or the

dungballs where its larvae live. The insect therefore became a symbol

of transformation and renewal.

Ankh
Originating as the hieroglyph representing “life”, the ankh typically

appears in ancient Egyptian artwork in the hands of a god or goddess

thought to have the power to confer rebirth on a dead person’s

mummy. Modern theories of its origin range from the Freudian view

that it represents stylized, superimposed female and male sexual

organs to the suggestion that it imitated a sandal strap, the same

hieroglyph standing for the words "life” and “sandal”.

Uraeus
A stylized spitting cobra, the uraeus was the symbol of the goddess
Wadjet, patroness of Lower Egypt - the region round the Nile Delta.

As such, it featured on the headdresses of pharaohs to

represent their rule over the area. It thus became an image

of royal authority, conceived of as spitting venom
at the ruler's enemies.

Sphinx
Some symbols travelled from one culture

to another. The winged sphinx of Classical

mythology (right) had its origins in an

Egyptian predecessor, best known today from

the Great Sphinx that stands guard over the

pyramids of Giza. The Egyptian sphinx was a

hybrid creature with the body of a lion and

 84 BELIEF SYSTEMS: RELIGIONS

WINGED SUN
This symbol
(right) has
long been
associated in

the ancient
the head of a ram, a falcon or a human being. Its function was as a
Near East

-from Egypt spiritual watchdog providing protection against evil forces.

to Persia
- with divinity,
Feather of ma’at
royalty and

power. One of the odder Egyptian symbols was the feather that represented

ma’at, the concept of justice and good order, which was personified

in a goddess of the same name.

The Book of the Dead spelled out the belief that after death the

soul of the deceased proceeded to a chamber called the Hall of the

DJED Two Truths, where wrongdoing in the course of his or her life on
This ring-
Earth was to be denied. Each individual's heart was then weighed in
topped pillar

represented the balance against the feather of truth. A monstrous creature known
the backbone as Ammit devoured the hearts of those found to have lied, who were
of Osiris and
subsequently condemned to remain eternally in the Underworld. In
was a symbol
of strength contrast those who had spoken truly were admitted to the company
and stability. It
of the god Osiris in the fields of Aaru, the Egyptian heaven.
took its name
from the city

of Djedu, a cult Inanna’s knot

centre of the
One of the few visual symbols to have survived from ancient
god.
Mesopotamia, Inanna’s knot was the emblem of the Sumerian goddess

of sexual love and war, known to successor civilizations as Ishtar. It

takes the form of a bundle of reeds with the upper end looped, and

is thought to represent a doorpost designed to hold a crosspole;

usually two were shown together, one for each side. The design is on

the famous Warka Vase, a decorated alabaster container dating back

 ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS

to at least 3000bce. Scholars speculate that the doorposts may have

represented the portal of a storehouse, signifying plenty.

Labrys
When Greece's authoritarian leader loannis Metaxas (1871-1941)

needed an icon for the youth movement he founded, he chose

the labrys - the double-headed axe that remains the most familiar

emblem of Minoan Crete. For Metaxas the image represented both

antiquity and authority.

( V
FARAVAHAR -THE WINGED DISK
Zoroastrian Persia’s best-known Mazda in his work of creation. By

contribution to world iconography is the time of the Persian Empire, the

the faravahar the image of a

,
human images of rulers were sometimes
figure superimposed on a winged disk. used, notably Darius I, whose army
The individuals depicted were fravashi, the Greeks defeated at the Battle of

celestial spirits or guardian angels Marathon in 490bce. The faravahar

believed to have assisted itself drew on earlier winged-disk

the sky lord Ahura symbols from ancient Egypt, where

they were associated with the sun

god Ra, and from Assyria, where

they served as emblems

of royalty. In modern
times the emblem
has been borrowed

by various mystical

groups including

Rosicrucians,
Theosophists
and Freemasons.

V
 86 BELIEF SYSTEMS: RELIGIONS

THE CLASSICAL WORLD

Mementoes of the myths

Even today, the modern Western world remains connected to Classical

Greece and Rome by an umbilical cord of shared cultural traditions.

Forming part of that heritage is a repertoire of symbols. Often our

debt to the ancients goes unrecognized. When superstitious people

throw a pinch of spilt salt over their shoulder, they are unlikely to

realize the gesture was originally one of respect to the Penates, Roman
gods of household plenty; if someone describes an acquaintance as

ORPHIC EGG two-faced, they probably do not spare a thought for Janus, the twin-
Orphism used
visaged deity of entrances and exits. Yet some of the borrowings have
the serpent-
entwined been deliberate. The US Senate still meets in the Capitol, named for

egg to signify Rome’s Capitoline Hill, and Mussolini's Fascism took its name and
the Cosmos.
emblem from the fasces carried before Roman magistrates.
Clasped in the
coils of a snake,
symbol of Orphic egg
spiritual rebirth

and renewal,
The Cosmic Egg from which the universe was hatched is a common
the egg can also mythological theme found in lands as far apart as China, India and
be read as man pre-Columbian America. In ancient Greece, followers of the Orphic
emerging from
ignorance once
mystery religion believed creation began with an egg (left) laid in the

the shell has primal Chaos, described as "the wo nb of darkness". From it emerged
been broken
Phanes, the hermaphroditic first progenitor of life, from whose
by initiation

into the Orphic offspring the races first of gods and then of humans were born.
mysteries.

Caduceus
Roman heralds traditionally carried a white wand wrapped with

ribbons when treating for peace. By a natural process of transference

the staff became an emblem of Hermes, messenger of the gods,

 THE CLASSICAL WORLD 87

c THE GORGON’S STONY STARE

In Greek myth the three Gorgons A gorgoneion (I) decorates a

were hideous females with sharp bowl made in the 7th century

fangs, protruding tongues, bronze bce. The frieze around the central
claws and snakes for hair. Their faces image includes two sphinxes (2)

were so ghastly that all who saw them and a siren (3).

turned to stone. Greeks sought to

harness the lethal power of the image

by copying it onto amulets, entrances,

city walls and shields - and even

tombstones. Known as the gorgoneion,

the face was thought to ward off

malign influences and protect against

the Evil Eye.

 88 BELIEF SYSTEMS: RELIGIONS

acquiring on the way wings like those sported by Hermes himself.

More bizarrely, the caduceus was shown with twin serpents entwined

around it (see opposite), reflecting a story that the god had disturbed

two snakes fighting and made peace by thrusting the rod between

SIREN them. In later times the caduceus became a symbol of commerce and
The sirens of
communications, reflecting Hermes’ role as a speedy courier.
Classical myth
lured seamen
to their deaths Rod of Asclepius
with the
The caduceus has sometimes been confused with the Rod of Asclepius,
beauty of their
song - hence Greek god of medicine, which takes the form of a staff entwined
their depiction

with avian
attributes. But (
over time, the FRONDS OF FERTILITY
physical beauty

of a siren has The palmette decorations favoured radiating shape may have influenced

often been as in Classical times took their place the palmette’s own design.The Greeks
relevant - in in a line of motifs drawn from plant themselves developed the palmette
many medieval life stretching back to the earliest into the more intricate acanthus-
guises she
civilizations. Ancient Egyptian artists leaf pattern, reflecting the fecundity
appears more
drew their inspiration from the of the natural world. Acanthus
like a mermaid
(above). papyrus reeds found in the Nile remained a popular ornamentation

Delta or from lotus flowers, whose into the 20th century.

The lotus motif (left) preceded the palmette (centre), which itself may have
influenced the acanthus design (right).
 THE CLASSICAL WORLD 89

by a single serpent. Like the Orphic egg, the snake

represents healing and regeneration, reflecting

the ancient belief that snakes could renew

themselves by shedding their skins. Asclepius's

staff continues to be an internationally recognized

symbol of therapeutic care, featuring today in the logos

of the World Health Organization, the American Medical

Association and the Royal Army Medical Corps.

Siren

The bird-like sirens of Classical myth lured seamen to their

deaths with the beauty of their song. In Homer’s Odyssey Ulysses,

protected his sailors from the sirens’ charms by filling their ears with

wax; he himself was lashed to the mast so they could not entice him.

Symbolically, sirens are temptresses in any form, and the siren song is

any message that is as alluring as it is dangerous.

Laurel wreath
The leaves of the Bay laurel had multiple connotations for the ancient

Greeks. They were associated with poetry, and were thought to

inspire prophecy; the Pythoness at Delphi chewed them to stimulate

her oracular powers. They were also linked with immortality, the

laurel tree being evergreen. As a result, victors in the Pythian Games,

held every four years at Delphi, were rewarded with a wreath of the

leaves (winners in the ancient Olympics received an olive branch).

The Romans seized on the connection with winning to make the

wreath a symbol of victory; news of battles won was sent to the

Senate wrapped in laurel leaves, and the successful generals were

crowned with laurels to celebrate their triumphs.

 90 BELIEF SYSTEMS: RELIGIONS

PALMETTE 11 UlTMTAir/il Ml TJllTf.llf.1 T /il T 1\ Y/A T/.l TiT fAT f.VT fAT BAT/.l 1 1 1 /ATIllI MIUMAT/Ami 11

The fan-shaped
leaves of the

palm tree were

a common
architectural
Fasces
motif from
Classical to In July 1943, when news of Mussolini's fall spread in Rome, jubilant

neo-Classical crowds started pulling down images of bundles of rods surrounding

times (right).
an axe. The emblem was the logo of his Fascist Party. The Italian
Besides being
aesthetically dictator had borrowed the idea from the trussed birch staves borne
appealing,
by the l/ctors of ancient Rome (see opposite). Representing strength
the palmette
symbolized
through unity, the fasces has survived its association with Fascism and

fertility and lives on today across the world as a symbol of governmental authority,
growth.
featuring, for example, on the official seal of the US Senate.

Cornucopia
The image of a horn overflowing with fruit and vegetables remains

a potent international symbol of the Earth's bounty. Greek myth

explained that the infant Zeus was fed goat’s milk by the nymph
Amalthea, and that he rewarded her by breaking off one of the

animal's horns and giving it to her with the promise that its owner
should always have everything she wanted in abundance.

Omphalos
Across the prehistoric Mediterranean region, people accorded sacred

powers to conical stones or boulders, to which the Greeks gave the

name omphalos (“navel”). The most celebrated example was kept in

the sanctuary of Delphi, where it was said to mark the centre of the
world. Legend had it that Zeus released two eagles from the far ends

of the Earth and placed the stone at the point where they met.
 THE CLASSICAL WORLD

THE POWER OF THE MANY

The lictors of ancient Rome were attendant

officials who preceded magistrates

whenever they went out on public

business, clearing a path for them and

forming a protective line when they sought
to address a crowd. However, perhaps their

principal function was to emphasize

the dignity of their employers, and

every aspect of their appearance

was designed to underline that

message. They wore the togas

of Roman citizens and carried

the fasces, which symbolized

magisterial authority as well as

warning of the consequences of

transgression: the rods and the

axe bound together in a bundle

signified respectively corporal and

capital punishment.

Besides the fasces

bundle (I ), the

lictor represented in

this bronze Roman

figurine carries

laurel leaves (2)

and wears a wreath

(3) - symbols
of authority and

civilian power
 92 BELIEF SYSTEMS: RELIGIONS

HINDUISM
Route-markers for dharma

Hinduism is aWestern term, used as a catch-all to describe interlinked

ancient religious traditions of the Indian subcontinent. Unlike the

followers of most other major faiths, Hindus have no set body

of beliefs or institutional structure. Instead, different regions

have separate traditions with regard to the gods they worship,

the scriptures they use and the festivals they observe.

AUMKAR Underlying the diversity are some common concepts. One is

Perhaps way of
dharma, which means "justice” and implies the right living in
the most
accordance with natural moral laws. Most Hindus accept the idea of
important
Hindu symbol, reincarnation or the transmigration of souls, linked through samsara,
the aumkar
the cycle of birth and rebirth through successive generations. The law
is the visual
of karma dictates that a person's behaviour in one life will determine
representation
of“aum" or the conditions of his existence in the next.The ultimate goal is moksha
“om", a deeply
or liberation, meaning release from the cycle of death and rebirth.
resonant
sound said to

be the noise - -N
through which
the world was
NATARAJA: LORD OF THE DANCE
created.

One of Hinduism’s best-known I Oth to 1 2th centuries ce, but it drew

symbols is Shiva as Nataraja, Lord of on much earlier oriental traditions

the Dance. The god is shown engaged of sacred dancing, used as a way of

in the divine dance of creation reaching an ecstatic state. Nataraja

and destruction, concentrating may also appear as an ascetic with

within himself all the energies of matted hair, a conquering warrior,

the universe. The pose achieved its or androgynously, combining his own
familiar form in bronzes of the Chola attributes with those of his partner,

kingdom of southern India in the the goddess Shakti.

:
J
 HINDUISM 93

Shiva dances in a flame circle

(I) to represent the universe,

crushing Apasmara (2), who

stands for ignorance. The snake

(3) is Kundalini, physical energy.

94 BELIEF SYSTEMS: RELIGIONS

The Hindu tradition is polytheistic, accepting many gods. The chief

divinities are grouped in a triad known as the Trimurti: Brahma, a

remote and unapproachable creator deity, Vishnu and Shiva. These

may be worshipped in their own right or else as manifestations of

an overriding divine principle, Brahman. They can also take different

( \
KALI YANTRA
Yantras are geometric - or “shape- vital force. The perimeter has four

energy” - diagrams used by Hindus as openings to the regions of the

a focus for meditation. This example universe. The circle is ignorance. The

is inspired by Kali, the fearsome triangle is shakti (creative energy);

goddess of creation and destruction. pointing down it represents the yoni

The lotus represents reproductive or female sexuality.

 HINDUISM 95

forms: Vishnu, for example, may be venerated as

any one of nine different avatars or incarnations,’

among them such popular figures as Krishna,

Rama and the lion-man Narashima.

Besides the Trimurti, other important Hindu

deities include the elephant-headed Ganesha

(right), the Lord of Success and destroyer of

evils and obstacles, and the 10-armed warrior

goddess Durga, who embodies feminine creative

energy (shakti).

Mace
One of four attributes traditionally associated with Vishnu (along with

the chakra, lotus and conch shell), the mace is a weapon for battling

the forces of evil. Esoterically it is interpreted as primal energy.

Chakra
Another of Vishnu's attributes, the chakra is a bladed, discus-like

weapon that also represents the god’s martial side. Spiritually it is

seen as the cutting edge that slices through self-delusion to reach

true inner vision.

Vel

Different parts of India have their own divinities, and the warrior god

Murugan is a favourite in the southern Tamil lands. His emblem is the

vel or lance, given to him by his mother Parvati to use against demons.

The Vel of Murugan is now worshipped in some Tamil temples as

a symbol of the victory of good over evil, and Parvati’s gift is still

celebrated annually in the festival ofThaipusam.

 96 BELIEF SYSTEMS: RELIGIONS

Trishula
Shiva’s weapon is the trishula or trident, often carried by Shaivite

sanrtyasi s (ascetics). The three-pronged symbol representing it

resembles the Buddhist triratna (see pages 1

00-1 01), which may

derive from it. Different schools associate the triple projections

with varying trinities: past, present and future in one interpretation;

TRISHULA creation, existence and destruction in another.

Shiva's trident,

his cosmic
weapon Nandi
as creator, Another of Shiva's attributes is the bull Nandi, which serves as the
preserver,
god's mount and also as the gatekeeper whose statue can be seen
destroyer.

It is also a outside Shaivite temples. White in colour, the animal stands for purity

fire symbol and justice.

representing
three aspects
of the Vedic Lingam
god Agni.
Modern Hindu interpretations shy away from identifying the lingam, a

sacred emblem of Shiva, with the phallus, which it obviously resembles.

A very ancient symbol whose origins date back as far as the Indus

Valley civilization, the lingam may well have begun its career as a sign

of masculine potency and strength. Hindu scholars today translate

the term simply as "mark" and see it as a visual interpretation of

Shiva's power and a focus for worship of the god.

Tilaka
Usually worn on the forehead, the tilaka is an identifying mark
that serves to signal the particular Hindu tradition that the wearer
follows. Various substances are used to make it, including clay, ashes

and sandalwood paste. Some people choose to wear the tilaka daily,

others only for religious ceremonies.

 HINDUISM 97

C KALKI ~ >V

Hindu scriptures describe Vishnu as age of darkness and corruption. In

manifesting himself in nine separate this aspect he is usually shown riding

incarnations, plus one which is still a winged white horse and brandishing

to come. This future avatar is Kalki, a sword. Kalki is not worshipped, as

a warrior deity who will appear on Vishnu’s other avatars are; instead he

Earth to bring to an end the current is a figure whose coming is linked to

cycle of existence, the Kali Yuga, an the dawn of a new age.

In this 19th-century bronze, Kalki and his

steed form a single figure. In his hands the

god holds the traditional attributes ofVishnu:

conch shell (I), lotus (2), mace (3)

and chakra wheel (4).

v
 98 BELIEF SYSTEMS: RELIGIONS

BUDDHISM
Signposts to enlightenment

Founded in about the 5th century bce by Siddhartha Gautama,

Buddhism teaches individuals how to lose themselves in a

greater, universal consciousness. Gautama himself became

the Buddha, or Enlightened One, at the age of 35

and spent the rest of his life passing on the lessons

he had learned to a growing band of disciples.

Others since have similarly attained enlightenment,

and they too are considered to be buddhas.

DHARMA Gautama summarized his teaching in the Four Noble

WHEEL Truths. These state that the condition of life is suffering; that the
The eight

spokes of the
root cause of suffering is desire; that overcoming desire puts an end
Buddhist wheel to suffering; and that desire can be vanquished by following the mental
correspond
and moral disciplines known as the Noble Eightfold Path. The path
to the right
actions of the entails an ethical lifestyle based on right speech, right actions, and
Eightfold Path. right livelihood (one that does not harm others). Mentally it requires
A variation
contemplation involving right exercise of the mind, right awareness
forms part of
India’s national and right meditation. These in turn promote wisdom, represented
flag.
by right thoughts and right understanding. The ultimate goal is bodhi

(“awakening”), freeingthe individual from the eternal cycle of suffering

and leading him or her to nirvana, the final extinction of desire.

Dharma wheel
The concept of dharma plays a key role in the Buddhist worldview,

as in other religions originating on the Indian subcontinent. The

word signifies a life lived in harmony with the natural order, and in

the Buddhist context also includes the Buddha's own teaching. The
 BUDDHISM 99

r
THE BUDDHA’S FOOTPRINTS

Images of the Buddha’s footprints, footprints that predated the arrival

known as Buddhapadas, are found of Buddhism, symbolizing the passage

across the Buddhist world, but are of the transcendent on Earth. In the

particularly revered in Sri Lanka Buddhist tradition the prints not

and Thailand. Rock markings of only implied the Buddha’s physical

human body parts date back to presence in the material world but

prehistoric times and have a name also his departure from it into the

of their own: petrosomatoglyphs. In state of nirvana, attained by following

India there was a tradition of holy the Eightfold Path to enlightenment.

V fgjp:

This Buddhapada from

the Amaravati Stupa in

India features concentric

dharma wheels (
I )
on
the sole of each foot.

Faint incisions on the

heels reveal the triratna

symbol (2), while swirling

swastikas (3) appear in

the spaces between the

wheels and toes.

J
 100 BELIEF SYSTEMS: RELIGIONS

Buddhist symbol of dharma is an eight-spoked wheel, each of the

spokes representing one element of the Buddha’s Noble Eightfold

Path. The Buddha himself is said to have turned such a wheel in

the first great sermon he preached after attaining enlightenment,

SWASTIKA delivered at Sarnath near India’s border with Nepal. The turning of
This popular
the wheel symbolizes the process of spiritual change set in motion
Buddhist motif
is considered by his teaching, but also refers to the endless cycle of samsara, or

the seal of the rebirth, which can only be escaped by following his precepts.
Buddha's heart.
The symbol is

one of success Triratna

and prosperity. The dharma also features as one of the triratna or “three jewels” of

Buddhism (the other two are the Buddha himself and the Sangha
- the monastic community). This trinity is invoked in ordination

A
THE MEANING OF MUDRAS
Symbolic hand gestures known as the dharma wheel, the dharmachakra

mudras play an important role in (centre) refers to the Buddha’s first

Buddhist art. Adapted from Hindu great sermon, preached at Sarnath.

yoga positions, each one carries a The vitarka mudra (right), with the

specific connotation. The dhyana tips of thumb and index finger

mudra (left) is the traditional posture touching, denotes the transmission

of meditation. Recalling the turning of of Buddhist teachings.

 BUDDHISM

ceremonies, when novices repeat "I take refuge in the Buddha; I

take refuge in the Dharma; I take refuge in the 'Sangha”. Usually its

symbol is a “W” shape with rounded curves, although it may also be

represented as three circles enclosed within a clover-shaped outline.

The three jewels symbol often appears in conjunction with other

emblems, including the lotus flower (see pages 37-39) and the vajra

or thunderbolt, to form a propitious cluster.

Treasure vase
Also known as the Urn ofWisdom.the treasure

vase represents shunyata - “emptiness”, or “the

void” - implying an awareness of the illusory

nature of external appearances. In popular

Buddhism the vase has also come to stand for

health, prosperity and wisdom.

Stupa
Stupas are Buddhist shrines, originally built to house relics of holy

men but later becoming objects of veneration in their own right.

Over time their distinctive shape became an emblem of the faith.

Traditionally stupas featured a circular dome built on a square base,

often with a conical spire on top. The overall look could vary from

mound-like to bell-shaped, depending on the dimensions of the

various parts. In China and Japan the stupa eventually evolved into

the multi-storeyed pagoda.

Buddha’s eyes
Stupas with painted eyes gazing to the four directions are a common
sight in Nepal.They representthe all-seeing gaze ofthe Buddha looking
 102 BELIEF SYSTEMS: RELIGIONS

out over all points of the world. A spiral symbol is often added where
the eyes join; this is the Nepalese numeral “ I
", added as a reminder of

the unity of all existence and to indicate that the Buddha’s teachings

are the sole path to enlightenment - itself sometimes symbolized by

a third eye positioned above the other two.

Endless Knot
A repeated pattern of intertwining forms, the Endless Knot evokes the

complexity and interconnectedness of life, as well as the blending of

wisdom and compassion required of those seeking enlightenment.

ENDLESS
KNOT Enso
The Endless
Knot, a
Meaning “circle" in Japanese, the enso - a brushstroke in the form of a

repeated ring - is a calligraphic emblem profoundly linked with Zen Buddhism.

pattern of
The image represents enlightenment and the totality of being, but the
interlacing

forms, spontaneous individuality of the brushmarks - for no two enso are

symbolizes exactly the same - also implies the transience of the physical world.
the Buddha's
infinite

wisdom and Manji

compassion.
This Japanese term denotes the Buddhist swastika. With the prongs
facing left, the symbol implies love and mercy. Turned to the right, it

stands for strength and intelligence Often the two are set off against

one another at the top and bottom of Buddhist scriptures.

Conch shell

A rarity in nature, a conch shell that spirals to the right stands for

the deep harmony of the Buddha's teachings, which awakens disciples

from the sleep of ignorance and directs them along the Noble

Eightfold Path.
 BUDDHISM

THE EIGHT-PETALLED LOTUS

A
In Buddhism a lotus flower stands for the surface in the sunlight. Buddhism

the enlightened soul and is sometimes teaches that the human spirit can

shown with eight petals - an important similarly rise from the mire of the

number for the faith. Known in the material world through the waters

West as water lilies, the plants have of experience up to the radiance of

their roots in the muddy bottoms enlightenment. The Buddha is often

of ponds but the flowers bloom on shown sitting on a lotus flower.

This mirror was made in I 6th-century ce japan.

The lotus (I) symbolizes enlightenment, the total

of eight petals is auspicious, while the design of

birds and flowers (2) evokes the natural world.

 104 BELIEF SYSTEMS: RELIGIONS

JAINISM
Respect for all living things

Jainism developed out of, but in opposition to, India’s Hindu traditions.

It traces its origins to a line of 24 tirthankars - literally ‘‘ford-makers”

- whose teaching helps individual souls to cross from the bondage

of the material world to liberation from the cycle of rebirth. The

first of these pioneers may have lived as early as the 9th century bce;

the last, Vardhamana, is generally dated 599-527bce, and is known as

Mahavira (‘‘Great Hero”) orjina ("Victor”).

JAINISM Reacting against Hinduism’s caste elitism and the practice of animal
This universe
sacrifice, Jainism opened itself to all and preached the sanctity of life.
symbol
adopted by In other respects Jains remained close to the earlier tradition, sharing

all Jain sects with it the concept of samsaro (the cycle of reincarnation) and the
incorporates
law of karma that dictates people's condition in future lives. Jainism
key elements
of the faith shares symbols with both Hinduism and Buddhism, which developed
- the Lok on the subcontinent at a similar period. Upon the 2,500th anniversary
outline, the
of Mahavira’s enlightenment, the Jain sects agreed a general symbol
raised hand, a

swastika, the (left). Outlined by Lok - the Jain universe (seven hells at the bottom,
three jewels
Earth and the planets in the middle, the heavenly realms at the top)
and the abode
- it contains the raised hand and the swastika, as well as three dots for
of the siddhas.

the Buddhist-derived idea of three jewels (right knowledge, right faith

and right conduct). At the top an arc represents the Siddhashila, the

final resting place of those perfected souls that have been liberated.

The dot within the arc is a slddha, one who is free of attachments.

Swastika
Thousands of years before it was appropriated by the Nazis, the

swastika played a prominent part in the iconography of most Indian

 JAINISM

religions. As the fylfot it remains particularly important in Jainism,

being associated with the seventh of the faith’s 24 tirthankars or

founding fathers. As such, it appears in all temples and holy books,

and celebrants shape swastikas out of rice before altars in the course

of rituals. Its four arms remind the faithful of the four destinies in the

cycle of death and rebirth: heavenly beings, human beings, animal

beings (including birds, insects and plants) and hellish beings. The

fylfot is also a reminder of the four subdivisions of the Jain Sangh, or

community - sadhu s, sadhvis, shravaks and shravikas.

c
THE VOW OF AHIMSA
A hand raised in a “stop” sign

symbolizes the concept of ahimsa, or

“avoidance of violence”, which Jains

interpret to mean not doing harm to

any living thing. Because of the belief

that the reincarnated soul may come

back in animal or insect form, some
Jains sometimes wear nose masks
to avoid inhaling flies and sweep the

path in front of them so as not to

tread on bugs.

AHIMSA WITHIN A WHEEL

The ahimsa palm symbolizes the

Jain vow of non-violence. The wheel

represents samsara, the eternal cycle

of rebirth that Jains hope to escape.

 106 BELIEF SYSTEMS: RELIGIONS

SIKHISM
The khanda, the Khalsa and the five Ks

Founded by Guru Nanak (1469-1539) in the Punjab region of

northwest India, Sikhism is a monotheistic religion combining

elements of Hinduism and Islam. In reaction to the ritualism that

marked both those faiths at the time, Nanak sought to bring his

followers closer to God through meditation and devotion.

Nanak’s message was passed on through a succession of nine

later gurus, the last of whom was Gobind Singh, founder of the

Khalsa order, which gave the movement a markedly military character.

KHANDA On his death in 1708, Sikh scriptures collected in the Adi Granth
A universally
("First Book") became the religion’s supreme authority. These texts
recognized
symbol of and the entire Sikh community are both now called gurus for their

Sikhism, the role in passing on the teachings of the founding fathers.

khanda appears
on temple flags

and even as a Ek Onkar

finial.
Derived from the Hindu aumkar sign, the Ek Onkar symbol is a

fundamental emblem of Sikhism, made up of the Sanskrit characters

for"One Aum" or"One God". Found in most Sikh places of worship,

it summarizes the monotheistic nature of the faith.

Khanda
Made up of a collection of weapons, the khanda is recognized around

the world as a Sikh icon. The khanda itself is the double-edged sword

in the centre, backed by a sharp-bladed throwing ring (

chakra ) and

flanked by single-edged scimitars. Together they convey the warrior

image Gobind Singh gave to the faith. The right edge is said to

symbolize freedom governed by moral values; the left, divine justice.

 SIKHISM 107

r
THE KHALSA

Sikhism developed at a time when who underwent the Sikh initiation

much of northern India fell under ceremony. The Khalsa was initially a

the control of the Muslim Mughal warrior brotherhood, and those who
Dynasty. Faced with oppression at joined were expected to practise

the hands of the militant Emperor arms and to be willing to die for

Aurangzeb, Gobind Singh fought their beliefs. It survives to this day as

back by founding the Khalsa (literally a bulwark of the faith, now open to

“Pure”), a community open to all both men and women.

Sikhs have five articles of faith known as kakars: kesh (unshorn hair and

beard); kanga, a small comb to comb the hair twice daily); kaccha, undershorts

worn as a symbol of sexual restraint; kara, an iron bracelet representing the

bond to the Sikh faith; and the kirpan a curved

,
sword or dagger carried for

defence. This kirpan sword is decorated with the khanda motif (I), an image

of Gobind Singh (2) and an eagle's head (3) to symbolize valour.

 108 BELIEF SYSTEMS: RELIGIONS

CONFUCIANISM
AND TAOISM
Ideograms of Chinese thought

Confucianism and Taoism are twin poles of traditional Chinese

thought. The two are opposite but complementary in their message.

Based on the thoughts of the sage Kongfuzi (Confucius), Confucianism

preaches civic virtue, stressing respect for tradition and for elders

YIN-YANG along with an acceptance of social hierarchies - an apt doctrine for

The Diagram
a populous, tightly governed nation. Taoism, whose fundamental text
of the Supreme
Ultimate
is the Too Te Ching (roughly translated as The Way and its Power), in

represents contrast emphasizes spontaneity and the need to live in harmony with
duality as the
nature. Both doctrines emerged in the 6th century bce, and between
dynamic force
in the Cosmos. them they dominated Chinese intellectual life for the next two and
a half millennia. The two came to share an overlapping symbolism
that in later centuries also profoundly influenced the iconography of

Chinese Buddhism.

Taijitu

Better known in the West as the yin-yang symbol, the taijitu

encapsulates fundamental principles of Taoist thought. The outer

circle represents the universe. The two joined shapes are respectively

yin and yang, opposite but complementary forces that constantly

interact with one another to shape the cycle of life. Yin is passive, dark,

female and nocturnal; yang is active, light, male and associated with the

day. The image of the world they convey is one of dynamic balance;

the two fluctuating impulses are constantly in motion, one advancing

as the other retreats - as manifested in such antitheses as shadow and

sun, intuition and reason, and non-being and being.

 CONFUCIANISM AND TAOISM

~ ~\
f
TRIGRAMS FOR A WORLD IN FLUX
Trigrams are arrangements of each composed of two trigrams or six

three lines stacked horizontally yin or yang lines, raising the number
above one another. They form the of possibilities for oracular purposes

basic unit of the / Ching or Book of to 64. Each hexagram represents

Changes, an ancient text and one of a particular state or process. The

Confucianism’s Five Classics. A line sequence below shows, in the outer

is either broken (yin ) or unbroken circle, the Primal Arrangement of

(yang), making eight combinations. opposites (fire and water), and, in

Trigrams are in turn combined, one the interior circle, the Inner World
above another, to form hexagrams, Arrangement or seasonal cycle.

HEAVEN

LAKE WIND

SOUTH
WIND EARTH
THUNDER LAKE

MOUNTAIN HEAVEN
NORTH
WATER

THUNDER MOUNTAIN

EARTH

V
BELIEF SYSTEMS: RELIGIONS

THE BAGUA

Having their roots in divination as practised

by soothsayers advising early Chinese kings,

trigrams eventually acquired a symbolic

power of their own as representations of

the physical universe. Each one is identified

with a given compass direction and also

with a natural phenomenon: earth, air, fire,

water, mountain, lake, wind and thunder.

Together they form an image of the physical

world that finds emblematic expression in

the bagua - a circular arrangement of the

eight trigrams with the yin-yang symbol of

cosmic dualities in its centre. The bagua is

an important emblem in fengshui, thought

to favour the flow of qi, the life-force.

A protective amulet shows a tiger (I) - an auspicious image of power

- beneath a bagua (2). In the centre of the circle the yin-yang symbol (3)

represents the principle of transience also implicit in the trigrams, which

reflect a world in a state of constant flux - the changes spelled out in the
divinatory / Ching or Book of Changes.
 CONFUCIANISM AND TAOISM

Qilin

A propitious beast of legend, the qilin only appears in the lifetimes

of outstanding individuals of exceptional virtue - in practice, usually

celebrated emperors. Sometimes called the Chinese unicorn, it has

a single horn on its head, along with the body of a deer, the hooves

of a horse and the tail of an ox.The qilin is a sign of good times, and

people count themselves fortunate to be born when one is sighted.

Clouds
Known as yun, clouds represent the

celestial realm and stylized cloud

spirals (right) symbolize happiness

and good luck, hence their inclusion as

part of the design of the OlympicTorch for

the games in Beijing in 2008.

Si Xiang
Literally meaning “Four Symbols’’, this term covered four

mythological creatures identified in traditional Chinese astronomy

with different groups of constellations. Each one was also linked to a

season and a point of the compass. The azure dragon, one of many

auspicious dragons to populate Chinese folklore, was associated with

springtime and the east.The vermilion bird represented summer and
the south, and because of its reddish-orange hue was also linked

to fire. The white tiger, standing for autumn and the west, was also

connected with great age, for Chinese folklore maintained that tigers

grew white as they got older.The beast that was emblematic of winter

and the north was the black tortoise, which also had connotations of

long life, as tortoises generally symbolized longevity.

 I 12 BELIEF SYSTEMS: RELIGIONS

SHINTOISM
Japan’s way of the spirits

The traditional religion of Japan, Shinto is an animist faith dedicated

to the propitiation of komi, or spirits. Sometimes these are localized

guardian beings, but others are more like gods, linked with particular

phenomena (such as storms) or with activities (for instance, agriculture

TOMOE and industry). One line of kami tracing its descent from the sun
The tadpole-
goddess Amaterasu was traditionally viewed as the progenitors of
shaped tomoe
symbol is
Japan’s imperial family.

often shown Leading kami are worshipped at shrines, well over 100,000 of
(as above) in
which are in operation around Japan today. In addition, many families
triplicate within

a circle to form have small household altars. From 1868 to 1945 a form of state

a mitsu tomoe. Shintoism was promoted by the government as a way of fostering

Associated
national unity and emperor worship. The nationalist affiliations of the
with the war
god Hachiman, movement left it discredited after World War II, however, when the
it was adopted emperor in a radio broadcast publicly disclaimed his divine lineage.
as a samurai

emblem.
Today Shinto’s “Four Attributes’’ are said to be respect for the family,

including ancestors; a feeling for nature; cleanliness, which has ritual

significance; and attendance of Shinto festivals.

Turtle
A symbol of good fortune and longevity, the turtle

was generally a propitious omen in Japanese tradition.

Known as genbu ,
it drew many of its symbolic

associations from China, where the BlackTortoise was

one of the Four Symbols representing constellations in

traditional Chinese astronomy, associated with winter

and the north (see page III). It also served as an

 SHINTOISM

r
DECORATED TSUBA
Tsuba were ornamental guards that protected the

hands of people wielding Japanese swords.

Over the centuries they came to be richly

decorated, providing miniature canvases

for the depiction of symbols. Emblems

of strength and courage were popular,

and samurai often chose to adorn

the hilts of favourite weapons with

the family crests known as mon.

Generations of craftsmen dedicated

themselves to producing the guards,

with distinctive styles and traditions.

A beautifully decorated I 9th-century tsuba

has a design featuring a cockerel (I) and

chrysanthemums (2), the imperial flower.The

cockerel was the sacred bird of the sun goddess

Amaterasu, loudly welcoming each sunrise.

image of the universe, its domed shell representing the sky while its

body stood for the Earth. In Japan the turtle became an emblem of
strength and endurance, often conceived as an indomitable warrior.

Chrysanthemum
The chrysanthemum is the emblem of the Japanese imperial family,

whose seal is a stylized yellow or orange flower with 16 petals

radiating from a central circle. White chrysanthemums are associated

with death; they are worn at funerals and used as grave decorations.
 I 14 BELIEF SYSTEMS: RELIGIONS

JUDAISM
God’s covenant with His chosen people

Judaism is the religion of the Jewish people, based on a covenant

between God and the patriarch Abraham. It is a monotheistic faith,

affirming the existence of a single, omniscient deity. Its principal

source of authority is the Hebrew Bible, which spells out the

STAR OF history of the special relationship forged between God and the
DAVID
Jews during the course of the 2nd and 1st millennia bce. The divine
This six-pointed
star is the instructions for the right ordering of society are spelled out in the

most widely Torah ("law”), preserved in the Talmud. Over the past century or so,
recognized
different interpretations of the Judaic heritage have coalesced in two
symbol of the
Jewish faith, parallel traditions, Conservative and Reform Judaism, both of which
although its use have in turn bred splinter groups. Judaism does not actively seek to
dates back only
proselytize, but accepts "righteous converts” who sincerely accept
to the Middle
Ages. Today it the faith.

also represents

the state of
Israel, appearing
Tetragrammaton
on the national Greek for "four-letter word”, the
flag.
tetragrammaton is the name given

to a sequence of four Hebrew letters

representing the name of the God of Israel. Once transliterated into

English as JHVH ("Jehovah”), the tetragrammaton now more often

appears as YHWH ("Yahweh”). Judaism forbids the pronunciation

of the name outside of the Temple in Jerusalem, so believers make

do with euphemisms such as hashem ("the name”). Those who
transgress risk taking the name of the Lord in vain - an action that

some Jewish traditions considered enough to prevent a soul from

entering Heaven.
 )

JUDAISM

r >v
THE SANCTUARY VESSELS

In late 1 3th-century Spain there that describe a lampstand (

menorah
developed a rabbinical iconographic and cups. Divided into four sections,

tradition that involved adorning the the panels of the artwork each contain

preliminary folios of Hebrew Bibles objects described in Exodus and

with the cult objects believed to have Numbers (as well as Deuteronomy
been in the Temple of Solomon. One for the Ten Commandments). The
of the earliest surviving examples arrangement of the loaves, the pans

(below) of this art is from Aragon, of frankincense above them and the
dates from 1299 and is believed to decorative elements of the lampstand

be the work of Solomon ben Raphael. all conform to descriptions in the

Bordering the picture are passages eighth book of the Mishneh Torah by

from Numbers 8:4 and Exodus 25:34 Jewish philosopher Maimonides.

The menorah and its

tongs and snuffers

(
I
); the jar of manna
flanked by the rods

of Aaron (2); the

cherubim seated on
the ark cover (3);

and the showbreads

and tablets of the Ten

Commandments (4).
 I 16 BELIEF SYSTEMS: RELIGIONS

Ten Commandments
The number 10 has special significance in Judaism because of its link

to the Ten Commandments given to Moses by God on Mt. Sinai. The

CHAI number signifies completeness.

Consisting of
the Hebrew
letters het and
Pomegranate
yod, the word A propitious fruit in Jewish tradition, the pomegranate is

chai means
associated with righteousness because it supposedly has 613 seeds,
"life”. In Jewish
numerology corresponding to the 613 mitzvot, or commandments of the Torah.
the letters add The Book of Exodus specified that images of the fruit should be
up to I
8, a
woven onto priestly robes. Many Jews still eat pomegranates at Rosh
lucky number
for Jews, who Hashanah, the Jewish New Year festival.
often give gifts

of money in

multiples of I 8. r
The symbol RECEPTACLES FOR GOD'S WORD
is popular as
a necklace The Book of Deuteronomy prescribes that the
adornment. faithful should inscribe a short prayer (Shema

Yisrael) commencing “Hear, O Israel: The

Lord our God is one Lord ...” on the gates
and doorposts of their houses. Known as the

mezuzah, the document is still displayed by

observant Jews. The parchments containing

the words are usually contained in symbolically

decorated cases (right), whose material and

imagery varies widely.

Made in Renaissance Italy, this polished bone

mezuzah is adorned with several symbols.
The letters at the top of the case, and visible

on the parchment, spell shaddai (“Almighty").

V
 JUDAISM

Lion of Judah
Associated everywhere with strength and courage,

the lion in Jewish tradition is specifically the emblem

of the house of Judah, the most influential of the I 2

tribes. The Lion of Judah was subsequently adopted

as the symbol of the Ethiopian royal family, who

traced their origins to a son of the union between

King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. It is used today as

an emblem (right) of the city of Jerusalem.

Lulav
A frond of the date palm tree, the lulav is one of the Four Species
- the others are the myrtle, willow and citron fruit - featured in daily

prayer services during the festival of Sukkot, as instructed in the Book

of Leviticus.The four symbolize agricultural fertility. Like pomegranates,

date palms are also associated with upright behaviour.

Menorah
A fundamental icon of the faith, the menorah or seven-branched

candlestick traces its origins to the candelabrum used first in the

Tabernacle, then in the Temple in Jerusalem. The Book of Exodus

describes the construction of the original, which was beaten from

a single piece of gold. The menorah was part

of the spoils seized after the fall of Jerusalem

in 70ce, as depicted on the Arch of Titus in

Rome. A symbol of spiritual illumination, its

seven branches have been variously associated

with the days of the week or the seven heavenly

planets known to antiquity.
 I 18 BELIEF SYSTEMS: RELIGIONS

CHRISTIANITY
Mysteries of the Trinity and the Passion

In its early centuries, Christianity defined itself by its symbols. The

cross in particular enjoyed a triumphal progress around the globe,

making its stark form one of the world’s most widely recognized

emblems. The symbols of Christianity are now so ubiquitous that it

THREE FISH is easy to forget their origins as a private code. Yet for the first three
The Christian

triune God
orTrinity has

many symbols,
f SACRED MONOGRAMS
with one of
the oldest and From the early Christian era references to Jesus The dove (I), peacock (2)
most popular have been abbreviated into sacred monograms. and vines appear with
(3)
being three
These include the chi rho (see opposite), IHC or the Alpha and Omega and
entwined fish
IHS (“Jesus”) and INRI (“Jesus of Nazareth, King chi rho monogram (4) on
or a fish with
of the Jews”). The ornate decoration on the this sarcophagus in Ravenna.
three heads.
6th-century sarcophagus (below) of Archbishop

Theodore in Ravenna includes the Chi Rho with

• A
the letters Alpha and Omega, signifying that f
Jesus is the beginning and the end.
•9 #
 CHRISTIANITY

centuries of its history, Christianity was a proscribed faith whose

adherents often had to worship in secret. In the years of persecution,

the Church relied on signs as one way of communicating with the

faithful. The markings were clandestine statements of belief, a secret

language only initiates understood.

Ichthys

One of the earliest secret symbols used by Christians was the fish,

which has been found in the form of graffiti from the 1st century

ce on. The mark drew its significance from a pun: in Greek, the five

characters that made up the word ichthys, or "fish", also formed an

acronym for the phrase "Jesus Christ Son of God, Saviour”. Christians
also no doubt bore in mind Jesus' words to the Apostles: “I will make
you fishers of men".

The earliest surviving written reference to the fish symbol comes

from Clement of Alexandria, in around 200ce. Clement recommended

that Christians should feature fish or dove motifs on their personal

seals, the dove being an image of the Holy Spirit. Shortly afterwards

Clement’s contemporary Tertullian, based in Carthage, spelled out

the play on words in an essay on baptism: "We, little fishes, after the

example of our ichthys Jesus Christ, are born in water".

Chi rho
Another image that had huge importance in the spread of Christi-

anity was the chi rho sign, made up of the Greek characters repre-

senting “ch" and "r" - the first two letters of Christ’s name. Visually

the chi symbol resembles an “x", while rho looks like an elongated

"p". Linked together, they formed a monogram that stood not Just

for Jesus himself but also for his Church.

 120 BELIEF SYSTEMS: RELIGIONS

First recorded on Christian tombs in the 3rd century ce, the

symbol rose to prominence when it was adopted by the Roman

Emperor Constantine, the first to extend toleration to his Christian

subjects. Contemporary accounts claimed that on the eve of a crucial

battle he dreamed he saw the image in the sky and heard the words,

CHI RHO ‘‘Under this sign you will conquer”. He subsequently had the symbol
This Christian
engraved on his soldiers’ shields and on his own imperial banner,
monogram was
popularized which became known as the labarum. Constantine went on to win a
by Emperor crushing victory, defeating a rival claimant to the imperial throne, and
Constantine.
subsequently himself converted to Christianity.

Cross
The most profound, enduring and universal of all Christian symbols,

the cross comes in many different forms. The classic cross has a

vertical bar longer than the horizontal, whereas a Greek cross has
arms of equal length. A cross rotated 45 degrees to form an “X” shape

is known as a saltire or St Andrew's cross. The Eastern Orthodox

cross has a short bar above the horizontal arm, said to represent the

headboard used in the Crucifixion, and a slanting lower rib, popularly

DOVE thought to indicate a footrest partly dislodged by Christ in his death-

This traditional
throes. The upside-down St Peter’s cross, with the transverse spar at
symbol of
peace also the bottom, is now generally associated with Satanism, reflecting a

represents the deliberate rejection of the Christian tradition.

Holy Spirit,

which was
said to have Pelican
descended on In the Middle Ages pelicans were commonly believed to peck their
Jesus after his
baptism
own breast to feed their young on their blood. As an image of self-
"like

a dove”. sacrifice, the bird subsequently became associated with Jesus, who
was thought to have given his life for the good of humankind.
 CHRISTIANITY 121

r
RUSHTON TRIANGULAR LODGE
In Protestant England in the of Father, Son and Holy Ghost. The
1590s Roman Catholic nobleman lodge is not just triangular in shape,

Sir Thomas Tresham built a it also has three storeys and a three-

gamekeeper’s lodge on his estates in sided chimney. Each wall is 33ft

Northamptonshire. The design was (10m) long, inset with three ornate

born of the meditations that had windows, some of them trefoils,

occupied him during years spent in some trefoils with triangles, and

prison for his beliefs. In every detail others of a lozenge design. Crowning

of its groundplan and execution the building are nine steep triangular

the lodge was intended to reflect gables with three-

the mysteries of the Holy Trinity sided obelisks.

The central design

carved high on each

facade features three

triangles (
I )
inside a

trefoil (2) - the crest

of the Tresham family.

By-combining this

personal emblem with

repeated symbols

of the Trinity, the

lodge’s builder was

making an individual

profession of loyalty

to his faith.

V
122 BELIEF SYSTEMS: RELIGIONS

Lamb
The connotation of Jesus as sacrificial victim is even more explicit in

the symbol of the Agnus Dei or Lamb of God. According to St John’s

Gospel, John the Baptist, on seeing the young Jesus approaching, said,

‘‘Behold the Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world”.

The reference was to the sacrificial lamb offered up at the time of

the Passover in ancient Jewish temple sacrifices - itself a reminder

of the Paschal Lamb killed on the eve of the Exodus, whose blood

on Israelite doorposts diverted the angel of death to Egyptian

neighbours instead.

( \
THE ALCESTERTAU CROZIER
A crozier is a church official’s staff, reveals Christ risen in triumph

based on a shepherd’s crook. This (centre), and trampling a lion and

ornate I Ith-century Anglo-Saxon dragon, representing sin and death. It

example shows Christ crucified on is known as a Tau crozier after the

one side, while the other (below) Greek letter T, referring to its shape.
 CHRISTIANITY

Shepherd
St John’s Gospel recorded Jesus telling his followers:

"I am the good shepherd, who lays down his life

for his sheep”. This image too was popular from

early times, appearing on the walls of the Roman
catacombs from the I st century on. In later years it

transferred easily from Christ himself to the ministers

of his Church, seen as tending to the needs of their

congregations much as shepherds look after their flocks.

Crozier
A long-established symbol of ecclesiastical authority, the crook-like

crozier drew on the Good Shepherd imagery of the early Church.

Symbolically its purpose was similar, the curved head being theoretically

used to catch the souls of sinners straying from the faith.

Sacred heart
Originating in the Middle Ages, the image of the sacred heart of Jesus

is now venerated as an emblem of divine love, primarily in the Roman

Catholic Church. The cult became widespread from the 17th century

on, when a French nun, St Marguerite Marie Alacoque, experienced

a series of visions, in one of which Christ himself authorized her to

rest her head upon his heart.

Variations of Christian heart symbolism are numerous. A heart

pierced by an arrow represents penitence (this was an emblem of

Augustine), whereas a heart pierced by a sword~(see above) denotes

the Sacred Fleart of Mary, a symbol of Mary’s love for Jesus and

God. A flaming heart conveys the zeal of the true believer. A heart

crowned with thorns is an emblem of Ignatius Loyola.

 124 BELIEF SYSTEMS: RELIGIONS

ISLAM
In praise of Allah’s name

Meaning "submission" to the will of God, Islam developed out of the

juJ) teachings of the Prophet

century CE.The teachings are set forth

Muhammad, who
in
lived in Arabia

the Koran, the Muslim holy

in the 7th

ALLAH book. Islam recognizes the divine mission of earlier prophets, including
The name of
Moses and Jesus, but claims that Muhammad's message superseded
God is one
of the most
theirs, representing the ultimate revelation of God’s Word.

iconic words Muslims accept five essential props of their religion, known
in Arabic
collectively as the Pillars of Islam. One is the profession of faith called
calligraphy.
the shahadah (see below). Another is to pray five times a day at

fixed hours, facing in the direction of the holy city of Mecca. The
third is the haj or pilgrimage to Mecca, to be performed at least

once in a lifetime. Then there is the requirement to fast during the

month of Ramadan, and finally a duty of alms-giving through

the payment of zakah, currently interpreted as a 2.5 percent

annual levy on savings. Unlike the Christian Church, Islam has

no organized hierarchy of priests, but instead accords great

respect to scholars and teachers of the faith such as mullahs

and ayatollahs.

STAR Since its early days, the Islamic community has been split between a
AND majority of Sunni and a minority of Shia, the two parties differing over
CRESCENT
These ancient the line of descent from the Prophet. Islam has also spawned a number
celestial of mystical offshoots, the most notable being the Sufi movement.
symbols are
Islamic law, known as the Sharia, forbids the worship of graven
universally

identified today images. At times this prohibition has been interpreted so as to justify a
with Islam. ban on all figurative art. As a result, Islam is short on representational

symbols, often preferring calligrams or abstract designs.

 ISLAM 125

r
THE EIGHT-POINTED STAR
In Islamic art the eight-pointed star was used
as a decorative element in its own right and

as a repeated background. Sometimes the star

shape was elaborated into the pattern known

as a shamsa (“sun”), with the points as rays

radiating from a central circle.

Two overlapping squares, one rotated at a 45-degree angle, form two eight-

pointed stars (1,2) in this Ottoman tile. A circle (3) and an octagon (4)

emphasize the mathematical structure underlying creation.

 126 BELIEF SYSTEMS: RELIGIONS

Allah’s name
One of the most ubiquitous icons of Islam is the Arabic calligraphic

symbol representing Allah's name. Invoking the holy name is in itself a

religious act, and over the centuries much skill and ingenuity has been

devoted to reproducing it in the most beautiful possible way.

SYMMETRY
The effect of
Shahadah
symmetrical
patterning
Almost equally familiar are calligraphic representations of the

in Islamic shahadah, the creed to which all Muslims subscribe. This twofold
art, using
profession proclaims that “There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad
geometric
principles, is his Prophet’’. The phrase features in the muezzin’s daily call to
is, like God, prayer as well as in the prayers themselves, and is also recited by
powerful and
believers at the moment of death.
unifying.This

Iranian bowl
uses fish to
achieve this
impression,
HAMSA
which is found
repeatedly in Sometimes known as the Hand of Fatima in

Islamic decor. reference to Muhammad’s daughter Fatima

Zahra, the hamsa is an ancient protective

talisman guarding the wearer against the Evil

Eye. The symbol is particularly popular in

North Africa, where it can be seen painted

on doors to keep malign influences out

of the home. Archaeologists believe

that the sign actually predates Islam,

perhaps having its origins in the cult

of the ancient Carthaginian goddess

Tanit. Some Muslims disapprove of

its use, regarding it as a vestige of

idolatory.

G__
 ISLAM

As an icon, the shahadah appears on the national flags of Saudi

Arabia and Afghanistan, and also on the banner of Al-Qaeda.

Star and crescent

The star and crescent symbol has become closely associated with

Islam, and appears on the flags of several Muslim countries, including

Malaysia, Turkey and Pakistan. Yet it has no Koranic authority, instead

dating from the time of the Ottoman sultans, who adopted it as

their insignia. As Ottoman rule spread across the Middle East, so the

emblem travelled with them, gaining some religious sanction from

the rulers' position as caliphs - temporal and spiritual leaders of the

Islamic world.

Enneagram
This nine-pointed star polygon is reputed to

be a sign of the presence of God, according j

to the Naqshbandi Sufi traditions of Central

Asia, in which it may have served as a form

of numerological divination. The Sufis have

saints (“wall”) but these are not holy people in

the Christian sense of that word, but rather people

attuned to "reality". Sufis believe that a "design" (

naqsh ) is hidden

underneath appearances, which are a falsity: reality - or the true self

in the case of individuals - lies beneath. A person must see through

outward appearances to discover the truth, the "reality", within; only

when they know their real selves can they know "reality". To know

this "reality", and then to be able to act on it, is the ultimate goal of

Sufism. The enneagram (above, right) is used in New Age personality

typology to reveal true motivations and intentions.

 130 BELIEF SYSTEMS: FRATERNAL SOCIETIES AND SECRETIVE CULTS

GNOSTICS AND CATHARS

Guardians of the secret knowledge

CROSSED In the intellectual cauldron of the late Classical world, a group of

CIRCLE
thinkers influenced by Judaic and Christian beliefs came together
The cross

within a
in the conviction that salvation could be achieved through esoteric

circle was an knowledge. These were the Gnostics (from gnosis, Greek for
emblem of
"knowledge”), and for a time in the 2nd century ce their syncretist
the Cathars, a
medieval group views represented a real challenge to Christianity. Gnostics were
that inherited dualists who saw a gulf separating the divine spark in the human mind
certain Gnostic
from the material universe around it. They could not believe that a
beliefs.

good, all-powerful God had created the terrestrial world. Instead,

they thought it was the work of a corrupted demiurge that they

ANGUIPEDE called laldabaoth or lao, identifying it with Jehovah, the vengeful and
A manifestation imperfect deity of the Old Testament. Christ was for them a saving
of the Gnostic
demiurge (see spirit sent from the highest heaven that had inhabited the body of a

right), this fallible human called Jesus, deserting it at the time of the Crucifixion.
composite
The Gnostics’ task was to reintegrate the human spirit with its divine
creature had
the head of a counterpart through revelation of the truth.
cockerel, the Always oriented to an intellectual elite, Gnosticism was largely
body of a man
displaced by orthodox Christianity from the 3rd century on. Yet its
and snakes for
legs. ideas lingered, reinforced by the views of an Iranian prophet named
Mani. Drawing on ancient Zoroastrian notions, Mani sawthe world

as a battleground between rival forces of good and evil, both

equally powerful. The Manichaean worldview survived Mani’s

martyrdom in about 276ce and resurfaced in western Europe

in the I 2th and I 3th centuries in the form of Catharism. Like

Gnostics before them, Cathars believed that the material world

was evil and, like Mani, that Satan was a primordial principle of
 GNOSTICS AND CATHARS 131

r r
THE HOLY GRAIL
Cathars and Gnostics both venerated

Christ as a spiritual being sent down from

the highest heaven to lead humankind
to enlightenment. They viewed Jesus of
Nazareth merely as the human vehicle

in which the Christ spirit was implanted.

In Grail legends, which took shape at the

time of the assault on the Cathars, the A Ravenna tomb shows a dove
holy cup - said to contain the blood of ( I
), representing the Holy Spirit,

Jesus collected by Joseph of Arimathea - descending onto a cross (2)

came to represent the source of salvation in a chalice (3). Grail legends

through mystic communion with Christ, developed at a time when the

while the quest for the receptacle, which Church was seeking to relaunch
some have since claimed the Cathars the Eucharistic sacrifice or Mass

possessed, was a search for God’s grace. as a mystical communion.

 128 BELIEF SYSTEMS: RELIGIONS

BAHA’ISM
Benchmarks for a global faith

NINE- The Baha'i faith grew in the 1860s out of an earlier Persian religion,

POINTED Babism, with roots Shia Islam. The name Bab meant "The
its in Gate".
STAR
Nine has a holy
When the sect seceded from the Muslim community its followers

significance were persecuted, and the Bab himself was executed in I 850. Before
in Baha’i, for
his death he predicted the coming of a new prophet, and in I 863 one
under the
Abjadi system of his adherents proclaimed himself to be that chosen one. Taking the
the 28 letters name Bahaullah, literally "Glory of God", he claimed a place in a line
of the Arabic
of divine messengers stretching back through Muhammad, Jesus and
alphabet are
given numerical the Buddha to Zoroaster and Moses.
values, and
Baha'is view all the world's major religions as different approaches
the characters
to the worship of a single god. Key beliefs include the unity of
making up the
word baha humankind, equality between peoples and genders, and universal
("glory") add
education.They also espouse the idea of an auxiliary language to unite
up to nine.
people of all races. Meanwhile, symbols go some way to providing a

common idiom that crosses national barriers.

Haykal
Baha’i inherited from Babism a five-pointed star known as the haykal,

RINGSTONE (literally "temple"). Bahaullah produced many of his writings in the

The two
shape of a haykal. More common today, though, is a nine-pointed star
five-pointed

stars of the
(see left). The star emblem suggests completion or perfection, while

ringstone its radiating points reach out like compass directions to all parts of
represent Bab
the world. For similar reasons, Baha’i temples often have nine sides,
and Bahaullah,
the prophets and in Abjad numerology, which attaches numerical values to letters

of the present and words in the Arabic alphabet, the numerical value of Baha’i is

age.
nine, confirming the faith’s unity and perfection.
 BAHA’ISM

Ringstone
Baha’is who wish to carry a permanent token of their faith typically

do so by bearing the ringstone motif (opposite) of three horizontal

bars crossed by a vertical line, flanked on each side by a five-pointed

star.The bars represent the worlds of God, of his manifestations, and

of humankind; the line running through them stands for the teachings

of his messengers, which link the divine and human spheres.

f
THE DOOR OF THREE LEVELS

The door to the shrine of the Bab, (or messengers) and man. As in the

on Mount Carmel, Haifa, Israel (a ringstone (see above), the vertical

site chosen by Bahaullah), is laden line joins the three horizontal bars

with symbolism. The design’s three together, symbolizing the way that

horizontal levels represent the the Divine Messengers of God form

worlds of God, His Manifestations the link between God and man.

SUN AND
RINGSTONE MOON TO
MOTIF REPRESENT
THE WORLD
TWO HAYKAL OF GOD
STARS FOR TWO
PROPHETS THE WORLD
OF GOD’S
MESSENGERS
PROTECTIVE
DA’IRA
THE WORLD
TALISMAN
OF MAN

V J
 132 BELIEF SYSTEMS: FRATERNAL SOCIETIES AND SECRETIVE CULTS

evil rivalling the good God. Their goal was to free the spirit from

dependence on the material world and restore it to communion with

the divine. Catharism attracted followers in much of northern Italy

and southern France before it was suppressed on papal orders by the

OCCITAN soldiers of the Albigensian Crusade between 1209 and 1229.
CROSS
Also known as

the Cross of Abraxas

Toulouse, this According to the Christian writer Tertullian, one Gnostic school
was the symbol
taught that the supreme deity was named Abraxas, a name whose
of southwest
France's characters, according to the then-popular numerological code,
Languedoc totalled 365. Abraxas created 365 separate heavens, each successive
region, where
one modelled on but slightly inferior to the one above. The lowest
the Cathars
became was the realm of Jehovah, the God of the Old Testament, seen not
most firmly
as an all-powerful deity but rather as a corrupted angel. In this view
entrenched
in the Middle
Christ was sent not by Jehovah but rather by Abraxas, returning to
Ages. his realm at the time of the Crucifixion.

The name is also found in Gnostic texts such as the Gospel of the

Egyptians. It may represent God and Satan in one entity a concept

in keeping with the duality of the Gnostic

worldview. In Thomas More’s ABRACADABRA

novel Utopia,

the that gives the book

island had the ABRACADABR
its title

earlier name of Abraxa. ABRACADAB

ABRACADA
Abracadabra ABRACAD
Familiar today conjuror's incantation, the
as a
ABRACA
word "abracadabra" has long pedigree dating
a
ABRAC
ABRA
back to at least the 2nd century when was
ce, it
ABR
written on parchment and used as a charm to cure
AB
fevers. One theory of its origin traces it to the Gnostic A
 GNOSTICS AND CATHARS

god Abraxas; another links it to the Aramaic term abhadda

kedhobhra, meaning "Disappear like this word"

reference to the diminishing calligramatic form

which it was written (see image, opposite).

Lion Serpent
The chnoubis or serpent with the head of a

lion was an image inscribed on amulets in the

2nd century ce. It is thought to represent the

Gnostic demiurge laldabaoth, with the lion’s head

representing what was left in him of the divir

nature and the serpent standing for the part corrupted

by contact with the material world.

Alpha and Omega

"I am Alpha and Omega, the first and the last", said God in the Book

of Revelation, a reference to the first and last characters in the Greek

alphabet. Some Gnostics used the symbols to indicate the totality of

the divine creation; others associated it with laldabaoth, the demiurge

responsible for the creation of the material world.

Holy Grail
Vessels that served as miraculous providers were found in more than
one of the world’s folklore traditions. Celtic myth had several such,

including a cauldron of rebirth that restored dead warriors to life.

Such imagery may have fed through into the legend of the Holy Grail,

said to be the dish or cup used by Christ at the Last Supper. The

legend of the Grail was taking shape at the time of the persecution of

the Cathars, and would certainly have been known to them.

 134 BELIEF SYSTEMS: FRATERNAL SOCIETIES AND SECRETIVE CULTS

KNIGHTS HOSPITALLER
AND TEMPLAR
Brethren of the cross and sword

The knightly orders grew up in response to the establishment of the

crusader state of Outremer in the Holy Land in the early Middle Ages.

The first to be founded was the Order of the Hospital of St John of

Jerusalem, or the Hospitallers, based in the institution of that name

BEAUSEANT and at first dedicated to treating the sick. The Templars followed in

The Templars
1119, taking their name from their home in a building adjoining the
fought beneath
a black-and- supposed site of Solomon’s Temple. Their original mission was to

white banner protect pilgrims arriving in the Holy Land from Muslim marauders.
known as the
Both orders flourished thanks to donations and legacies from pious
Beauseant.
In battle 1
Christians across Europe. The knights followed rules that were part
knights were religious and part military. So Templars were forbidden any contact
assigned to
guard the
with women - even family members - and had to eat their communal

standard, and meals in silence; meat was served only three times a week.They also
as long as
swore absolute allegiance to their superiors in the order
it was flying

aloft none was

When Outremer was lost in the late I 3th century, the knights had

allowed to quit to find a new purpose. The Hospitallers relocated first to Cyprus and
the field of
then to the Mediterranean island of Rhodes, which they ruled as an
combat.
independent power. When Rhodes in turn fell to the Ottoman Turks
in 1522, they moved again to Malta, which they held until Napoleon
finally dislodged them in 1798.

The Templars had a shorter and more violent history. Over the
years they acquired strongholds all over Europe and came to act as

bankers for rulers and noblemen across the continent. Coveting their

wealth, King Philip the Fair of France accused them of heresy and
immorality, and tortured confessions out of some of the knights. The
 KNIGHTS HOSPITALLER AND TEMPLAR

order was suppressed by papal decree in 1312, and two years later

its last Grand Master, Jacques de Molay, was burned at the stake.

The Templars’ brutal end has inspired much speculation. A recent

theory proposed that some French Templars sought refuge in

Scotland after the suppression of the order, finding shelter there with

stonemasons and thereby creating a link between the knights' medieval

concept of chivalry and the later development of Freemasonry.

( \
THE MYSTERIOUS CARVINGS OF ROSSLYN
Rosslyn Chapel near Edinburgh is one
of Britain’s most symbol-rich buildings.

Commissioned by William St Clair,

Lord Chancellor of Scotland, and built

between 1456 and I486, it contains a

mass of carvings apparently tracking

the passage of time and the seasons of

the year from east to west along its

length. It also includes a motif similar

to the Templar seal (see page 1 36).

Some researchers have even claimed

that a Templar’s treasure might lie in a

lost vault under the building, although

attempts to suggest a closer link with

the knights have foundered on the fact

that the order was suppressed 150

years before the chapel was built.

This carving of a Green Man (top) - a symbol of untamed nature found

in many parts of the world - is one of I 10 variations on the theme in

and around the chapel. The boss below shows Lucifer as a fallen angel.

V
136 BELIEF SYSTEMS: FRATERNAL SOCIETIES AND SECRETIVE CULTS

Templar cross
TheTemplars' distinctive insignia was a red cross, typically in the form

of a cross pattee - one with arms broadening toward the end. Full

knights sported the symbol on a white robe, while sergeants - lower-

ranking warriors drawn from less aristocratic families - bore it on a

black tunic. This apparel had to be worn at all times; no knight could

appear in public, even to sit down for a meal, unless properly attired.

Templars who fled the field of battle were ceremonially stripped of

their robe, much as disgraced soldiers in later times had their badges

of rank clipped off them.

THE TEMPLAR SEAL

Showing two knights sharing a single

horse, the Templar seal sought to

emphasize the order’s poverty

in its early days. However, the

image was never accurate;full

knights were in fact allowed

three horses each, and as

Templar wealth accumulated

in later centuries, the claim

to poverty came to seem

ironic.

The two knight-riders bear shields marked

with Templar crosses (l).The inscription (2)

reads "Seal of the Soldiers of Christ".

 KNIGHTS HOSPITALLER AND TEMPLAR

Order of Christ cross

This is the emblem of the historical Order of Christ,

founded in Portugal in I 3 I 8. It has since become

a generic Portuguese emblem, used on the sails of

the Portuguese carracks during the Discoveries,

by the Portuguese Air Force and on the flag of

the Autonomous Region of Madeira. It was also

the symbol of the Movimento Nacional-Sindicalista,

a fascist group of the early I 930s.

Baphomet
One of the most serious charges brought against the Templars

at their trials in France was that they worshipped an idol named

Baphomet, thought to be a corruption of the name “Muhammad"
(French Mahomet). The accusations no doubt sprang from the

suspicion that in the course of their long sojourn in the Muslim

lands the Templars’ faith had incorporated some elements of Islam.

Six hundred years later the French occultist Eliphas Levi borrowed

the name and applied it to the goat-headed god that presided over

witches’ sabbats.

Hospitaller cross
The cross worn by the Hospitallers had arms that each ended in two
points, giving their tips the form of indented “v”s.The design seems to

have evolved gradually; there is some evidence that initially the knights

adopted the patriarchal cross, with twin crosspieces one above the
other. Following the move to Malta the insignia developed into the

familiar Maltese cross form, with four inward-pointing arrowheads

meeting at a central point (see page I

2).
 138 BELIEF SYSTEMS: FRATERNAL SOCIETIES AND SECRETIVE CULTS

ALCHEMY
The scientific quest for spiritual perfection

Alchemy is most often thought of now as the ancestor of chemistry,

but in its heyday it had much in common with astrology. Both were
concerned with the relationship between humankind and the

Cosmos. While astrology concentrated on the heavens, alchemy

sought correspondences between human nature and the terrestrial

world. The two quests were linked through a saying attributed to

Rlermes Trismegistus, legendary founder of the art: "That which is

above is like that which is below; and that which is below like that

THREE PRIMES which is above".

According to
There were alchemists in India, the Arab lands, and in China, where
Paracelsus, the

Three Primes Taoist sages used alchemical techniques to search for the Elixir of Life.

orTria Prima In the West the emphasis was on finding a means of transmuting base
were (from
metals into gold by complex processes of distillation and sublimation
top to bottom,
above) sulphur and the use of an elusive extra ingredient that came to be known
(omnipresent as the Philosopher's Stone. For true seekers, however, the search for
spirit of life),

mercury (fluid
gold was always a metaphor for spiritual transformation. What truly

connection interested them was the process itself, for by the doctrine of like for
between the
like the embellishment of base metal was seen as a template for an
High and the
Low), and salt
even greater task: the quest for spiritual perfection.

(base matter).

Three Primes
The 1 6th-century alchemist Paracelsus, a father of modern
medicine, defined salt, mercury and sulphur as theThree Primes. Salt

(represented by a barred circle) was the type of base matter. Sulphur

stood for spirit, and its symbol was an upward-pointing triangle

resting on a cross. Mercury, shown as a horned circle set on a cross,

 ALCHEMY

was the transmutational agent, serving as the

link between the terrestrial and the spiritual.

Philosopher’s Stone
A relatively late development in alchemy, the
Stone of Knowledge or the Philosopher's

Stone (symbol, right) was the name given

to the missing ingredient needed to transmute

base metals into gold. It seems to have originally

taken the form of a tincture or powder rather than an

actual stone. Various substances, including sal ammoniac and, later,

hydrochloric and sulphuric acid, seemed at different times to hold

out promise, never quite fulfilled. Some alchemists claimed to have

r A
THE SEVEN PLANETARY METALS
Alchemists believed that the materials

they worked with were microcosmic © SOL RULES GOLD

reflections of the Cosmos as a whole. MERCURIUS RULES QUICKSILVER

Thus, each major metal was linked

with one of the seven heavenly bodies

VENUS RULES COPPER
known to the ancients as planets. 9
These included the Sun and Moon as

well as Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter D LUNA RULES SILVER

and Saturn. The planets were said to

dominate or rule the metals, much

as in astrology their conjunctions

o MARS RULES IRON

ruled human destiny. The metals and

their associated planets each shared a
% JUPITER RULES TIN

common symbol (right). SATURN US rules lead

V J
140 BELIEF SYSTEMS: FRATERNAL SOCIETIES AND SECRETIVE CULTS

A
THE ALCHEMICAL FURNACE
Heat was one of the main instruments athanor was designed to be self-

for effecting the transmutations that feeding, thereby preserving a uniform

lay at the heart of alchemy. To achieve internal temperature. Typically, the

their calcinations, distillations and material to be heated was placed

sublimations, practitioners needed in a sealed container within the

furnaces. The most important of athanor and covered with hot ashes.

these was the athanor, which took its The process was lengthy, winning

name from an Arabic transliteration the furnace the nickname of Piger

of the Hebrew tannur or oven. The Henricus, “Lazy Henry”.

An athanor containing

the mercury of the

philosophers (
I
),

symbolized by the

snake. Below, the

hermitic bestiary

includes a lion (2),

representing sulphur,

and a phoenix (3),

for the Philosopher's

Stone, born of the

fire of transmutation.
 ALCHEMY

found the stone, among them the French scrivener Nicolas Flamel,

who purportedly completed the Great Work in I 382.

Venus and Mars

The conventional symbols used today to indicate gender started

life as alchemical signs for what were known as the seven planetary

metals (see page I 39). The female sign of a cross beneath a circle

was associated with copper and the planet Venus; the male sign of an

arrow rising from a circle represented iron and Mars.

Four Elements
The four base elements identified by the

alchemists were all represented by triangular

symbols. A plain triangle pointing upwards

stood for fire, while one with a crossbar

just below its apex was air; a plain inverted

triangle symbolized water, and the same

figure crossed was the sign for earth.

Serpent Cross
Part of alchemy’s mission was therapeutic, specifically seeking to

restore youth and prolong life. Chinese Taoist alchemy was almost

exclusively concerned with the quest for the Elixir of Life. In the West

alchemists borrowed the traditional medical symbol of the caduceus

(see pages 86-88) to symbolize this part of their work, but gave it a

Christian form by showing the serpent wound around a cross. This

serpent cross, sometimes known as Nicolas Flannel's caduceus, also

had a more specific meaning as a symbol of “fixing the volatile", which

involved passing mercury over mineral salts to create a solid.

 142 BELIEF SYSTEMS: FRATERNAL SOCIETIES AND SECRETIVE CULTS

ROSICRUCIANISM
AND HERMETICISM
The mystic path of the rosy cross

The Brethren of the Rose Cross are thought to have originated in

Germany early in the 17th century, although enthusiasts have made

various attempts to trace their origins further back to remote

antiquity. Initially a fraternity devoted to the quest for wisdom and

an ascetic lifestyle, and inspired by the tradition of the legendary

founder of alchemy FlermesTrismegistus.the Rosicrucians were

distinguished from the start by their secrecy; all recruitment was

done privately by existing members, and no one outside the

movement could know who belonged to it. Initiates claimed

knowledge of the alchemical transmutation of base metals into

gold, although they set little store by it, concentrating instead

LUTHER’S on spiritual transformation. Borrowing the language of the Scientific

SEAL
Revolution then getting under way, they spoke of working for the
Martin Luther’s
seal reflects
universal reformation of humankind. Subsequent hermetic groups
his theology. such as theTheosophists and the Order of the Golden Dawn shared
The cross in
their penchant for privacy and the sharing of esoteric knowledge,
the heart is

a reminder combining it with a theatricality expressed in exotic costumes and

that faith in
complex rituals.
the crucified
Christ saves us.

The heart in Flaming sword

a white rose
This motif owes its significance in both Rosicrucianism and Freemasonry
- colour of the
spirits - shows
to a reference in the Book of Genesis. When God expelled Adam
that faith gives from the Garden of Eden, he set a "flaming sword, which turned every
joy, comfort
way" to guard the way to the Tree of Knowledge (see page 1 44). The
and peace.
sword (sometimes depicted as a weapon with a twisted blade) thus
 ROSICRUCIANISM AND HERMETICISM

r~
MELDING MAGICAND MEDICINE >
\

Rosicrucianism initially made much alchemy, still considered at the time a

of its therapeutic mission - one of legitimate field of study, as indicated

six requirements of early initiates by the many works on alchemy then

was to provide medical services in print, such as Johann Mylius’s Opus

free of charge. The Fama Fraternitatis medico-chymicum (1618, below). The

describes how the movement’s original Brotherhood of the Rose

founder, Christian Rosenkreutz, Cross thus based its intellectual

showed natural healing ability, which appeal on a mixture of good works,

he refined by lengthy studies in the Christian mysticism and knowledge

Arab world - at the time a leader in of the transmutational powers of the

the sciences. Much of the knowledge alchemists. Its allure was so strong
he gained on his travels was in fact of that it spread across Europe.

5 4 8

DOMICILIVM DOMICIUVM
Stella., mm. Elemcntorum

f
?
fOAxms DAmzin mtui
\/v ' /$~ M.C.

fOPVS MEDICO-
CHYMICVM:
DOMJCIUVM Cvtf'iXtns sm TrAffjtftuJiu*
u ca DO.Micit.rvw
J

i M mcrafium. i
Qaersms prior infeibitor
SewftlwlUntKA Chvw.u.
a i

Mici-ocofrni. Hermes Trismegistus

» Tettias 8 ASJIJC A PHtlOSO A-

\ T. ''CAM N & IS, j.

and Hippocrates
( 1 )

(2) - magic and

medicine - support

an alchemical seal (3)

beneath the Sun and

the signs of the zodiac

(4), stars (5), minerals

rtiumujjjvQ +
(6), microcosm (7)

and elements (8).

144 BELIEF SYSTEMS: FRATERNAL SOCIETIES AND SECRETIVE CULTS

r
THE TREE OF KNOWLEDGE

Rosicrucians and most later hermetic became the hero. By urging Eve to

groups worked mainly within taste the apple, it was encouraging

the Christian tradition, but also humankind to overcome its God-given

looked outside it to the Arab world limitations and itself become like the

(science) and Judaism (Kabbalah). The gods. For the Gnostics, the route to

Theosophists drew on Buddhism and such power lay through knowledge,

Hinduism. Later adepts were aware the forbidden fruit of the tree - a

of the Gnostics, particularly their theme illustrated in books such as the

heterodox reading of the Garden 18th-century German Secret Symbols

of Eden story, in which the serpent of the Rosicrucians (below).

Hands (I) reach out

to pluck the fruits of

the Tree of Knowledge,

rooted in the three

worlds (2) of God’s

creation. A solar symbol

(3) radiates light on the

scene; below it is the

lesser sun of spiritual

illumination (4),
 ROSICRUCIANISM AND HERMETICISM

represented the final marker on the way toward the tree and also the

last obstacle to be overcome in reaching it.

Rose cross
Associated particularly with the cult of

Mary, the rose was a Christian symbol long

the Rosicrucians appropriated it for their rose

cross (right). A cross within a rose was the

seal ofthe German reformer Martin Luther
(see page 142), leading some scholars to

speculate that the original brotherhood had

a Protestant agenda: certainly the movement’s

earliest text, the Fama Fraternitatis, has the supposed

founder Christian Rosenkreutz born in Wartburg

Castle, where Luther himself took refuge.

Rayed cross
A symbol of the Order of the Golden Dawn, this emblem features

a cross perched on the apex of a pyramid containing a stylized

image of the Sun rising from the sea. Drawing on both Christian and

ancient Egyptian imagery, the design encapsulates the eclectic mix of

influences that went into this influential group, which included the

eminent Irish poet W.B. Yeats among its members.

Portal

This is the name given by many hermetic groups to the points of

access to esoteric knowledge and to paths of initiation into secret

orders. The Portal Grade was also the name of an initiation rite

undertaken by would-be adepts of the Order of the Golden Dawn.

 146 BELIEF SYSTEMS: FRATERNAL SOCIETIES AND SECRETIVE CULTS

FREEMASONRY
Disciples of the divine architect

Freemasons belong to a fraternal organization that is arguably the

best-subscribed of all esoteric societies. Its symbolism accords a

particular place of honour to the biblical Temple of King Solomon,

held to be the perfect edifice, having been built under divine guidance.

Masons even trace their name back to the craftsmen who built the

Temple, viewing them as a uniquely inspired brotherhood bound by

oaths of confidentiality to protect their trade and its secrets. Other

Traditionally,

Freemasonry
\
has passed on THE TRACING BOARD
its teachings
with the aid of
SQUARE AND
tracing boards,
COMPASS
a term chosen
to recall the

design-inscribed
boards believed
to have been
used by ancient
stonemasons
to cut stone to
size. The boards
are colourful

devices that
depict selected
symbols
thought suitable
for revelation

to members
at different

stages of their

initiation.
V
 FREEMASONRY

members have sought over the years to trace an alternative, non-

Judeo-Christian lineage, seeking roots instead in ancient Egyptian,

Pythagorean or hermeneutical traditions. On current evidence,

however, it seems likely that the movement dates no further back

than early modern Europe, with the first clearly identified groups

operating in Britain in the 17th century.

Freemasonry attained a peak in the Enlightenment era.The Grand

Lodge of England was founded in 1717, and the three degrees of

Masonic membership - Apprentice, Fellow, Master Mason - were

established by that time. The tripartite arrangement was symbolized

in the triangle, a shape adopted by Sir John Soane for his Freemasons'

Hall in London, sadly now demolished. Freemasons also became

influential in continental Europe and the USA, where many of the

political architects of the young republic were initiates, among them

George Washington himself.

Apron
The first gift bestowed on a newly initiated apprentice, the apron is

an emblem of purity in life and conduct, and - like the tracing board

(opposite) - a reference to Masonic conceptions of the ancient

stonemason's craft. The earliest Masons inherited the three degrees

of membership from the structure of the medieval craft guild whose

name they inherited.

Chequered pavement
Claimed to be modelled on the mosaic pavement in Solomon’s

Temple itself, the chequered pavement represents the vicissitudes of

life and the pairing of opposites (such as Sun and Moon). Specifically,

it refers to the coexistence of good and evil in the human world.

 148 BELIEF SYSTEMS: FRATERNAL SOCIETIES AND SECRETIVE CULTS

Compass
The compass and the square together embody ancient craft masonry
and a correctly lived life. The compass suggests the role of the rational

mind in ordering conduct and circumscribing desire.

EYEOF
PROVIDENCE Square
The reverse of
the Great Seal
An emblem of order, the square implies conscious purpose and

of the United control over the emotions. Masons meet “on the square", a phrase
States shows an
that implies acting honourably.
all-seeing Eye

of Providence
atop a pyramid Beehive
of I 3 layers,
The beehive symbolizes the Masons' commitment to hard work and to
one for each

of the original contributing to society. It conveys the idea of the Masonic brotherhood
states. The eye
as a creative community working for a common purpose.
is a Masonic
symbol,
and there Scales
was at least
Among Freemasonry's many borrowed emblems are the scales,
one Mason
- Benjamin standing for balance and measure. This symbol can be traced back to

Franklin - on Roman statues of Justitia, the Roman personification of justice, who

the committee
carried a pair of scales to weigh the merits of each case and a sword
that approved

the design, to punish wrongdoing.

although he is

not thought
to have
Skull and crossbones
been directly Famed as a symbol of ocean-going pirates, the skull and crossbones
responsible for
actually dates further back in time as an image of physical decay
its inclusion.
and death opening the way to spiritual rebirth. This is its meaning in

some Masonic traditions, though non-initiates have generally seen

such imagery as confirmation of the supposedly bloodthirsty nature

of some Masonic vows.

 FREEMASONRY 149

THE SEAL OF MISRAIM

A
One pseudo-historical tradition an Egyptian lodge in Paris. The idea

seeks to trace Freemasonry’s spread, surviving the Count’s own

origins back to ancient Egypt. The disappearance (he is thought to

so-called Egyptian Rite owed much have died in an Italian prison) and

of its initial success to the 18th- was later championed by the Italian

century adventurer - and Mason patriot Guiseppe Garibaldi. It is still

- Count Cagliostro, who established internationally active today.

A French seal of Misraim (an early name for the

Egyptian Rite) features a host of Masonic symbols

including an Orphic egg (I) (see page 86), scales

(2), a pair of compasses (3), an Eye of Providence

(4) (see page 10), and a flight of steps representing

the path to illumination (5).

 150 BELIEF SYSTEMS: FRATERNAL SOCIETIES AND SECRETIVE CULTS

WICCAAND NEO-PAGANISM
Folk cults for the modern world

Wicca is the modern form of witchcraft, most famously championed

by the English author and folklorist Gerald Gardner in the mid-

20th century, who expanded upon the earlier work of Margaret

SHIELD KNOT Murray (see page 153). Wicca claims to trace its origins to an
In its ancient
ancient underground set of beliefs sometimes referred to as the "old
Norse form the
four-cornered
religion". This in turn taps into surviving remnants of pre-Christian
knot combines paganism. Unlike most other religions and cults, Wicca does not have
a swastika (see
a standardized canon, but common features include the worship of a
page I
52) and
a solar cross God and Goddess, often symbolized as the Sun and the Moon, which
motif - but the embody the counterbalancing forces found throughout nature.
basic form is
The word "pagan", deriving from the Latin paganus or "rustic", was
much older and
can be found in initially a pejorative term applied by Christians to the polytheistic
Mesopotamia.
folk religions that their own monotheistic faith supplanted. From the
In both places
its purpose
4th century ce on, paganism was outlawed and persecuted. In later

was protective, centuries symbols such as the Wiccan pentacle - a five-pointed star
invoking the
in a circle (see page 153) - became clandestine signs by
four corners
of the Earth which initiates could recognize one another.
- a meaning
echoed in
Triskelion
modern usage.
Interlocking swirling triple spirals adorn

the entrance stone of the Neolithic site of

Newgrange in Ireland, while related forms of

the pattern were incorporated into the designs of

brooches (right) by the Germanic Anglo-Saxon tribes.

The so-called triskelion design (see also page 18) is in fact found

throughout the world, with many cultural variants and meanings.

 WICCA AND NEO-PAGANISM

f THE CROSS 'N

AND SWASTIKA

Symmetry and repetition typify

Bronze Age European artistry. This

bronze figure (left) bears on his

chest a cross (I) within a square (2),

creating four boxes each containing

a stylized swastika (3), thought to

A Hiberno-Saxon figure used to represent awe-inspiring elemental

decorate the handle of a bucket. power in the form of lightning.

J
Modern Celtic-inspired Wiccans use the triskelion sign to represent

the idea of the triple goddess, who is part maiden, part mother and
part crone. Other modifications of the design form the three-legged
flag motifs of the Isle of Man and of Sicily, while on the opposite side

of the world, the Korean sam-taeguk - three interlocking commas

of contrasting primary colours organized within a circle - is an

Oriental variant that also echoes the yin-yang motif. Some people
have claimed that the ancient Celts’ fascination with triplication may

have its roots in their idea of the elemental and the three realms of

material existence: land, sea and sky.

 152 BELIEF SYSTEMS: FRATERNAL SOCIETIES AND SECRETIVE CULTS

Swastika
Most readily recognized now as an icon of 20th-century Nazism,

the swastika in fact has a venerable history. It was found not only
in Bronze and Iron Age Europe but also featured prominently in

SWASTIKA ancient Asia's dharmic religions (see pages 1

04- 1 05). The name itself

A curved
derives from the Sanskrit svastika denoting "well being”. The motif
,
is
swastika was
the emblem normally taken to represent a "sun cross" with arms bent to lend a

of theThule sense of momentum and movement.

Society, an

early 20th-

century occult
order founded THE POWER OF RUNES
in southern
Germany. The Divination with runes - the script mark twigs and throw them to tell

organization’s used by Germanic and Scandinavian omens. New Age gurus have devised
nationalist
peoples - is a modern form of pagan- systems by which tokens marked
agenda is
inspired augury. In De Germania, with runes are cast to foretell events,
believed to
Tacitus described how people in in the manner of / Ching orTarot card
have influenced
Nazism. the north German lands used to readings.

The curved
swastika An I I th-century Viking memorial
symbol was stone using a popular carved
later adopted
snake design, which indicates
by the SS
how the runic inscription
Nordland
should be read - along the
division in

World War II.

snake’s body from the head
to the tail. It was erected in

Gripsholm, Sweden, by a

mother grieving for her

sons Harald and Ingvars,

whom she praises for

having "fed the eagle"

(killed many in battle).

V
 WICCAAND NEO-PAGANISM 153

Horned God
The concept of the Horned God owes much to the
British anthropologist Margaret Murray, whose 1921 work
The Witch Cult in Western Europe was a key text in the

development of the modern Wiccan tradition. Murray

argued that medieval witches were the inheritors of

an ancient underground religious tradition stretching

back to prehistoric times, whose central focus was a horned

male deity (left, here in the form of Pan, the Greek goat-

god). The Celts venerated this divinity as Cernunnos, Lord of

the Animals, associated with fertility and hunting. Murray's theories

have since been criticized by scholars who have questioned her

use of sources. Under feminist influence, many Wiccan groups have

supplanted the Horned God with a Mother Goddess figure, often

depicted as a triple goddess in the form of three lunar phases.

Pentacle
Often treated as synonymous with the pentagram (see pages I
3-

14), which has long been renowned as a magical symbol, the word
“pentacle” is also used in Wiccan circles to refer to talismans of paper,

parchment or metal used in magical invocations.

Sometimes these feature protective symbols

that may include pentagrams, although

hexagrams and magic squares are equally

likely to appear. The pentagram itself,

inscribed within a circle, is now accepted

by the US Department of Veterans'

Affairs as a headstone marker for Wiccan

graves in military cemeteries.

 FURTHER READING

DICTIONARIES OF SYMBOLS Funk & Wagnall’s Standard

AND OTHER GENERAL WORKS Dictionary of Folklore, Mythology,
and Legend, ed. by Maria Leach and
1001 Symbols, by JackTresidder Jerome Fried (Harper San Francisco,

(Duncan Baird Publishers, 2003) 1984)

Brewer’s Dictionary of Phrase The Golden Bough, by Sir James

and Fable (Wordsworth Editions, Fraser (Wordsworth Editions, reissued

1993) 1993)

Cassell Dictionary of Superstitions, An Illustrated Encyclopedia of

by David Pickering (Brockhampton Traditional Symbols, by J.C. Cooper

Press, 1998) (Thames & Hudson, 1979)

The Complete Dictionary of Images and Symbols, by Mircea

Symbols in Myth, Art and Literature, Eliade and Philip Mairet (Princeton
ed. by JackTresidder (Duncan Baird University Press, 1991)

Publishers, 2004)
Man and his Symbols, by Carl
The Continuum Encyclopedia of Gustav Jung (Laurel Press, reissued

Symbols, by Udo Becker (Continuum, 1997)

2000)
The Myth of the Eternal Return,

Dictionary of Subjects and Symbols by Mircea Eliade (Princeton University

in Art, by James Hall (John Murray, Press, reissued 2005)
1989)
Nature and its Symbols, by Lucia
A Dictionary of Symbols, Impelluso (Getty Publishing, 2005)
by J.E. Cirlot, (Dover, 2002)
The Penguin Dictionary of Symbols,
Dictionary of Symbols in Art, by by Jean Chevalier and Alain
Sarah Carr-Gomm (Duncan Baird Gheerbrant, (Penguin Reference,
Publishers, 2000) 1996)
 FURTHER READING 155

The Secret Language of Symbols, The Encyclopedia ofTibetan

by David Fontana (Duncan Baird Symbols and Motifs, by Robert Beer
Publishers, 2001) (Shambhala, 1 999)

Symbols and Allegories in Art, by Gods, Demons and Symbols of

Matilde Battistini (Getty Publishing, Ancient Mesopotamia, by Jeremy
2005) Black, Anthony Green and Tessa
Rickards (British Museum Press, I 992)
Symbols - Encyclopedia ofWestern
Signs and Ideograms, by Carl G. An Illustrated Dictionary of the

Liungman (HME Publishing, 2004) Gods and Symbols of Ancient

Mexico and the Maya, by Mary

Symbols, Signs and Visual Codes, Miller and KarlTaube (Thames &
by Mark O'Connor and Raje Airey Hudson, 1997)
(Southwater, 2007)
Masonic and Occult Symbols
GUIDES TO SYMBOLISM IN Illustrated, by Cathy Burns
INDIVIDUAL TRADITIONS (Sharing, 1 998)

African Symbols, by Heike Owusu Myths and Symbols in Indian Art

(Sterling, 2007) and Civilization, by Heinrich Zimmer

(Princeton University Press, 1992)

Chinese Symbolism and Art Motifs,

by C.A.S. Williams (
Tuttle Publishing, Signs, Symbols and Omens:An
2006) Illustrated Guide to Magical and
Spiritual Symbolism, by Raymond
Codex Magica: Secret Signs, Buckland (Llewellyn Publications,
Mysterious Symbols, and Hidden 2003)
Codes of the Illuminati, byTexe

Marrs (RiverCrest Publishing, 2005) Symbol and Magic in Egyptian Art,

by Richard H. Wilkinson (Thames &

A Dictionary of Chinese Symbols, Hudson, I 999)
by Wolfram Eberhard ( Routledge

1988) Symbols of Native America,

by Heike Owusu ( Sterling ,
1 999)
The Encyclopedia of Jewish

Symbols, by Ellen Frankel and Betsy

Platkin Teutsch (Jason Aronson, 1996)
 INDEX

A see also eye, hand clouds 25, I I I

abracadabra I
32-3 and heart cock 58-9, I I 3

alchemy I
2, 74, brambles 3 I comets 25
138-41, 143 bridges 30-3 I compasses 64-5, 148,

animals 44-6 1,111, Britannia 69 149

I 12-13, 117, 122 Buddhism 15, 17, 19, Confucianism 1 08- 1 I

see also bull, lion, 24, 36,98-103 cornucopia 90

scarab and tiger Chinese 108 cow 49
ankh 80, 83 Theosophy and 144 creation 86, 92, I 32,

arch 3 I see also bodhi tree 133

arrow 10, 12, 69 and stupa crescent 24, I
24, I 27
Asclepius, Rod of 88-9 bull 49,96 crook see crozier
ashes 74, 75 butterfly 50 cross 12, 118, 120, I 30,

aumkar/ Ek Onkar 92, 131, 151

106 c Hospitaller I 37
Aztecs 2 1
, 62 caduceus 86-9, 1 4 I Maltese I
2, I 37
candlestick 115, 117 Occitan I 32
B Catharism 130-33 rayed 145
bagua I 1 chakra 95, 97 in rose 1
42, 1 45
Baha'ism 128-9 chastity 29, 30, 39 and sceptre 73
Baphomet 14, 137 Christianity 7, 1
4, 2 1 , 47, serpent 1 4 I

bat 58, 59 52, I 18-23, 124, 142 solar I 50

battlefields 38, 57-8 Gnosticism and Templar I 36
bee 50, 51, 148 130-33 crossroads I 2
bell 65 Rosicrucianism and crown 70, 71-2
belt 73 144, 145 crozier 70, I 22, I 23
blrdman 14 see also cross, Trinity cube I 3

birds 54-9, 111,118, and Virgin Mary cup 64

120, 131 chrysanthemum 36,

blood 38 37, I 13 D
bodhi tree 31,32 circle 10- II, 102, 125, danger 76
body, human I 6-2 I
-130 dawn 75
76-7, 80, 85, 90, 99 see also pentacle death 75, 76, 77
dharma 92,98-100, 152 see also lotus 'Theosophy and 144
diamond 63, 73 footprints 20, 93 Holy Grail 67, 131, 133

directions I
2, 94, I I I fours 12,94, I I I, M2, horn 90
dolphin 6 117, 141 Horned God 46, 153

dove I I 8, I 20, I 3 I fox 47, 58 humility 20, 75

dragons 25, 5 -2, I I I I freedom see liberty

122 Freemasonry 1
0, I 35, I

Druids 33, 4 I 146-9 I Chmg 109, NO, 152

fruit 42-3, I I 6 immortality 27, 34, 40
E fylfot see swastika infinity 10, 14

Earth 12-13,73 innocence 39

egg 15 G Islam 13, 19,24, 124-7
Orphic/cosmic 86, 89, gardens 30 Templars and I 37
149 girdle 73 islands 26-7
Egypt, ancient I 8-20, Gnosticism 130-33, 144 ivy 4
23, 29, 66, 75, 80-84 goddess, the triple
elements 13, 141 I 1
— 12, 151, 153 J

emoticons 20 gold 35, 62, 138 jade 62

enneagram I 27 Golden Dawn, Order Jainism 104-5

Evil Eye 14, 18, 19, of the 142, 145 jewels 53, 63, 101, 104

87, 126 Gorgons 87 Judaism I 14-17

eye 10, 18-19,52, Grail 67, 131, 133 justice 66, 1
06, 1 48
101-2, 148, 149 Green Man I 35
grief 75 K
F Kabbalah 24

fasces 86, 90, 9 I H key 64

fate I 5 hair 16, 17-18,20 khanda 1
06, 1 07
feather of ma'at 66, 84 hamsa 18, 126 Knights Hospitallers/

fengshui I 1 hand 18, 104, 105, 126 Templars I

2, I
34-7
fertility 20,21, 33-4, head 17,76-7 knots 84-5, 102, 150

35,41, 80, 153 heart 21, 123, 142

fidelity 41,73 heaven(s) 54, 84 L

fire 12, 22, 74-5 heptagram 24 labrys 28, 85

fish 60-61, I 18, 119 hermeticism 142-5 labyrinths 28

flame 21,63,74-5 hexagram 14-15, 153 lamb 47, 122
fleur-de-lys 36, 37 Hinduism I 1
,
1
9, 33, laurel 34, 89,91
flowers 34, 36-41, I 13, 36, 38, 92-7 lemniscate 14

142, 145 Jainism and I 04 liberty 71,75, 106

158 INDEX

life 80,83, I 10, I 16 see also threes, fours protection I 1 ,

1
4, 24,

light 63, 74-5 and sevens 39,41,59,73,82,

lightning 22, 24, 33, 87, I 10, 126, 153

34, 151 o pyramids 29

lily 36, 37, 39 obelisks 30, 121 Pythagoreans I 3

lion 44,45, I 17, 122, octagon I 25

133, 140 olive 34 R
lotus 36, 37-9, 94, 95, Olympic games II ,
62, rain 23, 25
97, 101, 103 75, II I raven 55-6, 57-8

Luther's seal 1
42, 1 45 omphalos 90 rebirth 26, 59, 76, 92,

orb 73 104, 105, 148

M ouroboros 53 regeneration 89

mace 95, 97 owl 56, 59 resurrection 50

Maltese cross 12, 137 ring see circle

menorah I I
5, I 1 P ringstone 128, 129

mercury I 38, I 39, 140, Paganism 14, 150-53 rock markings 1

0, 99
141 see also Druids and rod 70, 73, 86-9
metals 24, 62, I 39 Wicca rose 36-8, 1 42, 1 45
see also mercury pagoda 30, 3 1 ,
101 Rosicrucianism 142-5

milk 20, 33,49 palm 32,35,88,90, Rosslyn Chapel I 35

mistletoe 4 I 17 runes I 52
monarchs 23, 70, 7 1
-3 paradise 30

Moon 22, 23-4 peace 34, 68 s

see also crescent peach 32, 34, 42, 43 sacrifice 2 1
, 77, 1
04, I 3 I

Mormonism 10 peacock 56, I I 8 salt 86

mountains 26, 27, 28, pelican 120 scales 66, 148, 149

29, 30 pentacle 1 50, 1 53 scarab 82-3

mudras 100 pentagram 13-14, 153 sceptre 70, 72-3

musical instruments Philosopher’s Stone 74, scorpion 53

65, 66-7 138, 139-41 sea 26, 60

phoenix 140 seasons 35, I II

N pig 44, 46-7, 48 sevens 24, I 1

nimbus 74 pillars 29-30, 84 shakti 94, 95

non-violence 68, 105 planets I 3, 25, I 39, shapes 10-15, 125
Norse myth II, I 2, 32, 141 shells 60, 95, 97, 1 02
41,45,47,55 plants 3 1 ,
32-43 shepherd 123
numbers II ,
1
4, 1 02, pomegranate 42-3, Shintoism I
12-13
I
16, 127, 132 116, I 17 Sikhism 17, 106-7
siren 89 Templars I
34-7 V,

skull and crossbones Theosophy 142, 144 V sign I 8

76,77, 148 Third Eye 19, 102 vajra 24, 73, 101

sleep 38 thistle 4 valknut 11,12

smiley face 20 thorns 36, 40 vampires 59

snakes/serpents 50-52, threes II, 18, 94-5, vase 1 0
83,88-9,93, 133, 100-101, I 12, I 18, Venus I
3, 80, 141

141, 144 138, 150-51 victory 34

comets and 25 thrones 52, 56, 70, 73 vine 43, II 8

sphinx 45, 83-4 thunder 22, 24, 33, 69 Virgin Mary 36, 37,

spiders 22 tiger 45, I I

0, I I I 39
spiral I 5, 2 1 ,
I 02, 1 50 til aka 96
see also triskelion time 76 w
square 10, 12-13, I 25, toad 50, 52-3 water I 2

148, 151, 153 tomoe I I 2 water lily see lotus

staff see rod torch 75 waves 26

stag 46 tortoise 52, I II ,
I I 2 weapons 68-9, 95,

star (shape) I 1
,
14-15, towers 29 106-7, 113, 142-5

I
14, 124, 125, 127, Tree of Immortality 42 weddings 42-3
128 Tree of Knowledge werewolves 46
see also pentacle 142, 144 whale 6 I

stars (celestial bodies) Tree of Life I

2, 32, 35 wheel 15,76,98-100
22, 23, 25 trees 32-5, I 1 Wicca I 1-12, 14, 16,

steps 1 49 see also palm 150-53

stupa I 0-1 1,29, 31, trefoil 121 wings 54, 84, 85
101-2 triangles 10, I 1-12, World Tree I 2, 32
Sun 22, 23, 62, 74, 14-15, 94, 121, 141 wreath 34, 7 1 , 89,

75, 125 trident 69, 96 91

winged 84, 85 Trimurti I 1 ,

94-5
see also swastika Trinity 1
0, I 1 ,
1 2 I Y
swan 59 triratna 99, I
00-1 0 yantras 94
swastika 99, I 00, 1 02, triskelion I
8, I 50-5 I yin/yang 10,76, 108,

104-5, 150, 151, turtle I 12-13 109, I 10, 151

152
u z
T unconscious 26, 28 ziggurats 28, 29
Taoism 17, 108- II, 141 unicorn 48, I I I Zoroastrianism I
1 , 29,

tattoos 15,21 urn 101 85, 130

 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Picture Credits
The publisher would like to thank the following people, museums and
photographic libraries for permission to reproduce their material. Every care

has been taken to trace copyright holders. However, if we have omitted anyone
we apologize and will, if informed, make corrections in any future edition.

Abbreviations:

BAL Bridgeman Art Library

WFA Werner Forman Archive

Page I ©The Trustees of the British Museum; 81 Egyptian National Museum,

Cairo/BAL; 85 Robert Harding Picture Library/Photolibrary; 87 ©The Trustees

of the British Museum; 91 © The Trustees of the British Museum; 93 Victoria

& Albert Museum; 97 Victoria & Albert Museum; 99 © The Trustees of the
British Museum; 103 ©TheTrustees of the British Museum; 107 Corbis Sygma/
Desai Noshir; I 10 The Wellcome Collection/Michael Holford; I 13 BAL/Private

Collection; I 15 Archivo Iconografico, S.A./Corbis; I 16 Courtesy ofThe Jewish

Museum, London; I 1 8 Alinari Archives; 121 Edifice; I 22 © The Trustees of the
British Museum; 125 Musee du Louvre/Art Archive/Gianni Dagli Orti; 126
WFA/Private Collection; 129 © Baha'i International Community; 131 Alinari

Archives; 135 top Corbis/Sandro Vannini; 135 bottom John Heseltine; 136
Corbis Sygma/Origlia Franco; 1 44 AKG-lmages; 149 Musee du Grand Orient/
Art Archive/Marc Charmet; I 5 I Viking Ship Museum, Bygdoy/WFA; 52 Corbis/ I

Kevin Schafer
 —

THE SYMBOL DETECTIVE

Whether you’re curious to decipher a colleague’s
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actually means anything —
here is the book for
you. Highly portable and easy to use, this field
guide enables you to interpret symbols from
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you’ll never be mystified by a motif again.

©Discover the significance of any symbol

by understanding its historical and
cultural background

©Decode key motifs, objects, and details to

meaning with the help
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©Consult an at-a-glance glossary for quick

information on dozens of common symbols
or explore further for deeper insight

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ISBN 978-1-84483-617-8

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