NATIONAL

NCHRP REPORT 675

COOPERATIVE
HIGHWAY
RESEARCH
PROGRAM

LRFD Metal Loss and Service-Life

Strength Reduction Factors for
Metal-Reinforced Systems
TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD 2011 EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE*

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NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY RESEARCH PROGRAM

NCHRP REPORT 675

LRFD Metal Loss and Service-Life
Strength Reduction Factors for
Metal-Reinforced Systems

Kenneth L. Fishman
MCMAHON & MANN CONSULTING ENGINEERS, P.C.
Buffalo, NY

James L. Withiam
D’APPOLONIA ENGINEERS
Monroeville, PA

Subscriber Categories
Highways • Bridges and Other Structures • Geotechnology

Research sponsored by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
in cooperation with the Federal Highway Administration

TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD

WASHINGTON, D.C.
2011
www.TRB.org
NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY NCHRP REPORT 675
RESEARCH PROGRAM
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NCHRP PROJECT 24-28 PANEL

Field of Soils and Geology—Area of Mechanics and Foundations
Norman D. Dennis, Jr., University of Arkansas - Fayetteville, Fayetteville, AR (Chair)
Richard M. Lane, Pembroke, NH
Robert A. Gladstone, Association for Metallically Stabilized Earth, McLean, VA
Mohammed A. Mulla, North Carolina DOT, Raleigh, NC
Robert A. Reis, California DOT, Sacramento, CA
Louis D. Taylor, Michigan DOT, Lansing, MI
John J. Wheeler, Jr., New York State DOT, Albany, NY
Masha B. Wilson, Nevada Department of Public Safety, Carson City, NV
Thomas F. Zimmie, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY
Michael Adams, FHWA Liaison
G. P. Jayaprakash, TRB Liaison
FOREWORD

By Edward T. Harrigan
Staff Officer
Transportation Research Board

NCHRP Report 675 presents the findings of research conducted to develop metal loss
models for metal-reinforced systems that are compatible with the AASHTO LRFD (Load
and Resistance Factor Design) Bridge Design Specifications. The report will be of immediate
interest to engineers in state highway agencies and industry with responsibility for the construc-
tion and maintenance of bridges and structures, with particular emphasis on mechanically
stabilized earth (MSE) walls.

Transportation agencies use a variety of metal-reinforced systems in geotechnical applica-

tions, including soil and rock reinforcements, ground anchors, and tiebacks. These systems
support retaining walls and soil and rock slopes, and they stabilize roadway cuts and fills. The
precise conditions governing the deterioration of these systems are uncertain, but corrosion
is known to have an impact on their service life. Engineers, faced with the task of allocating
budgets to rehabilitate aging facilities, need reliable techniques for assessing corrosion and
estimating metal loss. Service-life estimates for new systems need to be improved, and consid-
eration of metal loss in their design needs to be consistent with the reliability-based approach
adopted in the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.
The objectives of this research were to (1) assess and improve the predictive capabilities of
existing computational models for corrosion potential, metal loss, and service life of metal-
reinforced systems used in retaining structures, highway cuts and fills, and other applications;
(2) develop methodology that incorporates the improved predictive models into an LRFD
approach for the design of metal-reinforced systems; and (3) recommend additions and revi-
sions to the AASHTO LRFD specifications that incorporate the improved models and method-
ology. The project was carried out by McMahon & Mann Consulting Engineers, P.C., Buffalo,
New York, assisted by subcontractor D’Appolonia Engineers, Monroeville, Pennsylvania.
The report fully documents the research leading to the following key products: (1) metal
loss models for estimating sacrificial steel requirements for Type I metal-reinforced systems
[mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) reinforcements], for which the AASHTO LRFD spec-
ifications include metal loss as a specific part of the design; (2) recommended sampling and
testing protocols needed for condition assessment and corrosion monitoring of MSE rein-
forcements to develop input data for the metal loss models; and (3) an example problem
demonstrating analysis and design of an MSE wall using LRFD and the corresponding metal
loss models and resistance factors. The report also presents service-life estimates and exam-
ple calibrations for a Type II metal-reinforced system (specifically, a rock bolt), for which
metal loss is not incorporated in the LRFD design calculations.
Three of seven appendices from the contractor’s final report not contained in NCHRP
Report 675 may be downloaded from the NCHRP Project 24-28 webpage at http://apps
.trb.org/cmsfeed/TRBNetProjectDisplay.asp?ProjectID=727.
AUTHOR ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge assistance and cooperation from various state DOTs and other gov-
ernment agencies, universities, private consultants, and contractors, particularly with respect to data col-
lection activities that comprised such an important part of this project. Caltrans Corrosion Technology
Branch, Materials Engineering and Testing Services Unit provided access to sites in California and shared
expertise with respect to corrosion monitoring including Messrs. Rob Reis, Doug Parks, Dave Castanon,
Rudy Lopez, Joe Shanabrook, Charlie Sparkman, and Rich Sullivan. Ms. Kathryn Griswell, Caltrans
Retaining Wall Specialist also assisted, and personnel from Caltrans Districts 1, 4, 7 and 8 assisted with site
access and maintaining traffic control. NCDOT personnel including Messrs. Mohammed Mulla, Cecil
Jones, Chris Peoples, Kelly Croft, and Dan Smith provided access, information, and assistance as necessary
to collect data from sites in North Carolina. Messrs. Robert Burnett, JJ Wheeler Jr., and Joseph DiGrego-
rio from NYSDOT provided access, information, and assistance as necessary to collect data from sites in
New York. Messrs. Dennis S. Brown, Thomas Prestach, Kevin Nagy, Glenn Keiper (now with American
Geotechnical & Environmental Services, Inc.) provided access, information, and assistance as necessary to
collect data on ground anchors at the site along I-99 in Altoona, PA. Mr. Dave Weatherby from Schnabel
Foundations, Inc., provided installation details from this site. Messrs. Craig Compton, Dennis R. Dolinar,
and Paul K. Stefko facilitated access at the NIOSH SRCM. Mr. Richard Lane, Mr. Dave Merrill, and
Ms. Krystle Pelham provided access, information and assistance as necessary to collect data from the site
of the Barron Mountain Rock Cut in Woodstock, NH. Prof. Alberto Sagues from the University of South
Florida, and Jean Marc Jailloux from Profactal Engineering and Consulting provided data from their cor-
rosion monitoring activities in Florida and France, respectively. The FHWA provided use of their PR mon-
itors for corrosion monitoring at selected sites. Use of the FHWA equipment is greatly appreciated and is
also available from the FHWA to state DOTs on an as needed basis.
Project consultants included Prof. Gregory Baecher from the University of Maryland, Mr. Peter Ander-
son, Reinforced Earth Company (RECO), Dr. Barry Christopher (Consultant), and Mr. Louis Pinto (Con-
sultant). Dr. James L. Withiam, P.E., from D’Appolonia was co-Principal Investigator for the project and
other personnel from D’Appolonia including Mr. Vince Gusbar and Dr. Yasser Hegazy contributed to the
project. Personnel from McMahon and Mann Consulting Engineers, P.C., including Ms. Suzanne George,
and Messrs. Andrew Klettke, James Janora, Richard J. Bojarski, Vince LoVullo, and Andrew McMahon
contributed to data collection activities, data analysis, and reliability studies.
CONTENTS

1 Chapter 1 Background
1 Earth Reinforcements
1 Details of Type I Reinforcements
3 Details of Type II Reinforcements
3 Durability and Performance Issues for Earth Reinforcements
4 Type I Reinforcements
7 Type II Reinforcements
8 Test Protocol and Measurement Techniques
8 Measurement Techniques
9 Performance Database
9 Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
10 Resistance Factors for Design of Earth Reinforcements
12 Chapter 2 Research Approach
12 Tasks
12 Task 1—Literature Review and Survey
12 Task 2—Prepare Performance Database
12 Task 3—Estimate Reliability of Service-Life Models
12 Task 4—Develop Work Plan for Field Investigation
12 Task 5—Submit Interim Report
12 Task 6—Implement Field Investigation
12 Task 7—Identify Target Reliability Index for LRFD
13 Task 8—Recommend Revisions to AASHTO LRFD Specifications
13 Task 9—Submit Final Report
13 Test Protocol
13 Calibration of Resistance Factors for LRFD
14 Yield Limit State
15 Resistance Factor Calibration
18 Chapter 3 Findings and Applications
19 Type I—Measured Corrosion Rates
20 Bias of LPR Measurements
22 Trends
24 Metal Loss Models and Reliability
28 Calibration of Resistance Factors
28 Galvanized Reinforcements
32 Verification of Monte Carlo Analysis
34 Plain Steel Reinforcements
35 Marginal Fill Quality
36 Type II—Condition Assessment
38 Rock Bolts
41 Ground Anchors
 42 Chapter 4 Conclusions and Recommendations
43 Recommended Resistance Factors for LRFD
45 Recommendations for Asset Management
45 Performance Data
46 Maintenance, Rehabilitation, and Replacement
46 Update Experience with Different Reinforced Fills
46 Recommendations for Future Research
47 Type I Reinforcements
47 Type II Reinforcements
48 References
51 Appendix A Details of Metal Loss Models
56 Appendix B Test Protocols
69 Appendix C Performance Database
69 Appendix D Data Analysis
69 Appendix E Details of Monte Carlo Simulations
and Reliability Analyses
70 Appendix F Example
99 Appendix G List of Symbols and Summary of Equations

Note: Many of the photographs, figures, and tables in this report have been converted from color to grayscale
for printing. The electronic version of the report (posted on the Web at www.trb.org) retains the color versions.
 1

CHAPTER 1

Background

Transportation agencies use a variety of metal-reinforced reinforced earth structures [i.e., mechanically stabilized earth
systems in geotechnical applications, including soil and rock (MSE)] that may consist of steel strips, welded wire fabric, wire
reinforcements, ground anchors, and tiebacks. These systems mesh, or soil nails. Type I elements are not prestressed, and
support retaining walls, bridge abutments, approaches, and load is transferred to the elements as the structure deforms
highway embankments, and they also stabilize roadway cuts during construction, and throughout its service life. Type II
and fills. Corrosion is known to have an impact on service life, reinforcements are active elements that are prestressed dur-
and engineers, faced with the task of allocating budgets to reha- ing installation and include ground anchors (strands and bars)
bilitate aging facilities, need reliable techniques to estimate that and rock bolts. Due to the application of prestress, the loads in
remaining service life. Service life estimates for new systems active systems are controlled and involve more certainty com-
need to be evaluated, and consideration of metal loss in the pared to passive systems. In general, Type II reinforcements
design needs to be consistent with the reliability-based approach consist of relatively high-strength steel and a higher level of
adopted in the AASHTO Load and Resistance Factor Design corrosion protection compared to Type I reinforcements. A
(LRFD) Bridge Design Specifications. NCHRP Project 24-28 significant difference between element types is that Type I
addresses these needs by developing a database to document the elements are often designed by including sacrificial steel to
performance of earth reinforcement systems, and by perform- account for metal loss due to corrosion, whereas Type II ele-
ing the statistical and reliability analyses necessary to consider ments do not include sacrificial material and the durability of
service life within the context of reliability-based design. the corrosion protection system controls the design life.
The objectives of NCHRP Project 24-28 are to (1) assess and
improve the predictive capabilities of existing computational
Details of Type I Reinforcements
models for corrosion potential, metal loss, and service life of
metal-reinforced systems used in geotechnical engineering Most steel reinforcements for MSE structures are hot-rolled
applications; (2) develop methodology that incorporates the steel strips, welded wire grids, or bar-mat grids manufactured
improved predictive models into an LRFD approach for the from cold-drawn wire as depicted in Figure 1. Standard sizes
design of metal-reinforced systems; and (3) recommend addi- of reinforcements, steel grades, and details of galvanization
tions and revisions to the AASHTO LRFD specifications to have evolved, and current practices differ from those employed
incorporate the improved models and methodology. Current prior to approximately 1978. Type I reinforcements are man-
design specifications (AASHTO, 2009) incorporate metal loss ufactured from mild steel and, currently, steel strips are man-
models, but these models have limited application with respect ufactured from ASTM A-572, Grade 65 steel. Prior to 1978
to reinforcement type and fill conditions. Results from this steel strips were manufactured from Grade 36 steel, described
study serve to broaden the recommendations for metal loss by ASTM A-446. Grids are manufactured from Grade 80 cold-
modeling, and describe effects of fill quality and reinforce- drawn wire in accordance with ASTM A-82, and deformed
ment type on performance and service life. welded wire is sometimes used, as described by ASTM A-496.
Bar mats are often configured with between two and five lon-
gitudinal wires, whereas welded wire mesh may have 10 or
Earth Reinforcements
more longitudinal wires per unit.
For the purpose of this study, metal-reinforced systems Most often the reinforcements include hot-dip galvanizing
are broadly categorized into two types. Type I reinforcements for corrosion protection that is applied in accordance with
are passive elements used in the construction of metallically ASTM A-123 for wire- or strip-type reinforcements. Minimum
2

(a)

Ribbed Strips
(b)

Welded Wire Mesh

(c)

Figure 1. Examples of metallic reinforcements used in MSE construction:

(a) bar-mat grid reinforcements, (b) hot-rolled steel strip reinforcements,
and (c) welded-wire grid reinforcements.

requirements for thickness of zinc coating depend on the thick- reinforcement samples. These data reflect a mean zinc coat-
ness and size of the reinforcements. AASHTO specifications ing thickness of approximately 150 µm. However, these data
require a minimum of 86 µm per side for MSE reinforcements, are very limited and more data describing the variation of the
as described in ASTM A-123. However, for reinforcements thickness of zinc coating are needed to obtain a reasonable
installed prior to 1978 and galvanized in accordance with distribution of measurements.
ASTM A-525 or A-641, the specified initial thickness of zinc Soil nails are steel bars with diameters ranging between
coating was less than the current specifications of 86 µm and 1 and 1.5 inches that are inserted into a 4-inch to 12-inch
ranged between 17 µm and 30 µm. diameter drill hole and surrounded by grout. Often Grade 60
The hot-dip process provides good coverage of zinc along deformed, reinforcing steel bars are employed for soil nails
the surface, but the distribution of thickness is difficult to but high strength prestressing steel bars (e.g., Grade 150) are
control. Thus, the mean thickness of the zinc coating neces- sometimes used. Soil nails may be galvanized or epoxy coated
sarily exceeds the AASHTO minimum requirements of 86 µm. and sometimes are encapsulated similar to the corrosion pro-
This ensures a low probable occurrence of a spot with less tection systems described for Type II reinforcements in the
than the minimum requirement. From the standpoint of next section. However, there are several new developments in
reliability analyses it is important to recognize that zinc soil nails that may not be fully encapsulated, if at all, includ-
thickness is a variable. Sagues et al. (1998) and Rossi (1996) ing self-drilling and self-grouted nails, screwed-in nails, and
report measurements of zinc coating thickness from frequent dynamically inserted nails (i.e., inserted using a nail gun or
intervals along the lengths of a limited number of strip-type sonic method).
 3

Details of Type II Reinforcements and plastic sheaths, and a trumpet head assembly surrounds
the reinforcements behind the bearing plate. Double corrosion
Type II reinforcements include ground anchors and rock
protection is recommended for ground anchors in aggressive
bolts. Key features of these systems, summarized in Table 1, are
ground conditions and permanent installations. Products on
described in this section. More complete details of these rein-
the market today offer systems that comply with the current
forcements, including descriptions of components, materials,
standards. However, many of the older installations do not
installation details, and performance issues can be found in
incorporate details that meet today’s standards, or may have
USACOE (1980), International Federation for Prestressing
been installed without any corrosion protection beyond the
(FIP) (1986), NCHRP Web Document 27 (D’Appolonia et al.,
passivation of the grouted portion of the tensioned elements.
2001), Kendorski (2003), and Sabatini et al. (1999).
Rock bolts are installed with either mechanical anchorages
Tensioned elements of the system include bar and strand (e.g., expansion shell, split wedge), or are grouted into rock
components. The steel grade and level of prestress employed using portland cement or resin grout. The anchorage may
in these systems are relevant to the type of corrosion problems either be concentrated near the end point of a mechanical
that may occur, and prediction of service life. Bar elements device or by the short length of grout near the end of the bolt;
are available in a variety of steel grades ranging from Grade or the bolt may be fully grouted with the pullout resistance
60 to 160. Strand elements are manufactured from Grade 250 distributed along the length of the bonded zone.
and 270 high-strength steel and generally consist of seven wire Older style rock bolts with mechanical anchorages may have
strands with six wires wrapped around a seventh wire called no corrosion protection. Portland cement or resin grouted
the “king wire.” Wire tension systems using the button head rock bolts are surrounded by grout, but the bolts heads are
anchorage of BBRV (Birkinmaier, Brandistini, Ros, and Vogt) often not encapsulated. There is also the possibility of voids
and Prescon have also been used, but are not as popular as along the grouted length. Rock bolt installations may also be
strands. These systems use a set of parallel wires, rather than similar to ground anchors with a free length and a bonded
strands, as reinforcing elements. zone, but trumpet head assemblies are not always installed,
Ground anchors include an anchored or “bonded” zone leaving the area behind the head of the rock bolt exposed.
and a free length or “unbonded” zone. The bonded zone is
anchored to the soil or rock with cement grout. Current
guidance documents [Post Tensioning Institute (PTI), 2004; Durability and Performance Issues
Sabatini et al., 1999] recommend incorporating corrosion for Earth Reinforcements
protection measures into the design of ground anchors. Cor- Durability of earth reinforcements is controlled by backfill
rosion protection measures include the use of coatings, protec- characteristics, site conditions, climate, steel type (galvanized
tive sheaths, grouting, encapsulation, and electrical isolation. or not), and details of project construction and in-service
Use of portland cement-based grout provides limited corro- operations. Weatherby (1982), FIP (1986), Briaud et al. (1998),
sion protection as a barrier, and by fostering a passive film layer D’Appolonia et al. (2001), Withiam et al. (2002), and Elias
due to its high alkalinity. et al. (2009) describe factors that contribute to corrosion poten-
Recent installations employ Class I or Class II corrosion pro- tial of earth reinforcements and measurement of the relevant
tection systems as recommended by PTI (2004). For Class I electrochemical parameters for soils and groundwater. In
protection the anchor is encapsulated (often referred to as general, “minimum” resistivity (ρmin), pH, chemical compo-
double corrosion protection) and, for Class II, the anchor is sition including the presence of organics, porosity, and ground-
protected by grout (often referred to as single corrosion pro- water level are the factors that most affect the corrosiveness of
tection). The free lengths of the anchors are protected by grease the underground environment. Generally, ground conditions

Table 1. Summary of Type II reinforcements.

Type of Metal Tendon Anchorage Corrosion

Tensioned Systems Type Type Protection
Ground anchors Strands or Cement grout More recent permanent installations use
bars in bonded Class I or Class II Protection (PTI,
zone 2004); older systems may have no
protection other than grout cover.
Rock bolts Usually Mechanical, Epoxy coating,
bars, but resin grout, or galvanized,
could be cement grout grout cover,
strands older installations may have none
4

are considered aggressive if one or more of the following con- constants k and n are identified depending on metal type (e.g.,
ditions are detected (PTI, 2004; Elias et al., 2009): galvanized or plain steel) and for fill conditions representative
of MSE construction. Linearized versions of Equation (1) have
• pH < 4.5 for steel; or been adopted as a conservative approach to extrapolate obser-
• 4.5 > pH > 10 for galvanized elements; vations of metal loss over limited time frames and for design
• ρmin < 2000 Ω-cm; recommendations (Rehm, 1980; Jackura et al., 1987; Elias,
• presence of sulfides, sulfates, or chlorides; and 1990; AASHTO, 2009).
• presence of organics. Darbin et al. (1988) and Elias (1990) proposed equations,
having the same form as Equation (1), to estimate steel loss
Metal loss and service life models are correlated with under- for plain steel and galvanized elements, respectively. These
ground conditions, particularly with respect to electrochem- models are developed using measurements of corrosion from
ical properties of soil and groundwater. The National Bureau elements buried in fill representative of MSE construction. The
of Standards (NBS) commissioned a study to observe metal loss following models apply to galvanized and plain steel rein-
from steel and galvanized specimens that were buried under forcements, respectively:
a variety of soil conditions for more than 50 years. Based on
the results from the NBS study, Romanoff (1957) proposed the For galvanized elements:
following power law to predict rates of corrosion of buried
1.54
metal elements: ⎛z ⎞ ⎛ μm ⎞ 0.65
if t f > ⎜ i ⎟ then X ( μm ) = 50 ⎜ × t f ( yr )
⎝ 25 ⎠ ⎝ yr ⎟⎠
x = kt n (1)
−2 × z i ( μm )
where ⎛z ⎞
1.54

x is loss of thickness per side or loss of radius, if t f ≤ ⎜ i ⎟ then X ( μm ) = 0 (2)

⎝ 25 ⎠
k and n are constants, and
t is time (years). For plain steel elements:
Equation (1) applies to uniform-type corrosion and may μm 0.8
also consider localized- or pitting-types of corrosion, but does X ( μm ) = 80 ×tf (3)
yr
not consider more complex forms of corrosion, including
hydrogen embrittlement or stress corrosion cracking (SCC) as where X is loss of steel (base metal) in units of µm, and tf is
described by Fontana (1986), FIP (1986), and Sabatini et al. service life in years. For Equation (2) loss of base steel occurs
(1999). Equation (1) reflects observations that the corrosion subsequent to depletion of the zinc coating, and zi is the ini-
rate is generally higher during the first few years and attenuates tial zinc thickness. Equation (2) is applicable to the range of
with respect to time (i.e., n is < 1). This is due to the steel sur- fill conditions representative of MSE wall construction that
face becoming “passivated” from stable corrosion by-products exhibit ρmin greater than 1000 Ω-cm. Data reviewed for Equa-
that adhere to the surface and formation of a passive film layer. tion (3) are based on the NBS data set for plain steel and
Equation (1) serves as the basis for several models used to esti- include a wider range of fill conditions.
mate service life and associated sacrificial steel requirements. The service life of earth reinforcements is related to the
These models differ in terms of the data sets (e.g., fill condi- remaining tensile capacity and not necessarily the maximum
tions) used to regress the model parameters, and the time pit depth. This is because pit penetrations have a limited
frame over which metal loss is considered. Note that in Equa- impact on the overall remaining cross section. Rather than
tion (1) “x” describes metal loss that may include zinc and steel measuring and modeling pit depths, metal loss models and
for galvanized elements. However, other metal loss equations measurements of corrosion rates for earth reinforcements
presented in this report use “X” to denote loss of steel sub- are averaged over the surface area of the reinforcement.
sequent to zinc deletion for galvanized elements. Metal loss Thus, metal loss is idealized as uniformly distributed over
models for Type I and Type II reinforcements are discussed the surface. A factor of 2 is commonly applied to this uni-
separately with due consideration given to differences in site form corrosion rate to consider the actual loss of tensile
conditions, construction details, and metal type (e.g., use of strength capacity (Elias, 1990; Jackura et al., 1987); in other
galvanized reinforcements for Type 1 reinforcements). words, the loss of tensile strength is twice that anticipated
based on the average loss of section. Although the factor of
2 is often taken as a constant, Smith et al. (1996) describes
Type I Reinforcements
how the local factor may vary with respect to reinforcement
Based on research conducted over the past several decades shape. Equations (2) and (3) include a factor of 2 to consider
(e.g., King, 1978; Darbin et al., 1988; Elias, 1990) values for the the maximum metal loss and associated loss of tensile strength.
 5

Equation (2) considers that loss of zinc is uniform with Rehm (1980), Jackura et al. (1987) and Elias (1990) propose
x = 25t0.65, but a factor of 2 is applied to the steel corrosion models for estimating metal loss of galvanized reinforcements
rate to consider the maximum metal loss after zinc is con- in fill conditions applicable to MSE construction. Details of
sumed as X = 50t0.65. these other models are described in Appendix A and are
Although corrosion rates for both galvanized and plain referred to as the Stuttgart or Caltrans Interim models. These
steel clearly vary exponentially with respect to time, a num- models consider fill conditions that are more severe relative to
ber of models (including the AASHTO model) approximate the potential for corrosion compared to the AASHTO require-
loss of steel using linear extrapolation for the purpose of ments, and are sometimes, but not always, associated with
design. These models assume that the rate of zinc consump- correspondingly higher corrosion rates. Table 2 is a summary
tion is higher in the first few years and then levels off to a of the different fill conditions, model parameters and cor-
steady but significantly lower rate. Once the galvanized zinc responding estimates of zinc life, and estimates of steel loss
coating is depleted, it is assumed that the base carbon steel considering a 75-year service life.
corrodes at the carbon steel rate. This is a conservative assump- Considering a service life of 75 years and an initial zinc
tion that does not consider that the insoluble by-product of thickness zi, equal to 86 µm per side, the steel loss computed
zinc corrosion continues to protect the underlying steel (Rehm, with the Darbin equation [Equation (2)] is 655 µm per side.
1980). Calibration of LRFD resistance factors for galvanized For a 75-year design life, and zi equal to 86 µm, the AASHTO,
reinforcements assumes that the steel cross section is not con- Stuttgart-high salt, and Caltrans Interim-select models yield
sumed before the zinc coating, which serves as the sacrificial estimates of steel loss close to that computed with the Darbin
anode protecting the base steel. Since the zinc layers do not con- model. Differences between these models include the data
tribute to the tensile strength of the reinforcements, strength sets that are used to regress model parameters (i.e., corrosion
loss is also delayed until the zinc is consumed, and loss of steel rates). This demonstrates that the current AASHTO model
section is described according to Equation (4). In general the uses corrosion rates that are applicable to fill conditions that
thickness of steel, X, consumed per side over the design life, are more severe relative to those allowed by the specifications;
tf, may be computed as in other words, the AASHTO model is conservative. For fill
conditions that are considered marginal by AASHTO stan-
μm
X ( μm ) = ( t f ( yrs.) − C ( yrs.)) × rs (4) dards, due to higher salts contents (models below the double
yr line in Table 2), considerably higher steel losses are estimated.
A complete comparison of steel losses computed with the
⎛ ( zi − rz1 × t1 ) ⎞ models above the double line in Table 2 as a function of ser-
where C is the time for zinc depletion ⎜ C = t1 + ⎟⎠ ,
⎝ rz 2 vice life is presented in Figure 2. Comparisons with the Darbin
which is computed based on the initial zinc thickness, zi, the model shown in Figure 2 imply that the factor of 2 described
initial corrosion rate for zinc, rz1, the subsequent zinc corrosion by Elias (1990) is implicit in the piecewise linear models from
rate, rz2, and the duration for which rz1 prevails (t1–usually Stuttgart, AASHTO, and Caltrans.
taken as 2 to 3 years). The corrosion rate of the base steel sub- Table 3 summarizes the AASHTO-recommended metal
sequent to zinc depletion is rs. loss model for design of MSE structures (AASHTO, 2009) and

Table 2. Summary of piecewise linear metal loss models for

galvanized reinforcements.

Electrochemical Parameters Metal Loss Steel

Model Considered1 Parameters Loss/Side
tf = 75 yrs.
pH ρmin Cl- SO4 rz12 rz2 rs C3 X4
Ω-cm ppm ppm μm/yr μm/yr μm/yr yrs. μm
Stuttgart-mildly corrosive 4.5 to 9 >1,000 <20 <50 6 2 9 39 324
Caltrans Interim-select5 >7 >1,000 <500 <2,000 NA NA 13 20 715
AASHTO-mildly corrosive 5 to 10 >3,000 <100 <200 15 4 12 16 708
2
Stuttgart-high salt, saturated 4.5 to 9 >1,000 <50 <500 17 2 12 20 654
Caltrans Interim-neutral >7 >1,000 <500 <2,000 NA NA 28 10 1820
Caltrans Interim-acidic <7 >1,000 <500 <2,000 NA NA 33 10 2145
Caltrans Interim-corrosive >7 < 1,000 <500 <2,000 NA NA 71 6 4899
1
Electrochemical parameters considered for design by Caltrans have been updated since the Interim models
were proposed in 1987. See Appendix A for details.
2
Applies to the first 2 years except for the Stuttgart high salt model where rz1 applies to the first 3 years.
3
C is the time to zinc deletion (i.e., initiation of steel loss) assuming zi is 86 μm.
4
X is the steel loss per side for a 75-year service life.
5
Caltrans select fill is clean gravel with less than 25% passing the No. 4 sieve and less than 5% fines.
6

1000

Darbin

800 Caltrans-select

Steel Loss per side (μm)

AASHTO

600 Stuttgart-salt

400

200

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (years)

Figure 2. Comparison of metal loss models.

the corresponding fill material requirements. The fill require- consideration. The number of samples required increases
ments are intended to control corrosion potential with fills when evaluating more aggressive or marginal backfill materi-
that are between noncorrosive and “mildly” corrosive. als, and when more confidence is needed for design (With-
Based on the information in Table 3, the steel loss per side iam et al., 2002; Hegazy et al., 2003). Existing data involving
(X) in µm/yr for a given service life, tf , and initial thickness of frequent sample intervals at sites with poor conditions depict
zinc coating, zi, is computed as a wide scatter in results (Whiting, 1986; Fishman et al., 2006).
For moderate to large sized projects, with fill sources that are
⎛ ⎞ expected to be relatively nonaggressive relative to corrosion
μm ⎜ ( zi − 30 μm ) ⎟ (i.e., mildly corrosive soils meeting AASHTO criteria), Table 4,
X ( μm ) = 12 × ⎜ t f − 2 yr − ⎟ yr (5)
yr ⎜ μm ⎟
taken from Elias et al. (2009), can be used to determine the
4 number of samples that should be taken from each source
⎝ yr ⎠
and evaluated for electrochemical parameters. More samples
The AASHTO model does not give any guidance for corro- should be retrieved if marginal quality reinforced fills are
sion rates or metal loss modeling of plain steel (i.e., not galva- being contemplated for construction (not recommended), or
nized) reinforcements or for fills that do not meet the stringent when undertaking performance evaluations at sites with poor
electrochemical requirements. A significant effort was devoted reinforced fill conditions. In addition to the mean values used
in this project to documenting the performance of in-service for design [i.e., the mean of the minimum resistivity (ρmin)
reinforcements and to verifying the reliability of the AASHTO values obtained from each test], the distribution and variabil-
(and other) models used in MSE structure design. ity of the measurements is of significant interest from the
The frequency and distribution of samples for assess- standpoint of reliability-based design (LRFD).
ment of electrochemical parameters need to be given careful Table 4 places restrictions on the allowable standard devi-
ations (σ) of the resistivity and salt content (see comment 3)
measurements. If these standard deviations are exceeded,
then the sampling should be repeated. If the standard devia-
Table 3. AASHTO metal loss model and
tion, computed using the total numbers of samples, is still
backfill requirements.
outside the limits of Table 4, then the backfill source should
Metal Loss Model Backfill Requirements not be used for MSE wall fill. If resistivity less than 3,000 Ω-cm
Component type Loss pH 5 to 10 is obtained from any test, obtain additional samples in the
(age) (µm/yr) Minimum ≥3,000 Ω-cm
resistivity
vicinity of this sample location to identify if there are specific
Zinc (<2 yrs), rz1 15 Chlorides <100 ppm areas wherein the material is unsuitable.
Zinc (>2 yrs), rz2 4 Sulfates <200 ppm Stockpiles should be sampled from the top, middle, and
Steel (after zinc), rs 12 Organic content <1% bottom portions and an excavator with a bucket should be
 7

Table 4. Recommended sampling protocol for electrochemical testing

of MSE wall fill (Elias et al., 2009).

During
Preconstruction
Range General Construction
of ρmin Description No. σresistivity Sample Comments
(Ω-cm) Samples (Ω-cm) Interval (yd3)
>10,000 Crushed rock 1 / 31 NA NA 1. pH outside the
and gravel, specified limits is not
<10% passing allowed for any sample.
No. 10 sieve 2. Backfill sources shall
5,000 to Sandy gravel 3 / 61 <2,000 4,000 / 2,0001 be rejected if ρmin
10,000 and sands measured for any sample
<5,000 Silty sands and 5 / 101 <1,000 2,000 / 1,0001 is less than 700 Ω-cm, Cl-
clayey sand, > 500 ppm or SO4 > 1,000
screenings ppm.
3. For materials with ρmin
< 5,000 Ω-cm, σ for Cl-
and SO4 shall be less than
100 ppm and 200 ppm,
respectively.
1
Number of resistivity tests / number of tests for pH, Cl-, and SO4.

used to remove material from approximately 2 feet beyond environment is immediate and unaffected by the presence of
the edge of the stockpile. Particular emphasis on sampling a corrosion protection system or grout cover surrounding the
needs to be placed at sites where different reinforced fill reinforcements. Corrosion protection measures include the
sources and/or types are being considered, and each source use of coatings, protective sheaths, passivation with grout,
should be sampled as described in Table 4. and encapsulation. Thus, the estimated metal loss is applica-
Differences in the electrochemical properties of the soil fill ble to unprotected portions of the installation and is a con-
can adversely affect corrosion rates and contribute to more servative estimate for portions of the reinforcements that are
severe and localized occurrences of metal loss. In instances passivated by grout or otherwise protected from corrosion.
where more easily compacted (e.g., open-graded) material is The appropriate parameters for use in estimating metal
placed adjacent to the wall face, significant differences in the loss are based on the corrosiveness index of the surrounding
soil fill conditions may exist with respect to position along the earth. According to the recommendations described in With-
reinforcements. For cases where reinforcements are not elec- iam et al. (2002), the parameters “k” and “n” for use in Equa-
trically isolated (e.g., metallic facing), variations of backfill tion (1) are adjusted relative to soil/rockmass conditions as
types along the height of the wall may also have a significant summarized in Table 5. The constant “n” is taken as one for
effect on corrosion rates of metallic reinforcements. simplicity and considering the relatively short time frame
(<20 years) inherent to most of the observations used to
develop the table. Ground conditions in Table 5 are described
Type II Reinforcements as average, corrosive, or highly corrosive based on electro-
Since the integrity of the corrosion protection system is chemical characteristics of the surrounding material that may
known to have a significant effect on service life, condition be soil, rock joint infill, or groundwater. Average conditions and
assessment must focus on obtaining information on the sys- corrosive conditions refer to relatively neutral (pH > 5) and ρmin
tem’s integrity. Properly installed grease and sheathing, and greater than 2,000 Ω-cm, or 700 Ω-cm < ρmin < 2,000 Ω-cm,
protection at the anchor head assembly, can provide sub- respectively. Highly corrosive conditions are acidic (pH < 4),
stantial benefits on service life. Equation (1) and correspond-
ing parameters from Table 5 should be applied to those
systems where protection is questionable; otherwise corrosion Table 5. Recommended parameters for
cannot occur. For high strength steel reinforcements, corro- service life prediction model for Type II
sion processes may also include hydrogen embrittlement or reinforcements (Withiam et al., 2002).
SCC. Equation (1) does not apply to these types of corrosion
Ground Conditions
processes and, for these cases, the end of service is considered Parameter Highly
to be when the corrosion protection is compromised. Average Corrosive
Corrosive
Equation (1) is applied to estimate metal loss of Type II k (μm) 35 50 340
reinforcements assuming that attack from the surrounding n 1.0 1.0 1.0
8

correspond to ρmin < 700 Ω-cm, or have very high chloride copper sulfate reference electrode (CSE) is commonly used
content (> 500 ppm). to monitor earth reinforcements. Results from the test can
The estimated service life of unprotected rock reinforce- provide a comparison between metallic elements at different
ment systems in moderately aggressive ground conditions is locations at the same site and identify the presence of differ-
approximately 50 years (Kendorski, 2003), but may be much ent metals, for example, zinc or iron. Coupons or dummy
lower for very aggressive ground conditions, and particularly reinforcements assist in interpretation of half-cell potential
for high strength steel subject to low pH environments measurements. Plain steel, galvanized steel, and zinc coupons
(Withiam et al., 2002). may provide baseline measurements for comparison.

Test Protocol and Linear Polarization Resistance

Measurement Techniques
LPR measurements are used to observe the instanta-
Recommended practices for corrosion monitoring and con- neous corrosion rate. Lawson et al. (1993), Elias (1990, 1997),
dition assessment of Type I and Type II reinforcements were Berkovitz and Healy (1997), and Elias et al. (2009) describe
developed from previous studies including FHWA Demonstra- that application of the LPR technique to MSE reinforcements
tion Project 82, Durability/Corrosion of Soil Reinforced Struc- and application to Type II reinforcements is similar. Polariza-
tures (Elias, 1990), and NCHRP Report 477: Recommended tion resistance is measured from the response to an impressed
Practice for Evaluation of Metal-Tensioned Systems in Geotech- current and the corrosion rate is computed via the Stern-
nical Applications, (Withiam et al., 2002). These studies evalu- Geary equation (Stern and Geary, 1957). The surface area of
ated application of test techniques at a number of selected field the test element must be known since the Stern-Geary equa-
sites and developed recommended practices for corrosion tion is based on the corrosion current density, which is mea-
monitoring and condition assessment. sured in terms of current per unit surface area. The measured
resistance, PR′, is actually the sum of the interface and soil
resistance (PR′ = PR + Rs) with a correction for soil resistance
Measurement Techniques
often necessary (Elias, 1990).
Early corrosion monitoring practices involved exhuming
and examining samples of reinforcements for evidence of cor-
Sonic Echo Test Measurements
rosion, including loss of cross section. The practice of exhum-
ing in-service reinforcements is limited to reinforcements that The sonic echo method (impact test) is used for evaluating
are accessible and usually near the surface of the structure. cracking of grouts, fracture of tendons, and loss of section or
However, special inspection elements may be placed and later loss of prestress for Type II reinforcements (Rodger et al.,
extracted from various positions along the wall face including 1997). The end of the reinforcement is impacted using a ham-
the top, middle, and bottom of the wall (Jackura et al., 1987). mer or air gun, which generates elastic compression waves
Corrosion rate may be estimated from weight loss and thick- with relatively low frequency content. The waves are reflected
ness measurements, provided the original thickness or weight by changes in geometry or conditions along the length of the
and composition (e.g., zinc thickness) of the reinforcements reinforcement, including the ends of the elements, transitions
are known. Corrosion rate decays with time (Romanoff, 1957), from free to bonded zones, and irregularities that may be
and a catalog of measurements made at different times is encountered along the length. Gong et al. (2005) and Liao
required to assess the rate of metal loss with respect to time. et al. (2008) describe application of the sonic echo test to eval-
Less invasive techniques employing nondestructive electro- uate the length and integrity of soil nail installations.
chemical tests such as measurement of half-cell potential and
linear polarization resistance (LPR) were implemented for cor-
Ultrasonic Test Measurements
rosion monitoring of MSE walls beginning in the later 1980s
(Lawson et al., 1993; Elias, 1990) and are also applied to Type The ultrasonic test method is a good technique for evalu-
II reinforcements (Withiam et al., 2002). With these tech- ating grout condition, fracture of elements, and abrupt
niques, a large number of samples are monitored and frequent changes in the element cross section for Type II reinforce-
measurements may be collected. ments. The method has many of the features of the sonic echo
technique, except that the transmitted signal contains rela-
tively higher frequencies.
Half-Cell Potential
An ultrasonic transducer is acoustically coupled to the
The half-cell potential, Ecorr, is the difference in potential exposed end of the test element. Grease is used as an acoustic
between the metal element and a reference electrode. A copper/ couplant. The time taken for sound pulses, generated at regular
 9

intervals, to pass through the specimen and return, is mea- tributed geographically. Approximately 40% of the walls
sured. Return pulses may be either from a single reflection at constructed with strip reinforcements are located in the more
a discontinuity, or from multiple reflections between a dis- temperate southern climates, where soils are normally slightly
continuity and the end of the specimen. The patterns of the acidic.
received pulses and the arrival times can provide valuable
information about the nature of a defect, and of the integrity
Load and Resistance Factor
of the material being tested.
Design (LRFD)
LRFD is a reliability-based design method by which loads
Performance Database
and resistances are factored such that:
An important component of this research is to organize and
incorporate performance data from earth reinforcements into ∑ γ iQni ≤ φRn (6)
a database. The database is analyzed to assess the reliability of
current models for estimating metal loss and service life. The where
New York State Department of Transportation (NYSDOT) Qni are nominal (i.e., computed) loads from sources that
(Wheeler, 2002b), the Colorado Department of Transportation may include earth loads, surcharge loads, impact loads,
(CDOT) (Hearn et al., 2004), the Association for Metallically or live loads;
Stabilized Earth (AMSE, 2006), the Kentucky Transportation γi is the load factor for the ith load source;
Research Cabinet (Beckham et al., 2005), the Ohio Department Rn is the nominal (i.e., computed) resistance; and
of Transportation (Timmerman, 1990), and the National Park φ is the resistance factor and is usually less than 1.
Service (Anderson et al., 2009) have all developed databases Load and resistance factors are applied such that the asso-
for retaining walls. In general, these databases follow a format ciated probability of the load exceeding the resistance is low.
and protocol consistent with that employed by the FHWA The limit state equation corresponding to Equation (6) is
mandated Bridge Management System (Hearn et al., 2004).
These databases were considered and used as a basis to develop g ( R, Q ) = R − Qi = λ R Rn − ∑ λ Qi Qni > 0 (7)
the framework for the performance database developed as part
of NCHRP Project 24-28. The database developed for this proj- where
ect provides input necessary for statistical analysis of perfor- g is a random variable representing the safety margin;
mance data, reliability analysis, and calibration of resistance R is a random variable representing “measured or actual”
factors for reliability-based design (i.e., LRFD). resistance;
The AMSE has compiled an inventory documenting Q is a random variable representing “measured or actual”
details of MSE walls constructed in the United States over the load;
past 35 years (AMSE, 2006). The majority of walls con- Qi are random variables for “measured or actual” loads
structed with grid reinforcements serve as retaining walls, from various sources that may include earth loads, sur-
but approximately one-third of the walls with strip rein- charge loads, impact loads, or live loads; and
forcements serve as part of a bridge structure (abutment or λR and λQi are bias factors defined as the ratio of measured
wing walls). Approximately half of the walls in the AMSE (actual) to nominal (computed) values of resistance and
inventory are located in the western region of the United load, respectively.
States, within an arid climate where backfill sources are alka-
line. Approximately 80% of the fill materials included in the Figure 3 depicts the limit state equation described by Equa-
AMSE database have a pH of between 6.5 and 8 (slightly tion (7) and the area beneath the tail to the left of g = 0 is the
acidic to slightly alkaline) and ρmin > 10,000 Ω-cm. This is probability that g < 0 will occur, pf (i.e., pf = P[g⎟ R, Q] < 0).
similar to data collected in France [Terre Armée Interna- This area is related to the reliability index, β, which is defined
tional (TAI), 1977] indicating that approximately half of the as the number of standard deviations between the mean value
walls included in the French survey had ρmin > 10,000 Ω-cm of g(R, Q) and the origin of the g(R, Q) function.
and 90% had pH values between 6 and 8.5. Thus, a large por- Table 6 describes the relationship between β and pf. In
tion of the inventory is constructed with fill material that general, β = 0 corresponds to a 50% probability of occur-
meets AASHTO requirements by a wide margin, and may be rence and the probability of occurrence is inversely propor-
considered “high quality fill.” tional to β. The objective of LRFD is to find values for load
Compared to steel grid-type reinforcements, which are and resistance factors, γi and φ, to achieve a target reliability
used predominantly within the western region of the United index, βT, corresponding to an acceptable probability of
States, use of strip reinforcements is more uniformly dis- occurrence, pf.
10

yield limit state that are calibrated with respect to safety factors
that prevailed for the former allowable stress-based design
(ASD). Table 7 is a summary of resistance factors for the yield
limit state as presented in the current AASHTO specifications.
The ASD employed safety factors of 1.8 (i.e., 1/0.55) or 2.1 (i.e.,
1/0.48) relative to yield of strip-type reinforcements or grid-
type reinforcements, respectively. The higher safety factor for
grid reinforcing members corresponds to a lower resistance fac-
tor and is intended to ensure that no individual wire is stressed
to more than 0.55Fy. This compensates for interior longitudinal
elements that carry higher load compared to exterior elements
due to load transfer through the transverse members of the bar
mat. The safety factor of 2.1, and corresponding resistance fac-
tor of 0.65, is appropriate for bar mats with four or more longi-
tudinal elements but should be higher for elements with only
three longitudinal elements. However, this point is not
Figure 3. Statistical model of limit state equation. addressed in the current AASHTO specifications.
D’Appolonia (2007) assessed strength reduction factors for
the yield limit state via reliability-based calibration, but did not
Resistance Factors for Design consider metal loss from corrosion as a variable. This project
of Earth Reinforcements extends these studies to consider variability of metal loss and
Reliability-based calibration of the strength reduction fac- the impact that this has on computed levels of reliability using
tor for LRFD modeling is focused on the design of MSE wall existing design methodologies and methods for computing
systems, since the AASHTO LRFD specifications for MSE the load transferred to the reinforcements. Calibration of the
walls include metal loss as an explicit part of the design. resistance factors uses load factors from the AASHTO LRFD
Ground anchor systems described in the AASHTO specifica- specifications and calibration methodology recommended
tions incorporate a Class I corrosion protection system, by Allen et al. (2005). The resistance factor is calibrated with
therefore metal loss is not incorporated into the design calcu- respect to a target reliability index, βT, (i.e., probability of
lations. Current AASHTO specifications include resistance occurrence), which accounts for the redundancy of the system
factors for the structural resistance of ground anchors that and load redistribution inherent to the yield limit state.
consider variations inherent to steel manufacturing and fab-
rication. The value of φ varies depending on steel type as 0.9 Probability of Occurrence (Exceeding Yield)
for mild steel (ASTM A-615) and 0.8 for high-strength steel for Existing Construction
tendons (ASTM A-722). The AASHTO specifications do not
specifically address design calculations in support of rock-bolt Generally, MSE wall systems are prefabricated, resulting
installations. To address this need, service life estimates and in distinct reinforcement and reinforcement spacing. Thus,
example calibrations of resistance factors for rock bolts are reinforcement yield resistance is available in discrete incre-
also included in this report. ments determined by the distinct size of the reinforcement
The current AASHTO (2009) LRFD Bridge Design Specifica- and reinforcement spacing selected for the project. Reinforce-
tions for design of MSE walls include resistance factors for the ment sizes and spacings are selected based on particular design
locations, often near the base of the wall; and unless the wall
is very tall, these dimensions are held constant throughout.
Table 6. Relationship Therefore, yield resistance is not optimized with respect to the
between ␤ and pf. yield limit state, and for many reinforcement locations, there is
a large disparity between reinforcement loads and resistance.
Reliability Index Probability of
(β) occurrence D’Appolonia (2007) studied this case using data that included
(pf) measurements of reinforcement load that could be compared
2.0 2.275 x 10-2
2.5 6.210 x 10-3
with the available yield resistance. Essentially, the results
3.0 1.350 x 10-3 reported by D’Appolonia describe the probability of occur-
3.5 2.326 x 10-4
4.0 3.167 x 10-5
rence for as-built conditions, rather than for a conceptual
4.5 3.398 x 10-6 design for which yield resistance is optimized with respect to
5.0 2.867 x 10-7 the limit state.
 11

Table 7. Resistance factors for yield resistance for MSE walls

with metallic reinforcement and connectors from Table 11.5.6-1,
AASHTO (2009).
Reinforcement Type Loading Condition Resistance
Factor
Strip reinforcements1 Static loading 0.75
Combined static/earthquake loading 1.00
Grid reinforcements1,2 Static loading 0.65
Combined static/earthquake loading 0.85
1
Apply to gross cross section less sacrificial area. For sections with holes, reduce gross area
in accordance with AASHTO (2009) Article 6.8.3 and apply to net section less sacrificial area.
2
Apply to grid reinforcements connected to rigid facing element, for example, a concrete panel or
block. For grid reinforcements connected to a flexible facing mat or that are continuous with the
facing mat, use the resistance factor for strip reinforcements.

Results from Monte Carlo simulations of the limit state yield resistance. Furthermore, for tall walls there may be a
function and comparison with closed form solutions as number of locations where yield resistance is selected to meet
reported by D’Appolonia indicate that the probability of a given load. Thus, locally, the probability of occurrence may
occurrence for as-built conditions is very low, corresponding be much higher than that predicted by D’Appolonia.
to β > 3.5 and pf < 0.0001. These results are insensitive to Alternatively, this report describes reliability-based cali-
metal loss and do not depend on the choice of resistance fac- bration for resistance factors considering that the yield limit
tor. This leads to the conclusion that reinforcement yield is state function is explicitly applied at every reinforcement
very unlikely given the as-built conditions of MSE walls, and location. Thus, the potential for overdesign is not directly
the yield limit state does not appear to have a significant included in the analysis; however, a target reliability index,
impact on performance. βT of 2.3 corresponding to pf = 0.01, is adopted considering
The D’Appolonia model assumes that the difference between the large redundancy inherent to the system (Allen et al.,
yield resistance and reinforcement load is randomly distrib- 2005). Considering as-built conditions, the resistance factors
uted. In reality this is not the case. For example, the difference computed by this technique are conservative, although they
may be much smaller for reinforcements located near the base are in the range of those incorporated into AASHTO (2009)
of the wall or other locations that may govern the required as shown in Table 7.
12

CHAPTER 2

Research Approach

Tasks predicting the corrosion potential, metal loss, and service life
of metal-reinforced systems in geotechnical applications.
The research approach includes nine tasks and the project
was conducted in two phases. Tasks 1 through 5 were included
in Phase I, and Phase II includes Tasks 6 through 9. Results Task 4—Develop Work Plan
from Phase I were described in the project interim report that for Field Investigation
was submitted in April 2007, and this report includes results Task 4 consists of preparing detailed plans for a compre-
from Phase II. A brief description of tasks from Phase I is hensive field investigation to evaluate the performance of
summarized to help place the approach and results from earth reinforcement systems. This plan addresses some of the
Phase II into context. deficiencies in the performance database identified in Task 2.
These deficiencies include limitations with respect to geo-
Task 1—Literature Review and Survey graphic distribution, range of fill characteristics, spatial and
temporal variations, and corrosion rate measurements for
Task 1 consists of a review of existing literature and a sur- Type II reinforcements.
vey of owners, designers, and contractors to (1) identify exist-
ing data on the past performance of metallic reinforcements;
(2) trace the development of corrosion potential, metal loss Task 5—Submit Interim Report
and service life models that form the basis for the existing Task 5 consists of preparing an interim report summariz-
AASHTO specifications and FHWA recommendations; ing the results, conclusions, and recommended work plans
(3) document information relative to existing installations; developed during Tasks 1 to 4. This report was submitted to
and (4) solicit information regarding existing sites and planned and approved by NCHRP in April 2007.
construction/deconstruction where access to reinforcements
could be gained for field studies, including opportunities to
Task 6—Implement Field Investigation
exhume reinforcement samples for observation and testing.
Task 6 consists of implementing the workplan developed
Task 2—Prepare Performance Database in Task 4 and approved in Task 5.

Task 2 consists of (1) developing and populating a database

Task 7—Identify Target Reliability Index
using existing performance data identified in Task 1, (2) col-
for LRFD
lecting information regarding the existing inventory of metal-
lic earth reinforcements, and (3) studying attributes of the Using the data from Tasks 2, 3 and 6, statistical properties
performance data and comparing attributes of the general are computed to describe the variability of factors that affect
population to those from sites with performance data. metal loss and service life estimates of in-ground metallic
reinforcement systems. This includes (1) reevaluation of the
Task 3—Estimate Reliability prediction model(s) to assess its accuracy and precision to esti-
of Service-Life Models mate metal loss caused by corrosion and (2) development of
appropriate resistance factors for use in LRFD that account for
Task 3 consists of analyzing the results from Tasks 1 and 2 metal loss caused by corrosion. Calibration of the resistance fac-
to estimate the reliability and utility of promising models for tors uses load factors from the AASHTO LRFD specifications
 13

and calibration methodology recommended by Allen et al. (4) comparing results with expectations for service life mod-
(2005). The resistance factors consider the nominal metal loss els (Fishman et al., 2005).
used in design and the redundancy of the design and load NDT applied to Type I reinforcements includes measure-
redistribution inherent to the identified limit states. ment of half-cell potential and LPR. Half-cell potential mea-
The reliability index (β) for other systems that are vulnera- surements are useful to probe the surface and assess if corrosion
ble to metal loss (unprotected soil nails and rock bolts) will also has occurred and whether or not zinc coating remains on the
be considered and compared to the βT values used in design. surface of galvanized reinforcements. LPR is useful to estimate
corrosion rate at an instant in time. Single measurements do
not provide enough information and a sampling strategy is
Task 8—Recommend Revisions
incorporated into the test protocol to consider random, spa-
to AASHTO LRFD Specifications
tial, and temporal variations in measurements.
Based on the results from Task 7, revisions to the current Additional NDT applied to Type II reinforcements includes
AASHTO LRFD specifications used in the design of metal- impact and ultrasonic tests. Impact test results are useful to
tensioned systems were reviewed and recommended. In diagnose loss of prestress, assess grout quality, and indicate if the
particular, resistance factors for design of MSE walls are rec- cross section is compromised from corrosion or from a bend or
ommended that take into account the estimated metal loss kink in the element. Ultrasonic test results are useful for obtain-
over the service life of the installation. Metal loss parameters ing more detailed information about the condition of elements
will be updated as appropriate for galvanized and plain steel within the first few feet from the proximal end of the element.
reinforcements, while taking into consideration different back-
fill characteristics. Calibration of Resistance Factors
for LRFD
Task 9—Submit Final Report The procedure for reliability-based calibration of resistance
This final report summarizes the findings of, draws conclu- factors for LRFD is as follows (Allen et al., 2005):
sions from, and documents the research products, including
1. Consider limit state equation for yield of reinforcements.
• A performance database documenting the attributes and 2. Statistically characterize the data upon which the calibration
metal loss observed for a variety of metal-tensioned systems is based.
used in geotechnical applications, including the additional 3. Select a target reliability index.
results from field studies conducted in Task 6. 4. Use reliability theory to compute resistance factors.
• Updated metal loss models that consider targeted levels of
Factors that impact the extent to which variability of metal
confidence, sources of error, and different types of elements loss affects probability of occurrence need to be included in
and site conditions. the reliability-based calibration. To help identify these factors,
• Recommended revisions to the current AASHTO LRFD
Figure 4 illustrates how the steel incorporated into the design
specifications, including updated resistance factors for the of a reinforcement cross section can be interpreted to include
design of MSE walls and other earth reinforcements.
• Discussion of deficiencies in present knowledge and rec-
ommendations for future work.

Test Protocol
Berkovitz and Healey (1997) and Elias et al. (2009) describe
test protocols and procedures for sampling and testing Type I
reinforcements. Withiam et al. (2002) present a recommended
practice resulting from NCHRP Project 24-13 for condition
assessment and service life modeling of Type II reinforcements.
These procedures, protocols, and recommended practices were
followed in the course of this research. Appendix B describes
salient details of test procedures, sampling, data analysis, and
interpretation for Type I and Type II reinforcements. In gen-
eral, the protocols include (1) assessing the site and installation
conditions; (2) sampling and testing backfill, groundwater,
and in situ earth materials; (3) performing nondestructive Figure 4. Idealized
testing (NDT) supplemented with visual observations; and reinforcement cross section.
14

three components: (1) steel needed to resist the applied load The main differences between the simplified and the coher-
without yielding (nominal structural steel), (2) steel loss from ent gravity methods are with respect to the determination of K
corrosion (consumed steel), and (3) residual steel that was and computation of σv (Berg et al., 2009). The manner in which
intended to serve as sacrificial steel, but not actually consumed reinforcement loads are computed affects the load bias used in
by corrosion. Residual steel contributes to the reinforcement the calibration of resistance factor. Allen et al. (2001 and 2005)
resistance, and consequently to the bias inherent to the design. and D’Appolonia (2007) assessed the load bias for metallic MSE
Differences between the metal loss model used in design and reinforcements using the simplified and coherent gravity meth-
the prevailing corrosion rates determine the amount of resid- ods of analysis, respectively. We have used the load bias from
ual steel at the end of the service life. Prevailing corrosion rates these references to calibrate resistance factors for LRFD.
depend on the electrochemical properties of the fill, making The maximum reinforcement tension is computed from σH
fill quality an important factor to include in the calibration. based on the spacing of the reinforcements as
Reinforcement size is also important because the significance
Tmax = σ H SV (9)
of residual steel becomes less as the cross-sectional area of the
reinforcement increases. In consideration of these factors, the where
reliability-based calibration is performed in terms of the fol- Tmax is the maximum reinforcement tension at a given level
lowing design parameters: per unit width of wall and
SV is equal to the vertical spacing of reinforcements.
• service lives of 50, 75 and 100 years;
Equations (8) and (9) describe the demand placed on the
• different reinforcement dimensions for strips 3 mm, 4 mm,
reinforcements; the capacity is the yield resistance of the rein-
5 mm and 6 mm, or wire diameters for grids W7, W9, W11, forcements computed as
W14; and
• different backfill conditions (not all meet AASHTO speci- Fy Ac
R= (10)
fications). SH
where
Yield Limit State R is resistance per unit width of wall,
Fy is the yield strength of the steel,
Loss of cross section affects the yield resistance of MSE
Ac is the cross-sectional area of the reinforcement at the
reinforcements and is incorporated into the LRFD procedure
end of the service life, and
in terms of the yield limit state equations. The yield limit state
SH is the horizontal spacing of the reinforcements.
is reached when the reinforcement tension exceeds the yield
resistance. Therefore, calculation of loads and yield resistance For strip-type reinforcements:
contribute to the yield limit state equations. Ac = bEc (11)
Reinforcement loads may be computed via several differ-
ent methods including the coherent gravity method, tieback For steel grid-type reinforcements:
wedge method, structure stiffness method, or the simplified
Dⴱ2
method (Berg et al., 2009). Most metallic reinforcements are Ac = n × π × (12)
considered to be relatively inextensible, and, traditionally, 4
loads have been computed via the coherent gravity method; where
however, the structure stiffness method and the simplified b is the width of the reinforcements,
method have also been applied. For the purpose of this study Ec is the strip thickness corrected for corrosion loss;
the coherent gravity and simplified methods are considered Ec = (S − ΔS) for ΔS < S, and 0 for ΔS ≥ S,
and used to compute the load bias for the calibration of resis- S is the initial thickness,
tance factor. Reinforcement loads are computed based on the ΔS is the loss of thickness (both sides) from corrosion,
horizontal stress carried by the reinforcements computed as n is the number of longitudinal bars/wires, and
D ⴱ is the diameter of the bar or wire corrected for corrosion
σ H = Kσ v + Δσ H (8)
loss;
Dⴱ = Di − ΔS for ΔS < Di, and 0 for ΔS ≥ Di, where Di is
where
the initial diameter.
σH is the horizontal stress at any depth in the reinforced zone,
K is the coefficient of lateral earth pressure, For galvanized reinforcements:
σv is the factored vertical pressure at the depth of interest, and
ΔσH is the supplemental factored horizontal pressure due ΔS = 2 × rs × ( t f − C ) For C < t f
to external surcharges. ΔS = 0 For C ≥ t f (13a)
 15

( zi − 2 × rz1 ) for calibrating load and resistance factors for the LRFD spec-
C = 2 yrs + (13b) ifications (Allen et al., 2005; D’Appolonia, 2007). The simula-
rz 2
tions are performed in terms of a given load factor, γ, load
where bias, λQ, and resistance bias, λR. The Monte Carlo technique
rs is the corrosion rate of steel after zinc has been consumed, utilizes a random number generator to extrapolate the limit
tf is the intended service life, state function, g, for calibration of yield resistance. Random
C is the time to initiation of steel loss, values of g are generated using the mean, standard deviation,
zi is the zinc initial thickness per side, and the distribution (e.g., normal, lognormal, or Weibull) of
rz1 is the initial corrosion rate for zinc, and the load bias and the resistance bias. The extrapolation of g
rz2 is the corrosion rate for zinc after the first two years. makes estimating β possible for a given combination of γ and
φ. A value of γ is adopted that is compatible with the static
For plain steel reinforcements:
earth load calculations (AASHTO, 2009). A range of φ values
ΔS = 2 × rs × t f (14) is assumed and estimated values of β (by iteration) are checked
against a value of 2.3 as used in previous LRFD calibrations
Variables for the resistance calculation include Fy, Ac, rs, rz1, (Allen et al., 2005; D’Appolonia, 2007). Monte Carlo simula-
rz2, and zi. The spacings of the reinforcements (SH and SV) are tions were facilitated by the Lumenaut software package
considered to be constants. Using the statistics and observed (Lumenaut, 2007), which performs Monte Carlo simulations
distribution for measurements of corrosion rate, the bias of through a link with Microsoft Excel.
the remaining strength is computed and used as input for the The vertical pressure due to the weight of the reinforced
reliability-based calibration of resistance factor. The bias is soil zone (σv in Equation 8) is assigned load type “EV” as
computed as described by Berg et al. (2009). AASHTO (2009) specifies γ
equal to 1.35 for EV at the strength limit state, therefore, γ =
Fyⴱ Acⴱ 1.35 is adopted for calibration of the resistance factor similar
λR = (15)
Fy Ac to D’Appolonia Engineers (2007) and Berg et al. (2009). The
load bias depends on use of the simplified or coherent grav-
The denominator includes nominal values used in design; ity method and may depend on reinforcement type (strip or
Ac is based on the metal loss model recommended by AASHTO grid) as described by Allen et al. (2001), Allen et al. (2005),
for design of metallic MSE reinforcements, and Fy is the and D’Appolonia (2007). Results from these studies demon-
nominal yield strength. The statistics of the observed corro- strate that the load bias has a lognormal distribution, mean,
sion rates from the database described in Chapter 3 are used and standard deviation as summarized in Table 8.
to describe the variable Aⴱc , and the statistics for F ⴱy are taken Resistance bias is computed using Equations (10) to (15),
from Galambos and Ravindra (1978) and Bounopane et al. nominal values for yield strength and remaining cross section,
(2003). Bounopane et al. consider yield strengths to be the yield strength variation, and the mean, standard deviation,
normally distributed with mean 1.05 times the nominal and and distribution from observations of metal loss archived in
COV = 0.1. the performance database. Thus, the resistance bias depends on
the nominal strength, which depends on the metal loss model
used in design, as well as the manner in which observations of
Resistance Factor Calibration
corrosion rate and metal loss are extrapolated to render the
Monte Carlo simulations are employed to compute the estimated remaining strength at the end of service.
relationship between the reliability index, β, and resistance Monte Carlo simulations were performed using these
factor, φ. The Monte Carlo simulation method is used because values for load bias and load factor, and several different
the approach is more adaptable and rigorous compared to scenarios were considered. Different scenarios treat metal loss
other techniques, and it has become the preferred approach as deterministic or variable, and contrast “as built” versus

Table 8. Mean (µ) and standard deviation (␴) of lognormal load bias.

Strip Grid
Parameter
Simplified Coherent Simplified Coherent
Method1 Gravity Method1 Gravity
Method2 Method2
μλ Q
0.973 1.294 0.973 1.084

σλ Q
0.449 0.499 0.449 0.737

1
Allen et al. (2005).
2
D’Appolonia (2007).
16

Figure 5. Monte Carlo simulation example showing input and output reports.
 17

design conditions. For each scenario different aspects of the the target reliability index. Appendix E includes details simi-
design, including reinforcement size and service life, are con- lar to Figures 5 and 6 in support of all Monte Carlo simula-
sidered and 10,000 iterations are performed to arrive at the tions described in this report.
distribution of the limit state function. McVay et al. (2000) proposed representing design efficiency
The Monte Carlo analysis for calibration of resistance factor as the ratio of resistance factor and mean bias (φ/λR). This
computes values for the limit state function, g = R − Q, consid- measure of efficiency accompanies computed resistance fac-
ering the uncertainty of R and Q, and renders the probability tors to avoid the misconception that high resistance factors
that g < 0. The variables R and Q can be related to nominal are correlated with the economy of a design method. Paikowski
values as Q = Qn × λQ, and based on the LRFD equation (2004) demonstrates that this ratio is systematically higher
λ R × γ Q × Qn for methods that predict more accurately, regardless of the
[Equation (6)], R = λ R × Rn = . The analysis pro-
φ bias. Using different models for the nominal resistance in the
ceeds by selecting a value for Qn; a value of unity is used for denominator of Equation (15) may lead to different values of
convenience. The Monte Carlo analysis then computes a range the mean bias (λR) and corresponding resistance factors (φ),
of values for g, using randomly generated values for λR and λQ but if the COVs are the same, the resulting efficiency factors are
based on their statistics, and a trial value of φ. The Lumenaut identical. Higher efficiency factors are only obtained with meth-
software outputs the results of the iterations in the form of a ods that produce a lower COV with respect to the computed
bias. This may be accomplished by improving the quality and
histogram and corresponding intervals are summarized in a
quantity of measured or estimated resistance, the models and
table. Figure 5 is an example output from a typical Monte
methods used to represent and extrapolate the data, or both.
Carlo simulation for computing β based on a trial selection
If the metal loss is assumed to be deterministic, the only vari-
of φ. The top graph is a histogram depicting the distribution
able (i.e., not a constant) describing the tensile strength remain-
of g from results of the Monte Carlo simulation. The proba-
ing at the end of service condition corresponds to yield strength,
bility that g < 0 may be computed by sorting and ranking
Fy. Thus, the bias for remaining tensile strength is considered as
these results and computing the cumulative probability at g = 0.
normally distributed with mean equal to 1.05 and standard
The table beneath the histogram summarizes the statistics
deviation of 0.105 (Bounopane et al., 2003). These results are
associated with g and the figures at the bottom of the page
presented to serve as a baseline to assess the impact that varia-
describe the statistics and associate distribution provided as
tions in metal loss have on the computed values for φ.
input (in this case for λR and λQ).
The calibration is performed to identify the resistance fac-
A worksheet, including the actual results from the 10,000
tor corresponding to β of approximately 2.3 (pf ≈ 0.01). Resis-
iterations, is also generated. The g values are then sorted and tance factors, summarized in Table 9, are rounded to the
ranked in an ascending order and the cumulative probability nearest increment of 0.05.
at each g is calculated. Figure 6 shows a typical result depict- These results may be compared to the current AASHTO
ing the standardized normal variable (z) versus randomly gen- specifications where φ is specified as 0.75 for strip-type rein-
erated g. The reliability index, β is equal to (−z) at g = o. For forcements and 0.65 for grids that are attached to a rigid wall
the example shown in Figure 6, β is equal to 2.27 correspond- facing. These factors are the same for the simplified and
ing to pf = 1.15E-02. The analysis is repeated with different coherent gravity methods in the current edition of the speci-
trial values for φ until the probability that g < 0 corresponds to fications. It appears that the current AASHTO specifications
implicitly consider some variation with respect to estimated
5 sacrificial steel requirements for galvanized reinforcements.
4 This is in spite of the fact that the resistance factors are not
3 determined from a reliability-based calibration, but are cali-
2
brated with respect to safety factors corresponding to the ear-
1
0 lier specifications for ASD.
z

-2 -1 0 2 4
-2
β = 2.27 Table 9. Resistance factors
-3
-4 considering deterministic
-5 metal loss model.
g (R,Q)
Type Simplified/Coherent
Figure 6. Typical Monte Carlo result from Strip 0.55/0.45
resistance factor calibration. Grid 0.50/0.35
18

CHAPTER 3

Findings and Applications

As part of Tasks 1, 2 and 6 for this project, performance • Reinforcements,

data were collected and archived from sites located in the • Backfill/Subsurface,
northeastern, mid-Atlantic, southeastern, southwestern, and • Observation Points,
western United States consistent with details of the existing • NDT Results, and
inventory. Data are included from 170 sites located through- • Direct Observations.
out the United States and Europe. Table 10 updates the sum-
mary similar to Berkovitz (1999) of statewide practice and Microsoft Access data forms were created to facilitate data
MSE corrosion monitoring programs that have been imple- entry and examples of these forms are included in Appen-
mented by State DOTs. These programs have produced data dix C. Tables are related with a one-to-many relationship
that have been archived into the performance database. using “project number” as a key parameter. Other relation-
In general, the database is self-contained yet structured such ships may also be created, but currently all other tables are
that it can be ported to other existing databases. The database considered to be a sub-form to the project form, which serves
is formatted using Microsoft Access, which is linked to a geo- as the master form. Thus, a project may have a number of walls
graphic information system (GIS) (ArcView) platform to pro- or backfills. A wall may have numerous observation points,
vide visual and spatial recognition of data. The organization and a number of observations, including NDT or direct phys-
and structure of the various tables and data fields are updated, ical observations, may be associated with each observation
as necessary, to accommodate different types of information point. For example, the project in Las Vegas, Nevada, described
that are identified from available data sets. For example, obser- by Fishman et al. (2006) includes three walls; Wall #1 has
vations of reinforcement performance and condition may be 15 monitoring stations, Wall #2 has six, and Wall #3 has four.
based on NDT, direct physical measurement, or visual obser- Each monitoring station includes two in-service reinforce-
vations, and these data types are archived accordingly. Drop ments wired for monitoring (NDT) and at least two coupons:
down lists and check boxes are implemented to facilitate min- one plain and one galvanized. Also, direct physical measure-
ing or querying of the database. Separate databases have been
ment of section loss is performed on 18 samples retrieved
developed for MSE reinforcements (Type I), and for ground
from six of the monitoring stations (i.e., three reinforcements
anchors, rock bolts, and soil nails (Type II). The Type II data-
exhumed from six of the stations). These data are all organized
base is similar to the Type I database, but some data fields are
into separate tables that are linked to the Las Vegas, Nevada,
different to address corrosion protection measures, different
entry from the project table. Relationships are also defined
subsurface conditions, and types of monitoring techniques
between backfill, wall, reinforcements, monitoring stations,
that are specific to the Type II systems.
and results tables.
Information within the shell of the database is distributed
Each project is associated with a point that is displayed
amongst seven distinct tables comprising a total of 150 data
on a map within ArcView as shown in Appendix C. ArcView-
fields. The tables are divided into categories of information
similar to those employed in other databases that are based mapped points are also linked to the Microsoft Access
on the FHWA Bridge Management Inventory. The database tables so pertinent information for each project can be
includes the following tables: displayed next to each point when selected by the user. In
this way, the geographic distribution of performance data,
• Project, as well as specific attributes for each site can be displayed
• Walls/Structure, within a GIS platform. Thus, the user may associate the
 19

Table 10. Summary of state DOT MSE wall corrosion assessment programs.

State Description References

California Have been installing inspection elements with new construction Jackura et al.
since 1987, and have been performing tensile strength tests on (1987), Elias
extracted elements. Some electrochemical testing of in-service (1990), Coats et al.
reinforcements and coupons has also been performed. LPR and EIS (1990), Coats et al.
tests were performed on inspection elements at selected sites as part (2003- Draft
of NCHRP Project 24-28 and results compared with direct physical Report)
observations on extracted elements.
Florida Program focused on evaluating the impact of saltwater intrusion, Sagues et al. (1998,
including laboratory testing and field studies. Coupons were and 2000), Berke
installed and reinforcements were wired for electrochemical testing and Saques (2009)
and corrosion monitoring at 10 MSE walls. Monitoring has
continued since 1996.
Georgia Began evaluating MSE walls in 1979 in response to observations of McGee (1985),
poor performance at one site located in a very aggressive marine Deaver (1992)
environment incorporating an early application of MSE technology.
Exhumed reinforcement samples for visual examination and
laboratory testing. Some in situ corrosion monitoring of in-service
reinforcements and coupons at 12 selected sites using
electrochemical test techniques was also performed.
Kentucky Developed an inventory and performance database for MSE walls. Beckham et al.
Performed corrosion monitoring including electrochemical testing of (2005)
in-service reinforcements and coupons at five selected sites.
Nevada Condition assessments and corrosion monitoring of three walls at a Fishman et al.
site with aggressive reinforced fill and site conditions. Exhumed (2006)
reinforcements for visual examination and laboratory testing;
performed electrochemical testing on in-service reinforcements and
coupons. A total of 12 monitoring stations were dispersed
throughout the site providing a very good sample distribution.
New York Screened inventory and established priorities for condition Wheeler (1999,
assessment and corrosion monitoring based on suspect reinforced 2000, 2001, 2002a
fills. Two walls with reinforced fill known to meet department and 2002b)
specifications for MSE construction are also included in program as
a basis for comparison. Corrosion monitoring uses electrochemical
tests on coupons and in-service reinforcements.
North Initiated a corrosion evaluation program for MSE structures in 1992. Medford (1999)
Carolina Screened inventory and six walls were selected for electrochemical
testing including measurement of half-cell potential and LPR. This
initial study included in-service reinforcements, but coupons were
not installed. Subsequent to the initial study, NCDOT has installed
coupons and wired in-service reinforcements for measurement of
half-cell potential on MSE walls and embankments constructed
since 1992. LPR testing was also performed at approximately 30
sites in cooperation with NCHRP Project 24-28.
Ohio Concerned about the impact of their highway and bridge deicing Timmerman (1990)
programs on the service life of metal reinforcements. Performed
laboratory testing on samples of reinforced fill but did not sample
reinforcements or make in situ corrosion rate m easurements.
Oregon Preliminary study including 1) a review of methods for estimating Raeburn et al.
and measuring deterioration of structural reinforcing elements, 2) a (2008)
selected history of design specifications and utilization of metallic
reinforcements, and 3) listing of MSE walls that can be identified in
the ODOT system.
Note: EIS = electrochemical impedance spectroscopy.

data with geographic location and view all of the perfor- 1. Collection of data on comparison of LPR and weight loss
mance data and pertinent information associated with that measurements using data available from the existing liter-
location. ature augmented with additional data collected from this
project. These data are useful to discern any bias with
respect to LPR measurements that should be considered
Type I—Measured Corrosion Rates
in the reliability analysis.
Consistent with the data needs for reliability analysis and 2. Study of the relationship between corrosion rate and resis-
calibration of strength reduction factors for LRFD, the fol- tivity of reinforced fill materials. Resistivity is known to
lowing studies were performed: have a significant impact on corrosivity, however, data
20

comparing measured corrosion rates to resistivity mea- forcement type does not appear to have a significant impact
surements include a lot of scatter. Some of the scatter may on corrosion rates, but lower COVs are realized when data are
be due to spatial and temporal differences between mea- partitioned into groups defined by reinforcement type.
surement of corrosion rate and sampling and testing of The best results in terms of lower COV are from galvanized
reinforced fill materials. However, the study is useful to reinforcements between 2 and 16 years old, where the COVs
demarcate threshold levels of resistivity wherein corrosion range between approximately 30% and 60%. Higher COVs
rates may be significantly affected and to define ranges are realized for younger reinforcements (<2 years old) and
within which particular metal loss models may apply. reinforcements that are older than 16 years. This may be due
3. Study of the effect of climate/region on measured corrosion to variations in the time it takes for the zinc surface to become
rates considering data from different geographic regions passivated for younger reinforcements, and the variation of
associated with different climates, and construction and remaining zinc on the surface of older reinforcements. Data
maintenance practices. The purpose of this study is to fur- are more scattered (i.e., have higher COVs) considering fill
ther evaluate if data should be partitioned into regions for materials that do not meet AASHTO requirements (ρmin
the purpose of reliability analysis. < 3,000 Ω-cm), and this is may be because, although a low
4. Partitioning the data into sites that incorporate reinforced value of ρmin is indicative of the potential for higher corrosion
fill materials meeting AASHTO requirements, and consid- rates, this potential may not be realized if the moisture con-
ering metal loss or corrosion rate as a function of time. tent is kept low, and moisture content and degree of satura-
The purpose of this study is to evaluate the robustness of tion exhibit significant variability.
available metal loss models and the probability of exceed- More scatter is evident for plain steel reinforcements.
ing metal loss rates used in design. This may be due to the tendency for galvanized surfaces to
5. Observation of trends for marginal fills that do not meet undergo more uniform corrosion compared to plain steel;
AASHTO criteria for reinforced fills. The purpose of this also, steel may be more sensitive to changes in environment
study is to make recommendations on the appropriate over the range of conditions for which measurements were
parameters for modeling metal loss and the reliability of obtained.
metal loss estimates for a selected range of resistivity; for
example, between 1,000 Ω-cm and 3,000 Ω-cm.
Bias of LPR Measurements
Detailed results from these studies are included in Appen- Figure 9 depicts observations of corrosion and metal loss
dix D. Data are grouped by quality of reinforced fill, age of with respect to age of the reinforcements for fill conditions
sample, and reinforcement type. Figures 7 and 8 summarize meeting the AASHTO criteria described in Table 3. Observa-
the statistics (mean and COV) from these data groups for gal- tions included in Figure 9 are via LPR measurements from
vanized and plain steel reinforcements, respectively. Rein- sites located in the northeastern, mid-Atlantic, southeastern,

Figure 7. Summary of statistics for galvanized reinforcements (* ⴝ limited samples).

 21

Figure 8. Summary of statistics for plain steel reinforcements (NA indicates data are not available).

southwestern, and western United States, and from weight- Figure 9 includes approximately 404 data points from LPR
loss measurements from reinforcements that were exhumed measurements and 50 weight-loss measurements. Weight-
from sites in Europe (Darbin et al., 1988). Since LPR mea- loss and LPR measurements are not from the same samples,
surements render corrosion rate at an instant in time, these and the samples are from different sites. However, all fills meet
data must be extrapolated to estimate metal loss. Metal loss is electrochemical requirements similar to AASHTO. These data
computed as the product of the measured corrosion times the are useful to demonstrate that metal loss extrapolated from
age of the reinforcement, adjusted for higher corrosion rates LPR measurements are in the same range as those observed
assumed to occur during the first 2 years of service. Except for directly via weight-loss measurements. Metal losses com-
younger reinforcements that are less than 2 years old, it is puted from LPR appear to be equal to or higher than those
assumed that 30 μm of zinc per side is lost during the first from weight-loss measurements. Thus, the methodology of
2 years, and the measured corrosion rate is considered to be using LPR measurements to estimate metal loss appears to be
constant thereafter. This assumption is less significant con- conservative (at least for the range of corrosion rates depicted
sidering older reinforcements. in Figure 9).

200

LPR Measurements

Weight Loss Measurements

150 AASHTO Model

Metal Loss, μm/side

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Age of Element, years

Figure 9. Comparison of LPR and weight loss measurements for galvanized elements in fill
materials that meet AASHTO criteria.
22

For the purpose of this comparison it is assumed that all near the wall face due to the potential for infiltration of storm
samples in Figure 9 are still coated with zinc. Thus, for the water and relatively higher levels of oxygen within the fill at
AASHTO model, the corrosion rate remains constant after these locations. However, the majority of the data as described
2 years (4 μm/yr). The AASHTO model appears to be a good in the interim report indicates that location does not have a
upper limit for metal loss throughout the experience period significant effect on measured corrosion rates. Data from one
and most of the data points lie well below the envelope site in New York exhibits higher corrosion rates for samples
described by the AASHTO model (note that many of the data located near the face compared to the backside of the rein-
points in Figure 9 overlap one another). Many of these data forced fill. Data from several sites in California, where inspec-
represent metal loss that is less than half of what is computed tion elements were placed along three rows at vertical spacing
with the AASHTO model. This is consistent with the analysis of 10 feet, suggest that increased corrosion activity may occur
of metal loss and corrosion rate measurements reported by near the top of the walls. Given the limited amount of data
Gladstone et al. (2006). and lack of a clear trend, spatial variability is considered to be
Appendix B includes data for which LPR measurements are random for the purpose of the reliability analysis and calibra-
directly compared with visual observations. Much of these data tion of resistance factor.
are from elements extracted during fieldwork for Task 6 per-
formed in cooperation with Caltrans. These data demonstrate
that the ratio of maximum metal loss (i.e., loss of tensile Temporal Variations
strength) to average corrosion rate or metal loss from LPR The effect of time on corrosion rates is apparent in the
measurements ranges from 1.2 to 4.8 with a mean of 2.4. This data. For galvanized reinforcement and fill materials that
factor appears to be inversely proportional to severity of cor- meet AASHTO requirements for electrochemical parame-
rosion and tends to range between 2 and 3 when more severe ters, on average, lower corrosion rates are realized from sam-
loss of cross section is observed.
ples with ages between 2 and 16 years compared to those that
For galvanized elements, corrosion rates via LPR correlate
are younger than 2, or older than 16 years. This is due to the
best with the percentage of zinc remaining on the surface. When
attenuation of corrosion rate with respect to time, and the
more than 70% of the surface is covered by zinc, corrosion rates
possibility that higher corrosion rates prevail as zinc is con-
measured via LPR reflect the rate of zinc loss. However, there
sumed from galvanized samples. Although the upper bound
may be instances in which localized corrosion of steel may not
of corrosion rate measurements for galvanized reinforce-
be reflected in the LPR measurement of corrosion rate. This is
ments less than 2 years old is close to 15 μm/yr, which is the
more of an issue at sites with relatively poor or marginal qual-
rate included in the AASHTO model for young (<2 years
ity fill materials where metal loss is less uniform and localized
old) galvanized steel reinforcements, the mean of the mea-
loss of zinc is observed. In general, corrosion rates from LPR
surements in this time frame is only about twice as high as
measurements are consistent with observations of maximum
metal loss considering a factor between 2 and 3 relates the aver- measurements obtained after 2 years of service. Higher cor-
age to the maximum metal loss. This is consistent with the fac- rosion rates measured after 16 years of service may be due to
tor of 2 commonly used to relate loss of tensile strength to zinc loss and exposure of base steel; however, the measured
uniform corrosion losses, as discussed by Elias (1990). corrosion rates are much lower than those measured for
plain black steel.
Corrosion rates for plain steel attenuate with respect to
Trends time, but not as rapidly as those for galvanized elements. This
Data were analyzed to identify trends from corrosion rate is consistent with corrosion rate models that are based on
measurements with respect to spatial and temporal variations, Equation (1). The Darbin model, Equation (2), applies an
climate, environment (marine vs. non-marine), and fill char- exponent of 0.65 to the time factor to describe metal loss of
acteristics described in terms of electrochemical parameters galvanized reinforcements and Elias (1990) applies an expo-
(ρmin, pH, Cl−, SO4) and organics content. Details of results nent of 0.8 in Equation (3) to describe metal loss of plain steel
from data analysis and identification of trends are described elements. A higher exponent reflects a lower attenuation of
in Appendix D and in the interim report that was submitted corrosion rate with respect to time. These temporal variations
for the project in April 2007. were considered in the reliability analysis and calibration of
resistance factor.
Corrosion rates do not necessarily attenuate when fill
Spatial Variations
materials are of marginal quality (i.e., do not meet AASHTO
Consideration is given to elevation (top vs. bottom) and criteria), indicating that a less favorable environment (e.g.,
distance from the wall face (front vs. back). One would expect high in chlorides) interferes with the formation and suste-
to observe increased corrosion near the top of the wall and nance of a passive film layer.
 23

Climate cant impact on the performance of galvanized reinforcements,

however, there was a significant effect observed for plain steel
Four regions within the United States were considered
reinforcements. These data demonstrate that plain steel rein-
including the northeastern, southeastern, high plains and forcements should not be used in marine environments. Effects
western states. These regions are distinguished by differences on corrosion rate from use of deicing salts were not apparent
in climate, availability of suitable fill materials, use of deicing in the data.
salts, and prevalence of reinforcement type. For galvanized
reinforcements no significant differences were observed. Mean
corrosion rates ranged between approximately 1 μm/yr and Effect of Backfill Character
2 μm/yr, with slightly higher means observed for the north- The electrochemical properties of reinforced fill have a
eastern and western regions. Because there does not appear to profound effect on corrosion rates, and resistivity appears to
be a significant effect of climate on measured corrosion rates, have the strongest influence, although a few data from sites
measurements from different regions are combined to evalu- with low pH (pH<4) also exhibit very high corrosion rates.
ate the effects of backfill character, time, and reinforcement Figure 10 depicts observed corrosion rates from galvanized
type on corrosion rates and observations of metal loss for gal- reinforcements versus measurements of resistivity from sam-
vanized reinforcements. Thus, data from all the regions were ples of fill that are most often taken from stockpiles prior to
used to generate statistics for galvanized reinforcements used construction. Figure 10 incorporates 489 data points from
in the reliability analysis and calibration of resistance factor. 53 sites distributed amongst the states of California, Florida,
More significant variations were observed relative to cor- Kentucky, North Carolina, Nevada, and New York. Reinforce-
rosion rates for plain steel reinforcements. Mean corrosion ment ages range from 1 to 30 years with an average of 13.
rates for plain steel ranged between approximately 3 μm/yr Therefore, data points in Figure 10 generally depict corrosion
and 20 μm/yr, with much higher corrosion rates observed for rates for zinc, particularly for ρ > 3,000 Ω-cm.
the western region. However, climate may not be the only fac- Figure 10 depicts scatter that is significantly higher consider-
tor, as the western states tend to use fill materials with less ing lower levels of fill resistivity. This may be due to the variabil-
favorable electrochemical parameters (higher salt contents) ity of fill conditions at sites that are characterized as having
compared to other regions including the Northeast and South- lower quality fill, uncertainty regarding the correlation between
east. These different fill conditions were considered for the sources of samples and fill placed during construction, and
reliability analysis and calibration of resistance factors. Thus, the possibility that zinc may be consumed in less than 10 years
the statistics for these different climates were considered sep- when ρ < 3,000 Ω-cm. On average, observations from sites
arately for plain steel reinforcements. with fill resistivities less than 3,000 Ω-cm are approximately
an order of magnitude higher than observations from sites
with fill resistivity greater than 3,000 Ω-cm. Observations from
Environmental Conditions (Marine vs. Non-marine)
sites with fill resistivities between 3,000 and 10,000 Ω-cm
Data from coastal/marine environments, that come from have average corrosion rates slightly higher than those
locations near the coast, but are not submerged or in direct associated with resistivity greater than 10,000 Ω-cm. Based
contact with saltwater, were separated from non-marine on these data a power law was regressed to achieve the “best
environments. Marine environments did not have a signifi- fit” with the data rendering the following equation, which

50

40
CR (μm/yr)

30

20
CR = 1400ρ-0.75 R2 = 0.4644
10

0
100 1000 10000 100000
ρ (Ω-cm)

Figure 10. Observed corrosion rates versus fill resistivity

for galvanized reinforcements (CR ⴝ corrosion rate).
24

Table 11. Table 3). Figure 11(a) includes 150 data points and Figure 11(b)
Computed includes 257 data points documenting the performances of
corrosion rates galvanized reinforcements within good and high quality fills,
for galvanized respectively. The highest rates of corrosion are observed from
reinforcements elements that are equal to or less than 2 years old, but these
at selected higher rates are less than half of the rate of 15 μm/yr included
resistivities.
in the AASHTO model. The mean corrosion rate during the
ρ CR first 2 years is approximately twice the mean corrosion rate
(Ω-cm) (μm/yr) measured from elements older than 2 years.
1,000 7.9 When reinforcements are greater than 2 years old, the means
3,000 3.5
10,000 1.4
of the observed corrosion rates are less than half of those antic-
20,000 0.8 ipated on the basis of the AASHTO model. Due to the low rate
of zinc loss, most of the observations reflect corrosion rates
prior to depletion of the zinc coating. However, zinc may have
is limited to galvanized reinforcements that are less than been depleted when corrosion rates, observed from elements
20 years old: more than 16 years old, are greater than 4 μm/yr. This applies
to two points each for Figures 11(a) and 11(b) where the aver-
CR ≈ 1400ρ−0.75 (16) age rates of steel loss for good and high quality fill may be
inferred as approximately 6 μm/yr and 4 μm/yr, respectively.
Table 11 is a summary of corrosion rates computed with
Considering a factor of 2 to relate observations of average
Equation (16) for selected resistivities. The corrosion rate
(uniform) metal loss to tensile strength suggests that steel
computed at ρ = 3,000 Ω-cm is consistent with the AASHTO
losses of 12 μm/yr and 8 μm/yr may be used to model corro-
model for corrosion of zinc after 2 years in service (i.e.,
sion rates for steel after zinc has been depleted from galva-
4 μm/yr) and the corrosion rates computed at ρ = 10,000 Ω-cm
nized reinforcements, considering good and high quality fills,
and 20,000 Ω-cm are consistent with the statistics presented
respectively.
in Figure 7.
The AASHTO model is used to compute the nominal metal
It also appears that corrosion rates for galvanized reinforce-
loss and corresponding sacrificial steel for the calibration of
ments are not necessarily lower than plain steel considering fill
resistance factors when considering galvanized elements in
materials with low ρmin. This is not surprising because it is well
both good and high quality fills. A Monte Carlo analysis was
known that zinc does not perform better than steel for all
performed to assess the probability that metal loss in excess
environments.
of the nominal amount may occur (pf). This analysis uses the
Reliability analyses and resistance factor calibrations were
means and standard deviations of the observations as described
performed on data groups according to selected ranges of fill
in Figure 7. A lognormal distribution was also assumed to
resistivity, including 1,000 Ω-cm < ρmin < 3,000 Ω-cm; 3,000
describe the variations in measurements, and the validity of this
Ω-cm ≤ ρmin < 10,000 Ω-cm; and ρmin ≥ 10,000 Ω-cm. Due to
assumption is verified as described in Appendix E. Because
the relatively high variability, marginal fills (with 1,000 Ω-cm
the majority of observations reflect corrosion rates for zinc,
< ρmin < 3,000 Ω-cm) should be used with extreme caution.
these measurements are best suited of estimating zinc life.
Considerably more effort is needed to sample and test these
Results from the Monte Carlo analysis render a 99% prob-
materials to reliably characterize them and select appropri-
ability that zinc coating with an initial thickness of 86 μm
ate corrosion rates for use in design (Elias et al., 2009). Use of
will last 15 years considering good quality fill, and 32 years
marginal material is not recommended, but guidance is devel-
considering high quality fill. Thus, good quality fill supports
oped to demonstrate the issues and level of effort required to
zinc life similar to 16 years as predicted by the AASHTO
properly manage the risk that is involved when used. Walls
model for zi = 86μm, and the zinc life appears to be twice as
with fill material closer to the 3,000 Ω-cm range may become
long with high quality fill. The increased zinc life for high qual-
more prevalent depending on whether or not recommenda-
ity fill is due to the lower observed corrosion rates evident in
tions from NCHRP Project 24-22 are adopted in practice.
Figure 11(b).
Steel loss, X, is assumed to commence subsequent to zinc
Metal Loss Models and Reliability depletion. The mean steel loss is assumed to occur at a rate of
12 μm/yr with a COV of approximately 0.66. Table 12 pre-
AASHTO Model—Galvanized Reinforcements
sents reinforcement ages corresponding to pf equal to 0.01
Figures 11(a) and 11(b) compare corrosion rates measured and 0.05, and the probability that the sacrificial steel will not
via the LPR technique to the AASHTO metal loss model (see be consumed for the intended design life (75 or 100 years).
 25

16
14 Strip
12 Grid
AASHTO

CR (μm/yr)
10 Mean
8
6
4
2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Age (Years)

Figure 11(a). Corrosion rates vs. time and comparison

with the AASHTO model for galvanized elements
within good quality fill.

16
14 Strip
12 Grid
AASHTO
CR (μm/yr)

10
Mean
8
6
4
2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Age (Years)

Figure 11(b). Corrosion rates vs. time and comparison with the
AASHTO model for galvanized elements within high quality fill.

Based on the results in Table 12 it appears that the proba- points and Figure 12(b) includes 70 data points documenting
bility of sacrificial steel being consumed within design lives of the performances of plain steel reinforcements within good
75 or 100 years is approximately 10% with good quality fill and high quality fills, respectively. Compared to data for galva-
and 1.5% with respect to high quality fill (i.e., probabilities of nized reinforcements, the data for plain steel reinforcements
90% and 98.5% that design lives may be exceeded with good are less ambiguous because only the presence of one metal
or high quality fills, respectively). type along these surfaces needs to be considered; whereas
either zinc, steel or both may be present along the surfaces of
galvanized reinforcements. Measured corrosion rates plotted
Plain Steel Reinforcements
in Figures 12(a) and 12(b) were multiplied by a factor of 2
Figures 12(a) and 12(b) compare corrosion rates measured to reflect higher rates of localized corrosion inherent to the
via the LPR technique to the Elias and Stuttgart metal loss behavior of buried steel elements. Significant attenuation of
models proposed for design. Figure 12(a) includes 53 data mean observed corrosion rates with respect to time is not

Table 12. Occurrence of sacrificial steel consumption

for galvanized reinforcements.

Fill Quality tdesign X pf = 0.01 pf = 0.05 pf @ tdesign

(years) (μm) (years) (years)
Good 75 708 54 69 0.075
100 1,008 65 84 0.116
High 75 708 75 102 0.010
100 1,008 86 118 0.022
26

140
120 Data
100 Elias

CR (μm/yr)
mean
80
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20
Age (Years)

Figure 12(a). Corrosion rates vs. time and comparison with

the Elias model for plain steel elements within good
quality fill.

140
120 Data
100 Stuttgart
CR (μm/yr)

80 mean
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20
Age (Years)

Figure 12(b). Corrosion rates vs. time and comparison with

the Stuttgart model for plain steel elements within high
quality fill.

observed. However, more scatter is evident in these data com- A Monte Carlo analysis was performed to assess the prob-
pared to galvanized reinforcements [Figures 11(a) and 11(b) ability that metal loss in excess of the nominal amount may
compared to Figures 12(a) and 12(b)]. occur (pf). This analysis uses the means and standard devia-
The Elias model described by Equation (3), and the Stuttgart tions of the observations as described in Figure 8. A lognor-
model as described in Appendix A, are considered for design mal distribution was also assumed to describe the variations
of plain steel reinforcements and the calibration of resist- in measurements and the validity of this assumption is veri-
ance factors considering good and high quality fill conditions, fied as described in Appendix E. Design lives of 50 and 75 years
respectively. Given the nonlinear form of Equation (3) (Elias are considered for plain steel reinforcements within good
model) the differences between the mean of the observed and high quality fills, respectively. Given the uncertainty
corrosion rates and the Elias model, depicted in Figure 12(a), associated with variations of observed performance, and lack
are inversely proportional to age/design life. Considering a of data from reinforcements older than 20 years, estimations
design life of 50 years, the Elias model renders a mean cor- of sacrificial steel requirements for longer service lives are
rosion rate (averaged over 50 years) of 37 μm/yr, compared considered dubious. Table 13 summarizes results from the
to the observed mean of 25 μm/yr based on measurements Monte Carlo simulations of service life. Due to the higher
obtained from reinforcements with ages spanning 20 years. The variance inherent to the observed performances, probabilities
mean of observed corrosion rates from reinforcements within of exceeding estimated metal losses are higher for plain steel
high quality fill is similar to the Stuttgart model (12 μm/yr) for reinforcements than for galvanized reinforcements (Table 12
plain steel reinforcements that are older than 2 years. Higher compared to Table 13). This will be reflected in relatively
rates are used in the Stuttgart model for the first 2 years of ser- lower calibrated resistance factors used to achieve the same
vice; however, this is not very important considering a service overall probability that MSE designs will meet the intended
life of 75 years. service life.
 27

Table 13. Occurrence of sacrificial steel consumption

for plain steel reinforcements.

Fill Quality tdesign X pf = 0.01 pf = 0.05 pf @ tdesign

(years) μm)
(μ (years) (years)
Good 50 1,829 25 35 0.16
High 75 1,036 20 33 0.31

Marginal Quality Fill depending on location within the fill and the actual sources
used during construction, there may be locations that have
Figure 13 compares corrosion rates measured via the LPR resistivity higher than 3,000 Ω-cm, or less than 1,000 Ω-cm.
technique to the metal loss model proposed for design [Jackura This is reflected in large scatter in the data as depicted in Fig-
et al. (1987) and described subsequently with Equation 17(a)]. ure 13 where measured corrosion rates obtained from a par-
These figures include approximately 200 data points docu- ticular site on the same day may vary from less than 4 μm/yr
menting the performances of galvanized reinforcements within to more than 25 μm/yr.
marginal quality fill. Performance data were obtained from Due to the paucity of data between 2 and 10 years of ser-
11 sites distributed amongst California, Nevada, New York, vice, statistics are generated for the first 2 years of service (μ =
and North Carolina. Much higher scatter is evident in these 2.4 μm/yr and σ = 1.6 μm/yr) and after 10 years of service (μ =
data compared to corrosion rates observed from good and high 4.6 μm/yr and σ = 6.3 μm/yr). These statistics demonstrate
quality fills. Higher scatter may be attributed to uncertainties that the corrosion rates for marginal quality fill are approxi-
with respect to fill resistivity. Samples, corresponding to these mately two to three times higher than those observed from
11 sites, were collected from different locations or sources good quality fills.
(stockpiles) but the destinations of these fills relative to spe- A Monte Carlo simulation was performed to estimate zinc
cific locations within MSE wall constructions are unknown. life assuming a lognormal distribution of corrosion rates.
Furthermore, characteristics including salt content are not There are no data from reinforcements between the ages of
homogeneous and can vary spatially with corresponding vari- 2 and 10 years so the statistics from reinforcements less than
ations in the related resistivity. or equal to 2 years old are assumed to apply until the reinforce-
Often results from five to 10 resistivity measurements are ments have been in service for 10 years. Results from the Monte
available and used to represent fill conditions for a particular Carlo analysis render a 99% probability that zinc coating with
site. These measurements depict a range with some measure- an initial thickness of 86 μm will last 10 years considering
ments above 3,000 Ω-cm, and some below 1,000 Ω-cm. This marginal quality fill. This compares with 16 years and 32 years
is significant because resistivities neighboring 1,000 Ω-cm for galvanized reinforcements within good and high quality
appear to be a threshold, and substantially higher corrosion fills, respectively. Thus, the use of marginal quality fills appears
rates are realized at resistivities below this threshold. Thus, to have a significant effect on zinc life, and zinc life is approx-
although a site may be classified as having marginal quality fill, imately 60% of that expected with good quality fills.

70

60 Strip
50 Grid
CR (μm/yr)

Model
40 Mean
30

20

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Age (Years)

Figure 13. Corrosion rates vs. time and comparison with the
Jackura model for galvanized elements within marginal
quality fill.
28

Due to the high scatter inherent to these data and uncer- results from the Monte Carlo simulations of service life
tainties with respect to fill properties, conservative assump- when nominal sacrificial steel requirements are estimated
tions are made regarding zinc life and corrosion rates of base with Models I and II.
steel subsequent to zinc deletion. For the purpose of estimat- Table 14 shows that the probabilities of sacrificial steel con-
ing service life, zinc life is assumed to be constant and equal sumption are significantly affected by the nominally com-
to 10 years (with zi = 86 μm) and the observed corrosion rate puted sacrificial steel requirements (i.e., the amount of
of steel subsequent to zinc depletion is taken as 32 μm/yr sacrificial steel estimated for a 50-year design life according to
with standard deviation of 21 μm/yr and a lognormal distri- Model I or Model II). In principal, different resistance factors
bution. The corrosion rate of steel is based on observations computed with different nominal models should offset the
from galvanized reinforcements after 8 years of service with differences in nominal sacrificial steel requirements, render-
the lower corrosion rates (i.e., < 4 μm/yr) culled from the data ing similar design as long as the COVs of the different bias
as described in Appendix E. distributions are also similar. Resistance factors will be cali-
The model used to compute nominal sacrificial steel require- brated in the next section that will render the probability that
ments for design is similar to the recommendations described reinforcements will be overstressed during their design life to
by Jackura et al. (1987) for “neutral” fill with ρ > 1,000 Ω-cm be similar, independent of the metal loss model that is selected
and salt contents limited as described in Table 2 (Caltrans- (i.e., resistance factors may be calibrated for each model to
Interim model). This model assumes that steel is exposed on the render the same pf). The effect of the different models on steel
surface of galvanized reinforcements (zi = 86 μm) after 10 years requirements is illustrated in the design example presented in
of service and that the base steel will corrode at an average rate Appendix F.
of 28 μm/yr subsequent to zinc depletion.
Two different metal loss models are studied to illustrate
how this affects the reliability of service life estimates. The Calibration of Resistance Factors
first model (Model I) is from Jackura et al. (1987) for “neu-
tral” fill and the second model (Model II) is a similar form, Galvanized Reinforcements
but with double the corrosion rate for steel as follows: Data included in Appendix D include observations from
galvanized reinforcements and coupons, and from plain steel
μm
Model I : X ( μm ) = ( t design − 10 ) years × 28 (17aa) (i.e., not galvanized) elements. In-service reinforcements and
year
coupons are placed in the same fill conditions but have very
μm different dimensions, and coupons may be placed at both
Model II : X ( μm ) = ( t design − 10 ) years × 56 (177 b) front and back locations with respect to the wall face. Data
year
from in-service reinforcements and coupons were compared,
A Monte Carlo analysis was performed to assess the prob- and, on the basis of this comparison, the decision was made
ability that metal loss in excess of the nominal amount may to include them in one data set, thus enhancing the quantity
occur (pf). This analysis uses the means and standard devia- of data within each partition.
tions of the observations as described in the preceding para- Metal loss is considered in the resistance factor calibration
graphs and as depicted in Figure 7. A lognormal distribution where the bias of remaining strength (i.e., ratio of measure-
was also assumed to describe the variations in measurements ments to nominal value used in design) is computed as Equa-
and the validity of this assumption is verified as described in tion (15). The nominal remaining strength used in design and
Appendix E. Design lives of 50 years are considered for galva- in the denominator of Equation (15) is computed as described
nized steel reinforcements within marginal quality fills. Given in Equations (10) through (14) with values of rz1, rz2, and rs
the uncertainty associated with variations of observed per- from the metal loss model recommended by AASHTO for
formance, and lack of data from reinforcements older than assessing metal loss of galvanized reinforcements, and described
25 years, estimations of sacrificial steel requirements for longer in Tables 2 and 3. Since the oldest MSE walls are approximately
service lives are considered dubious. Table 14 summarizes 40 years old, direct measurements of remaining strength after

Table 14. Occurrence of sacrificial steel consumption

for galvanized steel reinforcements in marginal quality fill.

Design Model tdesign X pf = 0.01 pf = 0.05 pf @ tdesign

(years) (μm) (years) (years)
Model I 50 1,120 18 24 0.44
Model II 50 2,240 28 40 0.11
 29

Z
-1

-2

-3
0.10 1.00 10.00
Corrosion Rate, μm/yr

Figure 14. Probability plot depicting lognormal distribution for

data describing corrosion rates of galvanized reinforcements
within good quality fill.

a service life of 75 or 100 years are not available. Therefore cor- Figures 14 and 15 are examples of inputs and intermediate
rosion rate measurements must be extrapolated to estimate results from the calibration exercise. Tables 15 to 18 summa-
“measurements” of remaining strength used in the numera- rize the final results from the calibration. The following list
tor of Equation (15). The extrapolation also employs equa- describes the steps involved in the calibration process and gen-
tions similar to Equations (10) through (14), but with eration of resistance factors using the Monte Carlo Technique:
corrosion rates rz1, rz2, and rs from the observed performance
of reinforcements during service. This approximation is con- a) Generate statistics from observations for corrosion rates
sidered conservative due to the likely attenuation of corrosion including the mean (μ), standard deviation (σ), and the
rate with respect to time. The corrosion rates used to extrap- shape of the probability density function (pdf). It is impor-
olate metal loss are considered constants over prescribed time tant to select the correct shape of the pdf to represent the
intervals, and are higher than those expected to prevail at the data. Probability plots similar to the one depicted in Fig-
end of service. ure 14 are used to check the match between the empirical

Data
Cumulative Probability

0.8
Weibull
0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Bias

Figure 15. Typical plot showing Weibull distribution

␤
⎛ ⴚ⎜ ⎟ ⎞
⎛ x⎞
⎜ f ( x ) ⴝ 1ⴚ e ⎝ ␣⎠
⎟ for bias; galvanized strip reinforcement
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
with S ⴝ 4 mm, tf ⴝ75 years; ␣ ⴝ 1.5, ␤ ⴝ 1.6 corresponding
to mean ⴝ 1.35 and standard deviation ⴝ 0.42.
30

Table 15. Summary of ␾ for Table 17. Summary of ␾ for the

conservative steel model. zinc residual steel model.

Reinforcement Design Reinforcement φ Reinforcement Design Reinforcement φ

Type Life Thickness Simple/Coherent Type Life Thickness/Size Simple/Coherent

4 mm 0.45/0.35 4 mm 0.70/0.65
75 years 5 mm 0.45/0.35 75 years 5 mm 0.65/0.55
Strip 6 mm 0.50/0.40 Strip 6 mm 0.65/0.55
4 mm 0.25/0.15 4 mm 0.55/0.50
100 years 5 mm 0.30/0.20 100 years 5 mm 0.60/0.50
6 mm 0.25/0.20 6 mm 0.65/0.50
W7 0.60/0.50
W9 0.60/0.50
75 years W11 0.60/0.50
data frequencies and the theoretical pdf. Probability grids W14 0.55/0.50
Grid W7 0.55/0.45
similar to Figure 14 are generated for each variable used to W9 0.55/0.45
describe corrosion rates and metal loss. In most cases log- 100 years W11 0.55/0.45
W14 0.55/0.45
normal distributions were found to fit well with the observed
corrosion rates.
b) Extrapolate metal loss to the end of the selected service life
using the statistics of observed corrosion rates and corre- Good Quality Fill
sponding assumptions regarding the trends of corrosion Good quality fill meets AASHTO requirements for electro-
rates with respect to time. chemical and mechanical properties, and has ρmin in the range
c) Compute the remaining tensile strength, Trem, and the sta- of 3,000 Ω-cm and 10,000 Ω-cm. The statistics for reinforce-
tistics of the resistance bias, λR, via Monte Carlo simula- ments that are between 2 and 16 years, shown in Figure 7, are
tions. The distribution of λR is modeled with a pdf. The considered representative of the life of the zinc coating. Thus,
bias distributions were modeled with either normal, log- the corrosion rate for zinc is assumed to be constant with
normal, or Weibull distributions. Probability plots simi- respect to time with a mean rate of 1.7 μm/yr (rz1 and rz2) and
lar to the one depicted in Figure 15 are prepared to check standard deviation of 1.09 μm/yr. The distribution is mod-
the match between the empirical data frequencies and the eled as lognormal based on the probability plot depicted in
theoretical pdf. Figure 14. The data shown in Figure 14 plot close to a straight
d) Compute β and corresponding pf for an assumed value line with a coefficient of correlation, R2 = 0.96. Probability
of φ. plots, similar to Figure 14, depicting the distributions used for
e) Iterate on φ to converge to the desired target reliability other corrosion rate measurements described in this report
index, βT. Tables 15 to 18 summarize the resistance factors, are included in Appendix E.
φ, that converge to βT for the different cases considered (e.g., Given the average rate of zinc loss (1.7 μm/yr), and since
galvanized reinforcements in good or high quality fill). measurements were made on reinforcements that are less
As shown in Figure 7 and discussed in the previous section,
the statistics of corrosion rate measurements are different Table 18. Summary of ␾ considering high quality fill.
for fill materials that are considered good enough to meet
AASHTO electrochemical requirements (good fill), and those Reinforcement Design Reinforcement φ
Type Life Thickness/Size Simple/Coherent
that exceed AASHTO requirements by a wide margin (high
quality fill). Therefore, resistance factors are calibrated with 4 mm 0.85/0.70
respect to fill quality (i.e., good fill and high quality fill). 75 years 5 mm 0.75/0.65
Strip 6 mm 0.70/0.60
4 mm 1.0/0.85
100 years 5 mm 0.85/0.70
Table 16. Effect of zi on 6 mm 0.75/0.65
W7 0.75/0.65
computed ␾; S ⴝ 4 mm,
W9 0.70/0.60
tf ⴝ 75 years. 75 years W11 0.65/0.55
W14 0.65/0.55
zi λR φ
Grid W7 0.90/0.75
(μm) μ σ W9 0.80/0.70
86 1.35 0.42 0.35 100 years W11 0.80/0.65
150 1.54 0.26 0.65 W14 0.75/0.60
 31

than 30 years old, very few measurements are available to tor for zi = 150 μm is 0.65 and compared to the case with zi =
describe the corrosion of steel after zinc has been consumed 86 μm, this result is closer to the current AASHTO specifica-
from a galvanized reinforcement. Two different assumptions tions (φ = 0.75). In this case zi has a significant effect on the
are applied as described by Elias (1990) that either (1) con- computed φ, which demonstrates that zinc thickness is an
sider the base steel to corrode at the same rate as plain black important variable to include in resistance factor calibrations.
steel (i.e., not galvanized) or (2) assume that the base steel will However, data on initial zinc thickness are needed to prop-
corrode at a rate similar to that prevailing as zinc is finally erly characterize the inherent variation and to incorporate the
consumed (i.e., corrosion rate does not change abruptly after statistics into a reliability analysis. Use of zi = 86 μm corre-
zinc is consumed). In addition, “measured” corrosion rates sponds to the minimum requirement and is a conservative
for steel were multiplied by 2 to render loss of tensile strength approach to modeling initial zinc thickness.
from LPR measurements. The zinc residual model for steel consumption considers
A conservative model for steel consumption assumes that that the corrosion rate of the base steel is affected by the pres-
the base steel corrodes at the same rate as plain steel (i.e., not ence of zinc residuals. Zinc residuals passivate the steel sur-
galvanized) after the sacrificial zinc layer is consumed. Most face and include a zinc oxide film layer adhered to the metal
of the data used for corrosion rates of plain steel embedded surface and zinc oxides within the pore spaces of the sur-
in fill materials meeting current AASHTO guidelines are from rounding fill. There are very few measurements describing
plain steel coupons installed at MSE sites located in California, corrosion rates of base steel after zinc has been consumed. A
New York, and Florida. The statistics of this data set render a few observations may be applicable from the data set col-
mean corrosion rate and standard deviation of 27 μm/yr and lected in Europe (Darbin et al., 1988) wherein zinc is con-
18 μm/yr, respectively; and the distribution can be approxi- sumed relatively rapidly (i.e., within a few years) and from
mated as lognormal. measurements made on walls in the United States that are
A resistance bias is computed for different sizes of strip- approaching 30 years of age. Rapid zinc consumption from
type reinforcements (4 mm, 5 mm, and 6 mm) and both 75- some of the earlier sites in Europe is due to a relatively thin
and 100-year service lives. The bias tends to decrease with zinc coating (zi = 30 μm) and moderately corrosive reinforced
respect to increase in reinforcement size, and is higher con- fill materials. A review of these data renders corrosion rates
sidering longer service life. The mean resistance bias, λR, for steel that are close to 12 μm/yr. This is the metal loss
ranges between 1.2 and 1.5 with COV approximately 40% model recommended by AASHTO and is adopted as a basis
and a distribution that is approximated as a Weibull distri- for comparison with calibrations performed by extrapolating
bution (Vardeman, 1994). Figure 15 is a typical plot showing measured corrosion rates with the conservative steel model.
the distribution of the computed bias. Similar to other data sets, a COV of 60% and a lognormal dis-
Resistance factors are calibrated using the computed sta- tribution is used to describe the variation.
tistics for resistance bias and load bias from the literature. The calibration was performed for both strip- and grid-type
Table 15 summarizes the results of the resistance factor cal- reinforcements. The mean of the resistance bias is approxi-
ibration applicable to the conservative steel loss estimate. mately 1.4 with COV approximately 20% and a distribution
The resistance factors do not vary significantly with respect that is approximately normal. Table 17 is a summary of the
to reinforcement size but are lower when considering longer resistance factors calibrated with metal loss measurements
service life. Resistance factors of approximately 0.45 and 0.25 extrapolated with the zinc residual model for steel loss. These
apply to 75- and 100-year service lives, respectively. Resis- resistance factors are significantly higher than those obtained
tance factors calibrated using the coherent gravity model are with the conservative steel model (Table 15) and are in the
slightly lower. The efficiency factor is approximately 0.38 for range of 0.60 to 0.70 for strip-type reinforcements, and 0.50
a design life of 75 years and 0.2 for a design life of 100 years. to 0.60 for grids. The efficiency ratio for this case is approxi-
Additional calibrations were performed to investigate the mately 0.5 and represents an improvement compared to the
effect of initial zinc thickness on the computed resistance fac- case in which metal loss measurements are extrapolated via
tors. Table 16 compares results obtained with zi equal to 86 μm the conservative steel model.
and 150 μm per side. The comparison considers 4-mm-thick
galvanized strip reinforcements, a design life of 75 years,
High Quality Reinforced Fill (ρ > 10,000 Ω-cm)
and the same statistics for metal loss (i.e., zinc and steel) as
described for galvanized reinforcements with the conserva- High quality reinforced fills have ρmin > 10,000 Ω-cm and
tive steel model. The load bias used in the calibration cor- corrosion rates corresponding to these conditions were
responds to the coherent gravity method. In each case the observed from sites in Florida (Sagues et al., 1998; Berke and
computed resistance bias has a Weibull distribution simi- Sagues, 2009) and North Carolina. These data render mean
lar to that shown in Figure 15. The computed resistance fac- and standard deviation of corrosion rates for the zinc coating
32

of 0.8 μm/yr and 0.5 μm/yr, respectively, for strip-type rein- For example, consider applying the resistance factors as
forcements, and 0.5 μm/yr and 0.2 μm/yr, respectively for they stand in the current version of the AASHTO specifica-
grid-type reinforcements. Corrosion rates observed from tions (AASHTO, 2009), where φ = 0.75 and 0.65 for strip- and
plain steel coupons older than 16 years correspond to mean grid-type reinforcements, respectively. Thus, for designs with
and standard deviation values of 11.5 μm/yr and 9.4 μm/yr, strip-type reinforcements the probability (pf) that stress in
and these parameters are used to represent the loss of base steel excess of yield will occur before the end of the intended
subsequent to depletion of the zinc coating for this case. Both design life is 0.005 and 0.015, respectively for construction
of these distributions are modeled as lognormal. The mean of employing high quality and good quality fill. Similarly, for
the corresponding resistance bias is computed as ranging from designs with grid-type reinforcements, pf would correspond
1.4 to 2.0 with COV approximately 10%. The bias distribution to 0.008 and 0.018. Thus, MSE walls designed in accordance
is approximately normal considering a 75-year service life, but with current AASHTO specifications, and constructed with
is better represented by a Weibull distribution considering a high quality fills, have a more favorable pf compared to the
100-year service life. target of 0.01. Based on the statistics of the current inventory
Table 18 is a summary of the resistance factors calibrated described by AMSE (2006), this exceptional performance
with metal loss measurements from sites with high quality applies to approximately 80% of MSE walls in the existing
reinforced fill. These resistance factors are equal to or higher inventory. The remaining 20%, constructed with good qual-
than those currently specified by AASHTO (see Table 7). ity fill, are associated with a lower level of performance, and
The efficiency ratio for this case is approximately 0.5. a pf that is nearly twice the target valued of 0.01.
Changing the initial zinc thickness from 86 μm to 150 μm
per side did not have a dramatic effect on the computed
resistance factors compared to the case with good quality Verification of Monte Carlo Analysis
backfill and the conservative steel model. This is because the
Results from the Monte Carlo simulations used to cali-
resistance factors computed with zi = 86 μm considering
brate resistance factors are verified via comparison incorpo-
high quality fill are closer to one.
rating alternative formulations for computing resistance bias
The resistance factors summarized in Tables 17 and 18
and closed-form solutions for reliability index. Although the
correspond to the target reliability index (βT = 2.3 corre-
closed-form solutions are limited to particular distributions
sponding to pf = 0.01). However, other values of φ corre-
sponding to different levels of reliability are also of interest. of the bias variables, they render estimates for comparison
Table 19 compares the relationship between resistance fac- and illustrate the effect of incorporating more realistic distri-
tors and reliability in terms of β and pf, for different scenar- butions via Monte Carlo simulations. In general, the verifica-
ios involving good or high quality fill, and strip or grid-type tion study is performed as follows:
reinforcements. Table 19 considers typical galvanized strip
reinforcements with S = 4 mm and grids with W11 longitu- Step 1. Select a design life and compute the distribution of
dinal wires. On the basis of data depicted in Table 19, alterna- metal loss using the service life model described by
tive approaches may be contemplated for selecting resistance Sagues et al. (2000).
factors for design rather than calibrating to achieve a target Step 2. Compute the bias of the remaining cross-sectional
reliability index. area, λAc, as the ratio of remaining cross section based

Table 19. Comparison of relationship between ␾ and ␤

for different fill quality.

Strip Reinforcements (S = 4 mm) Grid Reinforcements (W11)

φ High Quality Good Quality High Quality Good Quality
Fill Fill Fill Fill
β pf β pf β pf β pf
0.55 3.12 0.001 2.73 0.003 2.99 0.0014 2.49 0.006
0.60 2.97 0.0015 2.64 0.004 2.63 0.004 2.24 0.012
0.65 2.93 0.002 2.42 0.008 2.41 0.008 2.09 0.018
0.70 2.72 0.003 2.30 0.010 2.13 0.016 1.93 0.026
0.75 2.56 0.005 2.17 0.015 2.11 0.017 1.79 0.036
0.80 2.48 0.006 2.04 0.020 1.96 0.025 1.69 0.045
0.85 2.27 0.011 1.91 0.028 1.80 0.035 1.52 0.063
0.90 2.19 0.014 1.80 0.036 1.67 0.047 1.39 0.082
φ calibrated for target reliability index βT = 2.3 corresponding to pf = 0.01.
φ based on current AASHTO specifications (AASHTO, 2009).
 33

on metal loss measurements to the remaining cross Fs is the cumulative density function (cdf ) representing
section based on nominal metal loss used in design. steel corrosion rates.
Step 3. Compute the bias of the remaining tensile strength,
Equation (18) was programmed into an Excel spreadsheet
λR, as the product of the random variables including and the integration performed numerically. The numerical
the bias of remaining cross section determined in integration was performed in increments between 0.1 and
Step 2, and the bias for yield strength. 0.01 times r0. In most cases convergence to within E-06 was
Step 4. Compute β as a function of resistance factor using achieved within 100 increments. The numerical integration
the bias of remaining tensile strength determined in was performed for a range of X and the corresponding prob-
Step 3 and available closed-form solutions. abilities of exceedance computed for a given service life. For
each value of X the bias of the remaining cross section (strip-
Sagues Formulation type reinforcement) is computed as

Sagues et al. (2000) formulated a probabilistic deterioration (S − 2 × X )

λ Ac = (19)
model for service life forecasting of galvanized soil reinforce- [S − 2 × 12 × (t f − C )]
ments. This formulation is based on the following assump-
tions, which are the same as those employed in the Monte wherein the AASHTO metal loss model (Eq. 5) is used in the
Carlo simulations: denominator to compute nominal remaining cross section. A
mean and standard deviation were determined from the dis-
• The distribution of corrosion loss over all elements in the tribution of the computed bias to describe the variation of
structure mirrors the overall distribution of corrosion λAc. The bias of the remaining tensile strength was then com-
measured in the field; puted as:
• During the early life of the structure, the corrosion rate dis-
tribution reflects that of the galvanized elements; λ R = λ Ac × λ Fy (20)
• Loss of base steel is initiated after the zinc coating is
where λFy is the bias of the yield stress. Assuming that λFy and
consumed;
λAc are uncorrelated and their statistics are known, the mean
• The highest rate of metal loss takes place in the region of and standard deviation of λR could be computed using well
maximum reinforcement stress, and the service life of a known relationships between functions of random variables
given element is over when the sacrificial steel in the high- as described by Baecher and Christian (2003).
est stressed region is consumed; and
• Corrosion rates are constant with time.
Closed-Form Solutions for Reliability Index
The resulting formula to compute the probability that For a specific limit state and a single load source, the reliabil-
metal loss, X, exceeds a given threshold, X′, is given by ity index (β) and the resistance factor (φ) can be related using
the following formula (Allen et al., 2005), which assumes that
P [ X > X ′ t f , z i , rz ,σ z , rs , σ s ]
the load and resistance bias both have normal distributions:
∞
= ∫ f z ( rz )(1 − Fs (( X ′ ) ( t f − z i rz ))) drz (18) ⎛ γQ ⎞
r0
⎜⎝ φ ⎟⎠ λ R − λ Q
β= R
(21)
2
where ⎛ ⎛ γQ ⎞ ⎞
⎜⎝ COVR ⎜⎝ φ ⎟⎠ λ R ⎟⎠ + ( COVQ λ Q )
2
P is probability;
R
X is loss of steel defined by tf, zi, rz, σz, rs, σs;
X′ is a given amount of steel loss; where
tf is service life; β = reliability index (dimensionless),
zi is the initial zinc thickness; γQ = load factor (dimensionless),
rz is the mean zinc corrosion rate; φR = resistance factor (dimensionless),
σz is the standard deviation of zinc corrosion rate; λQ = mean of load bias (dimensionless),
rs is the mean steel corrosion rate; λR = mean of resistance bias (dimensionless),
σs is the standard deviation of steel corrosion rate; COVQ = coefficient of variation of load bias (dimension-
r0 = zi/tf and is the lowest rate of zinc corrosion for which less), and
base steel will be consumed within tf; COVR = coefficient of variation of resistance bias (dimen-
fz(rz) is the pdf representing zinc corrosion rates, rz; and sionless).
34

In the case of lognormal distributions for load and resis- bution to either be normal or lognormal, do not necessarily
tance bias: compare very well with the results from the more robust
Monte Carlo simulations. Therefore, numerical analyses (e.g.,
⎡γ λ ⎤
ln ⎢ Q R (1 + COVQ2 ) (1 + COVR2 ) ⎥ Monte Carlo simulations) are necessary to properly model
φ λ
β= ⎣ R Q ⎦ (22) the distribution of λR.
ln [(1 + COVQ )(1 + COVR )]
2 2

For a given load factor and known load and resistance sta- Plain Steel Reinforcements
tistics, Equations (21) and (22) are satisfied for selected val- Resistance factor calibrations are performed considering
ues of resistance factors, rendering related pairs of reliability the use of plain steel (i.e., not galvanized) reinforcements.
indices and resistance factors. From the computed pairs of β The purpose of these calibrations is to define design parame-
versus φR, resistance factors can be selected corresponding to ters that are appropriate for plain steel reinforcements and
the targeted level of reliability.
demonstrate the advantage of using galvanized reinforce-
Table 20 presents selected results and compares resistance
ments. Since the use of plain steel reinforcements has been
factors computed via Monte Carlo simulations to those
limited, most of the data from the performance of plain steel
computed via the Sagues service life model and closed-form
reinforcements are from coupons placed at sites where galva-
solutions for β. The load bias used in these analyses refers to
nized in-service reinforcements are employed. The few exam-
the coherent gravity method and is a lognormal distribution
ples where plain steel reinforcements have been used in the
(D’Appolonia, 2007). A Weibull or normal distribution is
United States are for grid-type reinforcements, as plain steel
used to describe the variation of λR.
strip-type reinforcements are not readily available. Therefore,
Results are presented for two cases: (1) where the probability
density function (pdf) for λR used in the Monte Carlo simula- the calibration is performed for grid-type reinforcements. The
tion is normal, and (2) where the pdf is described with a Weibull calibration is performed considering reinforced fill quality that
function. Because the closed-form solutions only consider meets AASHTO criteria for electrochemical properties, and
probability density functions to be normal or lognormal this both good and high quality fill are considered.
comparison demonstrates the importance of properly captur-
ing the distribution of the pdf in the analysis, and the need for Good Quality Fill
numerical simulations (i.e., Monte Carlo simulations). Table 20
demonstrates that when λR is normally distributed, the compar- Based on the summary of statistics from corrosion rate mea-
isons between the Monte Carlo simulations and the closed- surements depicted in Figure 8, a mean corrosion rate and
form solutions are very good. Note that since the distribution standard deviation of 25 μm/yr and 14 μm/yr, respectively,
of load bias is lognormal, the closed-form solution, assuming a represent the statistics for plain steel grid-type reinforcements
normal distribution for both λR and λQ, does not always give the within good quality fill, and the distribution can be approxi-
best results, even when λR is normally distributed. mated as lognormal. The resistance bias is computed for dif-
Alternatively, when λR is described with the Weibull func- ferent sizes of grid-type reinforcements (W7, W9, W11, and
tion, the closed-form solutions, which consider the distri- W14). The AASHTO metal loss model only applies to galva-

Table 20. Summary of comparison between closed-form solutions

and Monte Carlo simulations.1

Closed-Form
Reinforced Fill Quality Life Thickness Monte Carlo
Normal Lognormal
w/Details of Steel Loss (yrs) (mm)
pdf
Model φ φ φ
λR
Good w/Zinc Residuals 75 4 Normal 0.60 0.55 0.60
Good w/Conservative 75 15 Normal 0.45 0.50 0.50
Steel
High Quality Fill 75 5 Normal 0.65 0.55 0.65
Good w/Conservative 75 4 Weibull 0.35 NA2 0.25
Steel
Good w/Conservative 75 6 Weibull 0.40 0.10 0.35
Steel
High Quality Fill 100 4 Weibull 0.85 NA2 0.55
1
Coherent gravity method applied to galvanized strip type reinforcements with assumed initial zinc
thickness of 86 μm. βT =2.3 was used to compute φ.
2
NA means a result is not available because β > 2.3 could not be achieved using the closed-form solution.
 35

Table 21. Summary of ␾ considering plain steel Table 22. Summary of ␾ considering plain steel
reinforcements and good quality fill material. reinforcements and high quality fill material.

Reinforcement Design Reinforcement φ Reinforcement Design Reinforcement φ

Type Life Thickness/Size Simple/Coherent Type Life Thickness/Size Simple/Coherent

W7 0.25/0.20 W7 0.20/0.20
Grid 50 years W9 0.30/0.25 Grid 75 years W9 0.30/0.20
W11 0.35/0.25 W11 0.35/0.25
W14 0.40/0.35 W14 0.35/0.30

nized reinforcements, therefore, the nominal metal loss model 0.35. The efficiency ratio (φ/λR) for this case is approxi-
used in the denominator of Equation (15) is based on data col- mately 0.25.
lected by the National Bureau of Standards for plain steel in
fill materials similar to those typically used in the construction
Marginal Fill Quality
of MSE and described by Eq. (3). The analysis is limited to a
50-year service life since the sacrificial steel requirements Resistance factors are calibrated considering the use of fill
considering 75- and 100-year service lives are considered to that does not meet AASHTO criteria for electrochemical
be impractical. Thus, a shorter service life is considered parameters as described in Table 3. Fill with pH in the range of
appropriate when using plain steel as opposed to galvanized five to seven, but with ρmin between 1,000 Ω-cm and 3,000
reinforcements. The mean of the resistance bias, λR, tends to Ω-cm is referred to as marginal quality fill. This calibration
decrease with respect to increase in reinforcement size and is performed considering the use of galvanized reinforce-
ranges between 1.4 and 1.9 with COV between 30% and 40%, ments and a 50-year service life.
and a distribution that is approximately normal. Based on the analysis of the observed corrosion rates for
Table 21 summarizes the results of the resistance factor cal- marginal fill, and the paucity of data for reinforcements less
ibration. The resistance factors tend to increase with respect than 10 years old, extrapolations of metal loss assume that the
to reinforcement size and are approximately 0.1 to 0.15 lower zinc coating will survive 10 years. Corrosion rate measure-
than those computed for galvanized reinforcements with the ments are available from six sites located in California that
conservative steel model and longer service lives as depicted appear to reflect corrosion rates of base steel subsequent to
in Table 15. The efficiency ratio (φ/λR) for this case is approx- depletion of the zinc coating. A mean corrosion rate and stan-
imately 0.2, which is also lower than the efficiency ratio com- dard deviation of 32 μm/yr and 21 μm/yr, respectively, and a
puted for galvanized reinforcements lognormal distribution are used to describe the statistics of
these measurements. These statistics appear to be conserva-
tive compared to corrosion rates observed from plain steel
High Quality Fill (ρ > 10,000 Ω-cm)
elements that are more than 10 years old at the time of mea-
Based on the summary of statistics from corrosion rate surement as described in Appendix E.
measurements depicted in Figure 8, a mean corrosion rate and Computations of resistance bias and corresponding calibra-
standard deviation of 12 μm/yr and 9.6 μm/yr, respectively, tions of resistance factors are performed considering nominal
represent the statistics for plain steel grid-type reinforcements requirements for sacrificial steel computed with Models I and
within high quality fill, and the distribution can be approxi- II as described by Equations (17a) and (17b). These calcula-
mated as lognormal. The resistance bias is computed for differ- tions consider zi = 86 μm, a design life (tdesign) equal to 50 years,
ent sizes of grid-type reinforcements (W7, W9, W11, and and grid reinforcements with W20 size longitudinal wires.
W14). For this case, the nominal metal loss model used in the Results from these computations are presented in Table 23 in
denominator of Eq. (15) is based on the Caltrans-Select model terms of the statistics of the resistance bias and corresponding
(Jackura et al., 1987) described in Table 2, corresponding to rs calibrations of resistance factors.
= 13 μm/yr. Given the more favorable sacrificial steel require- As expected, the bias associated with Model I is less than
ments compared to the previous case, the analysis considers Model II, but the COVs are nearly the same. Due to the differ-
service lives of 75 years. The mean of the resistance bias, λR, ences in the bias, the resistance factor calibrated for Model I is
tends to decrease with respect to increase in reinforcement size also less than that associated with Model II. However, because
and ranges between 1.1 and 1.2 with COV between 30% and the COVs of the bias are similar the calibrated resistance fac-
35%, and a distribution that is approximately normal. tors render the same design efficiency, φ/λR, for each case. Sim-
Table 22 summarizes the results of the resistance factor ilar design efficiencies result in similar design details for a given
calibration. The resistance factors tend to increase with MSE geometry, load case, design life, and so on. An example
respect to reinforcement size and range between 0.25 and problem is presented in Appendix F that demonstrates that
36

Table 23. Resistance bias and calibration of ␾ considering construction

with marginal quality fill.

Model λR1 σ R1 COV λ R1 φ β pf φ/λ R

I [Eq. (17a)] 1.01 0.29 0.29 0.30 2.37 0.009 0.297
II [Eq. (17b)] 1.63 0.46 0.28 0.50 2.26 0.011 0.301
1
Normally distributed.

this is indeed the case. The results from this exercise demon- Research Coal Mine (SRCM), which presents a more aggres-
strate how changing the metal loss model used in design will sive environment relative to corrosion.
not effect a change in design if the resistance factors are prop- Grout type is an especially important detail as the extent
erly calibrated. The best way to achieve a more efficient design and type of grout surrounding an element affects the vulner-
is to improve the COV of the bias. This may be achieved by ability of the system to corrosion. Portland cement-based
using models that do a better job of capturing the behavior grout is alkaline and protects the steel reinforcement by pas-
(e.g., capture trends that may be related to space, time, fill sivating the surface as well as providing a barrier to moisture
characteristics, and site conditions) and by improving the and oxygen. Half-cell potential measurements, depicted in
quality and quantity of performance data. Figure 16, are useful to assess if the steel surface is passi-
vated, or if corrosion is occurring. The alkalinity of the port-
Type II—Condition Assessment land cement grout tends to shift the potential at the surface
of a steel reinforcement to a more positive value. A half-cell
For Type II reinforcements, installation details have an
potential greater than −200 mV relative to a CSE indicates
effect on the vulnerability of the system to the surrounding
the surface of the steel reinforcement is passivated. Figure 16
environment and corresponding susceptibility to corrosion,
depicts the means and ranges of half-cell potential measure-
and on our ability to probe the elements and interpret data
ments from sites listed in Table 24. In general, sites with resin-
from NDT. Relevant details include steel type, corrosion pro-
grouted reinforcements exhibit half-cell potentials less than
tection measures, drill hole dimensions, bond length, free/
−200 mV, which on average range between approximately
stressing length, total length, date of installation, level of pre-
−400 mV and −700 mV. Reinforcements surrounded with
stress, grout type, and use of couplings. For rock bolts, the
portland cement grout exhibit half-cell potentials greater
grout surrounding the reinforcement is often the only corro-
sion protection afforded to the reinforcements. More complex than −200 mV (maximum values). Although there are some
installation details are incorporated into ground anchorages notable exceptions, in general, these data serve to demonstrate
that include elaborate corrosion protection measures, as the effectiveness of portland cement grout to protect steel earth
described by PTI (2004). Construction details, durability of reinforcements.
different material components, and workmanship associated The best demonstration of the effectiveness of portland
with the corrosion protection system affect the service life and cement grout to passivate the steel reinforcements is with
durability of ground anchorages. Generally speaking, rock respect to the dam tie-downs wherein the steel wires are sur-
bolts are more susceptible to metal loss from corrosion com- rounded by portland cement grout within a concrete gravity
pared to ground anchorages. For these reasons, results from dam. The fully grouted steel bar tendons at the Barron Moun-
condition assessment and analysis of data relative to rock bolt tain Rock Cut are generally passivated, but there are some
and ground anchor installations are distinct. elements of the population for which the grout protection
Table 24 is a summary of sites with Type II reinforcements appears to be compromised. The degree of protection afforded
that were included in the fieldwork conducted as part of Task 6, to the strands behind the anchor plate at the reaction blocks
and where measurements of corrosion rate and information along the I-99 17th Street exit ramp in Altoona, PA, do not
on the condition of the reinforcements were obtained. Six of appear to be protected by grout and this will be discussed later
the installations described in Table 24 are rock bolts, and in this section when describing the integrity of ground anchor
three are ground anchorages. Reinforcement age ranges from installations. The half-cell potentials with respect to the restress-
8 to 43 years when monitoring was conducted (2007–2008). able anchors at the same site in Altoona, PA, are lower because
A variety of site conditions prevail, but in general, the sites measurements reflect conditions along the surface of the gal-
provide an environment that is slightly acidic with pH ranging vanized trumpet head, and, in contrast to steel, zinc is not
between four and six, and fairly conductive with resistivities passivated by alkalinity.
less than 10,000 Ω-cm. One exception to this is the National For resin grout installations, relatively high half-cell poten-
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Safety tials indicate that corrosion may have occurred, but these
 37

Table 24. Summary of sites with Type II reinforcements evaluated during Phase II.

Site Highway State Reinforcement Year Anchorage Prestress Corrosion Comments

Type Installed Type (kips) Protection
Barron I-93 NB NH Rock bolts— 1974 Polyester 40 None Grouted in
Mountain Grade 150 resin grout bond zone
Rock Cut prestressing steel only—bare
rods and Grade stressing length
80 smooth steel
rods
Barron I-93 SB NH Rock bolts— 1974 Polyester 40 None Grouted in
Mountain. Grade 150 resin grout bond zone
Rock Cut prestressing steel only—bare
rods and Grade stressing length
80 smooth steel
rods
Beaucatcher I-240 W NC Rock bolts— 1982 Epoxy 40 Grout Grouted full-
Rock Cut Grade 150 resin grout length
prestressing steel
rods
Safety NIOSH PA Roof bolts— 1988 Resin grout, N/A Grout/none Fully-grouted,
Research Pittsburgh Grade 60 steel expansion or nongrouted
Coalmine Research rods shell or slot roof bolts
(SRCM) Laboratory and Wedge
Safety NIOSH PA Roof bolts— 2000 Resin grout N/A Grout Fully-grouted
Research Pittsburgh Grade 60 steel roof bolts
Coalmine Research rods
Laboratory
Barron Mtn. I-93 NB NH Rock bolts— 1974 Portland 0 Grout Fully-grouted
Rock Cut Grade 150 cement passive
prestressing steel grout elements
rods
New Dams in N/A Dam tie- 1964 Portland 125 Grout Fully-grouted
Brunswick, the downs—Grade cement parallel wire,
Canada Musquash 270 cold drawn grout buttonhead
River steel wire anchorages
Basin grouted into rock
17th Street I-99 PA Reaction 1992 Portland 100 Class I— Restressable
exit ramp blocks—Grade cement double strands
270 seven wire grout corrosion surrounded by
strand ground protection grease in
anchors grouted system trumpet head
into rock.
17th Street I-99 PA Reaction 1992 Portland 100 Class I— Nonrestressable
exit ramp blocks—Grade cement double strands
270 seven wire grout corrosion surrounded by
strand ground protection grout behind
anchors grouted system the bearing
into rock plate

NOTE: NIOSH = National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.

NH I-93 (tendons)

measurements are also affected by salt concentrations and

PA Anchors (NR)
Dam Tie-Downs

PA Anchors (R)
Bruceton Mine

moisture content of the surrounding rock mass. Higher salt

NH I-93 (NB)

NH I-93 (SB)

concentrations and dry conditions tend to shift half-cell

NC I-240

potentials to more negative values. This is evident from mea-

surements taken at several locations in western New York
0 where monitoring was performed at regular intervals over a
-100
-200 2-year duration (see Appendix C).
-300 Figure 17 presents the means and ranges of corrosion rate
Ecorr (mV)

-400
-500
measured via the LPR technique at some of the sites listed
-600 in Table 24. Corrosion rates for resin-grouted rock bolts at the
-700 Barron Mountain and Beaucatcher Rock Cuts are relatively
-800
-900 Resin Grout Portland Cement Grout low. However, the LPR measurements only reflect corrosion
-1000 rates in areas that are in direct contact with the surround-
Figure 16. Ranges of half-cell potential measurements ing earth and may not include areas where there is a gap or
for Type II reinforcements. void separating the steel reinforcement surface from the
38

70
60
50

CR (μm/yr)
40
30
20
10
0
NH I-93 NC I-240 Bruceton PA Anchors
(SB) Mine (NR)

Figure 17. Ranges of corrosion rate measurements for Type II

reinforcements.

surrounding rockmass (i.e., the electrolyte). Thus, these mea- Resin Grout
surements demonstrate that resin grout can effectively protect
Although resin grout may provide a barrier from corro-
the surface, assuming the surface is adequately covered. Much
sion, there is strong evidence to suggest that areas of the sur-
higher corrosion rates are evident from the NIOSH SRCM.
face may not be covered and vulnerable to corrosion. Even for
This correlates well with the harsh environmental conditions
fully grouted rock bolts it is likely that a gap exists behind
at this site that includes pH ranging between 2.5 and 3.5 and
the anchor plate that is vulnerable to corrosion. Prestress-
sulfate concentrations between 800 ppm and 7000 ppm. Also,
ing tends to cause resin grout to crack, compromising its abil-
roof bolts installed at the SRCM may not have a gap behind
ity to act as an effective barrier to corrosion. Poor coverage
the anchor plate similar to the rock cut installations such that
has been observed, both from the results of NDT and direct
LPR measurements reflect corrosion rates near the proximal observations (Fishman et al. 2005; Fishman, 2005). Results
end where moisture and oxygen are more prevalent. Data in from sonic echo testing imply that often the degree of cover-
Figure 17 also confirm that the non-restressable anchors tested age afforded by the grout is relatively low, or grout quality is
at the I-99 17th Street Exit ramp in Altoona, PA, may not poor (voids and cracks exist). This is consistent with Comp-
be adequately protected by portland cement grout behind ton and Oyler (2005) who reported that the resin grout only
the anchor plate and localized corrosion is occurring at an covered approximately 60% of the surface for fully grouted
average rate of 5 μm/yr. roof bolts that were exhumed for observation. Fishman (2005)
Grout quality and the potential for gaps are indicated from also reported incomplete coverage in the bonded zone of
results of sonic echo and ultrasonic testing. These tests indi- grouted end-point anchorages exhumed at the site of the
cate that gaps often exist behind the bearing plate, even for Barron Mountain Rock Cut.
fully grouted installations (Withiam et al., 2002). Results from Kendorski (2003) estimates the design life of unprotected
sonic echo testing also provide information on remaining pre- rock reinforcement systems is approximately 50 years. Results
stress and this may also correlate with conditions along the from this study demonstrate that, in instances where the design
bonded or anchorage of the reinforcements. Since these con- load of rock reinforcements is based on pullout resistance,
ditions may deteriorate with respect to time, these measure- the design life may be longer than 50 years, depending on site
ments are also useful to interpret service life and durability of conditions.
rock bolts. Specific details for rock bolt and ground anchor Other factors, such as loss of prestress, may also affect the
installations, data from condition assessment, data interpre- service life of rock bolts with end-point anchorages. Results
tation, and reliability analysis relative to durability and service from sonic echo tests, that were confirmed from lift-off test-
life, are described in the following sections. ing, indicate that a relatively high proportion (approximately
30%) of resin-grouted bolts with end-point anchorages have
lost significant levels of prestress at the Barron Mountain
Rock Bolts
Rock Cut (Fishman, 2004; Fishman, 2005). However, this
Sites with rock bolts described in Table 24 do not incorpo- may not be as much of a problem for fully grouted elements.
rate corrosion protection measures other than grout, there- Loss of prestress may be indicative of poor grout cover along
fore details of the condition and type of grout are particularly the bonded zone, or due to weathering of rock beneath the
important. bearing plate for end-point anchorages.
 39

Knowledge of surface area in electrical contact with earth catcher Cut are fully grouted, and results from sonic echo
is required to reconcile corrosion rates from LPR measure- tests indicates that the bolts that were sampled for testing are
ments. This surface area is more difficult to determine for rock approximately 10 feet long.
bolt installations compared to MSE (i.e., Type I) reinforce- LPR measurements depicted in Figure 17 demonstrate cor-
ments. First, the length of the bolt and the grouted length need rosion rates for sections of rock bolts surrounded by grout
to be estimated, and then the amount of coverage afforded are relatively low. Although LPR measurements are useful to
along the grouted length must be assessed. Installation details assess corrosion along grouted areas, more information is
for rock bolts are not readily available from construction plans, needed to assess corrosion rates for exposed sections (i.e., not
and details related to bolt length and the length of the bonded surrounded by grout) of the reinforcements. Direct observa-
zone must be obtained from field notes when available. The tions of exposed portions of exhumed reinforcements indi-
length of the bond zone can also be estimated from knowledge cate that corrosion in these vulnerable areas is much higher
of the lock-off load, drill hole diameter, and by estimating than that indicated via LPR measurements. Thus, critical
the allowable bond stress at the grout/rock interface. How- locations that may control design life include the gap behind
ever, another utility of sonic echo testing is the confirming the anchor plate or other exposed areas.
or obtaining of missing information about the geometry of the Metal loss of exposed portions of the reinforcement behind
installation. Data from sonic echo tests have been used in this the anchor plate, or other areas, may be expressed using the
study to verify bolt lengths and bond lengths that may then Romanoff equation as
be used to estimate the surface area of the rock bolts in con-
tact with the surrounding rock in order to reconcile corrosion ⎛ μm ⎞ ⎛ μm ⎞ 0.8
X⎜ = A⎜ t ( yr )
⎝ side ⎟⎠
(23)
rates from LPR measurements. ⎝ yr side ⎟⎠
The rock bolts installed at Barron Mountain were only
grouted along the bonded length (i.e., end-point anchor- where t is time in years. Table 25 is a summary of metal loss
ages), thus the free/stressing length is more vulnerable to cor- measurements obtained from rock reinforcements that have
rosion. This is confirmed by direct visual observations of been exhumed from sites located in the United States, Swe-
bolts that were exhumed from the site as reported by Fishman den, Finland, and England. These data are useful to assess the
(2005), and is evident in the results from sonic echo tests per- variability associated with the constant A that appears in
formed on more than 50 rock bolts from this site. This is use- Equation (23).
ful since direct observations of metal loss from portions of Based on the data in Table 25, A in Equation (23) has a mean
reinforcements that have been retrieved can be compared to value of 60 μm/yr, a standard deviation of 40 μm/yr, and can
corrosion rates measured in situ with LPR. Based on results be approximated with a lognormal distribution. The data in
from sonic echo testing, the bond lengths of rock bolts along Table 25 represent site averages. However, data from six rein-
the southbound barrel of I-93 at the Barron Mountain Rock- forcements retrieved from the Barron Mountain Rock Cut
Cut range between 3 and 13 feet. Rock bolts at the Beau- were analyzed and rendered a mean of 66 μm/yr for A. Also,

Table 25. Summary of metal loss measurements from rock bolts

and ground anchors.

Site Country Type Age X A

(yrs.) (μm) (μm/yr)
Barron Mountain Rock Cut, I- USA Resin-grouted 32 880 55
93 NB1 bar
Barron Mountain Rock Cut, I- USA Resin-grouted 33 1498 91
93 SB2 bar
State Route 52, Ellenville, NY3 USA Expansion shell 20 1690 154
Pyhasalmi4 Finland Split set 1.5 63 46
Pyhasalmi4 Finland Split set 1 28 28
Hemmaslahti4 Finland Split set 2 43 25
Hemmaslahti4 Finland Swellex 1.5 90 65
Kerretti4 Finland Swellex 2 56 32
FIP Case 45 Sweden Ground anchor 26 445 33
Dovenport Royal Dockyard6 England Ground anchor 22 750 63
1
Fishman (2005).
2
NCHRP 24-28.
3
Withiam et al. (2002).
4
Lokse (1992).
5
FIP (1986).
6
Weerasinghe and Adams (1997).
40

measurements of metal loss from steel elements embedded in For this example, it is assumed that the design capacity of
fills with resistivity between 3,000 Ω-cm and 10,000 Ω-cm as the rock bolt is based on the resistance mobilized along the
discussed in the resistance factor calibrations for Type I rein- bonded length and not the structural capacity of the bolt. The
forcements render a value for A equal to 54 μm/yr. Further- structural resistance (tensile strength) remaining at the end
more the statistics generated from Table 25 are relatively close of the design life must equal the design load enforced on the
to the nominal metal loss expressed by Eq. (3), which applies system during installation. If the difference between the lock-
to plain steel buried in a wide range of environments. Thus, the off load and the original structural capacity of the bolt is high
statistics rendered from the data in Table 25 appear to be rea- enough, then enough structural capacity may be available at
sonable. The statistical variation of metal loss represented by the end of the design life to sustain the design loads even
these parameters can be used to calibrate resistance factors for though metal loss may not be explicitly considered during
LRFD similar to that for Type I (MSE) reinforcements. How- design. A nominal resistance, Tnominal, equal to 40 kips, is used in
ever, there are some notable differences as described in the this example similar to the Barron Mountain and Beaucatcher
following example: Rock Cuts described in Table 24. The reinforcements are
The example resistance factor calibration considers that assumed to be solid bars made from Grade 150 steel that has
Type II reinforcements are not redundant and failure of a sin- a guaranteed ultimate tensile strength (GUTS) of 150 ksi. The
gle element could mean that a block of rock is loosened, lead- GUTS is considered as the nominal strength and F ⴱult (the sta-
ing to a system failure. For the purpose of this example a target tistical variable for ultimate strength of steel) is considered to
reliability index, βT, equal to 3.1 corresponding to pf ≈ 0.001 is have a normal distribution equal to 1.05 times the nominal and
adopted. This is consistent with past geotechnical design prac- COV equal to 0.1 similar to that described by Bounopane et al.
tice for foundations as described by Withiam et al. (1998). (2003) and the statistics used to describe the variation of yield
The load bias, λQ, used in the resistance factor calibration strength for Type I reinforcements. Equation (23) is used to
presumes that rock bolts are actively loaded and prestressed compute metal loss, X ⴱ, where the parameter A is varied statis-
during installation; and prestress is verified via lift-off testing tically according to a lognormal distribution with μA = 60 μm
as described by PTI (2004). Thus, the uncertainty relative to and σA = 40 μm.
the design load is much less compared to Type I reinforce- The calibration is performed considering bolts with a 1-inch
ments, whereby the loads are passive and transferred to rein- initial diameter, Di, and 50-, 75- and 100-year design lives.
forcements as the system deforms. Design loads are enforced Table 26 is a summary of the computed bias, resistance fac-
upon the reinforcements during installation, and PTI (2004) tor, and probability of occurrence for each design life. These
recommends that verified lock-off loads be within 5% of results indicate that for this example metal loss does not have
design specifications. For the purpose of this example, λR = 1 a significant impact on performance for design lives of 50 and
and COV = 10% are used, and considered to be conservative 75 years, but should be taken into account for service lives in
estimates. excess of 75 years. The results from this example depend on
The resistance bias is computed as follows: the selected values for Tnominal, Di, and Fult. If these inputs vary
then the results depicted in Table 26 do not apply. The pur-
Fultⴱ Aⴱc pose of this example is to demonstrate the approach and
λR = (24) identify the input needed for a complete calibration. More
Tnominal
data are needed to assess typical design scenarios before a
more complete calibration can be performed.
πD∗2
Aⴱc = (25) Current AASHTO specifications specify φ = 0.8 relative to
4
rupture resistance for high-strength steel reinforcements.
Assuming that metal loss is not considered in design but
D∗2 = Di − 2 X ∗ for 2X ∗ < Di
(26) using the same statistical properties for the remaining vari-
D∗2 = 0 for 2X ∗ ≥ Di ables renders pf < 0.0001. The 75-year case shown in Table 26,

Table 26. Results from reliability-based calibration considering the

yield limit state for rock bolts.

tf λR φ pf
(years) μ σ Distribution
50 2.36 0.33 Weibull 1.0 < 0.0001
75 2.22 0.42 Weibull 1.0/0.80 ≈0.001/0.0001
100 2.14 0.55 Weibull 0.55 ≈0.001
 41

but with φ = 0.8 renders pf ≈ 0.0001. This implies that the cur- bolts is with respect to a gap behind the anchor plate. This
rent AASHTO specifications imply a service life of approxi- may be remedied with a trumpet head assembly filled with
mately 75 years for the selected example. grease. Alternatively, metal losses need to be considered using
Equation (23), similar to those for resin-grouted installations.
Portland Cement Grout
Based on results from NDT and direct observations, port- Ground Anchors
land cement grout quality generally appears to be good for the
If the ground anchor system is protected with an adequate
rock bolts inspected at the sites listed in Table 24 and depicted
corrosion protection system [e.g., meeting the requirements of
in Figure 16. Half-cell potential measurements indicate that
PTI Class I (PTI, 2004)], then corrosion is generally not a prob-
the presence of a passive film layer protects the rock bolts from
lem. Observations from NDT indicate that, generally, grout
corrosion. However, passivation of the steel may be compro-
quality along the bonded zone appears to be good and no
mised by the presence of chlorides or acidic conditions. Chlo-
defects or anomalies were encountered along the stressing
rides may be present along the rock face as a residue from salt
lengths. The main concern for ground anchorages is near the
spray produced from deicing of the highway. There is some
anchor head assembly and the fact that high-strength, pre-
evidence of this from the testing of fully grouted tendons at the
stressed steel elements may be vulnerable to hydrogen embrit-
Barron Mountain Rock Cut (Fishman, 2004). LPR measure-
ments indicate very low average rates of metal loss and sig- tlement and SCC. Hydrogen embrittlement and SCC tend to
nificant metal loss was not observed from several elements occur in acidic or chloride-rich environments, and, without
that were exhumed for inspection (Fishman, 2005). In gen- proper detailing and workmanship at the anchor head assem-
eral, for installations where lower half-cell potentials (less than bly, the service life of the elements is severely compromised by
−200 mV) are realized corrosion monitoring should be per- these environments. Time to failure for hydrogen embrittle-
formed to assess the rate of metal loss. Very high rates of ment and SCC can be relatively short, and the previously cited
corrosion are possible when the passive film layer is locally models describing rate of metal loss for uniform corrosion or
compromised. Grout cracking may also occur at the beginning incursion of pit depths are not applicable to assess service life.
of the bonded zone due to the application of prestress. How- Measurements of half-cell potential and corrosion rate for
ever, the surface is still protected via the alkaline environment ground anchors indicate that portland cement grout does not
until crack widths exceed a minimum value (e.g., 1 mm). always serve to passivate steel, and the area behind the bearing
Grout and return tubes are used to install portland cement- plate is vulnerable to corrosion. Use of a trumpet head filled
grouted rock bolts such that the grout quantity can be adjusted with grease appears to be a more effective measure to protect
as needed when grout is lost from the drill hole. This is in con- the reinforcements as it is isolated from the surrounding envi-
trast to resin-grouted bolts for which a fixed quantity of grout ronment by virtue of the dielectric properties of the grease.
is inserted into the drill hole. Thus, the coverage from port- Loss of prestress may also affect service life. Current obser-
land cement grout is expected to be better when compared vations in the database do not include sites where this has
to resin-grouted installations. Also, prestressed rock bolts been observed to be a problem. However, if the anchorage
require a stressing length that is often protected by grease and zone is within soil or rock types that creep, then loss of pre-
a plastic sheath. However, a gap behind the anchor plate is stress could affect service life. Regular maintenance of lock-
still possible unless a trumpet head assembly is employed. off loads could be implemented to achieve a given service life
Thus, the main concern with portland cement-grouted rock for these conditions.
42

CHAPTER 4

Conclusions and Recommendations

The main focus of this study is reliability of metal loss and considering the climate in the northeastern United States,
modeling and service life estimates for earth reinforcements, measurements may vary by a factor of approximately 1.5
including reinforcements for MSE, soil nails, rock bolts, and throughout a given year.
ground anchors. Reliability analysis is useful for the following: Data were partitioned considering different fill conditions,
reinforcement type and time frames rendering COVs between
1. Describing reliability of metal loss models for use in design, approximately 40% and 60% within each category. In gen-
2. Describing effect of deviations in electrochemical proper- eral, metal loss models available from the existing literature,
ties and site conditions on service life, including the AASHTO model, were found to be conserva-
3. Calibrating resistance factors for use in LRFD, and tive. Use of the AASHTO metal loss model is evaluated within
4. Providing tools for asset management that can be used to the framework of reliability-based design and calibration of
estimate vulnerability and remaining service life of exist- resistance factors for LRFD.
ing systems. Results from LRFD calibrations rendered resistance factors
corresponding to a target reliability index of 2.3 and pf ≈ 0.01.
During Phase II of this research, fieldwork was undertaken
The following conclusions apply to the resistance factor cali-
to broaden the database describing in situ performance of earth
brations for LRFD of MSE walls:
reinforcements compared to what was available at the conclu-
sion of Phase I. Additional data were collected to enhance the • Computed resistance factors vary depending on the method
geographic distribution of sites included in the monitoring used to compute reinforcement load, that is, simplified or
effort and to obtain more information representative of a range coherent gravity method.
of fill conditions including high, good and marginal quality, • Considering galvanized reinforcements in good backfill con-
more sites with LPR measurements providing a better spatial ditions (i.e., meeting AASHTO criteria for electrochemical
and temporal distribution of measurements at given sites, and parameters) the computed resistance factor is slightly
more sites with older reinforcements (i.e., older than 25 years). less than what is recommended in the current AASHTO
Data were also obtained to further verify the use of LPR mea- specifications.
surements to estimate corrosion rate, thus providing a sound • Considering galvanized reinforcements in high quality fill
basis to use these measurements for statistical analysis of mea- renders resistance factors that are slightly higher than those
surements and for reliability analysis of service-life estimates currently specified by AASHTO for design of MSE walls.
and calibration of resistance factors for use in LRFD. • Data were generated to consider plain steel (i.e., not galva-
For MSE reinforcements (Type I), electrochemical proper- nized) reinforcements with fill materials that meet the
ties of the fill were observed to have a significant impact on AASHTO requirements for electrochemical parameters, a
performance, and the effect of time on corrosion rate is clearly conservative metal loss model, and maximum design life of
indicated by these data. The spatial distribution of corrosion less than 50 years.
rates appears to be random, although spatial trends are appar- • Data were generated to consider marginal quality fill
ent from data obtained with respect to several of the sites in (i.e., not quite meeting AASHTO criteria) with galvanized
the database. No significant differences are observed between reinforcements, a very conservative metal loss model, and
different climates for galvanized elements, however, marine maximum design life of less than 50 years.
environments had a detrimental effect on corrosion rates for
plain steel (i.e., not galvanized) reinforcements. Also, it was Type II reinforcements include rock bolts and ground
found that seasonal variations affect measured corrosion rates, anchors, and their performance is related to the degree of cor-
 43

rosion protection included in the installation. Many rock forcements described in the current AASHTO specifications
bolts are only protected by grout and a lack of coverage may is recommended for computing the nominal amount of sac-
occur as a gap behind the anchor plate where grout is lost to rificial steel. This recommendation is based upon approxi-
the surrounding rock mass during installation, or from rem- mately 1,000 measurements of metal loss and corrosion rate
nants of plastic cartridges inherent to resin-grouted installa- from samples of galvanized reinforcements and coupons, cal-
tions. However, the design load is often based on the pullout culation of the resistance bias and corresponding statistics,
resistance rather than yield of the reinforcement, and metal and reliability-based calibration of the resistance factor for
loss does not appear to be significant for design lives of 50 or LRFD considering the yield limit state. The current AASHTO
75 years. For a 100-year design life, the rupture limit state model is necessarily conservative, and corresponding resis-
likely controls the performance and resistance factors appro- tance factors correlate to an acceptably low probability of
priate to this design have been calibrated. The calibration uses occurrence for a 75- or 100-year design life. The resistance fac-
approximately 70 observations of metal loss from sites located tors listed in Table 27 are recommended for use with LRFD
in the United States, Scandinavia, and the United Kingdom. considering the yield limit state, and using the AASHTO metal
Compared to MSE reinforcements (Type I), rock bolts are loss model to compute the nominal resistance at the end of the
not necessarily redundant so a target reliability index of approx- design life. Different resistance factors are recommended for
imately 3.1 rather than 2.3 was used for the calibration, cor- good versus high quality fill, strip or grid reinforcements. The
responding to pf ≈ 0.001. protocol for sampling and electrochemical testing of wall fill,
Ground anchors for permanent installations generally have described in Table 4, is recommended to assess fill quality and
a Class I, double corrosion protection system including a trum- if the materials meet the criteria for good or high quality fills.
pet head assembly to protect the area behind the anchor head. Although the calibrations resulted in different resistance
There have not been any observations of poor performance factors depending on use of the simplified or coherent gravity
when Class I corrosion protection measures are incorporated methods for computing nominal load, use of the same resis-
with proper detailing and workmanship during installation. If tance factor is recommended for either method. This is based
the anchor head does not include a trumpet head assembly that on the fact that the difference is relatively small, and similar
is filled with grease, the area near the anchor head may be vul- designs are rendered when the same resistance factors are
nerable to corrosion. If acidic conditions or high chloride applied as described from the results of the example problem
concentrations prevail, then the service life may be severely described in Appendix F. Also, the simplified method was
compromised from hydrogen embrittlement or SCC along originally calibrated to render similar results compared to the
exposed portions of the anchor. coherent gravity approach with the traditional allowable stress
methods of design. Furthermore, the load bias associated
with the coherent gravity method (D’Appolonia, 2007) may
Recommended Resistance Factors
not consider the effect of reinforcement depth, and the cali-
for LRFD
bration appears to favor reinforcements placed within the top
Current practice (LRFD) for the design of metallic rein- 20 feet of the wall. The bias factor for reinforcements located
forcements for MSE applications is to ensure that reinforce- below this depth is expected to be less, corresponding to cal-
ments maintain enough yield resistance to keep the probability ibrated resistance factors that are higher and closer to those
that overstress occurs (i.e., probability of occurrence, pf) obtained with respect to the simplified method.
below acceptable limits throughout the design life of the facil- The factors recommended for use with good quality fill
ity. Galvanized reinforcements are recommended and sacri- and galvanized reinforcements are based on results presented
ficial steel is included in the cross section to compensate for in Table 17 from calibrations performed with respect to the
the expected loss of steel subsequent to depletion of the zinc simplified method of analysis. The recommended value of
coating along the surface. Provided that the reinforced fill 0.65 corresponds well with values of φ computed considering
material meets AASHTO criteria for electrochemical param- a 75-year design life. Designs considering a 100-year design
eters, the metal loss model for galvanized metallic MSE rein- life are likely to result in relatively thicker reinforcements,

Table 27. Summary of recommended LRFD strength reduction

factors for galvanized reinforcements.

Metal Backfill Metal Loss Design Life Resistance Factors (␾)

Type Quality Model (Years) Strip Grid

Galvanized Good AASHTO 75 or 100 0.65 0.55

Galvanized High AASHTO 75 or 100 0.80 0.70
44

therefore, the lower resistance factors of 0.55 and 0.60 com- good or high quality fills are used during construction. The
puted for thinner reinforcements are not recommended; φ = following equations are recommended to estimate nominal
0.65 corresponds to thicker reinforcements with S = 6 mm. sacrificial steel requirements for good and high quality fills:
For galvanized grid-type reinforcements embedded within
good quality fill the recommended value of φ = 0.55 corre- For good quality fill:
sponds to most of the values presented in Table 17, and is
⎛ μm ⎞ μm
lower than the maximum of φ = 0.6 computed for W7 and X⎜ = 80 × t 0.8 ( yr )
⎝ side ⎟⎠
(27)
W9 size wires and a 75-year design life. yr side
The factors recommended for use with high quality fill and For high quality fill:
galvanized reinforcements are based on results presented in
Table 18 from calibrations performed with respect to the sim- ⎛ μm ⎞ μm
X⎜ = 13 × t ( yr )
⎝ side ⎟⎠
(28)
plified method of analysis. The recommended value of 0.80 for yr side
strip-type reinforcements corresponds well with the value com-
puted for 4-mm-thick reinforcements and a 75-year design life, For good quality fill, only a 50-year design life is considered
and is generally less than the values computed considering a corresponding to a nominal sacrificial steel requirement of
100-year design life, although it is a little higher (by 0.05) than 1,829 µm per side according to Equation (27). Thus, a total of
the value of 0.75 computed for the thicker reinforcements (S = 3.66 mm of sacrificial steel is required considering metal loss
6 mm). The recommended value of φ = 0.8 is considered rea- from all surfaces (additional diameter for round elements and
sonable because using higher quality fill results in designs with additional thickness for strip-type elements). This is consider-
relatively thinner reinforcements, and will most likely be con- ably higher than the current AASHTO requirement of 0.82 mm
sidered in conjunction with longer design lives. For galvanized for a 50-year design life with galvanized reinforcements.
grid-type reinforcements embedded within high quality fill, the A 75-year design life is considered when high quality fill is
recommended value of φ = 0.70 is equal to or lower than most used in construction corresponding to a nominal sacrificial steel
of the values presented in Table 18, but is 0.05 higher than the requirement of 975 µm per side according to Equation (28), or
approximately 1.95 mm added to the diameter or thickness
values of 0.65 computed for W11 and W14 size wires and design
of an element. This is also higher than the current AASHTO
lives of 75 years. However, this is not considered to be a signif-
requirement of 1.42 mm for a 75-year design life with galva-
icant difference, so use of φ = 0.70 is considered to be a reason-
nized reinforcements. For both cases, calibrated resistance fac-
able representation of the results presented in Table 18.
tors of approximately 0.35 were computed considering use of
Current AASHTO specifications prescribe resistance factors
the simplified or coherent gravity methods. Design efficiency
of 0.75 for strip-type reinforcements and 0.65 for grid-type
factors for the case of plain steel reinforcements are less than
reinforcements with rigid facing units (see Chapter 1, Table 7).
half of those realized for the case of galvanized steel reinforce-
These resistance factors apply with respect to use of either the
ments (efficiency factor 0.2 compared to 0.5).
simplified or coherent gravity methods to compute reinforce-
Use of materials for reinforced fill that do not meet current
ment loads. The resistance factors recommended in Table 27 AASHTO requirements is not recommended. However, data
are similar to these in the current AASHTO specifications for exist in the literature from several sites in which special studies
walls constructed with higher quality reinforced fill materials. were conducted to access the condition and remaining service
Based on the information shown in Table 27, resistance factors life at sites where marginal quality fill was used, often inadver-
should be reduced by 0.15 for fills that meet current AASHTO tently. These data are used to assess the conservatism inherent
criteria for electrochemical parameters, but not by a very wide to existing models for computing nominal sacrificial steel
margin (i.e., good fill). Alternatively, the same resistance fac- requirements and to calibrate resistance factors for the yield
tors could be used with the understanding that the probability limit state. Marginal quality fills are described herein as hav-
of occurrence for the case of good fill conditions is greater com- ing 5 < pH < 10 and 1,000 Ω-cm < ρmin < 3,000 Ω-cm. Only
pared to when high quality fills are used in construction. the use of galvanized reinforcements and design lives (tf) less
Use of plain steel (i.e., not galvanized) reinforcements is than 50 years are considered with respect to use of marginal
not recommended. However, data on the performance of fills. The following equation is recommended for computing
plain steel reinforcements were analyzed, statistics on metal nominal sacrificial steel requirements:
loss were generated, and resistance factors for use in LRFD
were calibrated. The objectives of the study are to present dif- ⎛ μm ⎞ ⎛ μm ⎞
X⎜ ⎟ = ( t f − 10 yrs ) × 28 ⎜ (29)
ferences with respect to design with galvanized reinforce- ⎝ side ⎠ ⎝ yr side ⎟⎠
ments. Only fill materials that meet current AASHTO criteria
for electrochemical parameters were considered, however, Application of Equation (29) presumes that zinc coating
the performance of steel reinforcements depends on whether with a minimum required thickness of 86 µm per side will be
 45

consumed within 10 years, and the base steel will be consumed of Equation (27) does not apply to degradation from hydrogen
at a rate of 28 µm/yr per side thereafter. Although the zinc life embrittlement or SCC. In these cases, service lives are severely
is relatively short, the main purpose of the zinc is to mitigate compromised if the reinforcements are exposed and in contact
the development of macrocells and promote more uniform with the surrounding soil or rock mass, particularly for
corrosion. For tf of 50 years, the nominal sacrificial steel environments that are acidic or high in chlorides. Therefore,
requirement according to Equation (29) is 2.24 mm (i.e., X = high-strength steel reinforcements must be isolated from the
1120 µm/side). If Equation (29) is the basis for computing the environment via a corrosion protection system. In these cases,
nominal sacrificial steel requirements, a resistance factor of a double corrosion protection system (Class I) is recommended
0.30 is recommended for LRFD and the yield limit state. and the service life is governed by the quality and detailing
Type II reinforcements include rock bolts and ground inherent to the double corrosion protection system. Data were
anchors. Due to the fact that these reinforcements are often collected during this research from one site with high-strength
surrounded by grout or protected via a single (Class II) or dou- steel reinforcements and a double corrosion protection system.
ble (Class I) corrosion protection system, only the portions These data indicate that the corrosion protection system at this
of the assembly that are exposed and in contact with the site is intact and performing well; a grease-filled trumpet head
surrounding environment are vulnerable to corrosion. Due to is included with the anchor head assembly.
fundamental differences in the materials, installation details,
and workmanship applied to rock bolts versus ground anchors,
Recommendations for
the reliability inherent to service life estimates of these installa-
Asset Management
tions is described separately.
For rock-bolt installations, the most vulnerable locations Asset management is an important issue facing highway
are behind the bearing plate, which often includes a gap, or operations, and forecasting the needs for maintenance, retrofit,
other locations where the reinforcement is not completely or replacement of existing facilities is an important component
surrounded by grout or is otherwise left unprotected. Metal of transportation asset management (TAM). Earth-retaining
loss is a concern at these locations, and previous design guid- structures should be included in a TAM program along
ance has not directly considered metal loss in the considera- with pavements, bridges, ancillary structures, and so on, to
tion of service life. However, resistance to pullout, rather than help ensure optimal usage of limited available funding (FHWA,
rupture resistance, often controls the lock-off load for rock- 2008). Properly defining the existing inventory and the devel-
bolt installations; therefore the resistance of the reinforce- opment of a performance database are important components
ment section may not be fully mobilized at any time during of asset management. Relatively rapid, nonintrusive, and non-
the service life. Chapter 3 includes an example from a site destructive test techniques are needed to collect data necessary
where pullout resistance controls the lock-off loads and data for corrosion monitoring and condition assessment of earth-
on metal loss of Type II reinforcements, available from the lit- retaining structures. Results from condition assessment and
erature, are used to assess the resistance bias at the end of the corrosion monitoring indicate when, or if, accelerated corro-
design life. The example demonstrates that for the selected sion is occurring and can help transportation agencies decide
site, metal loss is not a significant concern for service lives less on the most appropriate course of action when subsurface con-
than 75 years. A resistance factor for the rupture limit state ditions are unfavorable and service life is uncertain. Agencies
and a 100-year design life is computed as 0.55, corresponding can also use these data to evaluate the variance associated with
to a target reliability index of 3.12 and pf ≈ 0.001. This exam- the performance of an inventory; this is valuable information
ple demonstrates how the statistics generated from metal loss for those with an interest in making reliability-based decisions.
measurements can be used to calibrate resistance factors for This report describes the framework of a performance database
LRFD of Type II reinforcements. However, the computed useful for asset management, test techniques and protocols that
resistance factor is sensitive to the lock-off load, and depends are being employed to collect performance data for earth rein-
on the sizes and steel types of the reinforcements. forcements, data interpretation, and preliminary information
If lock-off loads are controlled by rupture (rather than pull- available from data that has been collected to date.
out resistance), then sacrificial steel requirements must be con-
sidered explicitly. Equation (27) is recommended to compute
Performance Data
nominal sacrificial steel requirements. Resistance factors can
then be calibrated using the statistics describing metal loss The performance database includes thousands of mea-
measurements from Type II reinforcements cited in Chapter 3. surements of element conditions and corrosion rates from
Ground anchor systems that use high-strength steels with more than 150 sites distributed throughout the United States
GUTS in excess of 150 ksi are vulnerable to other forms of cor- and Europe. The large sample domain allows evaluation of
rosion that may include hydrogen embrittlement and SCC. Use sample statistics, distributions of element conditions and
46

corrosion rates, and corresponding probability and reliabil- Update Experience with Different
ity analyses. These issues are related to reliability of metal Reinforced Fills
loss modeling, quantification of the effect of construction
An example of the experience gained from collecting and
practice on performance, and understanding the cost bene-
analyzing data relates to the use of reinforced fills that may or
fits of using different materials. All of these are important
may not meet AASHTO specifications for electrochemical
components of asset management. For example, the data-
properties. The database was divided into two primary groups
base can be used to
including data from reinforced fill conforming to AASHTO
criteria and from reinforced fill not conforming to AASHTO
• Study the mean and variance of corrosion rates for data
criteria. The AASHTO corrosion model was applied to esti-
sets grouped according to different climate, site conditions,
mate reinforcement corrosion rates and to compare them to
and reinforced fill conditions;
measured corrosion rates. The observations below were made
• Quantify performance for marginal reinforced fills; and
from the existing database. These observations may be updated
• Evaluate the performance of different materials (e.g., steel
as more data become available.
vs. zinc, other forms of metallization, and the use of poly-
meric coatings).
• For reinforced fills conforming to AASHTO criteria, the
AASHTO corrosion model overestimates steel corrosion
These applications will lead to better estimates of service life
rates for 98% of the data. It should be noted that most of
and can help to quantity the benefits of selecting higher quality
the data in this group are associated with reinforced fills
backfill for construction or the costs associated with using mar-
that meet AASHTO requirements by a wide margin.
ginal quality fill. Performance data can also facilitate evaluation • For reinforced fills conforming to AASHTO criteria, marine
of alternative materials, including use of galvanized versus plain environments have minor to no effect on measured cor-
steel, or other corrosion protection measures that may include rosion rates of galvanized reinforcements, but marine
epoxy or polymer coatings. Practices that may lead to poor per- environments accelerate corrosion rates of plain steel
formance may also be identified and quantified, including the reinforcements.
impact that poorly maintained drainage inlets may have on • For reinforced fills that do not satisfy AASHTO criteria,
service life, or the effect of fill contamination during service. The marine environments are associated with relatively high
database needs to be continuously updated and should include corrosion rates.
performance data from sites where good practice has been • Reinforced fills that do not meet AASHTO criteria (i.e., soil
followed as well as from sites with questionable conditions. resistivity values ρ < 3,000 Ω-cm and pH values < 5) can
significantly affect steel corrosion rates, which tend to dra-
Maintenance, Rehabilitation, matically increase beyond rates estimated by the AASHTO
and Replacement corrosion model.
• Based on available data, organics content, chlorides, sul-
Issues that can address future needs for maintenance, reha- fates, and relatively high values of pH have much less effect
bilitation, retrofit, or replacement include on measured corrosion than do relatively low resistivity
and low pH.
• Spatial variations of element condition and corrosion rate • Review of the latest research information confirms the safety
(e.g., top vs. bottom of wall), of the electrochemical requirements for fill and associated
• Special areas that may deserve increased maintenance (e.g., metal loss rates in the current AASHTO standards.
in proximity to drainage inlets), and
• Effects of different climates, use of deicing agents, and so
forth.
Recommendations for
Future Research
Improved knowledge of spatial variations and special prob- NCHRP Project 24-28 assessed and improved the predictive
lems can lead to improved allocation of resources. For exam- capabilities of existing computational models for corrosion
ple, in some cases, extended service life may be best achieved potential, metal loss, and service life of metal-reinforced systems
by retrofitting areas surrounding drainage inlets, or the ben- used in retaining walls and highway cuts and fills. Methodology
efits of improved maintenance of drainage inlets may be real- was developed that incorporates the improved predictive mod-
ized in terms of increased service life. In areas where deicing els into an LRFD approach for the design of metal-reinforced
salts are used, corrosion monitoring can demonstrate the need systems. Recommended additions and revisions were prepared
to maintain pavements, improve drainage, or install and to incorporate the improved models and methodology in the
maintain impervious barriers. AASHTO (2009) LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.
 47

Additional research is recommended to further validate Further research could also be pursued to further demon-
the predictive models for corrosion potential, metal loss, and strate applications of performance data. In particular, if the
service life of metal-reinforced systems from Project 24-28. need for rehabilitation or retrofit is identified, cost-effective
The validation will require measurements at an independent methods for rehabilitation and retrofit should be selected.
set of field sites across the United States, supplemented with Guidance will target improvements to areas where they are
results from laboratory measurements. Field sites should most needed, which may be close to sources of fill contam-
include rock-bolt installations and MSE walls. Testing of the ination or otherwise based on the spatial distribution of
metal-reinforced systems at each field site will require both corrosion or loss of service observed at a particular site. A
(1) NDT techniques (e.g., ultrasonic testing, sonic echo, well-maintained and populated database will facilitate devel-
impulse response, and electrochemical testing) and (2) direct opment of site-specific guidance based on the experiences
measurement after exhumation of in situ reinforcements or that have been documented from other sites. Guidance needs
installation of dummy elements by state DOTs or other agen- to be developed for sampling and evaluating backfill and per-
cies. The direct measurements will validate the NDT methods formance of in-service reinforcements. The recommended
as well as the predictive models based upon these methods. sampling is likely a hybrid between stratified and random
sampling. Representative sample locations are stratified with
respect to the vertical direction and stations are randomly
Type I Reinforcements
located along the length of the wall. A cluster of measure-
The following objectives apply to Type I reinforcements ments at each sample point should be averaged to render the
and the need for data to validate the performance models and corrosion rate at that location.
address limitations inherent to the database compiled as part The sensitivity of designs generated from the recommen-
of NCHRP Project 24-28: dations provided in the report need to be evaluated. Typical
designs should be executed using recommended resistance
• Evaluate effect of marginal fills on performance and service factors for LRFD considering use of galvanized or plain steel
life, reinforcements and various fill materials (i.e., high quality,
• Study bias inherent to LPR measurements of corrosion rate, good, and marginal). In this way the impact of these factors
and on design parameters, including the size and spacing of rein-
• Assess the corrosion rate of steel after zinc has been con- forcements, can be evaluated.
sumed from galvanized elements.
Type II Reinforcements
To accomplish these objectives:
The following objectives apply to Type II reinforcements
1. Develop a relationship between fill resistance (measured and the need to (1) substantiate use of electrochemical test
as part of the LPR test) and fill resistivity. This relationship techniques for corrosion monitoring and integrity testing of
depends upon the geometries of the test electrodes, elec- corrosion protection systems and (2) extract more information
trode spacing, fill characteristics, and method of measur- on existing conditions from the results of dynamic testing (e.g.,
ing fill resistance. If this relationship can be established, it sonic echo and impulse response). More data from sites with
will then be possible to develop much better correlations double corrosion protection systems are required to generate
between measured corrosion rates and the electrochemi- statistics describing the reliability of these installations.
cal properties of the fill.
2. Compare measurements of corrosion rates with direct • Study application of corrosion monitoring with LPR tech-
observations of metal loss from reinforcements that have niques. Seek measurements and observations that can char-
been exhumed subsequent to LPR measurements. These acterize the surface area in contact with the surrounding
data will be very useful, particularly to relate loss of tensile earth material, and knowledge of the influence of grout
strength to LPR measurements, as loss of strength is often and other components of the corrosion protection system.
from metal loss that has occurred over localized areas. • Refine data analysis techniques for dynamic tests (wave
3. Collect data from sites with galvanized reinforcements propagation techniques). Verify results obtained with these
where base steel is corroding after zinc has been consumed. techniques, and evaluate the limitations of these NDTs for
Different assumptions regarding corrosion of the base steel probing earth reinforcements.
have a significant impact on resistance factor calibrations • Collect more data to document the performance of corro-
for LRFD. sion protection systems.
48

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Academies, Washington, D.C., pp. 49–59. dards, Circular 579, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington,
Gong, J., Jayawickrama, P., and Tinkey, Y., 2005, Nondestructive Evalu- D.C.
ation of Installed Soil Nails, Transportation Research Record: Journal Rossi, J. P., 1996, The Corrosion Behavior of Galvanized Steel in Mechani-
of the Transportation Research Board, No. 1796, Transportation cally Stabilized Earth Structures, MS Thesis, Department of Civil and
Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C. Environmental Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa.
Hearn, G., Abu-Hejleh, N., and Koucherik, J., 2004, Inventory System for Sabatini, P. J., Pass, D. G., and Bachus, R. C., 1999, Ground Anchors
Retaining Walls and Sound Barriers, Transportation Research Record: and Anchored Systems, Geotechnical Engineering Circular No. 4,
Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 1866, Transporta- Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transporta-
tion Research Board of the National Academies, pp. 85–96. tion, Washington, D.C.
50

Sagues, A. A., Rossi, J., Scott, R. J., Pena, J. A., and Simmons, T., 1998. Structures, Edited by G. S. Littlejohn, Thomas Telford, London,
Influence of Corrosive Inundation on the Corrosion Rates of Galva- England, pp. 481–491.
nized Tie Straps in Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls, Final Report Wheeler, J. J., 1999, NYSDOT, MSES Corrosion Evaluation Program,
WPI0510686, Florida Department of Transportation Research End of the Year Report for 1998, NYSDOT Geotechnical Engineering
Center, Tallahassee. Bureau, Albany, New York.
Sagues, A. A., Scott, R., Rossi, J., Pena, J. A., and Powers, R., 2000, Corro- Wheeler, J. J., 2000, NYSDOT, MSES Corrosion Evaluation Program, End
sion of Galvanized Strips in Florida Reinforced Earth Walls, Journal of the Year Report for 1999, NYSDOT Geotechnical Engineering
of Materials in Civil Engineering, ASCE, Reston, Virginia. Bureau, Albany, New York.
Smith, A., Jailloux, J. M., and Segrestin, P., 1996, Durability of Galva- Wheeler, J. J., 2001, NYSDOT, MSES Corrosion Evaluation Program,
nized Steel Reinforcements as a Function of their Shape, Earth Rein- End of the Year Report for 2000, NYSDOT Geotechnical Engineering
forcement, Ochiai, Yasufuku, and Omine, eds., Balkema, Rotterdam, Bureau, Albany, New York.
pp. 55–60. Wheeler, J. J., 2002(a), New York’s Mechanically Stabilized Earth Cor-
Stern, M., and Geary, A. L., 1957, Electrochemical Polarization, Journal rosion Evaluation Program, Presented at 81st Annual Meeting of
of the Electrochemical Society, 104(1), p. 56. the Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C.
Task Force 27—AASHTO-AGC-ARBTA, 1990, Ground Modification Wheeler, J. J., 2002(b), NYSDOT, MSES Corrosion Evaluation Program,
Techniques for Transportation Applications. End of the Year Report for 2001, NYSDOT Geotechnical Engineering
Terre Armée Internationale (TAI), 1977, Durability of Reinforcing Strips, Bureau, Albany, New York.
Report R50, Paris, France. Withiam, J. L., Voytko, E. P., Barker, R. M., Duncan, J. M., Kelly, B. C.,
Timmerman, D. H., 1990, Evaluation of Mechanically Stabilized Embank- Musser, S. C., and Elias, V., 1998, Load and Resistance Factor Design
ments as Support for Bridge Structures, Interim Research Report, (LRFD) for Highway Bridge Substructures, FHWA HI-98-032, Fed-
Ohio Department of Transportation. eral Highway Administration, Washington, D.C.
USACOE, 1980, Engineering and Design of Rock Reinforcement, EM Withiam, J. L., Fishman, K. L., and Gaus, M. P., 2002, NCHRP Report 477:
1110-1-2907, Department of the Army Corps of Engineers, Office Recommended Practice for Evaluation of Metal-Tensioned Systems in
of the Chief of Engineers, Washington, D.C. Geotechnical Applications, TRB, National Research Council, Wash-
Vardeman, S. B., 1994, Statistics for Engineering Problem Solving, PES ington, D.C., 93 p.
Publishing Co., Boston, Massachusetts, 712 p. Whiting, D., 1986, Corrosion Susceptibility of Reinforced Earth Systems:
Weatherby, D. E., 1982, Tiebacks, FHWA/RD-82/047, NTIS, Springfield, Field Surveys, Corrosion Effect of Stray Currents and the Techniques
Virginia. for Evaluating Corrosion of Rebars in Concrete, ASTM STP 906, V.
Weerasinghe, R. B., and Adams, D., 1997, A Technical Review of Rock Chaker, ed., American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadel-
Anchorage Practice 1976-1996, Ground Anchorages and Anchored phia, pp. 64–77.
 51

APPENDIX A

Details of Metal Loss Models

This appendix describes the history and pertinent details of Darbin/Romanoff Model
metal loss models that have been proposed for estimating sac-
rificial steel requirements for MSE reinforcements. Most state Romanoff (1957) describes 47 years of data collected by
highway agencies use some form of the AASHTO specifica- the U.S. National Bureau of Standards (NBS) from extensive
monitoring of metal samples buried in situ. In general, the
tions for the design of MSE walls. Therefore, the AASHTO
corrosion rate was observed to be greatest during the first few
metal loss model is used in this study to compute nominal
years of burial, subsequently decaying to a steady but signifi-
sacrificial steel requirements that serve as a basis for calibra-
cantly lower rate. Romanoff suggested the following expo-
tion of resistance factors for LRFD. This appendix will describe
nential equation to predict the amount of general corrosion
earlier metal loss models and corresponding data sources
at some time (t) after burial:
leading to the development and adoption of the AASHTO
model. These models include the Darbin/Romanoff Models
x = Kt n (A-1)
and the Stuttgart Model.
Galvanized steel reinforcements are most often employed
In Equation (A-1) x is the loss of thickness in the material at
for the construction of MSE walls, particularly with respect to
time, t, and K and n are parameters that are soil and site depend-
transportation-related projects. However, the behavior of ent. In Equation (A-1) lower case “x” describes metal loss that
plain steel is also of interest, as this is compared or related to may include zinc and steel for galvanized elements. Capital “X”
the loss of steel after the zinc is depleted from the surface. Fur- is used for other metal loss equations in this appendix to denote
thermore, the AASHTO metal loss model only considers the loss of steel subsequent to depletion of zinc.
use of galvanized reinforcements, and other models need to Comprehensive as it was, less than 10% of those data from
be identified to consider the behavior of plain steel (i.e., not the NBS study came from free-draining granular soils such as
galvanized). those used in MSE walls, and even less of these data came from
Metal loss models used to estimate sacrificial steel require- galvanized steels. Darbin et al. (1988) addressed this shortcom-
ments for MSE are empirical, and therefore it is important ing during a 20-year study not only to evaluate the corrosion
to describe the data sources considered in their develop- of metallic earth reinforcements in typical MSE wall backfill,
ment. Although fill characteristics are important consider- but also to identify the soil parameters that determine the
ations, these models do not explicitly relate fill characteristics kinetics of the corrosion process. Using the form of Equation
in terms of their electrochemical properties to corrosion (A-1), Darbin et al. (1988) proposed that metal loss of galva-
rates. In general, the models consider the effects of time on nized steel could be described with a constant exponent “n”
corrosion rates and apply to particular ranges of fill char- equal to 0.65, and coefficient “K” depending on soil aggressive-
acteristics. Care must be exercised when using these mod- ness (K = 25 μm/year for soils with resistivity ρ ≥ 1,000 Ω-cm
els to be sure that fill materials have electrochemical and K = 20 μm/year for soils with ρ ≥ 3,000 Ω-cm).
properties within the range for which the models are Maximum corrosion rates and loss of reinforcement ten-
intended. Metal loss models that may be applied to fill sile strength from corrosion may be estimated by multiplying
materials, that do not necessarily meet AASHTO require- the general corrosion rate obtained from Equation (A-1) by
ments, are also identified. a factor of 2 (Elias, 1990). This factor is applied to the metal
52

loss of base steel subsequent to depletion of zinc from the sur- zinc consumption is greatest during the first 2 to 4 years, fol-
face. Thus, a factor of 2 is applied to the Darbin Model to con- lowed by a significantly reduced rate. Therefore, the reduced
sider strength loss as follows: rate considers passivation of zinc that occurs in backfill soils
typical of MSE wall construction. Steel consumption is con-
for galvanized elements: sidered to begin after the zinc layer is consumed, but at a rate
observed from samples of plain steel appropriate to the age of
1.54
⎛z ⎞ ⎛ μm ⎞ 0.65 the reinforcements (i.e., rate of corrosion for steel that has
if t f > ⎜ i ⎟ then X ( μm ) = 50 ⎜ × t f ( yr )
⎝ 25 ⎠ ⎝ yr ⎟⎠ been in service for more than 2 years). This model was the
basis for the sacrificial steel requirements for galvanized rein-
− 2 × z i ( μm ) (A-2) forcements recommended by Task Force 27 (1990); AASHTO
1.54 (2002a) later adopted a different, more conservative, piece-
⎛z ⎞
if t f ≤ ⎜ i ⎟ then X ( μm ) = 0 wise linear model as described later in this appendix.
⎝ 25 ⎠
Metal loss models are proposed considering galvanized or
In Equation (A-2), X is loss of steel (base metal) in units of plain steel reinforcements and fill materials with low and high
μm, and tf is service life in years. Loss of base steel occurs sub- salt contents. Low salt contents are described as materials
sequent to depletion of the zinc coating, and zi is the initial with 4.5<pH<9.5, ρ > 1,000 Ω-cm, chloride content less than
zinc thickness. Equation (A-2) is applicable to the range of fill 50 ppm, and sulfate content less than 200 ppm. For this con-
conditions representative of MSE wall construction that dition, the Stuttgart model is as follows:
exhibit ρmin greater than 1,000 Ω-cm.
Elias (1990) proposed the following model for plain steel for galvanized elements:
reinforcements which also has the same form as the original ⎛ ⎞
equation proposed by Romanoff [Eq. (A-1)]: μm ⎜ ( zi − 12μm ) ⎟
X ( μm ) = 9 × ⎜ t f − 2 yr − ⎟ yr (A-4)
yr ⎜ μm ⎟
μm 0.8 2
X ( μm ) = 80 × tf (A-3) ⎝ yr ⎠
yr
for plain steel elements:
Data reviewed for Equation (A-3) are based on the NBS data
set for plain steel and include a wide range of fill conditions, μm μm
X ( μm ) = 45 × 2 yr + ( t f − 2 yr ) × 9 (A-5)
many not meeting the stringent electrochemical requirements yr yr
for MSE fills. However, given the scatter inherent to measure-
ments of fill properties and corrosion rates for plain steel, For fill materials that are saturated with chloride or sul-
Equation (A-3) is used as a conservative estimate of metal loss fate concentrations greater than the threshold values, the
in fills that meet MSE fill requirements, but not by a wide mar- Stuttgart model is as follows:
gin. Equation (A-3) also includes a factor of 2 to consider the
maximum metal loss. for galvanized elements:
Although corrosion rates for both galvanized steel and car-
⎛ ⎞
bon steel clearly vary exponentially with respect to time, sim-
μm ⎜ ( zi − 51μm ) ⎟
ple models involving linear extrapolation have been proposed X ( μm ) = 12 × ⎜ t f − 3 yr − ⎟ yr (A-6)
and are considered valid (Elias, 1990) over the limited time yr ⎜ μm ⎟
2
frame from which metal loss measurements of earth re- ⎝ yr ⎠
inforcements were available (<20 years). Given this limited
time frame, most observations of metal loss for galvanized for plain steel:
reinforcements are observations of the loss of the zinc coating,
μm μm
not the carbon steel (i.e., steel was not exposed during the X ( μm ) = 80 × 2 yr + ( t f − 2 yr ) × 12 (A-7)
monitoring period). The following models, including the yr yr
Stuttgart, Caltrans, and AASHTO models, are linearized forms
of the Romanoff/Darbin equation.
AASHTO Model
Stuttgart Model According to AASHTO, MSE fill must comply with the fol-
lowing electrochemical criteria:
Rehm (1980) proposed an alternative piecewise linear
model for describing metal loss. The longevity of the zinc coat- • pH = 5 to 10
ing is considered using a bilinear model such that the rate of • Resistivity ≥ 3,000 Ω-cm,
 53

Table A-1. Summary of data sources for metal loss models for MSE reinforcements.

MODEL DATA SOURCE MAXIMUM

Stuttgart NBS NO
Darbin Controlled conditions - YES
electrochemical test specimens &
samples buried in soil box

AASHTO Stuttgart & Darbin YES

• Chlorides ≤ 100 ppm, that could be related to metal loss, and corresponding corro-
• Sulfates ≤ 200 ppm, and sion rates averaged over longer time intervals.
• Organic content ≤ 1%. Thus,theAASHTOmodelconsiders a variety of data sources,
each with its own set of strengths and limitations. However,
The fill requirements are intended to control corrosion results from these different data sources compare reasonably
potential with fills that are between noncorrosive and “mildly” well. The outstanding limitations of each data source involve
corrosive. The AASHTO metal loss model defines the follow- a lack of data to document the corrosion/metal loss of the base
ing rates at which first zinc, then steel, will be lost from the steel subsequent to depletion of zinc from the surface. Thus,
MSE reinforcement section: similar to the Stuttgart model, the AASHTO model considers
steel consumption to begin after the zinc layer is consumed,
• Loss of zinc (first 2 years): 15 μm/yr; but at a rate observed from samples of plain steel appropriate
• Loss of zinc (to depletion): 4 μm/yr; and to the age of the reinforcements.
• Loss of steel (after zinc depletion): 12 μm/yr. Figure A-1 illustrates the comparison between the Stuttgart
and AASHTO models. The corrosion rates for the zinc coating
Using the AASHTO Model the steel loss per side (X) in during the first 2 years of service and for steel subsequent to
μm/yr for a given service life, tf, and initial thickness of zinc depletion of zinc roughly correspond to the Stuttgart model
coating, zi, is computed as that applies to higher salt contents (e.g., chlorides in excess of
⎛ ⎞ 50 ppm). However, the corrosion rate for zinc after 2 years in
μm ⎜ ( zi − 30μm ) ⎟ service of 4 μm/year is twice the value of 2 μm/year from the
X ( μm ) = 12 × ⎜ t f − 2 yr − ⎟ yr (A-8) Stuttgart Model. The rationale for the use of the higher corro-
yr ⎜ μm ⎟
4 sion rate may be understood by examining the comparison
⎝ yr ⎠
with the Darbin model as depicted in Table A-2.

Both the Darbin/Romanoff and the Stuttgart Models con-

tribute to the basis of the AASHTO Model. Table A-1 identi- STUTTGART
fies sources of data associated with each. These data sources
ZINC
include the NBS studies from metal samples that were buried
within a wide range of fill conditions at sites located through- CR = 17 μm/yr for t < 3
out the United States; and from carefully controlled labora-
CR = 2 μm/yr for t > 3
tory tests conducted in France, specifically with regards to AASHTO
MSE reinforcements. Laboratory studies included electro-
chemical test cells and burial boxes. The electrochemical test CR = 15 μm/yr for t < 2
cells were assembled using relatively small (compared to bur-
CR = 4 μm/yr for 2 < t < 16 ? Factor of 2 ??
ial boxes) plastic tubes containing specimens of reinforce-
ment surrounded by soil. Electrodes were sealed into the ends CR = 12 μm/yr for t >16 PLAIN STEEL
of the tubes, serving as reference and counter electrodes, to
CR = 80 μm/yr for t < 2
facilitate measurements of corrosion rates at frequent inter-
with zi = 86 μm
vals. Compared to the electrochemical test cells, burial boxes CR = 12 μm/yr for t > 2
incorporated representative specimens of MSE reinforce-
ments and conditions that more closely resemble field instal- Figure A-1. Comparison of AASHTO and Stuttgart
lations. The burial boxes employed weight loss measurements Models.
54

Table A-2. Comparison of AASHTO and Darbin models.

Darbin Model X (μm) = 50t0.65 - 2 (zi) (Includes Factor of 2)

AASHTO Model X (μm) = (t-C) x 12 (μm/yr) (C= 16 years with zi = 86 μm)

Computed Metal Loss X (μm)
t (yrs) DARBIN AASHTO
50 464 408
64 574 576
75 655 708
100 825 1,008

Table A-2 indicates that metal losses computed with the specifications used by Caltrans (2009) do not allow use of
AASHTO model compare reasonably well with the Darbin reinforced fill with minimum resistivity less than 2000 Ω-cm.
model. The differences depend on time (service life), and The steel loss, X, for design life, tf, is described by the Caltrans
the two models render nearly the same metal loss when t = interim model as:
64 years. Apparently, using a higher corrosion rate for zinc
μm
of 4 μm/year renders metal loss consistent with the Darbin X ( μm ) = ( t f − C ( yrs )) × K (A-9)
model, which directly considers applying a factor of 2 yr
to consider maximum metal loss. Note that although the
AASHTO specifications require fill with ρ > 3,000 Ω-cm, the where C is the time for zinc depletion (years) assuming an ini-
basis of the models (both Stuttgart and Darbin) are referred tial zinc thickness of 86 μm and K (μm/yr) is the corrosion
to fill with ρ > 1,000 Ω-cm. Thus, the AASHTO model and rate of the base steel. Table A-3 provides values for C and K
corresponding specifications for fill are conservative. as functions of fill conditions.
Current specifications used by Caltrans (2009) do not
allow use of reinforced fill with minimum resistivity less than
Caltrans-Interim Design Guide
2,000 Ω-cm. Specifically, the current Caltrans specification
Based on the results from limited field studies, Caltrans allows for backfill with a resistivity greater than 2,000 Ω-cm, a
(Jackura et al., 1987) has proposed design guidance for a wider pH between 5.5 and 10, and maximum chloride and sulfate
range of reinforced fill conditions than those considered by concentrations of 250 ppm and 500 ppm, respectively. Califor-
AASHTO. Higher rates of metal loss are specified for comput- nia considers these conditions by using a higher rate of metal
ing sacrificial steel requirements when reinforced fills that are loss in determining sacrificial steel and reducing the design life
more aggressive relative to corrosion are considered during of the MSE wall to 50 years. Caltrans assumes that the zinc
design. These metal loss rates are based on limited data col- coating provides 10 years of service life for the specified mini-
lected from MSE wall sites in California (Jackura et al., 1987), mum coating thickness of 2 oz/ft2 (86 μm per side). This is less
and use data available from the earlier NBS studies. Interim than the 16 years of zinc life inherent to the AASHTO metal
design guidance considered fill properties that include mini- loss model. A corrosion rate of 1.10 mils/yr (28 μm/yr) is con-
mum resistivity more than 1,000 Ω-cm. However, current sidered to affect the base steel after the zinc has been consumed

Table A-3. Summary of parameters for Caltrans-Interim

guidelines (Jackura et al., 1987).

K C
Fill Type
(␮m/yr) (years)
Neutral & Alkaline 28 10
Acidic 33 10
Corrosive 71 6
Select Granular 13 30
Notes: Neutral and alkaline: minimum resistivity > 1,000 Ω-cm and pH > 7.
Acidic: minimum resistivity > 1,000 Ω-cm and pH < 7.
Corrosive: minimum resistivity < 1,000 Ω-cm.
Select granular soils are clean, free draining gravels with less than 5% fines and
minimum resistivity > 1,000 Ω-cm.
 55

and used to compute the sacrificial steel requirements. These fines and with plasticity index (PI) <6. Caltrans reduces the
corrosion rates account for the potential for localized corro- steel corrosion rate to 13 μm/yr for backfill meeting addi-
sion and pitting; that is, a factor of 2 relating the loss of tensile tional requirements for select granular fill. For select granu-
strength to idealized uniform corrosion rates is included. lar fill, lower resistivity and higher salt concentrations are
Caltrans specifications provide incentives to use select allowed, but the allowable fines content is less compared to
granular fill, which is a better quality fill with less than 5% current AASHTO requirements.
56

APPENDIX B

Test Protocols

Proper implementation of test procedures and interpreta- length and geometry of the wall. As a rule of thumb, two loca-
tion of results from condition assessment require information tions spaced at least 200 ft (60 m) apart should be considered
on reinforcement type and geometry, as well as backfill and site for mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) structures 800 ft
conditions. The subsurface environment surrounding the (250 m) or less in length and three locations for longer struc-
elements must be characterized in terms of soil or rock types, tures. At each location, corrosion should be monitored at a
moisture conditions, presence of organics, and electrochemi- minimum of two depths from the surface, or preferably, at
cal parameters known to contribute to corrosiveness. Installa- depth intervals of 10 to 13 ft (3 to 4 m) because differences in
tion details include reinforcement type, metal type, and degree oxygen content, moisture content, and salt concentration can
of corrosion protection. Quantitative guidelines are available produce different corrosion behavior. One critical location
for assessing the potential aggression posed by an underground (center of structure) should be selected for establishing test
environment relative to corrosion (FHWA, 1993). Generally, locations at both shallow and deep positions. Higher oxygen
moisture content, chloride and sulfate ion concentration, and salt content are anticipated near the surface, and higher
resistivity and pH are identified as the factors that most affect moisture contents or free water near the base of a structure.
corrosion potential of metals underground. Details for collect- Prior field programs have indicated that where groundwater
ing, testing, and evaluating soil and groundwater samples are intrudes at the base of the structure, higher corrosion rates
described in the recommended practices prepared by Withiam should be anticipated. Where this condition is not likely, repre-
et al. (2002) and Elias et al. (2009). In what follows sampling sentative estimates may be obtained from shallow-depth mon-
and testing protocols for condition assessment and corrosion itoring. The shallow-depth stations should be approximately
monitoring reinforcements are described. 5 ft (1.5 m) in depth, and the deep position should be approxi-
mately at one-fourth of the structure height from base level.
Each monitoring station incorporates two to three sam-
Sampling
pling points generally located near the base, middle, and top
Selected sites for evaluating the overall performance of of the walls. Sampling points include at least two reinforce-
earth reinforcements should encompass different reinforce- ments wired for monitoring, one steel coupon, one galvanized
ment types, loading, environmental and drainage conditions, coupon, possibly a zinc coupon, and an access hole for place-
backfill, and in-situ soil or rock characteristics representative ment of a reference electrode in contact with the wall fill. Spe-
of installations and construction practices that have been cial C-clamps are used to facilitate electrical connection and
used within the United States over the past 30 to 40 years. wiring to existing in-service reinforcements. Soldered con-
Sampling protocols are described for both Type I and Type II nections are preferred for new installations. Photographs 1-8
reinforcements. in Figure B-1, depict installation of a typical corrosion mon-
itoring station for in-service reinforcements.
Ideally, three types of coupons should be placed at each
Type I Reinforcements (MSE)
location and depth; zinc, steel, and galvanized. In the case of
In general, approximately 20 to 30 in-service reinforcements, galvanized reinforcements both plain steel and galvanized
and 20 to 30 coupons should be monitored at each site. These coupons, and in some instances pure zinc coupons are installed.
elements are distributed amongst three or four monitoring sta- For monitoring, it is desirable to have one-zinc, one-steel, and
tions. The number of monitoring stations depends on the up to four galvanized coupons at each depth. The multiple
 57

1. Coring hole through precast panel to 2. Access holes advanced at station

access backfill and soil reinforcements

3. Galvanized coupons prepared for 4. C-clamps for wiring reinforcements

installation

5. C-clamp attached to reinforcement 6. C-clamp connection sealed with epoxy

Figure B-1. Typical installation of a corrosion monitoring station.
(continued on next page)
58

7. Station with junction box 8. Typical junction box

Figure B-1. (Continued).

galvanized coupons can provide opportunities for periodic nized coupons are not installed). Details of the practices from
removal. Coupons each have two leads to provide backup in California and North Carolina are described in Appendix C.
case one connection fails. Coupons are made from the same
or similar material as the in-service reinforcements and are Type II Reinforcements
placed within the wall fill to provide baseline measurements
during monitoring. Nondestructive testing (NDT) and condition assessment
In general, more monitoring locations should be established requires a sampling strategy whereby the appropriate sample
for structures where poor performance is anticipated or known size is selected to provide a statistical basis for the test results.
to exist (Withiam et al, 2002; Hegazy et al, 2003). Particular Withiam et al. (2002) and Hegazy et al. (2003) describe a sim-
attention should be given to monitoring near drainage inlets plified sampling criteria based on the probability that the sam-
or other areas that may be subject to fluctuations in moisture pled population will represent conditions throughout the site.
content, high moisture content, or inundation. However, mon- The recommended sample size is based upon the total num-
itoring at locations with “normal” conditions is still necessary ber of elements at the site, the importance of the facility rela-
to serve as a baseline and to ensure that the sample statistics tive to the consequences of failure, and a reference, or baseline,
are not skewed. condition for comparison to observations. Generally, for a
Practices vary among state departments of transportation population consisting of 10 to 200 metal-tensioned elements,
(DOTs) and not all establish corrosion monitoring stations in between 10 and 40 randomly distributed samples are required.
the same manner including all the details as described in the
section. In particular, Caltrans installs a cluster of 18 inspec- Corrosion Monitoring and
tion rods in a grid pattern that includes six columns and three Condition Assessment
rows. The inspection rods are spaced at 10-foot intervals ver-
tically and are approximately 25 feet apart in the lateral direc- Type I Reinforcements
tion. The inspection rods are made from the same material as Visual Observations
the in-service reinforcements. In North Carolina, often only a
single monitoring point is established near the base of the wall Visual observations can be made on the exposed portions
that includes between two and four in-service reinforcement of the earth reinforcements, and readings of half-cell potential
wires for monitoring and zinc and steel coupons (i.e., galva- and corrosion rate are collected from in-service reinforcements
 59

that are wired for monitoring, and from coupons installed working, counter, and reference electrodes. The working elec-
within the wall fill. For older walls that are retrofitted for cor- trode is the reinforcement being monitored and a nearby rein-
rosion monitoring, the condition of the reinforcing strips near forcement is used as a counter electrode. The potential at the
the tie-strip may be observed where they are connected to the interface of the working electrode is controlled through current
precast concrete wall-facing after advancing the access holes impressed between the working and counter electrodes. A CSE
and exposing the reinforcements. For walls where core holes serves as a reference electrode to monitor the changing poten-
are not advanced through the wall face, reinforcements may tial of the working electrode. The measured resistance, PR′, is
be examined from shallow excavations near the surface along actually the sum of the interface and soil resistance (PR′ = PR +
the top of the wall. Rs) and a correction for soil resistance is often necessary.
The LPR uses polarization resistance measurements to esti-
Half-Cell Potential Measurement mate the corrosion rate at an instant in time. The measure-
ment represents an average of the corrosion occurring over
The half-cell potential, Ecorr, is the difference in potential the surface area of the test element. LPR measurements are
between the metal element and a reference electrode. Equip- made with the FHWA PR Monitor supplied by CC Technolo-
ment required for performing measurement of half-cell poten- gies (Model # PR 4500) following the protocol described by
tial includes a half cell, a high impedance voltmeter, and a set of Elias (1990) and Berkovitz and Healy (1997). A few parame-
lead wires. A copper/copper sulfate reference electrode (CSE) ters, including an environmental constant, the surface area
was used for this study. Lead wires are attached to the end of the of the test element, and the density and valence of the metal
test element and the half cell. The lead from the half-cell is con- species must be known, or assumed, to relate the measured
nected to the negative terminal of the voltmeter, and the test polarization resistance to corrosion rate. Also, the measured
element lead is connected to the positive terminal. Results from polarization resistance is corrected for uncompensated soil
the test can provide a comparison between metallic elements at resistance inherent to testing within the underground envi-
different locations at the same site, as well as identify the pres- ronment. The PR Monitor measures the soil resistance (Rs)
ence of different metals, (e.g., zinc or iron). Half-cell potentials via the AC impedance technique and subtracts this from the
may be correlated with zinc loss and used to monitor the con- total polarization resistance to render the corrected polariza-
dition of galvanized reinforcements. Coupons or dummy tion resistance. The soil resistance is a function of the specific
reinforcements assist in interpretation of half-cell potential resistance (ρ), which is related to wall fill properties includ-
measurements. Plain steel, galvanized steel, and zinc coupons ing moisture and salt content, as well as the geometry of the
may provide baseline measurements for comparison. system, including the surface area of the reinforcement and
Half-cell potentials are useful to assess the condition along the distance between the reinforcement and the reference cell.
the surface of the reinforcements/coupons. Half-cell poten- LPR measurements represent the corrosion rate at the instant
tials are affected by the environment, including soil moisture of measurement. Corrosion rates may vary, and measurements
and salt content, as well as by conditions on the surface of the with respect to time are needed. Thus, initial measurements are
test element, including the presence of a passive film layer and often taken after installation of corrosion monitoring stations,
metal oxides. Therefore, care should be taken when interpret- followed by measurements at 6-month intervals and thereafter
ing measurements to identify when effects other than corrosion for a 2-year duration, and then measurements at 5- or 10-year
or presence of zinc on the surface are affecting measurements intervals.
of half-cell potential. Multiple measurements of half-cell poten-
tial are necessary (i.e., numerous samples) and reference val- Type II Reinforcements
ues for steel and zinc potentials need to be obtained under
site-specific conditions (i.e., nominal values for zinc and steel Details of the recommended practice for condition assess-
potentials may not reflect site conditions). ment of Type II reinforcements are described in Withiam et al.
(2002) and Fishman et al. (2005). In general, the protocol is
Linear Polarization Resistance described as follows:

Linear polarization resistance (LPR) measurements are used • Collect preliminary information including installation
to observe instantaneous corrosion rates. Lawson et al. (1993), details and site conditions.
Elias et al. (2009), and Berkovitz and Healy (1997) describe the • Identify appropriate mathematical models of service life
application of the LPR technique to MSE reinforcements. and use these models to estimate metal loss from corrosion
Polarization resistance measurements require an instrument to and remaining service life.
generate a plot of potential versus applied current (E versus • Probe the elements with nondestructive tests, supplemented
iapp) for a range of approximately E ± 20 mV relative to the free with invasive testing as appropriate, to assess the existing con-
corrosion potential of the reinforcement being monitored. dition of selected elements comprising the metal-tensioned
Three electrodes are required to perform the test including system.
60

• Compare results of the condition assessment to expecta- section. For this test method, the specimen is impacted using
tions based on site conditions and estimated metal loss. a hammer or ball device, which generates elastic compression
• Recommend an action plan based on results from the con- waves with relatively low frequency content. Equipment
dition assessment. required for the impact echo test method includes an impact
device, an accelerometer, velocity or displacement transducer
Installation details have an effect on the vulnerability of the for measuring the specimen response, and a data acquisition
system to corrosion and on our ability to probe the elements system. Components of the test are connected with standard
and interpret data from NDT. Relevant details include steel coaxial cables and Bayonet Neill-Concelman (BNC) connec-
type, corrosion protection measures, drill hole dimensions, tors. Generally, an accelerometer is attached to the free end of
bond length, free length, total length, date of installation, the element and the impact is also applied to the free end.
level of prestress, grout type, and use of couplings. If the sys-
tem is protected with an adequate, well constructed corrosion Ultrasonic Test
protection system [e.g., meeting the requirements of PTI
Class I (PTI, 2004)], then corrosion has not been found to be The ultrasonic test method is a good technique for evaluat-
a problem. However, construction details, element durabil- ing grout condition, fracture of elements, and abrupt changes
ity, and workmanship associated with the corrosion protec- in the element cross section. The method has many of the fea-
tion system may affect the service life. tures of the sonic echo technique except that the transmitted
Nondestructive test techniques are used to probe the ele- signal contains relatively higher frequencies. Ultrasonic waves
ments, and the results are analyzed for condition assessment. are radiated when an ultrasonic transducer applies periodic
Four NDTs are commonly applied for condition assessment strains on the surface of the test object that propagate as stress
including measurement of half-cell potential, polarization waves. Compression waves consisting of alternating regions of
current, impact, and ultrasonic testing. Half-cell potential compression and dilatation propagate along the axial direc-
and polarization measurements are electrochemical tests and tion of a rock bolt. Equipment required for the test includes a
the impact and ultrasonic techniques are mechanical tests pulse source/receiver unit, an ultrasonic transducer, and a
involving observations of wave propagation. In general, these data acquisition system.
NDTs are useful indicators of the following aspects of the The ultrasonic transducer is acoustically coupled to the
condition assessment: exposed end of the anchor rod. Grease is used as an acoustic
couplant. The time taken for sound pulses, generated at reg-
• Half-cell potential tests serve as an indicator of corrosion ular intervals, to pass through the specimen and return, is
activity. measured. Return pulses may be either from a single reflec-
• Results from the polarization test are correlated with the sur- tion at a discontinuity or from multiple reflections between a
face area of steel that may be in contact with the surround- discontinuity and the end of the specimen. The patterns of
ing rock mass (i.e., indicator of grout quality and degree of the received pulses can provide valuable information about
corrosion protection) and may be used to estimate an aver- the nature of a defect, and of the structure of the material being
age corrosion rate. tested. The advantage of the pulse-echo method is that only
• Impact test results are useful to diagnose loss of prestress, one side of the specimen needs to be accessed for transducer
assess grout quality, and indicate if the cross section is placement.
compromised from corrosion or from a bend or kink in
the element.
• Ultrasonic test results are useful for obtaining more detailed Data Interpretation
information about the condition of elements within the first Impact Tests
meter from the proximal end of the element.
Impact (sonic echo) test results are interpreted by plotting
Withiam et al. (2002) and Fishman et al. (2002 and 2005) time-histories of the responses measured by the accelerometer
describe details of NDT including test procedures. Half-cell for each impact test. The maximum responses correspond to
potential and LPR measurements are similar to those described the impact, and the responses are normalized with respect
for Type I reinforcements. to these maximum values. Figure B-2 presents typical time
histories designated as Bolt Numbers 1, 3, and 10. The decay
of the initial response is shown on the left-hand side of Fig-
Sonic Echo Measurements
ure B-2 and is useful to assess the relative level of prestress car-
The sonic echo method (impact test) is used for evaluating ried by the elements. A relatively high rate of decay (i.e., highly
cracking of grouts, fracture of tendons, and loss of element damped system due to more dispersion) is indicative of high
 61

Bolt #10 Bolt #10

1 1 tR2

Normalized Response
Normalized Response
0.8
0.6 0.5
0.4
0.2
0 0
-0.2
0
tR1
0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004
-0.4 0 0.0002 0.0004 0.0006 0.0008
-0.5
-0.6
-0.8
-1 -1
Time (sec) Time (sec)

Bolt #1
Bolt #1 tR1
1

Normalized Response
1 tR2
Normalized Response

0.5 0.5

0
0
0 0.0002 0.0004 0.0006 0.0008 0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004
-0.5
-0.5
-1
-1 Time (sec)
Time (sec)
Bolt #3
tR1
tR2
Bolt #3 1.5

Normalized Response
1.5
Normalized Response

1
1
0.5
0.5
0
0
-0.001
-0.5 0.001 0.003
-0.5 0 0.0002 0.0004 0.0006 0.0008
-1
-1
Time (sec) Time (sec)

Figure B-2. Typical time histories of responses from impact tests.

remaining prestress, and a low rate of decay is associated with the steel bolt is approximately 18,000 ft/s, the corresponding
a loss of prestress. Based on past experience, a high rate of decay arrival times for reflected waves is 0.5 to 1.7 milliseconds
is indicated if the signal strength decays to less than 20% of from the beginning of the grout column and approximately
the original signal strength within a millisecond. As shown in 1 to 2.2 ms from the end of the bolt. Evaluation of these reflec-
Figure B-2, Bolt #10 and Bolt #1 are examples of a high rate tions serves two purposes. First, we may assess the difference
of decay. A reflection at approximately 0.5 ms is evident from in grouted lengths from these results to compare with the
the response of Bolt #1, but the rate of decay subsequent to assumed lengths (corresponding to surface areas) used to
this reflection is high. The response of Bolt #3 is an example interpret the LPR measurements. Second, the strengths of the
of a low rate of decay. reflected signals are useful to access grout quality. Good grout
Responses from impact testing are recognized in terms of quality corresponds to a weak reflected signal from the distal
relatively strong, versus relatively weak, signal attenuation. If end. If a strong reflection is recognized, then grout quality is
the surrounding grout is very high quality, then strong reflec- considered poor, and the reinforcements may not be com-
tions are not expected beyond a distance of approximately 10 to pletely surrounded by grout in the bonded zone, or the grout
15 feet. The plots on the right-hand side of Figure B-2 depict may be highly fractured. Based on past experience, strong
the time history of the response over 5 milliseconds. Based on reflections correspond to reflected signal amplitudes greater
installation records, and observations from bolts that have than 20%, moderate is between 10% and 20%, and the ampli-
been exhumed from this site, we expect that lengths are tudes of weak reflections are less than 10% of the maximum
between 10 and 20 feet, and the elements (rock bolts in this response. Using these criteria, the time histories shown in
case) are surrounded by grout for approximately 5 feet at the Figure B-2 depict weak reflections for Bolt #10 and strong
distal end. Assuming that the compression wave velocity of reflections for Bolts #1 and #3.
62

Ultrasonic Tests have half-cell potential greater than −200 mV. Limits recom-
mended by ASTM C-876 suggest that half-cell potentials more
Due to the higher frequency content of the sound waves positive than −200 mV indicate a low likelihood that corrosion
compared to the sonic echo test, results from ultrasonic test- is occurring, while values more negative than −300 mV indi-
ing provide more resolution and are better suited to detect cate a high likelihood that corrosion is occurring. For resin-
reflection sources located within the first few feet from the grouted systems and steel reinforcements, half-cell potentials
backside of the anchor plate. This region is often associated are generally more negative than −500 mV.
with a relatively high concentration of oxygen, and subject to
cycles of wetting and drying, that promotes corrosion. Often
the reinforcement is not in contact with the surrounding rock- Corrosion Rates from LPR Measurements
mass near the anchorage, so corrosion at this location cannot The corrosion current density is the current within the cor-
be captured by LPR measurements, and the ultrasonic test is rosion cell in the absence of any external sources. Stern and
an alternative method to detect a potential loss of cross section Geary (1957) showed that for small deviations from the free
from behind the anchorage assembly. corrosion potential (±20 mV), the corrosion current density
is inversely proportional to polarization resistance as:
Half-Cell Potentials
⎡ d⑀ ⎤ ⎡ Δ⑀ ⎤ βaβc B
Rp = ⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥ = =
The primary purpose of half-cell potential measurements Δ
⎣ app ⎦ ⑀→0 ⎣ app ⎦ ⑀→0
di i 2.3
3 × icorr ( β a + β c ) icorr
is to establish when significant portions of the galvanized steel
(B-1)
reinforcements have lost zinc and steel is exposed to the wall
fill. For a given material in a given environment, the potential where
is an indication of the corrosion activity. The more positive ⑀ = the shift of the half-cell potential from the open cir-
the potential, the greater, in general, is the corrosion. Poten- cuit potential (volts);
tial measurements are therefore only qualitative indications of iapp = applied current (amperes/cm2);
corrosion activity and should only be used to determine the icorr = corrosion current density (amperes/cm2);
composition of the surface. βa = anodic Tafel constant (volts/decade);
Galvanized and plain steel coupons provide baseline mea- βc = cathodic Tafel constant (volts/decade);
surements for comparison with half-cell potentials of galva- B = environmental constant (B ≈ 0.035 V for galvanized
nized in-service reinforcements. Typical values of Ecorr with steel and B ≈ 0.026 V for steel); and
respect to a CSE are between −1,000 mV to −800 mV for pris- Rp = polarization resistance normalized for area that
tine galvanized steel or zinc, and −700 mV to −400 mV for involves multiplying the polarization resistance (PR)
plain carbon steel. If the potential of the reinforcing element by the reinforcement surface area (As) in contact with
is close to that of a recently placed galvanized coupon, it is backfill; that is, Rp (Ω-cm2) = PR × As.
inferred that the zinc is still present along the length of the
reinforcement. As the potential becomes more positive and The LPR measurement technique involves scanning or
begins to approach that of the steel coupons, the zinc coating stepping the potential from (−5 to −20 mV) to (+5 to +20 mV)
is being lost as steel is exposed on the surface. around the free corrosion potential, while simultaneously
The interpretation of potential measurements for galvanized measuring the applied current. Polarization resistance is
reinforcements considers that four distinguishable layers of zinc determined from the slope of this plot (i.e., Rp = ⑀/iapp). If the
coating are formed as a result of the hot-dip process used to gal- surface area of the working electrode is known, corrosion
vanize MSE reinforcements. The outside layer is nearly pure current density may be determined from the measured polar-
zinc, and the succeeding inner layers are essentially zinc-iron ization resistance and, ultimately, related to corrosion rate.
alloys. Progressively higher iron contents prevail as the interface Elias (1990) and Lawson et al. (1993) discussed the need to
with the base steel is approached. Therefore, as zinc consump- correct the measurement of Rp for soil resistance. If the soil
tion progresses towards the base steel interface, the half-cell resistance is relatively large, the measured PR′ can be much
potential is consistently shifted toward values inherent to iron. greater than the true value for PR, and the estimated corrosion
Ultimately, measurements of the half-cell potential reflect the rate may be significantly less than the actual corrosion rate
presence of steel after all four layers of the zinc coating are occurring at the surface. To correct for the effect of soil resis-
exhausted and bare steel is exposed, at least in some areas. tance, an AC signal is applied to the working electrode at the
For Type II reinforcements, or soil nails that may be sur- end of the standard polarization measurement cycle. During
rounded by grout, half-cell potentials can indicate if an ele- a high frequency measurement, the AC voltages reverse mag-
ment is effectively passivated or can indicate if the grout is a nitude and polarity so rapidly that the interface capacitance
resin type. Elements passivated by portland cement grout will does not impede polarization, and PR is short-circuited. This
 63

permits independent measurement of Rs, allowing PR to be for zinc elements embedded in soil. The selection of B for gal-
calculated as PR′ − Rs. vanized elements is more ambiguous because it is not known
Based on Faraday’s Law, corrosion rate (CR) can be esti- a priori if zinc, steel, or a mixture of zinc and iron is exposed
mated from icorr as follows: on the surface of the element. However, a value of B equal to
0.035 V is often used to consider galvanized elements. Simi-
⎛ μm ⎞ i ×W larly, the constant relating icorr to corrosion rate may vary by
CR ⎜ = ( 3.27 × 106 ) × corr (B-2)
⎝ yr ⎟⎠ ρ×n a factor of approximately 1.3, which can be realized by com-
paring the atomic weights, densities, and valances of steel and
where zinc for use in Equations (B-1) and (B-2).
W = atomic weight (e.g., 55.84 for steel and 65.37 for zinc), The environmental constant is related to the tafel slopes,
n = valence (e.g., 2 for steel or zinc), and which define the slopes of the anodic and cathodic branches of
ρ = density in g/cm3 (e.g., 7.87 for steel and 7.14 for zinc). the overpotential where they become linear in a plot of over-
potential versus the logarithm of applied current. Tafel slopes
Quantification, or estimation, of errors inherent to measure- were measured at 11 sites, included as part of Task 6, using spe-
ment of corrosion rate involves an assessment of (1) param- cial equipment that applies overpotential (±250 mV), which
eters that are often assumed and used to relate polarization exceeds what is needed for LPR measurements (±20 mV).
resistance (measured) to corrosion rate and (2) the accuracy of Results from these measurements are presented in Table B-1.
the polarization resistance measurement. Errors in measure- Direct measurement of tafel slopes is limited because of the
ment include those associated with measuring polarization need for special equipment and because imparting this level of
resistance and solution resistance, and errors computing the overpotential can have a lasting effect on the electrochemical
corrosion rate arise from the selection or assumption of the
properties on the surface of the reinforcement (i.e., future
parameters and constants used for Equations (B-1) and (B-2).
measurements of corrosion rate may be affected by test history).
The means and ranges of the environmental constant, B,
Parameters for Computing Corrosion Rate that were measured at selected sites are:
from LPR Measurements
Material Mean (V) Range (V)
An environmental constant (B) relating polarization resist-
Steel 0.024 0.010–0.030
ance to corrosion current density (icorr), and the constants
Galvanized 0.035 0.010–0.058
relating icorr to corrosion rate need to be known or assumed to
Zinc 0.040 0.030–0.050
compute corrosion rate from measurement of polarization
resistance. These inputs depend upon metal type and the The means of the measurements are very close to the
physicochemical properties of the backfill. In general, the B assumed values used in Equations (B-1) and (B-2) to reconcile
parameter is assumed as 0.026 V for steel elements and 0.05 V corrosion rate from LPR measurements.

Table B-1. Summary of observed environmental constants.

B (V)
State Site Element
Steel Galvanized Zinc
NH I-93 Southbound, Barron Mtn. A 0.033 - -
B 0.024 - -
C check - -
D 0.023 - -
NC I540 Exit 26B - 0.010 0.040 0.030
I540 & TTC - 0.020 0.050 0.030
I64 MP 423 - 0.020 0.020 0.050
I77 at Tyvola - 0.023 0.034 0.050
NY SHR Northwest Abutment 1 - 0.042 -
SHR Southwest Abutment 1 - 0.056 -
SHR Southwest Abutment 2 - 0.058 -
CA Site No. 532819 R 15 - 0.010 -
Site No. 532819 R8 - 0.010 -
Site No. 532822 R1 - 0.037 -
Site No. 532823 R 12 - 0.010 -
Site No. 541093 12 - -
NY MMCE Lab - 0.020 0.054 -
NOTE: TTC = Triangle Town Center, SHR = Sweet Home Road, MMCE = McMahon &
Mann Consulting Engineers, and - = not applicable.
64

Comparison of Device Performance and MMCE using a different protocol. Caltrans determined
the polarization resistance from the slope of the overpotential
Results obtained with a commercially available general-
versus impressed current for a selected linear region in the
purpose, corrosion monitoring device (GAMRY G600) are
vicinity and symmetric with zero applied current (i.e., at the
compared with those from a unit built specifically for the
open circuit potential). MMCE determined the polarization
FHWA (PR Monitor) for monitoring the performance of
resistance at the slope within a region ±10 mV from the open
MSE reinforcements. The hardware (Potentiostat/Galvanostat/
circuit potential. The latter is similar to the protocol employed
Zero Resistance Ammeter) incorporated into each unit is
by the FHWA PR Monitor. Figure B-3(a) shows that the
similar. However, the general-purpose equipment allows user
GAMRY data as reconciled by MMCE are closer to the mea-
flexibility in terms of data processing and interpretation, and,
surements from the FHWA PR Monitor. This is expected, but
in contrast, the user cannot alter the protocols programmed
the comparison serves to demonstrate that there is a small com-
into the FHWA unit. Both the GAMRY G600 and the FHWA
ponent of measurement variability that is operator dependent,
PR Monitor correct for uncompensated solution resistance
(soil resistance) as part of the LPR measurement. Both units and related to data processing.
measure the soil resistance via an AC input and subtract this Figure B-3(b) demonstrates that measurements of Rs include
more variation compared to measurements of PR′. The coeffi-
from the measured polarization resistance to render the cor-
cient of correlation between measurements using the PR Mon-
rected polarization resistance.
itor and the GAMRY G600 is 0.87 when considering the entire
The PR Monitor supplied by CC Technologies, Inc. utilizes
data set. However, five of the data points that lie above the
a potential control stepping sequence that is completely flexi-
trend line in Figure B-3(b) are from the same site located in
ble and programmable by the operator. The PR Monitor also
San Bernardino, California. One of these data points also
presents the coefficient of linear regression used to calculate the
corresponds to the one outlying data point identified in Fig-
value of PR′ from the ⑀ vs. iapp plot. A regression coefficient of
ure B-3(a). If the five data points from San Bernardino are
0.9 or greater indicates a reasonably good fit of the data. The
removed, a coefficient of correlation equal to 0.94 is obtained.
corrosion current density is determined from Equation (B-1)
Measurements of Rs from the GAMRY G600 (with the San
using the measured value of PR, As, and the appropriate envi-
Bernardino data points removed) are on average 15% higher
ronmental constant. Finally, Equation (B-2) is used to estimate
than those measured with the PR Monitor.
corrosion rate.
The reason for the difference in measurements may be
McMahon & Mann Consulting Engineers (MMCE) and
related to the manner in which the measurements are made.
Caltrans performed redundant tests with the GAMRY and
Both units use an impressed AC current to make the measure-
FHWA PR monitors. Data were collected from sites in north-
ments. The PR Monitor measures Rs with a square wave signal
ern and southern California during the periods from July 14,
at a frequency of 270 Hz. The GAMRY G600 considers a broad
2007 to August 24, 2007 and April 9, 2008 to May 1, 2008. The
spectrum of response using electrochemical impedance spec-
data set includes 61 individual measurements of polarization
trometry (EIS) and renders the value of Rs by plotting the total
resistance from 10 different locations. Corrosion rates are
impedance versus frequency (Bode plot). The latter measure-
computed using the polarization resistance with the correc-
ments are theoretically more robust, but EIS measurements
tion for Rs. Once the uncompensated solution resistance is
are more sensitive to noise and interference and may become
obtained, different operators will compute the same corro-
unstable; and are also more difficult to interpret if different
sion rate using Equations (B-1) and (B-2); assuming they use
metals (e.g. zinc and iron) are present on the surface and/or if
the same parameters for surface area, environmental constant
oxide film layers are present on the surface.
(B) and metal valance, density, and atomic weight. Therefore,
differences in results from these devices are with respect to
LPR Compared to Tensile Strength Loss
the manner in which PR′ and Rs are rendered.
Results of LPR measurements performed with the GAMRY Caltrans tested specimens identified with pitting from
equipment and operated by Caltrans, and measurements made inspection rods retrieved from sites in Northern California
by MMCE using the FHWA PR Monitor are compared in during the period from July 14, 2007 to August 24, 2007. Each
Figure B-3. Figure B-3(a) depicts measurements of PR′ that data point presented in Table B-2 involves measurement of ten-
are not corrected for the uncompensated solution resistance sile strength at two locations: one including the pitted cross sec-
(Rs), and Figure B-3(b) is the independent measurement of tion (Tpitted) and another from a nearby intact location (Tintact)
Rs. Measurements of PR′ correlate very well (ρxy = 0.98). One that serves as a reference measurement. The strength loss
data point falls outside the trend line corresponding to a expressed as a percentage of the intact strength is computed as:
measurement with the GAMRY G600 that is approximately
one half of that obtained with the PR Monitor. Some of the Tintact − Tpitted
% Strength Loss = × 100 (B-3)
GAMRY data were processed and analyzed by both Caltrans Tintact
 65

900.0
800.0

FHWA PR Monitor (Ω)

700.0
600.0
500.0
400.0
GAMRY/Caltrans
300.0
200.0 GAMRY/MMCE

100.0
0.0
0.0 100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0 500.0 600.0 700.0 800.0 900.0
GAMRY (Ω)
(a) measured (PR′ = PR + Rs) polarization resistance

250

200
FHWA PR Monitor (Ω)

150

100

50

0
0 50 100 150 200 250
GAMRY (Ω)
(b) backfill resistance (Rs)

Figure B-3. Polarization resistance measurements with the FHWA PR

Monitor and the GAMRY G600.

Strength losses less than 4% are not considered to be sig- Darbin and Caltrans-Interim metal loss models is computed
nificant and may reflect strength variation inherent to the as follows:
material, rather than from loss of section. The average of the
strength variation shown in Table B-2 is 5.2%, with a maxi- For the Darbin model:
mum of 15.8% and minimum 0.3%. The maximum of 15.8% 1 ⎛ in. ⎞
X ( in.) = ( 25 μm × t 0.65 − 86 μm ) × 2 × (B-4)
was recorded for plain steel reinforcements (i.e., not galva- 25, 400 ⎜⎝ μm ⎟⎠
nized) and all of the measurements were from specimens that
had been exposed to the backfill for approximately 20 years where X is the loss of base steel in inches after the zinc (assumed
and are for rod shaped specimens made from cold-drawn to be 86 μm thick) is consumed, and t is time in years. This
steel wire (ASTM A-82). equation includes a factor of 2 to consider the effect of local-
The observed loss of tensile strength is compared to the loss ized corrosion activity (i.e., pitting).
anticipated based on metal loss models proposed by Darbin The diameter after t years of service is then computed as:
et al. (1988) and the Caltrans-Interim design strength loss d f = di − 2 × ( X ) (B-5)
model (Jackura et al., 1987). The AASHTO metal loss model
was not considered here because the backfills do not meet where df is the diameter after t years and di is the initial
corresponding AASHTO criteria. The loss of strength of the diameter of the specimen prior to being galvanized; both
66

Table B-2. Results from tensile strength testing of pitted specimens

from sites in northern California.

Observed Anticipated
Site Details Sample Details
Strength Strength
Specimen Darbin Caltrans
Age ρ Sample1 di
Bridge # Locale Location % Loss Interim
(yr) (Ω-cm) Location (in.)
(ft)2 % Loss % Loss
10-0284 Redwood Valley 18 2527 B/13 6-10 0.371 4.5 6.5 9.3
10-0284 Redwood Valley 18 2527 B/14 6-10 0.369 7.8 6.5 9.3
10-0284 Redwood Valley 18 2527 M/8 6-10 0.372 8.8 6.5 9.2
20-0269 Preston 20 2821 T/2 6-10 0.373 2.0 7.4 11.4
20-0269 Preston 20 2821 M/8 5-9 0.374 5.5 7.4 11.4
28-0303 Richmond/Castro 18 1434 T/2 6-10 0.498 13.3 4.8 6.9
28-0303 Richmond/Castro 18 1434 M/8 6-10 0.499 0.3 4.8 6.9
28-0303 Richmond/Castro 18 1434 B/15 6-10 0.499 2.5 4.8 6.9
28-0303 Richmond/Castro 18 1434 M/7 5-9 0.499 1.2 4.8 6.9
28-02943 Richmond/Regatta 19 1600 B/17 6-9 0.421 15.8 29.13 18.9
10-0279 Hopland 18 NA T/3 6-10 0.375 4.3 6.4 9.2
10-0279 Hopland 18 NA T/2 6-10 0.375 1.5 6.4 9.2
10-0277 Hopland 18 NA T/1 6-10 0.374 1.1 6.4 9.2
1
T, M, and B = top, middle, & bottom; ## inspection rod number location in cluster (elements of 1–18) based on field
identification form.
2
Distance into fill from wall face.
3
Plain steel specimen (i.e., not galvanized) and
1 in.
X (in.) = (40μ m × t 0.8 − 86μ m) × 2 × ( ).
25,400 μ m

diameters are in units of inches. The corresponding loss of sidering 20-year-old reinforcements. However, corrosion
strength is: rates measured with the LPR technique do not always corre-
late well with respect to pitting (i.e., the specimen with the
⎛ d 2f ⎞ deepest pit is not the same specimen with the highest corro-
% Loss = ⎜ 1 − 2 × 100⎟ (B-6)
⎝ di ⎠ sion rate measured via the LPR technique).
Alternatively, according to the Caltrans-Interim design
guidelines: LPR Compared to Weight Loss/Thickness Loss
Mild to moderate corrosion was observed from sites in
A=
[di − 2 × k × (t − C )]2 × 100 (B-7) northern California. Caltrans measured the pit depth at sixteen
di2 locations along selected inspection elements as summarized in
where A is the percentage of the original diameter that remains Table B-3. Appendix C includes photographs depicting the
after t years, C is the life of the zinc protecting the surface of the locations where pitting was observed. All of these data are from
steel (assumed by Caltrans as 10 years for these backfill condi- rod-type elements and, generally, pitting does not result in a
tions), and k is the metal loss per year considering the effect of uniform loss of radius but rather affects a limited portion of the
localized corrosion (assumed by Caltrans as 0.0011 in./yr for cross section. Pit depths were measured by subtracting the
these backfill conditions). The corresponding loss of strength is: remaining thickness (remaining diameter) from the initial
diameter determined from measurements of a nearby section
% Loss = 100 − A (B-8) that appeared to be intact. Table B-3 also includes the estimated
uniform loss based on the Darbin model (Darbin, 1988) for gal-
The equations for estimating loss of strength appear to be vanized elements and Elias (1990) for plain steel elements. The
an upper bound with respect to the observed strength loss. ratio of maximum section loss to estimated uniform loss ranges
With one exception, the Caltrans-Interim design equation from 1.2 to 4.8 with an average loss ratio of 2.4.
estimates greater loss of strength compared to the observed The estimated uniform rate of metal loss is compared to
strength loss displayed in Table B-2. The strength losses esti- the corrosion rate measured at an instant in time via the LPR
mated with the Darbin model are approximately 65% to 70% technique. The corrosion rate computed via measurement of
of those estimated with the Caltrans-Interim design equa- LPR may be in error by a factor of 2 considering the selection
tions, but, in general, these estimates still represent an upper of parameters needed to relate the measurement of polariza-
bound to the observed strength losses. tion resistance to corrosion rate.
The highest measured corrosion rate of 5.7 μm/yr com- Moderate to severe corrosion was observed from sites
pares well with the rate predicted via the Darbin model con- in southern California. Table B-4 is a summary (Caltrans
 Table B-3. Summary of section loss observed from inspection rods
exhumed by Caltrans.

Bridge Age Backfill Elev.2 Distance Pit Est. Loss Est. LPR
# Years ρ from Depth Uniform Ratio Uniform Meas.
Ω-cm face (μm) Loss Rate Rate
(ft) (μm) (μm/yr) (μm/yr)
28-
0297 19 NA3 T 6 647.7 169.5 3.8 5.8 4.9
28-
0306 17 533 T 2.5 304.8 157.7 1.9 6.0 2.3
28-
0306 17 533 B 1 419.1 157.7 2.7 6.0 1.3
10-
0286 18 2522 M 1 254.0 163.6 1.6 5.9 1.4
10-
0284 18 2522 B 8 342.9 163.6 2.1 5.9 1.4
10-
0284 18 2522 B 4 139.7 163.6 - 5.9 2.9
10-
0284 18 2522 B 7 584.2 163.6 3.6 5.9 2.9
20-
0269 20 2821 M 8 317.5 175.2 1.8 5.7 2.3
28-
0303 18 1434 B 4 203.2 163.6 1.2 5.9 2.9
28-
0303 18 1434 T 9 520.7 163.6 3.2 5.9 1.9
28-
0303 18 1434 M 5 406.4 163.6 2.5 5.9 2.3
28-
0303 18 1434 M 6.5 355.6 163.6 2.2 5.9 2.8
28-
02941 19 1600 B 5.5 304.8 421.8 - 17.8 25.0
28-
02941 19 1600 B 7.7 1155.7 421.8 2.7 17.8 25.0
28-
02941 19 1600 M 2.5 508 421.8 1.2 17.8 28.0
10-
0278 18 NA T 4.5 787.4 163.6 4.8 5.9 1.7
1
Bare steel, i.e. not galvanized
2
B=bottom, M=middle, T=top
3
NA = not available

Table B-4. Summary of laboratory data from Caltrans

and comparison with field observations.

Inspection Element Backfill Condition μm/yr)

CR (μ
Bridge Locale Location, w ρmin Ecorr Zinc Pitting Loss LPR
No. Type % (Ω-cm) (mV) (oz/ft2)
53-2819 07-LA-47 R13, Rod - 1610 -793 1.5 N - 0.4
53-2821 07-LA-47 L14, Rod 8.4 1763 -474 - Y 47 179
53-2821 07-LA-47 L16, Rod 8.1 1389 -484 - Y 26 32
53-2822 07-LA-47 L13, Rod 8.5 3580 -740 1.4 N - 0.9
53-2822 07-LA-47 L14, Rod 9.1 2072 -537 - Y 26 104
53-2822 07-LA-47 L15, Rod 10.7 5849 -714 1.5 N - 1.0
53-2823 07-LA-47 L17, Rod 8.8 1763 -511 Y 99 42
53-2823 07-LA-47 L15, Rod 9.1 2223 -475 Y 99 25
54-1093 08-SBD-30/215 L2, Strip 2.9 6223 -540 5.5 Y 9.51 0.7
54-1093 08-SBD-30/215 L12, Strip 2.1 12705 -594 4.7 N - 0.7
54-1094 08-SBD-30/215 L8, Strip - - -581 4.8 Y 6.01 1.2
54-1094 08-SBD-30/215 L14, Strip - - -610 1.3 Y 7.51 1.3
56-0794 08-Riv-10 L7, Strip - - -356 Y NA 80
56-0794 08-Riv-10 L 11, Strip - - -567 Y 40 50
56-0794 08-Riv-10 L 13, Strip 0.4 377 -550 5.2 Y 281 3.7
10-0279 01-Men-101 L15, Rod 3.2 - -612 4.7 N - 0.30
10-0279 01-Men-101 L17, Rod 1.8 8414 - - - - -
LV 09-Men-395 L9, Strip 0.5 11375 - 7.0 N - -
1
pit involves a small surface area on strip
High moisture content, low ρmin, and corresponding higher corrosion
NOTE: NA = data not available. Corroded strip broke during extraction.
68

150 150

CR (μm/yr)
CR (μm/yr)
100 100
50 50
0 0
0 5000 10000 15000 0 5 10 15
ρmin (Ω-cm) w%

Figure B-4. Minimum resistivity (␳min) Figure B-5. Moisture content (w%) vs.
vs. corrosion rate (CR) for correspond- corrosion rate (CR) for corresponding
ing backfill and inspection rod backfill and inspection rod locations.
locations.

southern sites) that provides a comparison of backfill and ments at the same location and at similar times. The data shown
inspection rod conditions, and corrosion rates measured via in Figures B-4 and B-5 help to explain why higher corrosion
direct observation and from LPR measurements. rates are not always observed from sites with poor quality back-
Corrosion rates computed from observations of remaining fill (e.g., low ρmin) and can be useful to reconcile some of the
diameter/pit depth shown in Table B-4 compare qualitatively variation apparent from our performance database.
with measurements from LPR. In cases where relatively high Inspection elements that exhibited high corrosion rates
corrosion rates were measured via LPR (> 20 μm/yr), pitting appeared to break at a reduced cross section during extraction.
and corresponding loss of section were also observed along the Therefore, a lot of the data on remaining tensile strength do not
inspection rods. The corrosion rates at the point of maximum correspond to the locations with the most severe section loss.
section loss may be four times higher than the average rates Tensile strength data are useful to document the remaining
measured via LPR, which is consistent with expectations con- strength of less corroded sections (that did not break upon
sidering the geometry of the rod shaped inspections elements extraction),and to study inherent variation of material strength.
(Smith et al., 1996). In a couple of instances, corrosion rates Data obtained from extraction of inspection elements dur-
measured via LPR are higher than direct observations, however, ing field work for Task 6, performed in cooperation with Cal-
these LPR measurements are anomalous, and when repeated trans, demonstrate that the ratio of maximum metal loss (i.e.,
with different equipment (GAMRY vs FHWA PR Monitor) loss of tensile strength) to average corrosion rate or metal loss
such high values of corrosion rate are not consistently observed. ranges from 1.2 to 4.8 with a mean of 2.4. This factor appears
Pitting observed for strip-type reinforcements covered small to be inversely proportional to severity of corrosion and tends
areas that did not have a significant impact on tensile strength, to range between 2 and 3 when more severe loss of cross section
and relatively low corrosion rates are indicated via LPR. is observed.
Correlations of corrosion rate and loss of zinc are particularly LPR measurements are particularly effective to discern
interesting because the backfill samples were retrieved from the occurrence of relatively mild, moderate, or severe cor-
the same locations as the inspection elements. This is not usu- rosion. For galvanized elements, corrosion rates via LPR
ally the case, and most often backfill data is derived from sam- correlate best with the percentage of zinc remaining on the
ples taken at stockpiles or from random locations within the surface. When more than 70% of the surface is covered by
backfill. Higher corrosion rates and lower and remaining zinc zinc, corrosion rates measured via LPR reflect the rate of
(<2 oz/ft2) measurements are consistently correlated with back- zinc loss. However, there may be instances where localized
fill samples that simultaneously exhibit relatively low minimum corrosion of steel may not be reflected in the LPR measure-
resistivity (ρmin) and high moisture content. This trend is illus- ment of corrosion rate. This is more of an issue at sites with
trated in Figures B-4 and B-5. Higher corrosion rates are not relatively poor or marginal quality fill materials where metal
always observed in Figure B-4 when ρmin is low, or in Figure B-5 loss is less uniform and localized loss of zinc is observed. In
when moisture contents are higher. However, a comparison of general, corrosion rates from LPR measurements are consis-
points with CR > 20 μm/yr reveals that both of these conditions tent with observations of maximum metal loss considering a
are met in these instances. This comparison demonstrates the factor between 2 and 3 relating the average to the maximum
value of obtaining backfill samples and corrosion rate measure- metal loss.
 69

APPENDICES C THROUGH E

Appendices C through E to the contractor’s final report for NCHRP Project 24-28 are not
published herein but are available on the project web site at http://apps.trb.org/cmsfeed/TRB
NetProjectDisplay.asp?ProjectID=727. Note that while the Appendix numbers have been
changed to letters in the main report to reflect CRP house style, Appendices C–E, as posted to
the site above, retain the contractor’s original labeling as Appendices III–V.

• Appendix C (III): Performance Database

• Appendix D (IV): Data Analysis
• Appendix E (V): Details of Monte Carlo Simulations and Reliability Analyses
70

APPENDIX F

Example

Introduction • No seismic considerations.

• Precast panel units: 5-ft wide × 5-ft tall × 0.5-ft thick.
This example problem demonstrates analysis and design of a • Type of reinforcement: Grade 65 (Fy = 65 ksi) with zinc
MSE wall using LRFD and the corresponding metal loss mod- coating of 86 μm for galvanized reinforcements. Nine cases
els and resistance factors based on recommendations described are considered in this example with reinforcement types
in this report. The example is adapted from Berg et al. (2009), and sizes summarized as follows:
Appendix E.3. Various designs are executed employing ribbed-
steel-strip- or steel-grid-type reinforcements, that may be plain Fill
steel or galvanized, and construction that may incorporate high Case Quality Galvanized Type of Reinforcement
quality, good quality, or marginal quality fills. Both the simpli- 1 High Yes 50-mm wide × 4-mm
fied and the coherent gravity methods will be used to compute thick ribbed strips
reinforcement tension. Results from this example illustrate the 2 High Yes W11 × W11 (longitudinal
effects that these parameters have on the amount of reinforce- × transverse, welded
ment needed to meet the demand (i.e., the applicable load case). wire fabric)
For the purpose of this illustration it is assumed that fill quality 3 Good Yes 50-mm wide × 4-mm
refers to electrochemical properties, and the mechanical prop- thick ribbed strips
erties of the fill (e.g., unit weight, shear strength) are the same 4 Good Yes W11 × W11 (longitudinal
for all of the fill qualities considered. × transverse, welded
The MSE wall has a sloping backfill surcharge and includes a wire fabric)
segmental precast concrete panel face as shown in Figure F-1. 5 Marginal Yes W20 × W11 (longitudinal
The analysis is based on principles of MSE design described × transverse, welded
by Berg et al. (2009). Table F-1 presents a summary of steps wire fabric)
involved in the analysis. This appendix describes details 6 High No 50-mm wide × 6-mm thick
related to evaluation of the internal stability of the wall as this ribbed strips
bears on the calculation of tension (yield) resistance and the 7 High No W20 × W11 (longitudinal
corresponding reinforcement cross-section. Berg et al. (2009), × transverse, welded
Appendix E-3, also describes details of the external stability wire fabric)
analysis, design of facing elements, overall and compound sta- 8 Good No 50-mm wide × 8-mm
bility analysis at the service limit state, and design of the wall thick ribbed strips
drainage system. 9 Good No W20 × W11 (longitudinal
× transverse, welded
Step 1. Establish Project Requirements wire fabric)
• Exposed wall height, He = 28 ft.
Step 2. Evaluate Project Parameters
• Length of wall = 850 ft.
• Design life = 75 years or 50 years as appropriate in consid- • Reinforced backfill, φ′r = 34°, γr = 125 pcf, coefficient of
eration of fill quality and whether or not reinforcements uniformity, Cu = 7.0.
are galvanized. • Retained backfill, φ′f = 30°, γf = 125 pcf.
 71

Due to the 2H:1V backslope, the initial length of reinforce-

ment is assumed to be 0.8 H or 24 ft. The length of the rein-
2
forcement is assumed to be constant throughout the height to
limit differential settlements across the reinforced zone because
differential settlements could overstress the reinforcements.

Step 4. Estimate Unfactored Loads

To compute the numerical values of various forces and
Retained backfill moments, the parameters provided in Step 2 are used. Earth
(above or behind pressures transferred from the retained fill are not considered
H He Reinforced backfill the reinforced
φ' r, r backfill) for internal stability analysis with the simplified method, but
φ' f, f are related to reinforcement tension with the Coherent Grav-
ity method. Using the values of the various friction angles, the
coefficients of lateral earth pressure for the retained fill are
L computed as follows:
d
Leveling Foundation Soil Coefficient of active earth pressure per Eq. 3.11.5.3-1 of
Pad φ' fd, fd AASHTO (2009) is
Figure F-1. Configuration showing various
sin 2 ( θ + φ ′f )
parameters for analysis of an MSE wall with Ka =
sloping backfill (not-to-scale). Γ sin 2 θ sin ( θ − δ )

Where, per Eq. 3.11.5.3-2 of AASHTO (2009), the various

parameters in above equation are as follows:
Step 3. Estimate Depth of Embedment and
Length of Reinforcement
sin ( φ′f + δ ) sin ( φ′f − β ) ⎤
2
⎡
Γ = ⎢1 + ⎥
Based on Table C.11.10.2.2.-1 of AASHTO (2009), the ⎢⎣ sin ( θ − δ ) sin ( θ + β ) ⎥⎦
minimum embedment depth = H/20 for walls with hori-
zontal ground in front of wall, in other words, 1.4 ft for δ = friction angle between fill and wall taken as specified,
exposed wall height of 28 ft. For this design, assume embed- β = angle (nominal) of fill to horizontal,
ment, d = 2.0 ft. Thus, design height of the wall, H = He + θ = angle of back face of wall to horizontal, and
d = 28 ft + 2.0 ft = 30 ft. φ′f = effective angle of internal friction of retained backfill.

Table F-1. Summary of steps in analysis of MSE wall

with sloping backfill.

Step Item
1 Establish project requirements
2 Establish project parameters
3 Estimate wall embedment depth and length of reinforcement
4 Estimate unfactored loads
5 Summarize applicable load and resistance factors
6 Evaluate external stability of MSE wall—not discussed, see Berg et al. (2009)
6.1 Evaluation of sliding resistance
6.2 Evaluation of limiting eccentricity
6.3 Evaluation of bearing resistance
6.4 Settlement analysis
7 Evaluate internal stability of MSE wall
7.1 Estimate critical failure surface, variation of Kr and F* for internal stability
7.2 Establish vertical layout of soil reinforcements
7.3 Calculate horizontal stress and maximum tension at each reinforcement level
7.4 Establish nominal and factored long-term tensile resistance of soil reinforcement
7.5 Establish nominal and factored pullout resistance of soil reinforcement
7.6 Establish number of soil reinforcing strips at each level of reinforcement
8 Design of facing elements—not discussed, see Berg et al. (2009)
9 Check overall and compound stability at the service limit state—not discussed, see
Berg et al. (2009)
10 Design wall drainage system—not discussed, see Berg et al. (2009)
72

Table F-5.1. Summary of applicable load factors.

Load Factors
Load Combination (after AASHTO, 2009, Tables 3.4.1-1 and 3.4.1-2)
EV EH
Strength I (maximum) 1.35 1.5
Strength I (minimum) 1.00 0.9
Service I 1.00 1.0
Note: EV and EH = vertical earth load and horizontal earth load, respectively.

For this example problem, compute the coefficient of limits states. Based on Table 11.5.5-1 from AASHTO (2009)
active earth pressure for the retained fill, Kaf, using β = 26.56° a resistance factor, φp = 0.9 is applied to the nominal pullout
(for the 2:1 backslope), vertical backface, θ = 90°, and δ = β resistance. Table F-5.2 summarizes the applicable resistance
as follows: factors for tensile resistance, φt, for galvanized, or plain steel,
strip and grid reinforcements with different fill conditions as
2
⎡ sin ( 30° + 26.56° ) sin ( 30° − 26.56° ) ⎤ recommended in this report. These resistance factors apply to
Γ = ⎢1 + ⎥
⎣ sin ( 90° − 26.56° ) sin ( 90° + 26.56° ) ⎦ design lives (tdesign) up to 100 years unless otherwise noted.
2
⎡ (0.834 )(0.060) ⎤ Step 6. Evaluate External Stability
= ⎢1 + = 1.563
⎣ (0.894 )(0.894 ) ⎥⎦ of MSE Wall
Not included because metal loss is not relevant to these
sin ( θ + φ′f )
2
sin ( 90° +30° )2 calculations. See Berg et al. (2009), Appendix E.3.
K af = =
Γ sin 2 θ sin ( θ − δ ) 1.563( sin 90° )2 [ sin ( 90° − 26.56° )]
Step 7. Evaluate Internal Stability Analysis
0.750 of MSE Wall
= = 0.537
(1.563)(1.0)(0.894 ) 7.1 Estimate critical failure surface, variation
of Kr , and F* for internal stability
Step 5. Summarize Applicable Load and
For the simplified method the variation of Kr depends on
Resistance Factors
the stiffness of the reinforcements and is different for strip-
Table F-5.1 summarizes the load factors applied to cal- or grid-type reinforcements. For the case of inextensible steel
culations of reinforcement load using the Simplified Method. ribbed strips, the profile of the critical failure surface, the vari-
For the internal stability analysis using the Simplified Method ation of internal lateral horizontal stress coefficient, Kr, and
only the maximum values of the load factors for the Strength I the variation of the pullout resistance factor, Fⴱ, are as shown
load case apply. However the coherent gravity method requires in Figure F-2 wherein other definitions, such as measurement
consideration as to whether maximum or minimum values of depths Z and Zp as well as heights H and H1 are also shown.
render the most critical loading conditions. In most cases, the The variation of Kr and Fⴱ are with respect to depth Z that is
proper choice can be readily identified by inspection at the measured from the top of the reinforced soil zone. For the
onset. computation of Kr, the value of Ka is based on the angle of
Appropriate resistance factors have to be used for compu- internal friction of the reinforced backfill, φr, and the assump-
tation of factored resistances during evaluation of strength tion that the backslope angle β = 0; thus, Ka = tan2(45° − 34°/2)

Table F-5.2. Summary of applicable resistance factors for

evaluation of tensile resistances.

Reinforcement Fill Quality

High Good Marginal
Galvanized Strips 0.80 0.65 NA
Galvanized Grids 0.70 0.55 0.301
Plain Steel Strips 0.452 0.451 NA
Plain Steel Grids 0.352 0.351 NA
1t = 50 yrs
design
2t = 75 yrs
design
 73

0.3H1

ΔH 1.7 Ka Kr 2.000 F*
Z=0 Z=0

Z=20 ft 1.2 Ka Z=20 ft tan (φ1)

= 0.675

Zp Zp

(tan β)(0.3H )
ΔH = H1= H + ΔH
1 − 0.3 tan β
Zp at start of resistant zone, Zp-s= Z + Latanβ
Zp at end of resistant zone, Zp-e= Z + Ltanβ
Use average Zp over the resistance zone, Zp-ave, for computing pullout resistance
Zp-ave = Z + 0.5(Latanβ + Ltanβ) = Z + 0.5 tanβ (La + L)
Ka is computed assuming that the backslope angle is zero, i.e., β= 0 per Article
C11.10.6.2.1 of AASHTO (2009)

Figure F-2. Geometry definition, location of critical failure

surface, and variation of Kr and F* parameters for steel
ribbed strips.

= 0.283. Hence, the value of Kr varies from 1.7(0.283) = 0.481 the walls is locally adjusted as necessary to fit the height of
at Z = 0 ft to 1.2(0.283) = 0.340 at Z = 20 ft. For steel strips, the wall.
Fⴱ = 1.2+log10Cu. Using Cu = 7.0 as given in Step 2, For internal stability computations, each layer of reinforce-
Fⴱ = 1.2 + log10(7.0) = 2.045 > 2.000. Therefore, use Fⴱ = 2.000. ment is assigned a tributary area, Atrib as follows:
For the case of inextensible grids (i.e. welded wire fabric) the
value of Kr varies from 2.5Ka at Z = 0 (2.5(0.283) = 0.707) to A trib =( w p )( S vt )
1.2ⴱKa at Z = 20 ft. (1.2(0.283)=0.34). For grid-type reinforce-
ments, the value of Fⴱ varies from 20(t/St) at Z = 0 ft to 10(t/St) where wp is the panel width of the precast facing element, and
at Z ≥ 20 ft, where t is the diameter of the transverse wires and Svt is the vertical tributary spacing of the reinforcements based
St is the transverse wire spacing. on the location of the reinforcements above and below the level
The coherent gravity method uses Kr = K0 for the top of the reinforcement under consideration. The computation of
20 feet (Z ≤ 20 ft), where K0 is the coefficient of lateral earth Svt is summarized in Table F-7.1 wherein Svt = Z+ − Z−. Note that
pressure at-rest, approximated as 1− sin φr = 1 − sin 34° = wp = 5.00 ft per Step 1.
0.441 in this example. At depths Z > 20 ft Kr = Ka = 0.283
(in this example).
7.3 Calculate horizontal stress and maximum
tension at each reinforcement level
7.2 Establish vertical layout of soil reinforcements
The horizontal spacing of the reinforcements is based on
Using the definition of depth Z as shown in Figure F-2 the maximum tension (Tmax) at each level of reinforcements,
the following vertical layout of the soil reinforcements is which requires computation of the horizontal stress, σH, at
chosen: each reinforcement level. The reinforcement tensile and pull-
out resistances are then compared with Tmax and an appropri-
Z = 1.25 ft, 3.75 ft, 6.25 ft, 8.75 ft, 11.25 ft, 13.75 ft, 16.25 ft,
ate reinforcement pattern is adopted. This section demonstrates
18.75 ft, 21.25 ftt, 23.75 ft, 26.25 ft, and 28.75 ft. the calculation of horizontal stress, σH, and maximum ten-
sion, Tmax.
The above layout leads to 12 levels of reinforcements. For the Simplified Method the horizontal stress, σH, at any
The vertical spacing was chosen based on a typical vertical depth within the MSE wall is based on only the soil load as
spacing, Sv, of approximately 2.5 ft that is commonly used summarized in Table F-7.2.
in the industry for steel ribbed strip- or grid-type reinforce-
ment. The vertical spacing near the top and bottom of σ H = σ H-soil + σ H-surcharge
74

Table F-7.1. Summary of computations for Svt.

Level Z (ft) Z − (ft) Z + (ft) Svt (ft)

1 1.25 0 1.25+0.5(3.75–1.25)=2.50 2.50
2 3.75 3.75-0.5(3.75–1.25)=2.50 3.75+0.5(6.25-3.75)=5.00 2.50
3 6.25 6.25-0.5(6.25-3.75)=5.00 6.25+0.5(8.75-6.25)=7.50 2.50
4 8.75 8.75-0.5(8.75-6.25)=7.50 8.75+0.5(11.25-8.75)=10.00 2.50
5 11.25 11.25-0.5(11.25-8.75)=10.00 11.25+0.5(13.75-11.25)=12.50 2.50
6 13.75 13.75-0.5(13.75-11.25)=12.50 13.75+0.5(16.25-13.75)=15.00 2.50
7 16.25 16.25-0.5(16.25-13.75)=15.00 16.25+0.5(18.75-16.25)=17.50 2.50
8 18.75 18.76-0.5(18.75-16.25)=17.50 18.75+0.5(21.25-18.75)=20.00 2.50
9 21.25 21.25-0.5(21.25-18.75)=20.00 21.25+0.5(23.75-21.25)=22.50 2.50
10 23.75 23.75-0.5(23.75-21.25)=22.50 23.75+0.5(26.25-23.75)=25.00 2.50
11 26.25 26.25-0.5(26.25-23.75)=25.00 26.25+0.5(28.75-26.25)=27.50 2.50
12 28.75 28.75-0.5(28.75-26.25)=27.50 30.00 2.50

Using the unit weight of the reinforced soil mass and • At Z = 8.75 ft, the following depths are computed:
heights Z and S as shown in Figure F-3(b), the equation for Z− = 7.50 ft (from Table F-7.1)
horizontal stress at any depth Z within the MSE wall can be Z+ = 10.00 ft (from Table F-7.1)
written as follows: • Obtain Kr by linear interpolation between 1.7Ka = 0.481 at
Z = 0.00 ft and 1.2Ka = 0.340 at Z = 20.00 ft as follows:
σ H = K r ( γ r Z ) γ P-EV + K r ( γ r S ) γ P-EV = K r [ γ r ( Z + S ) γ P-EV ]
At Z− = 7.50 ft, Kr(Z−) = 0.340 + (20.00 ft − 7.50 ft)(0.481-
Once the horizontal stress is computed at any given level of
0.340)/20.00 ft = 0.428
reinforcement, the maximum tension, Tmax, is computed as
At Z+ = 10.00 ft, Kr(Z+) = 0.340 + (20.00 ft − 10.00 ft)(0.481-
follows:
0.340)/20.00 ft = 0.411
Tmax = ( σ H )( A trib )
• Compute σH-soil = [Kr σv-soil]γP-EV as follows:
where Atrib is the tributary area for the soil reinforcement at a γP-EV = 1.35 from Table F-5.1
given level.
At Z− = 7.50 ft,
For the coherent gravity method the factored horizontal
σv-soil(Z−) = (0.125 kcf)(7.50 ft) = 0.94 ksf
stress at each reinforcement level is computed as
σH-soil(Z−) = [Kr(Zp−)σv-soil(z−)]γP-EV = (0.428)(0.94 ksf)(1.35) =
σH = Krσv 0.54 ksf
where σv is the pressure due to resultant vertical forces at the At Z+ = 10.00 ft,
reinforcement level being evaluated, determined using a uni- σv-soil(Z+) = (0.125 kcf)(10.00 ft) = 1.25 ksf
form pressure distribution over an effective width (L-2e) as σH-soil(Z+) = [Kr(Zp+)σv-soil(z+)]γP-EV = (0.411)(1.25 ksf)(1.35) =
specified in AASHTO (2009), Article 10.6.1.3, where e is the 0.69 ksf
load eccentricity. The vertical effective stress at each level of σH-soil = 0.5(0.54 ksf + 0.69 ksf) = 0.62 ksf
reinforcement shall consider the local equilibrium of all
• Compute σH-surcharge = [Kr σ2]γP-EV as follows:
forces at that level only. Forces used to compute σv (EV and
σ2 = (1/2)(0.7Htanβ)(γf) (from Figure F-3(b))
EH) are factored as described in Table F-5.1.
σ2 = (1/2)(0.7ⴱ30 ft)[tan (26.56°)](0.125 kcf) = 0.656 ksf
The computations for Tmax using the simplified method for
γP-EV = 1.35 from Table F-5.1
Case 1 are illustrated at z = 8.75 ft, which is Level 4 in the
assumed vertical layout of reinforcement. Assume Strength I At Z− = 7.50 ft,
(max) load combination for illustration purposes and use σH-surcharge = [Kr(Z−) σ2]γP-EV = (0.428)(0.656 ksf)(1.35) =
appropriate load factors from Table F-5.1. 0.38 ksf

Table F-7.2. Summary of load components

leading to horizontal stress.

Load Component Load Type Horizontal Stress

Soil load from reinforced mass, v-soil EV H-soil = [Kr v-soil] P-EV
Surcharge load due to backslope, 2 EV H-surcharge = [Kr 2] P-EV
 75

V2=L(h-z)γr/2

(2/3)L

h = z + Ltan(β) V1=γrzL
L/2 FTV
z

FTH

(a)

(b)

Figure F-3. Legend for computation of forces and moments for (a) internal
stability analysis with the coherent gravity method, and (b) internal stability
analysis with the simplified method (not-to-scale).

At Z+ = 10.00 ft, • The maximum tension at Level 4 is computed as follows:

σH-surcharge = [Kr(Z+) σ2]γP-ES = (0.411)(0.656 ksf)(1.35) Tmax = (σH)(Atrib) = (0.99 ksf)(12.50 ft2) = 12.37 k for panel
= 0.36 ksf of 5-ft width
σH-surcharge = 0.5(0.38 ksf + 0.36 ksf) = 0.37 ksf
• Compute σH = σH-soil + σH-surcharge as follows: Using similar computations, the various quantities can
σH = 0.62 ksf + 0.37 ksf = 0.99 ksf be developed at other levels of reinforcements and load
• Based on Table F-7.1, the vertical tributary spacing at Level 4 combinations.
is Svt = 2.50 ft The computations for Tmax using the coherent method for
• The panel width, wp, is 5.00 ft (given in Step 1) Case 1 are similar, however σv is computed based on the equi-
• The tributary area, Atrib, is computed as follows: librium of forces and moments using a force diagram similar
Atrib = (2.50 ft)(5.00 ft) = 12.50 ft2 to Figure F-3(a) for each level of reinforcement. Equations for
76

unfactored vertical forces and moments for coherent gravity Location of the resultant from 9.10 ft
method are as follows: Point A = (MRA − MOA)/VA
Eccentricity of Vertical load @ 2.90 ft
Moment arm Z = 30 ft = 0.5ⴱL − a
Force LRFD (Length units) Effective width @ Z = 30 ft = L-2eL 18.20 ft
(Force/length units) Load Type @ Point A σv @t Z = 30 ft =ΣV/(L-2eL) = σv 10.19 ksf
V1 = (γr)(z)(L) EV L/2 Horizontal stress, σH, and tensile force, Tmax, are computed
⎛ 1⎞ using Kr appropriate to the coherent gravity method, and
V2 = ⎜ ⎟ (L)(L tan β)(γf) EV (2/3)L
⎝ 2⎠ tributary area as demonstrated for the simplified method.
FTV = (1/2)(γr)(h2)(Kaf)(sinβ) EH L
FTH = (1/2)(γr)(h2)(Kaf)(cosβ) EH h/3
7.4 Establish nominal and factored long-term
Note: h = z + Ltanβ tensile resistance of soil reinforcement
• Compute unfactored vertical forces and moments at Z = 30 ft The nominal tensile resistance of soil reinforcements is
(about Point A in Figure F-3(a)) based on the design life and estimated loss of steel over the
design life during corrosion. Table F-7.3 is a summary of the
V1 = 90.00 k/ft MV1 = 90 × 12 = 1080.00 k-ft/ft metal loss models recommended in this report and the esti-
V2 = 18.00 k/ft MV2 = 18 × 16 = 288.00 k-ft/ft mated metal loss per side (i.e., sacrificial steel requirements) for
FTV = 26.48 k/ft MFTV = 26.48 × 24 = 635.44 k-ft/ft each case considered in this example. For galvanized reinforce-
FTH = 52.95 k/ft MFTH = 52.95 × 14 = 741.35 k-ft/ft ments it is assumed that steel corrosion is initiated subsequent
• Compute factored moments and forces at Z = 30 ft. (Checks
to depletion of zinc. For fill materials that meet AASHTO
requirements and an initial zinc thickness, zi = 86 μm, zinc life
with Strength I maximum and minimum load factors are
is computed as 16 years using the AASHTO metal loss model
necessary. Strength I Max was determined to govern for this
described in Table 3 of this report and per Article 11.10.6.4.2a
case and only these calculations are shown here.)
of AASHTO (2009).
Vertical load @Z = 30 ft, VAb1 = V1+V2 145.80 k/ft Considering Case 1 (described in Step 1) and a design life of
Vertical load @Z = 30 ft, VAb2 = FTV 39.72 k/ft 75 years, the anticipated thickness loss is calculated as follows:
Total vertical @Z = 30 ft, 185.52 k/ft
E R = 708 μm × ( 2 sides ) = 1416 μm ( 0.056 in.) , and
ΣV = R = VAb1+VAb2
E C = 4 mm − 1.416 mm = 2.58 mm ( 0.102 in.)
Resisting moments about Point A, 1846.80 k-ft/ft
MRA1 = MV1+MV2 Based on a 50 mm wide strip, the cross-sectional area at
Resisting moments about Point A, 953.17 k-ft/ft the end of 75 years will be equal to (50 mm) × (2.58 mm) =
MRA2 = MFTV 129 mm2 (0.2 in.2)
Total resisting moment @ Point A, 2799.97 k-ft/ft For Grade 65 steel with Fy = 65 ksi, the nominal tensile
MRA = MRA1+MRA2 resistance at the end of a 75 year design life will be Tn = 65 ksi
Overturning moments @ Point A, 1112.03 k-ft/ft (0.200 in.2) = 13.00 k/strip. Using the resistance factor, φt = 0.75
MOA = MFTH as listed in Table F-5.2 for galvanized strip-type reinforce-
Net moment at Point A, 1687.94 k-ft/ft ments in high quality fill, the factored tensile resistance,
MA = MRA − MOA Tr = 13.00 k/strip (0.75) = 9.75 k/strip.

Table F-7.3. Basis for computing sacrificial steel requirements.

Fill tdesign X (tdesign)

Reinforcement Recommended Metal Loss Model
Quality μm)
(years) (μ
Galvanized, zi = 86 μm High X (μm) = (tdesign – 16 years) x 12 75 708
μm/yr
Galvanized, zi = 86 μm Good X (μm) = (tdesign – 16 years) x 12 75 708
μm/yr
Galvanized, zi = 86 μm Marginal X (μm) = (tdesign – 10 years) x 28 50 1120
μm/yr
Plain Steel High X (μm) = tdesign x 13 μm/yr 75 975
Plain Steel Good X (μm) = 80 x tdesign0.8 50 1829
 77

Considering Case 2, the cross-sectional area at the end of • Compute nominal pullout resistance as follows:
75 years for a Wll cold drawn wire will be equal to π(0.374
Pr = α(Fⴱ)(2)(b)(Le)[(σv-soil)(γP-EV)]
in (initial diameter of W11) − 0.056 in (loss of diameter))2/
Pr = (1.0)(1.420)(2)(0.164 ft)(13.41 ft)(2.175 ksf)
4 = 0.079 in2. Tn = 65 ksi (0.079 in2) = 5.14 k/wire. Using
= 13.58 k/strip
φt = 0.70 as listed in Table F-5.2 for galvanized grids in high
quality fill, the factored tensile resistance, Tf = 5.14 k/wire • Compute factored pullout resistance as follows:
(0.70) = 3.61 k/wire. Prr = φPr = (0.90)(13.58 k/strip) = 12.23 k/strip

Using similar computations, the various quantities can be

7.5 Establish nominal and factored pullout
developed at other levels of reinforcements and load combi-
resistance of soil reinforcement
nations. These calculations are similar for grid-type reinforce-
The nominal pullout resistance, Pr, of galvanized steel, ments but with the appropriate factor for Fⴱ. Calculations of
ribbed, and strip-type soil reinforcements is computed with pullout resistance are the same using either the simplified or
the following equation: coherent gravity methods.
Pr = α ( F ∗)( 2b )( L e )[( σ v )( γ P-EV )]
7.6 Establish number of soil reinforcements at
For Case 1, the following parameters are constant at all lev- each level of reinforcement
els of reinforcements:
Based on Tmax, Tr, and Prr, the number of strip reinforce-
b = 1.969 in. = 0.164 ft ments at any given level of reinforcements can be computed
α = 1.0 for inextensible reinforcement per Table 11.10.6.3.2-1 as follows:
of AAASHTO (2009)
• Based on tensile resistance considerations, the number of
The computations for Pr are illustrated for Case 1 at strip reinforcements, Nt, is computed as follows:
z = 8.75 ft which is Level 4 as measured from the top of the wall.
N t = Tmax Tr
Assume Strength I (max) load combination for illustration pur-
poses and use appropriate load factors from Table F-5.1. • Based on pullout resistance considerations, the number of
strip reinforcements, Np, is computed as follows:
• Compute effective (resisting) length, Le, as follows:
N p = Tmax Prr
Since Z < H1/2, active length La = 0.3(H1) and Le = L − La =
L − 0.3(H1) Based on Tmax, Tr and Prr, the number of longitudinal wires
H1= H + ΔH for grid-type reinforcements at any given level of reinforce-

ΔH =
( tan β )(0.3 H ) = (0.5)(0.3 × 30 ft ) = 5.29 ft ments can be computed as follows:
1 − 0.3 tan β 1 − 0.3( 0.5 )
• Assume spacing of the longitudinal wires, Sl = 6 in. = 0.5 ft
H1 = H + ΔH = 30.00 ft + 5.29 ft = 35.29 ft • Based on tensile resistance considerations, the number of
Active length, La = 0.3(35.29 ft) = 10.59 ft longitudinal wires, Nt, is computed as follows:
Effective (resisting) length, Le = 24.00 ft − 10.59 ft = 13.41 ft
N t = Tmax Tr
• Compute (σv)(γP-EV)

As per Figure F-3(b), σv = γr(Zp-ave) • Based on pullout resistance considerations, the number of
Zp-ave = Z + 0.5 tanβ (La + L) = 8.75 ft + 0.5[tan(26.56°)] longitudinal wires, Np, is computed as follows:
(10.59 ft + 24.00 ft) = 17.40 ft N p = 1 + ( Tmax Prr ) ( S1 )
Per Article 11.10.6.3.2 of AASHTO (2009), use unfactored
vertical stress for pullout resistance. Thus, Considering Case 1 and the Level 4 reinforcement at
γP-EV = 1.00 Z = 8.75 ft, the number of strip reinforcements can be com-
σv(γP-EV) = (0.125 kcf)(17.40 ft) (1.00) = 2.175 ksf puted as follows:
• Obtain Fⴱ at Z = 8.75 ft
• Tmax = 12.36 k for panel of 5-ft width, Tr = 10.41 k/strip,
Obtain Fⴱ by linear interpolation between 2.000 at Z = 0
Prr = 12.23 k/strip
and 0.675 at Z = 20.00 ft as follows:
• Nt = Tmax/Tr = (12.36 k for panel of 5-ft width)/(10.41 k/strip)
Fⴱ = 0.675 + (20.00 ft − 8.75 ft)(2.000 − 0.675)/20 ft = 1.420 = 1.19 strips for panel of 5-ft width
78

Table F-7.4 (a). Simplified method—computed reinforcement

requirements.

Fill Reinforcement tdesign As per 5-ft. wide panel

Case Galvanized
Quality Type (years) (in.2)
1 High Yes Strip 75 8.1
2 High Yes Grid 75 7.1
3 Good Yes Strip 75 9.0
4 Good Yes Grid 75 8.9
5 Marginal Yes Grid 50 17.0/16.41
6 High No Strip 75 13.0
7 High No Grid 75 13.8
8 Good No Strip 50 16.7
9 Good No Grid 50 19.2

Table F-7.4 (b). Coherent gravity method—computed

reinforcement requirements.

Fill Reinforcement tdesign As per 5 ft. wide panel

Case Galvanized
Quality Type (years) (in2)
1 High Yes Strip 75 9.0
2 High Yes Grid 75 7.3
3 Good Yes Strip 75 10.2
4 Good Yes Grid 75 8.9
5 Marginal Yes Grid 50 17.6/17.01
6 High No Strip 75 14.4
7 High No Grid 75 14.0
8 Good No Strip 50 18.0
9 Good No Grid 50 19.6
1
Model I/Model II— demonstrates that resistance factors are calibrated with respect to
different models to render similar designs.

• Np = Tmax/Prr = (12.36 k for panel of 5-ft width)/(12.23 k/ same probability that reinforcement resistance may fall below
strip) = 1.01 strips for panel of 5-ft width acceptable levels before the end of the design life (pf = 0.01).
• Since Nt > Np, tension breakage is the governing criteria This example demonstrates that the designs executed with
and therefore the governing value, Ng, is 1.19. Round up to Models I or II and corresponding resistance factors are
select two strips at Level 4 for each panel of 5-ft width. indeed similar.
These results demonstrate the advantages of using galvanized
The computations in Sections 7.4 to 7.6 are repeated at steel to reduce the sacrificial steel requirements. Reinforcement
each level of reinforcement. Tables of results from the com- requirements for plain steel are between 1.5 and 2.0 times
putations at all levels of reinforcement for Strength I (max) higher in terms of cross-sectional area (As) compared to when
load combination and Cases 1–9 are included at the end of galvanized steel reinforcements are used in similar fill condi-
this appendix. The last column of the tables for Cases 1, 3, 6, tions (e.g., Case 1 compared to Case 6, Case 2 compared to
and 8 provides horizontal spacing of the reinforcing strips, Case 7, Case 3 compared to Case 8, and Case 4 compared to
which is obtained by dividing the panel width, wp, by the gov- Case 9). Designs achieved using the simplified method of analy-
erning number of strips, Ng. sis are close to those rendered with the coherent gravity method
Tables F-7.4(a) and (b) summarize the steel requirements when the same resistance factors are applied. This is expected
computed using the Simplified and Coherent Gravity Meth- because the simplified method was calibrated to render results
ods, respectively, for Cases 1–9 in terms of the steel area (As) similar to the coherent gravity method. However, when com-
required for each 5-ft width of the wall (corresponding to the paring details of the designs achieved with the coherent gravity
width of the precast concrete facing panel). compared to the simplified methods, the distributions of
Both Models I and II are used to compute nominal steel the reinforcements are different. Use of the coherent gravity
requirements for Case 5. As described in the report, Model method results in fewer reinforcements placed near the top of
II renders twice the nominal sacrificial steel compared to the wall and more reinforcements placed near the bottom com-
Model I, but resistance factors are calibrated to render the pared to designs achieved with the simplified method.
 CASE 1

H= 30 ft Ka= 0.283 p= 0.9 X= 708 m = 0.027874 in

L= 24 ft P-EV = 1.35 t= 0.8 t= 75 yrs
tan 0.5 2= 0.65625 ksf b= 0.164 ft zi= 86 m
H= 5.294118 ft F*min=tan( r)= 0.674502089 CRz0-z2= 15 m/yr
H1= 35.29412 ft F*max= 2 CRz2+= 4 m/yr
La= 10.58824 ft CRsteel= 12 m/yr
r= 125 pcf s= 4 mm = 0.15748 in
Cu= 7 Fy= 65 ksi

GALVANIZED STEEL STRIPS AND HIGH QUALITY FILL ( min >10,000 cm)
SIMPLIFIED METHOD
Level Z Zp-ave H Tmax F* Le pP r tTn Np Nt Ng Sh
(ft) (ft) ksf k/ 5 ft wide panel dim (ft) k/strip k/strip - - - (ft)
1 1.25 9.90 0.52 6.45 1.917 13.41 9.39 10.41 0.7 0.6 2 2.50
2 3.75 12.40 0.69 8.61 1.751 13.41 10.75 10.41 0.8 0.8 2 2.50
3 6.25 14.90 0.85 10.57 1.586 13.41 11.69 10.41 0.9 1.0 2 2.50
4 8.75 17.40 0.99 12.36 1.420 13.41 12.23 10.41 1.0 1.2 2 2.50
5 11.25 19.90 1.12 13.95 1.254 13.41 12.35 10.41 1.1 1.3 2 2.50
6 13.75 22.19 1.23 15.36 1.089 14.25 12.70 10.41 1.2 1.5 2 2.50
7 16.25 24.31 1.33 16.58 0.923 15.75 13.04 10.41 1.3 1.6 2 2.50
8 18.75 26.44 1.41 17.62 0.757 17.25 12.74 10.41 1.4 1.7 2 2.50
9 21.25 28.56 1.52 18.98 0.675 18.75 13.33 10.41 1.4 1.8 2 2.50
10 23.75 30.69 1.66 20.77 0.675 20.25 15.47 10.41 1.3 2.0 2 2.50
11 26.25 32.81 1.81 22.56 0.675 21.75 17.76 10.41 1.3 2.2 3 1.67
12 28.75 34.94 1.95 24.36 0.675 23.25 20.22 10.41 1.2 2.3 3 1.67
Asum = 8.06
 CASE 2

H= 30 ft Ka= 0.283 p= 0.9 X= 708 m = 0.027874016 in

L= 24 ft P-EV = 1.35 t= 0.7 t= 75 yrs
tan 0.5 2= 0.65625 ksf St= 1 ft zi= 86 m
*
H= 5.294118 ft F min= 0.311666667 Sl= 0.5 ft CRz0-z2= 15 m/yr
H1= 35.29412 ft F*max= 0.623333333 Tranverse W11 0.374 in diameter CRz2+= 4 m/yr
La= 10.58824 ft CRsteel= 12 m/yr
r= 125 pcf Longitudinal W11 0.374 in diameter
Fy= 65 ksi

GALVANIZED GRIDS AND HIGH QUALITY FILL ( min > 10,000 -cm)
SIMPLIFIED METHOD
Level Z Zp-ave H Tmax F* Le pPr tTn Np Nt Ng Bar Mat
(ft) (ft) ksf k/ 5 ft wide panel dim (ft) k/ft k/wire - - - -
1 1.25 9.90 0.75 9.32 0.604 13.41 18.03 3.62 2.0 2.6 3 3W11 + W11 x 1.0'
2 3.75 12.40 0.96 12.06 0.565 13.41 21.13 3.62 2.1 3.3 4 4W11 + W11 x 1.0'
3 6.25 14.90 1.15 14.31 0.526 13.41 23.64 3.62 2.2 4.0 4 4W11 + W11 x 1.0'
4 8.75 17.40 1.29 16.08 0.487 13.41 25.57 3.62 2.3 4.4 5 5W11 + W11 x 1.0'
5 11.25 19.90 1.39 17.36 0.448 13.41 26.90 3.62 2.3 4.8 5 5W11 + W11 x 1.0'
6 13.75 22.19 1.45 18.16 0.409 14.25 29.10 3.62 2.2 5.0 6 6W11 + W11 x 1.0'
7 16.25 24.31 1.48 18.47 0.370 15.75 31.89 3.62 2.2 5.1 6 6W11 + W11 x 1.0'
8 18.75 26.44 1.46 18.30 0.331 17.25 33.98 3.62 2.1 5.1 6 6W11 + W11 x 1.0'
9 21.25 28.56 1.52 18.98 0.312 18.75 37.56 3.62 2.0 5.2 6 6W11 + W11 x 1.0'
10 23.75 30.69 1.66 20.77 0.312 20.25 43.58 3.62 2.0 5.7 6 6W11 + W11 x 1.0'
11 26.25 32.81 1.81 22.56 0.312 21.75 50.05 3.62 1.9 6.2 7 7W11 + W11 x 1.0'
12 28.75 34.94 1.95 24.36 0.312 23.25 56.96 3.62 1.9 6.7 7 7W11 + W11 x 1.0'
Asum = 7.14
 CASE 3

H= 30 ft Ka= 0.283 p= 0.9 X= 708 m = 0.027874 in

L= 24 ft P-EV = 1.35 t= 0.65 t= 75 yrs
tan 0.5 2= 0.65625 ksf b= 0.164 ft zi= 86 m
H= 5.294118 ft F*min=tan( r)= 0.674502089 CRz0-z2= 15 m/yr
H1= 35.29412 ft F*max= 2 CRz2+= 4 m/yr
La= 10.58824 ft CRsteel= 12 m/yr
r= 125 pcf s= 4 mm = 0.15748 in
Cu= 7 Fy= 65 ksi

GALVANIZED STRIPS AND GOOD QUALITY FILL (3000 -cm< min < 10,000 -cm)
SIMPLIFIED METHOD
Level Z Zp-ave H Tmax F* Le pP r tTn Np Nt Ng Sh
(ft) (ft) ksf k/ 5 ft wide panel dim (ft) k/strip k/strip - - - (ft)
1 1.25 9.90 0.52 6.45 1.917 13.41 9.39 8.46 0.7 0.8 2 2.50
2 3.75 12.40 0.69 8.61 1.751 13.41 10.75 8.46 0.8 1.0 2 2.50
3 6.25 14.90 0.85 10.57 1.586 13.41 11.69 8.46 0.9 1.3 2 2.50
4 8.75 17.40 0.99 12.36 1.420 13.41 12.23 8.46 1.0 1.5 2 2.50
5 11.25 19.90 1.12 13.95 1.254 13.41 12.35 8.46 1.1 1.6 2 2.50
6 13.75 22.19 1.23 15.36 1.089 14.25 12.70 8.46 1.2 1.8 2 2.50
7 16.25 24.31 1.33 16.58 0.923 15.75 13.04 8.46 1.3 2.0 2 2.50
8 18.75 26.44 1.41 17.62 0.757 17.25 12.74 8.46 1.4 2.1 3 1.67
9 21.25 28.56 1.52 18.98 0.675 18.75 13.33 8.46 1.4 2.2 3 1.67
10 23.75 30.69 1.66 20.77 0.675 20.25 15.47 8.46 1.3 2.5 3 1.67
11 26.25 32.81 1.81 22.56 0.675 21.75 17.76 8.46 1.3 2.7 3 1.67
12 28.75 34.94 1.95 24.36 0.675 23.25 20.22 8.46 1.2 2.9 3 1.67
Asum = 8.99
 CASE 4

H= 30 ft Ka= 0.283 p= 0.9 X= 708 m = 0.027874016 in

L= 24 ft P-EV = 1.35 t= 0.55 t= 75 yrs
tan 0.5 2= 0.65625 ksf St= 1.0 ft z i= 86 m
H= 5.294118 ft F*min= 0.311666667 Sl= 0.5 ft CRz0-z2= 15 m/yr
H1= 35.29412 ft F*max= 0.623333333 Tranverse W11 0.374 in diameter CRz2+= 4 m/yr
La= 10.58824 ft CRsteel= 12 m/yr
r= 125 pcf Longitudinal W11 0.374 in diameter
Fy= 65 ksi

GALVANIZED GRIDS AND GOOD QUALITY FILL (3000 -cm< min < 10,000 -cm)
SIMPLIFIED METHOD
Level Z Zp-ave H Tmax F* Le p Pr tTn Np Nt Ng Bar Mat
(ft) (ft) ksf k/ 5 ft wide panel dim (ft) k/ft k/wire - - - -
1 1.25 9.90 0.75 9.32 0.604 13.41 18.03 2.84 2.0 3.3 4 4W11 + W11 x 1.0'
2 3.75 12.40 0.96 12.06 0.565 13.41 21.13 2.84 2.1 4.2 5 5W11 + W11 x 1.0'
3 6.25 14.90 1.15 14.31 0.526 13.41 23.64 2.84 2.2 5.0 6 6W11 + W11 x 1.0'
4 8.75 17.40 1.29 16.08 0.487 13.41 25.57 2.84 2.3 5.7 6 6W11 + W11 x 1.0'
5 11.25 19.90 1.39 17.36 0.448 13.41 26.90 2.84 2.3 6.1 7 7W11 + W11 x 1.0'
6 13.75 22.19 1.45 18.16 0.409 14.25 29.10 2.84 2.2 6.4 7 7W11 + W11 x 1.0'
7 16.25 24.31 1.48 18.47 0.370 15.75 31.89 2.84 2.2 6.5 7 7W11 + W11 x 1.0'
8 18.75 26.44 1.46 18.30 0.331 17.25 33.98 2.84 2.1 6.4 7 7W11 + W11 x 1.0'
9 21.25 28.56 1.52 18.98 0.312 18.75 37.56 2.84 2.0 6.7 7 7W11 + W11 x 1.0'
10 23.75 30.69 1.66 20.77 0.312 20.25 43.58 2.84 2.0 7.3 8 8W11 + W11 x 1.0'
11 26.25 32.81 1.81 22.56 0.312 21.75 50.05 2.84 1.9 7.9 8 8W11 + W11 x 1.0'
12 28.75 34.94 1.95 24.36 0.312 23.25 56.96 2.84 1.9 8.6 9 9W11 + W11 x 1.0'
Asum = 8.90
 CASE 5(a) - Model I

H= 30 ft Ka= 0.283 p= 0.9 X= 1120 m = 0.044094488 in

L= 24 ft P-EV = 1.35 t= 0.3 t= 50 yrs
tan 0.5 2= 0.65625 ksf St= 1.0 ft zi = 86 m
H= 5.294118 ft F*min= 0.311666667 Sl= 0.5 ft CRz0-z2= 8.6 m/yr
H1= 35.29412 ft F*max= 0.623333333 Tranverse W11 0.374 in diameter CRz2+= 8.6 m/yr
La= 10.58824 ft CRsteel= 28 m/yr
r= 125 pcf Longitudinal W20 0.505 in diameter
Fy= 65 ksi

GALVANIZED GRIDS AND MARGINAL QUALITY FILL (1000 -cm< min < 3,000 -cm)
SIMPLIFIED METHOD
Level Z Zp-ave H Tmax F* Le pPr tTn Np Nt Ng Bar Mat
(ft) (ft) ksf k/ 5 ft wide panel dim (ft) k/ft k/wire - - - -
1 1.25 9.90 0.75 9.32 0.604 13.41 18.03 2.66 2.0 3.5 4 4W20 + W11 x 1.0'
2 3.75 12.40 0.96 12.06 0.565 13.41 21.13 2.66 2.1 4.5 5 5W20 + W11 x 1.0'
3 6.25 14.90 1.15 14.31 0.526 13.41 23.64 2.66 2.2 5.4 6 6W20 + W11 x 1.0'
4 8.75 17.40 1.29 16.08 0.487 13.41 25.57 2.66 2.3 6.0 7 7W20 + W11 x 1.0'
5 11.25 19.90 1.39 17.36 0.448 13.41 26.90 2.66 2.3 6.5 7 7W20 + W11 x 1.0'
6 13.75 22.19 1.45 18.16 0.409 14.25 29.10 2.66 2.2 6.8 7 7W20 + W11 x 1.0'
7 16.25 24.31 1.48 18.47 0.370 15.75 31.89 2.66 2.2 6.9 7 7W20 + W11 x 1.0'
8 18.75 26.44 1.46 18.30 0.331 17.25 33.98 2.66 2.1 6.9 7 7W20 + W11 x 1.0'
9 21.25 28.56 1.52 18.98 0.312 18.75 37.56 2.66 2.0 7.1 8 8W20 + W11 x 1.0'
10 23.75 30.69 1.66 20.77 0.312 20.25 43.58 2.66 2.0 7.8 8 8W20 + W11 x 1.0'
11 26.25 32.81 1.81 22.56 0.312 21.75 50.05 2.66 1.9 8.5 9 9W20 + W11 x 1.0'
12 28.75 34.94 1.95 24.36 0.312 23.25 56.96 2.66 1.9 9.2 10 10W20 + W11 x 1.0'
Asum = 17.03
 CASE 5(b) - Model II

H= 30 ft Ka= 0.283 p= 0.9 X= 2240 m = 0.088188976 in

L= 24 ft P-EV = 1.35 t= 0.5 t= 50 yrs
tan 0.5 2= 0.65625 ksf St= 1.0 ft zi = 86 m
H= 5.294118 ft F*min= 0.311666667 Sl= 0.5 ft CRz0-z2= 8.6 m/yr
H1= 35.29412 ft F*max= 0.623333333 Tranverse W11 0.374 in diameter CRz2+= 8.6 m/yr
La= 10.58824 ft CRsteel= 56 m/yr
r= 125 pcf Longitudinal W20 0.505 in diameter
Fy= 65 ksi

GALVANIZED GRIDS AND MARGINAL QUALITY FILL (1000 -cm< min < 3,000 -cm)
SIMPLIFIED METHOD
Level Z Zp-ave H Tmax F* Le pPr tTn Np Nt Ng Bar Mat
(ft) (ft) ksf k/ 5 ft wide panel dim (ft) k/ft k/wire - - - -
1 1.25 9.90 0.75 9.32 0.604 13.41 18.03 2.76 2.0 3.4 4 4W20 + W11 x 1.0'
2 3.75 12.40 0.96 12.06 0.565 13.41 21.13 2.76 2.1 4.4 5 5W20 + W11 x 1.0'
3 6.25 14.90 1.15 14.31 0.526 13.41 23.64 2.76 2.2 5.2 6 6W20 + W11 x 1.0'
4 8.75 17.40 1.29 16.08 0.487 13.41 25.57 2.76 2.3 5.8 6 6W20 + W11 x 1.0'
5 11.25 19.90 1.39 17.36 0.448 13.41 26.90 2.76 2.3 6.3 7 7W20 + W11 x 1.0'
6 13.75 22.19 1.45 18.16 0.409 14.25 29.10 2.76 2.2 6.6 7 7W20 + W11 x 1.0'
7 16.25 24.31 1.48 18.47 0.370 15.75 31.89 2.76 2.2 6.7 7 7W20 + W11 x 1.0'
8 18.75 26.44 1.46 18.30 0.331 17.25 33.98 2.76 2.1 6.6 7 7W20 + W11 x 1.0'
9 21.25 28.56 1.52 18.98 0.312 18.75 37.56 2.76 2.0 6.9 7 7W20 + W11 x 1.0'
10 23.75 30.69 1.66 20.77 0.312 20.25 43.58 2.76 2.0 7.5 8 8W20 + W11 x 1.0'
11 26.25 32.81 1.81 22.56 0.312 21.75 50.05 2.76 1.9 8.2 9 9W20 + W11 x 1.0'
12 28.75 34.94 1.95 24.36 0.312 23.25 56.96 2.76 1.9 8.8 9 9W20 + W11 x 1.0'
Asum = 16.42
 CASE 6

H= 30 ft K a= 0.283 p= 0.9 X= 975 m = 0.038386 in

L= 24 ft P-EV = 1.35 t= 0.45 t= 75 yrs
tan 0.5 2= 0.65625 ksf b= 0.164 ft
H= 5.294118 ft F*min=tan( r)= 0.674502089
H1= 35.29412 ft F*max= 2
La= 10.58824 ft
r= 125 pcf s= 6 mm = 0.23622 in
C u= 7 Fy= 65 ksi

PLAIN STEEL STRIPS AND HIGH QUALITY FILL ( min >10,000 cm)
SIMPLIFIED METHOD
Level Z Zp-ave H Tmax F* Le pPr tTn Np Nt Ng Sh
(ft) (ft) ksf k/ 5 ft wide panel dim (ft) k/strip k/strip - - - (ft)
1 1.25 9.90 0.52 6.45 1.917 13.41 9.39 9.18 0.7 0.7 2 2.50
2 3.75 12.40 0.69 8.61 1.751 13.41 10.75 9.18 0.8 0.9 2 2.50
3 6.25 14.90 0.85 10.57 1.586 13.41 11.69 9.18 0.9 1.2 2 2.50
4 8.75 17.40 0.99 12.36 1.420 13.41 12.23 9.18 1.0 1.3 2 2.50
5 11.25 19.90 1.12 13.95 1.254 13.41 12.35 9.18 1.1 1.5 2 2.50
6 13.75 22.19 1.23 15.36 1.089 14.25 12.70 9.18 1.2 1.7 2 2.50
7 16.25 24.31 1.33 16.58 0.923 15.75 13.04 9.18 1.3 1.8 2 2.50
8 18.75 26.44 1.41 17.62 0.757 17.25 12.74 9.18 1.4 1.9 2 2.50
9 21.25 28.56 1.52 18.98 0.675 18.75 13.33 9.18 1.4 2.1 3 1.67
10 23.75 30.69 1.66 20.77 0.675 20.25 15.47 9.18 1.3 2.3 3 1.67
11 26.25 32.81 1.81 22.56 0.675 21.75 17.76 9.18 1.3 2.5 3 1.67
12 28.75 34.94 1.95 24.36 0.675 23.25 20.22 9.18 1.2 2.7 3 1.67
Asum = 13.02
 CASE 7

H= 30 ft Ka= 0.283 p= 0.9 X= 975 m = 0.038385827 in

L= 24 ft P-EV = 1.35 t= 0.35 t= 75 yrs
tan 0.5 2= 0.65625 ksf St= 1 ft
H= 5.294118 ft F*min= 0.311666667 S l= 0.5 ft
H1= 35.29412 ft F*max= 0.623333333 Tranverse W11 0.374 in diameter
La= 10.58824 ft
r= 125 pcf Longitudinal W20 0.505 in diameter
Fy= 65 ksi

PLAIN STEEL GRIDS AND HIGH QUALITY FILL ( min > 10,000 -cm)
SIMPLIFIED METHOD
Level Z Zp-ave H Tmax F* Le p Pr tTn Np Nt Ng Bar Mat
(ft) (ft) ksf k/ 5 ft wide panel dim (ft) k/ft k/wire - - - -
1 1.25 9.90 0.75 9.32 0.604 13.41 18.03 3.28 2.0 2.8 3 3W20 + W11x 1.0'
2 3.75 12.40 0.96 12.06 0.565 13.41 21.13 3.28 2.1 3.7 4 4W20 + W11x 1.0'
3 6.25 14.90 1.15 14.31 0.526 13.41 23.64 3.28 2.2 4.4 5 5W20 + W11x 1.0'
4 8.75 17.40 1.29 16.08 0.487 13.41 25.57 3.28 2.3 4.9 5 5W20 + W11x 1.0'
5 11.25 19.90 1.39 17.36 0.448 13.41 26.90 3.28 2.3 5.3 6 6W20 + W11x 1.0'
6 13.75 22.19 1.45 18.16 0.409 14.25 29.10 3.28 2.2 5.5 6 6W20 + W11x 1.0'
7 16.25 24.31 1.48 18.47 0.370 15.75 31.89 3.28 2.2 5.6 6 6W20 + W11x 1.0'
8 18.75 26.44 1.46 18.30 0.331 17.25 33.98 3.28 2.1 5.6 6 6W20 + W11x 1.0'
9 21.25 28.56 1.52 18.98 0.312 18.75 37.56 3.28 2.0 5.8 6 6W20 + W11x 1.0'
10 23.75 30.69 1.66 20.77 0.312 20.25 43.58 3.28 2.0 6.3 7 7W20 + W11x 1.0'
11 26.25 32.81 1.81 22.56 0.312 21.75 50.05 3.28 1.9 6.9 7 7W20 + W11x 1.0'
12 28.75 34.94 1.95 24.36 0.312 23.25 56.96 3.28 1.9 7.4 8 8W20 + W11x 1.0'
Asum = 13.82
 CASE 8

H= 30 ft K a= 0.283 p= 0.9 X= 1829.22 m = 0.072017 in

L= 24 ft P-EV = 1.35 t= 0.45 t= 50 yrs
tan 0.5 2= 0.65625 ksf b= 0.164 ft
H= 5.294118 ft F*min=tan( r)= 0.674502089
H1= 35.29412 ft F*max= 2
La= 10.58824 ft
r= 125 pcf s= 8 mm = 0.314961 in
C u= 7 Fy= 65 ksi

PLAIN STEEL STRIPS AND GOOD QUALITY FILL (3000 -cm< min < 10,000 -cm)
SIMPLIFIED METHOD
Level Z Zp-ave H Tmax F* Le pPr tTn Np Nt Ng Sh
(ft) (ft) ksf k/ 5 ft wide panel dim (ft) k/strip k/strip - - - (ft)
1 1.25 9.90 0.52 6.45 1.917 13.41 9.39 9.84 0.7 0.7 2 2.50
2 3.75 12.40 0.69 8.61 1.751 13.41 10.75 9.84 0.8 0.9 2 2.50
3 6.25 14.90 0.85 10.57 1.586 13.41 11.69 9.84 0.9 1.1 2 2.50
4 8.75 17.40 0.99 12.36 1.420 13.41 12.23 9.84 1.0 1.3 2 2.50
5 11.25 19.90 1.12 13.95 1.254 13.41 12.35 9.84 1.1 1.4 2 2.50
6 13.75 22.19 1.23 15.36 1.089 14.25 12.70 9.84 1.2 1.6 2 2.50
7 16.25 24.31 1.33 16.58 0.923 15.75 13.04 9.84 1.3 1.7 2 2.50
8 18.75 26.44 1.41 17.62 0.757 17.25 12.74 9.84 1.4 1.8 2 2.50
9 21.25 28.56 1.52 18.98 0.675 18.75 13.33 9.84 1.4 1.9 2 2.50
10 23.75 30.69 1.66 20.77 0.675 20.25 15.47 9.84 1.3 2.1 3 1.67
11 26.25 32.81 1.81 22.56 0.675 21.75 17.76 9.84 1.3 2.3 3 1.67
12 28.75 34.94 1.95 24.36 0.675 23.25 20.22 9.84 1.2 2.5 3 1.67
Asum = 16.74
 CASE 9

H= 30 ft Ka= 0.283 p= 0.9 X= 1829.22 m = 0.072016544 in

L= 24 ft P-EV = 1.35 t= 0.35 t= 50 yrs
tan 0.5 2= 0.65625 ksf St= 1.0 ft
H= 5.294118 ft F*min= 0.311666667 Sl= 0.5 ft
H1= 35.29412 ft F*max= 0.623333333 Tranverse W11 0.374 in diameter
La= 10.58824 ft
r= 125 pcf Longitudinal W20 0.505 in diameter
Fy= 65 ksi

PLAIN STEEL GRIDS AND GOOD QUALITY FILL (3000 -cm< min < 10,000 -cm)
SIMPLIFIED METHOD
Level Z Zp-ave H Tmax F* Le pPr tTn Np Nt Ng Bar Mat
(ft) (ft) ksf k/ 5 ft wide panel dim (ft) k/ft k/wire - - - -
1 1.25 9.90 0.75 9.32 0.604 13.41 18.03 2.33 2.0 4.0 5 5W20 + W11 x 1.0'
2 3.75 12.40 0.96 12.06 0.565 13.41 21.13 2.33 2.1 5.2 6 6W20 + W11 x 1.0'
3 6.25 14.90 1.15 14.31 0.526 13.41 23.64 2.33 2.2 6.1 7 7W20 + W11 x 1.0'
4 8.75 17.40 1.29 16.08 0.487 13.41 25.57 2.33 2.3 6.9 7 7W20 + W11 x 1.0'
5 11.25 19.90 1.39 17.36 0.448 13.41 26.90 2.33 2.3 7.5 8 8W20 + W11 x 1.0'
6 13.75 22.19 1.45 18.16 0.409 14.25 29.10 2.33 2.2 7.8 8 8W20 + W11 x 1.0'
7 16.25 24.31 1.48 18.47 0.370 15.75 31.89 2.33 2.2 7.9 8 8W20 + W11 x 1.0'
8 18.75 26.44 1.46 18.30 0.331 17.25 33.98 2.33 2.1 7.9 8 8W20 + W11 x 1.0'
9 21.25 28.56 1.52 18.98 0.312 18.75 37.56 2.33 2.0 8.2 9 9W20 + W11 x 1.0'
10 23.75 30.69 1.66 20.77 0.312 20.25 43.58 2.33 2.0 8.9 9 9W20 + W11 x 1.0'
11 26.25 32.81 1.81 22.56 0.312 21.75 50.05 2.33 1.9 9.7 10 10W20 + W11 x 1.0'
12 28.75 34.94 1.95 24.36 0.312 23.25 56.96 2.33 1.9 10.5 11 11W20 + W11 x 1.0'
Asum = 19.23
 CASE 1

H= 30 ft Kaf= 0.283 p= 0.9 X= 708 m = 0.027874 in

L= 24 ft k0f= 0.440807097 t= 0.8 t= 75 yrs
tan 0.5 P-EV = 1.35 b= 0.164 ft zi= 86 m
H= 5.294118 ft V2= 18 k/ft CRz0-z2= 15 m/yr
*
H1= 35.29412 ft F min=tan( r)= 0.674502089 CRz2+= 4 m/yr
La= 10.58824 ft F*max= 2 CRsteel= 12 m/yr
r= 125 pcf Kab = 0.537 s= 4 mm = 0.15748 in
Cu= 7 b= 125 pcf Fy= 65 ksi
P-EH = 1.5
GALVANIZED STRIPS AND HIGH QUALITY FILL ( min > 10,000 -cm)
COHERENT GRAVITY METHOD
Level Z Zp-ave H Tmax F* Le pPr tTn Np Nt Ng Sh
(ft) (ft) ksf k/ 5 ft wide panel dim (ft) k/strip k/strip - - - (ft)
1 1.25 9.90 0.47 5.86 1.917 13.41 9.39 10.41 0.6 0.6 2 2.50
2 3.75 12.40 0.65 8.07 1.751 13.41 10.75 10.41 0.8 0.8 2 2.50
3 6.25 14.90 0.82 10.21 1.586 13.41 11.69 10.41 0.9 1.0 2 2.50
4 8.75 17.40 0.98 12.26 1.420 13.41 12.23 10.41 1.0 1.2 2 2.50
5 11.25 19.90 1.14 14.24 1.254 13.41 12.35 10.41 1.2 1.4 2 2.50
6 13.75 22.19 1.29 16.13 1.089 14.25 12.70 10.41 1.3 1.5 2 2.50
7 16.25 24.31 1.44 17.94 0.923 15.75 13.04 10.41 1.4 1.7 2 2.50
8 18.75 26.44 1.57 19.65 0.757 17.25 12.74 10.41 1.5 1.9 2 2.50
9 21.25 28.56 1.77 22.10 0.675 18.75 13.33 10.41 1.7 2.1 3 1.67
10 23.75 30.69 2.04 25.51 0.675 20.25 15.47 10.41 1.6 2.5 3 1.67
11 26.25 32.81 2.35 29.36 0.675 21.75 17.76 10.41 1.7 2.8 3 1.67
12 28.75 34.94 2.70 33.73 0.675 23.25 20.22 10.41 1.7 3.2 4 1.25
Asum = 8.99
 CASE 2

H= 30 ft Kaf= 0.283 p= 0.9 X= 708 m = 0.027874016 in

L= 24 ft k0f= 0.440807097 t= 0.7 t= 75 yrs
tan 0.5 P-EV = 1.35 St= 1.0 ft zi= 86 m
H= 5.294118 ft V2= 18 k/ft Sl= 0.5 ft CRz0-z2= 15 m/yr
H1= 35.29412 ft F*min= 0.311666667 Tranverse W11 0.374 in diameter CRz2+= 4 m/yr
La= 10.58824 ft F*max= 0.623333333 CRsteel= 12 m/yr
r= 125 pcf Kab = 0.537 Longitudinal W11 0.374 in diameter
b= 125 pcf Fy= 65 ksi
P-EH = 1.5
GALVANIZED GRIDS AND HIGH QUALITY FILL ( min > 10,000 -cm)
COHERENT GRAVITY METHOD
Level Z Zp-ave H Tmax F* Le pPr tTn Np Nt Ng Sh
(ft) (ft) ksf k/ 5 ft wide panel dim (ft) k/ft k/wire - - - -
1 1.25 9.90 0.47 5.86 0.604 13.41 18.03 3.62 1.7 1.6 2 2W11 + W11 x 1.0'
2 3.75 12.40 0.65 8.07 0.565 13.41 21.13 3.62 1.8 2.2 3 3W11 + W11 x 1.0'
3 6.25 14.90 0.82 10.21 0.526 13.41 23.64 3.62 1.9 2.8 3 3W11 + W11 x 1.0'
4 8.75 17.40 0.98 12.26 0.487 13.41 25.57 3.62 2.0 3.4 4 4W11 + W11 x 1.0'
5 11.25 19.90 1.14 14.24 0.448 13.41 26.90 3.62 2.1 3.9 4 4W11 + W11 x 1.0'
6 13.75 22.19 1.29 16.13 0.409 14.25 29.10 3.62 2.1 4.5 5 5W11 + W11 x 1.0'
7 16.25 24.31 1.44 17.94 0.370 15.75 31.89 3.62 2.1 5.0 5 5W11 + W11 x 1.0'
8 18.75 26.44 1.57 19.65 0.331 17.25 33.98 3.62 2.2 5.4 6 6W11 + W11 x 1.0'
9 21.25 28.56 1.77 22.10 0.312 18.75 37.56 3.62 2.2 6.1 7 7W11 + W11 x 1.0'
10 23.75 30.69 2.04 25.51 0.312 20.25 43.58 3.62 2.2 7.0 8 8W11 + W11 x 1.0'
11 26.25 32.81 2.35 29.36 0.312 21.75 50.05 3.62 2.2 8.1 9 9W11 + W11 x 1.0'
12 28.75 34.94 2.70 33.73 0.312 23.25 56.96 3.62 2.2 9.3 10 10W11 + W11 x 1.0'
Asum = 7.25
 CASE 3

H= 30 ft Kaf= 0.283 p= 0.9 X= 708 m = 0.027874 in

L= 24 ft k0f= 0.440807097 t= 0.65 t= 75 yrs
tan 0.5 P-EV = 1.35 b= 0.164 ft zi= 86 m
H= 5.294118 ft V2= 18 k/ft CRz0-z2= 15 m/yr
H1= 35.29412 ft F*min=tan( r)= 0.674502089 CRz2+= 4 m/yr
La= 10.58824 ft F*max= 2 CRsteel= 12 m/yr
r= 125 pcf Kab = 0.537 s= 4 mm = 0.15748 in
Cu= 7 b= 125 pcf Fy= 65 ksi
P-EH = 1.5
GALVANIZED STRIPS AND GOOD QUALITY FILL (3000 -cm< min < 10,000 -cm)
COHERENT GRAVITY METHOD
Level Z Zp-ave H Tmax F* Le pP r tTn Np Nt Ng Sh
(ft) (ft) ksf k/ 5 ft wide panel dim (ft) k/strip k/strip - - - (ft)
1 1.25 9.90 0.47 5.86 1.917 13.41 9.39 8.46 0.6 0.7 2 2.50
2 3.75 12.40 0.65 8.07 1.751 13.41 10.75 8.46 0.8 1.0 2 2.50
3 6.25 14.90 0.82 10.21 1.586 13.41 11.69 8.46 0.9 1.2 2 2.50
4 8.75 17.40 0.98 12.26 1.420 13.41 12.23 8.46 1.0 1.4 2 2.50
5 11.25 19.90 1.14 14.24 1.254 13.41 12.35 8.46 1.2 1.7 2 2.50
6 13.75 22.19 1.29 16.13 1.089 14.25 12.70 8.46 1.3 1.9 2 2.50
7 16.25 24.31 1.44 17.94 0.923 15.75 13.04 8.46 1.4 2.1 3 1.67
8 18.75 26.44 1.57 19.65 0.757 17.25 12.74 8.46 1.5 2.3 3 1.67
9 21.25 28.56 1.77 22.10 0.675 18.75 13.33 8.46 1.7 2.6 3 1.67
10 23.75 30.69 2.04 25.51 0.675 20.25 15.47 8.46 1.6 3.0 4 1.25
11 26.25 32.81 2.35 29.36 0.675 21.75 17.76 8.46 1.7 3.5 4 1.25
12 28.75 34.94 2.70 33.73 0.675 23.25 20.22 8.46 1.7 4.0 4 1.25
Asum = 10.23
 CASE 4

H= 30 ft Kaf= 0.283 p= 0.9 X= 708 m = 0.027874016 in

L= 24 ft k0f= 0.440807097 t= 0.55 t= 75 yrs
tan 0.5 P-EV = 1.35 St= 1.0 ft zi= 86 m
H= 5.294118 ft V2= 18 k/ft Sl= 0.5 ft CRz0-z2= 15 m/yr
H1= 35.29412 ft F*min= 0.311666667 Tranverse W11 0.374 in diameter CRz2+= 4 m/yr
La= 10.58824 ft F*max= 0.623333333 CRsteel= 12 m/yr
r= 125 pcf Kab = 0.537 Longitudinal W11 0.374 in diameter
b= 125 pcf Fy= 65 ksi
P-EH = 1.5
GALVANIZED GRIDS AND GOOD QUALITY FILL (3000 -cm< min < 10,000 -cm)
COHERENT GRAVITY METHOD
Level Z Zp-ave H Tmax F* Le pPr tTn Np Nt Ng Sh
(ft) (ft) ksf k/ 5 ft wide panel dim (ft) k/ft k/wire - - - -
1 1.25 9.90 0.47 5.86 0.604 13.41 18.03 2.84 1.7 2.1 3 3W11 + W11 x 1.0'
2 3.75 12.40 0.65 8.07 0.565 13.41 21.13 2.84 1.8 2.8 3 3W11 + W11 x 1.0'
3 6.25 14.90 0.82 10.21 0.526 13.41 23.64 2.84 1.9 3.6 4 4W11 + W11 x 1.0'
4 8.75 17.40 0.98 12.26 0.487 13.41 25.57 2.84 2.0 4.3 5 5W11 + W11 x 1.0'
5 11.25 19.90 1.14 14.24 0.448 13.41 26.90 2.84 2.1 5.0 6 6W11 + W11 x 1.0'
6 13.75 22.19 1.29 16.13 0.409 14.25 29.10 2.84 2.1 5.7 6 6W11 + W11 x 1.0'
7 16.25 24.31 1.44 17.94 0.370 15.75 31.89 2.84 2.1 6.3 7 7W11 + W11 x 1.0'
8 18.75 26.44 1.57 19.65 0.331 17.25 33.98 2.84 2.2 6.9 7 7W11 + W11 x 1.0'
9 21.25 28.56 1.77 22.10 0.312 18.75 37.56 2.84 2.2 7.8 8 8W11 + W11 x 1.0'
10 23.75 30.69 2.04 25.51 0.312 20.25 43.58 2.84 2.2 9.0 9 9W11 + W11 x 1.0'
11 26.25 32.81 2.35 29.36 0.312 21.75 50.05 2.84 2.2 10.3 11 11W11 + W11 x 1.0'
12 28.75 34.94 2.70 33.73 0.312 23.25 56.96 2.84 2.2 11.9 12 12W11 + W11 x 1.0'
Asum = 8.90
 CASE 5(a). Model I

H= 30 ft Kaf= 0.283 p= 0.9 X= 1120 m = 0.044094488 in

L= 24 ft k0f= 0.440807097 t= 0.3 t= 50 yrs
tan 0.5 P-EV = 1.35 St= 1.0 ft zi= 86 m
H= 5.294118 ft V2= 18 k/ft Sl= 0.5 ft CRz0-z2= 8.6 m/yr
H1= 35.29412 ft F*min= 0.311666667 Tranverse W11 0.374 in diameter CRz2+= 8.6 m/yr
La= 10.58824 ft F*max= 0.623333333 CRsteel= 28 m/yr
r= 125 pcf Kab = 0.537 Longitudinal W20 0.505 in diameter
b= 125 pcf Fy= 65 ksi
P-EH = 1.5
GALVANIZED GRIDS AND MARGINAL QUALITY FILL (1,000 -cm< min < 3,000 -cm)
COHERENT GRAVITY METHOD
Level Z Zp-ave H Tmax F* Le pPr tTn Np Nt Ng Sh
(ft) (ft) ksf k/ 5 ft wide panel dim (ft) k/ft k/wire - - - -
1 1.25 9.90 0.47 5.86 0.604 13.41 18.03 2.66 1.7 2.2 3 3W20 + W11 x 1.0'
2 3.75 12.40 0.65 8.07 0.565 13.41 21.13 2.66 1.8 3.0 4 4W20 + W11 x 1.0'
3 6.25 14.90 0.82 10.21 0.526 13.41 23.64 2.66 1.9 3.8 4 4W20 + W11 x 1.0'
4 8.75 17.40 0.98 12.26 0.487 13.41 25.57 2.66 2.0 4.6 5 5W20 + W11 x 1.0'
5 11.25 19.90 1.14 14.24 0.448 13.41 26.90 2.66 2.1 5.4 6 6W20 + W11 x 1.0'
6 13.75 22.19 1.29 16.13 0.409 14.25 29.10 2.66 2.1 6.1 7 7W20 + W11 x 1.0'
7 16.25 24.31 1.44 17.94 0.370 15.75 31.89 2.66 2.1 6.7 7 7W20 + W11 x 1.0'
8 18.75 26.44 1.57 19.65 0.331 17.25 33.98 2.66 2.2 7.4 8 8W20 + W11 x 1.0'
9 21.25 28.56 1.77 22.10 0.312 18.75 37.56 2.66 2.2 8.3 9 9W20 + W11 x 1.0'
10 23.75 30.69 2.04 25.51 0.312 20.25 43.58 2.66 2.2 9.6 10 10W20 + W11 x 1.0'
11 26.25 32.81 2.35 29.36 0.312 21.75 50.05 2.66 2.2 11.0 12 12W20 + W11 x 1.0'
12 28.75 34.94 2.70 33.73 0.312 23.25 56.96 2.66 2.2 12.7 13 13W20 + W11 x 1.0'
Asum = 17.63
 CASE 5(b). Model II

H= 30 ft Kaf= 0.283 p= 0.9 X= 2240 m = 0.088188976 in

L= 24 ft k0f= 0.440807097 t= 0.5 t= 50 yrs
tan 0.5 P-EV = 1.35 St= 1.0 ft zi= 86 m
H= 5.294118 ft V2= 18 k/ft Sl= 0.5 ft CRz0-z2= 8.6 m/yr
H1= 35.29412 ft F*min= 0.311666667 Tranverse W11 0.374 in diameter CRz2+= 8.6 m/yr
La= 10.58824 ft F*max= 0.623333333 CRsteel= 56 m/yr
r= 125 pcf Kab = 0.537 Longitudinal W20 0.505 in diameter
b= 125 pcf Fy= 65 ksi
P-EH = 1.5
GALVANIZED GRIDS AND MARGINAL QUALITY FILL (1,000 -cm< min < 3,000 -cm)
COHERENT GRAVITY METHOD
Level Z Zp-ave H Tmax F* Le pPr tTn Np Nt Ng Sh
(ft) (ft) ksf k/ 5 ft wide panel dim (ft) k/ft k/wire - - - -
1 1.25 9.90 0.47 5.86 0.604 13.41 18.03 2.76 1.7 2.1 3 3W20 + W11 x 1.0'
2 3.75 12.40 0.65 8.07 0.565 13.41 21.13 2.76 1.8 2.9 3 3W20 + W11 x 1.0'
3 6.25 14.90 0.82 10.21 0.526 13.41 23.64 2.76 1.9 3.7 4 4W20 + W11 x 1.0'
4 8.75 17.40 0.98 12.26 0.487 13.41 25.57 2.76 2.0 4.4 5 5W20 + W11 x 1.0'
5 11.25 19.90 1.14 14.24 0.448 13.41 26.90 2.76 2.1 5.2 6 6W20 + W11 x 1.0'
6 13.75 22.19 1.29 16.13 0.409 14.25 29.10 2.76 2.1 5.9 6 6W20 + W11 x 1.0'
7 16.25 24.31 1.44 17.94 0.370 15.75 31.89 2.76 2.1 6.5 7 7W20 + W11 x 1.0'
8 18.75 26.44 1.57 19.65 0.331 17.25 33.98 2.76 2.2 7.1 8 8W20 + W11 x 1.0'
9 21.25 28.56 1.77 22.10 0.312 18.75 37.56 2.76 2.2 8.0 9 9W20 + W11 x 1.0'
10 23.75 30.69 2.04 25.51 0.312 20.25 43.58 2.76 2.2 9.3 10 10W20 + W11 x 1.0'
11 26.25 32.81 2.35 29.36 0.312 21.75 50.05 2.76 2.2 10.7 11 11W20 + W11 x 1.0'
12 28.75 34.94 2.70 33.73 0.312 23.25 56.96 2.76 2.2 12.2 13 13W20 + W11 x 1.0'
Asum = 17.03
 CASE 6

H= 30 ft Kaf= 0.283 p= 0.9 X= 975 m = 0.038386 in

L= 24 ft k0f= 0.440807097 t= 0.45 t= 75 yrs
tan 0.5 P-EV = 1.35 b= 0.164 ft
H= 5.294118 ft V2= 18 k/ft
H1= 35.29412 ft min=tan( r)= 0.674502089
La= 10.58824 ft F*max= 2
r= 125 pcf Kab = 0.537 s= 6 mm = 0.23622 in
Cu= 7 b= 125 pcf Fy= 65 ksi
P-EH = 1.5
PLAIN STEEL STRIPS AND HIGH QUALITY FILL ( min > 10,000 -cm)
COHERENT GRAVITY METHOD
Level Z Zp-ave H Tmax F* Le pPr tTn Np Nt Ng Sh
(ft) (ft) ksf k/ 5 ft wide panel dim (ft) k/strip k/strip - - - (ft)
1 1.25 9.90 0.47 5.86 1.917 13.41 9.39 9.18 0.6 0.6 2 2.50
2 3.75 12.40 0.65 8.07 1.751 13.41 10.75 9.18 0.8 0.9 2 2.50
3 6.25 14.90 0.82 10.21 1.586 13.41 11.69 9.18 0.9 1.1 2 2.50
4 8.75 17.40 0.98 12.26 1.420 13.41 12.23 9.18 1.0 1.3 2 2.50
5 11.25 19.90 1.14 14.24 1.254 13.41 12.35 9.18 1.2 1.6 2 2.50
6 13.75 22.19 1.29 16.13 1.089 14.25 12.70 9.18 1.3 1.8 2 2.50
7 16.25 24.31 1.44 17.94 0.923 15.75 13.04 9.18 1.4 2.0 2 2.50
8 18.75 26.44 1.57 19.65 0.757 17.25 12.74 9.18 1.5 2.1 3 1.67
9 21.25 28.56 1.77 22.10 0.675 18.75 13.33 9.18 1.7 2.4 3 1.67
10 23.75 30.69 2.04 25.51 0.675 20.25 15.47 9.18 1.6 2.8 3 1.67
11 26.25 32.81 2.35 29.36 0.675 21.75 17.76 9.18 1.7 3.2 4 1.25
12 28.75 34.94 2.70 33.73 0.675 23.25 20.22 9.18 1.7 3.7 4 1.25
Asum = 14.41
 CASE 7

H= 30 ft Kaf= 0.283 p= 0.9 X= 975 m = 0.038385827 in

L= 24 ft k0f= 0.440807097 t= 0.35 t= 75 yrs
tan 0.5 P-EV = 1.35 St= 1.0 ft
H= 5.294118 ft V2= 18 k/ft S l= 0.5 ft
H1= 35.29412 ft F*min= 0.311666667 Tranverse W11 0.374 in diameter
La= 10.58824 ft F*max= 0.623333333
r= 125 pcf Kab = 0.537 Longitudinal W20 0.505 in diameter
b= 125 pcf Fy= 65 ksi
P-EH = 1.5
PLAIN STEEL GRIDS AND HIGH QUALITY FILL ( min > 10,000 -cm)
COHERENT GRAVITY METHOD
Level Z Zp-ave H Tmax F* Le p Pr tTn Np Nt Ng Sh
(ft) (ft) ksf k/ 5 ft wide panel dim (ft) k/ft k/wire - - - -
1 1.25 9.90 0.47 5.86 0.604 13.41 18.03 3.28 1.7 1.8 2 2W20 + W11 x 1.0'
2 3.75 12.40 0.65 8.07 0.565 13.41 21.13 3.28 1.8 2.5 3 3W20 + W11 x 1.0'
3 6.25 14.90 0.82 10.21 0.526 13.41 23.64 3.28 1.9 3.1 4 4W20 + W11 x 1.0'
4 8.75 17.40 0.98 12.26 0.487 13.41 25.57 3.28 2.0 3.7 4 4W20 + W11 x 1.0'
5 11.25 19.90 1.14 14.24 0.448 13.41 26.90 3.28 2.1 4.3 5 5W20 + W11 x 1.0'
6 13.75 22.19 1.29 16.13 0.409 14.25 29.10 3.28 2.1 4.9 5 5W20 + W11 x 1.0'
7 16.25 24.31 1.44 17.94 0.370 15.75 31.89 3.28 2.1 5.5 6 6W20 + W11 x 1.0'
8 18.75 26.44 1.57 19.65 0.331 17.25 33.98 3.28 2.2 6.0 6 6W20 + W11 x 1.0'
9 21.25 28.56 1.77 22.10 0.312 18.75 37.56 3.28 2.2 6.7 7 7W20 + W11 x 1.0'
10 23.75 30.69 2.04 25.51 0.312 20.25 43.58 3.28 2.2 7.8 8 8W20 + W11 x 1.0'
11 26.25 32.81 2.35 29.36 0.312 21.75 50.05 3.28 2.2 9.0 9 9W20 + W11 x 1.0'
12 28.75 34.94 2.70 33.73 0.312 23.25 56.96 3.28 2.2 10.3 11 11W20 + W11 x 1.0'
Asum = 14.02
 CASE 8

H= 30 ft Kaf= 0.283 p= 0.9 X= 1829.22 m = 0.072017 in

L= 24 ft k0f= 0.440807097 t= 0.45 t= 50 yrs
tan 0.5 P-EV = 1.35 b= 0.164 ft
H= 5.294118 ft V2= 18 k/ft
H1= 35.29412 ft min=tan( r)= 0.674502089
La= 10.58824 ft F*max= 2
r= 125 pcf Kab = 0.537 s= 8 mm = 0.314961 in
Cu= 7 b= 125 pcf Fy= 65 ksi
P-EH = 1.5
PLAIN STEEL STRIPS AND GOOD QUALITY FILL (3000 -cm< min < 10,000 -cm)
COHERENT GRAVITY METHOD
Level Z Zp-ave H Tmax F* Le pPr tTn Np Nt Ng Sh
(ft) (ft) ksf k/ 5 ft wide panel dim (ft) k/strip k/strip - - - (ft)
1 1.25 9.90 0.47 5.86 1.917 13.41 9.39 9.84 0.6 0.6 2 2.50
2 3.75 12.40 0.65 8.07 1.751 13.41 10.75 9.84 0.8 0.8 2 2.50
3 6.25 14.90 0.82 10.21 1.586 13.41 11.69 9.84 0.9 1.0 2 2.50
4 8.75 17.40 0.98 12.26 1.420 13.41 12.23 9.84 1.0 1.2 2 2.50
5 11.25 19.90 1.14 14.24 1.254 13.41 12.35 9.84 1.2 1.4 2 2.50
6 13.75 22.19 1.29 16.13 1.089 14.25 12.70 9.84 1.3 1.6 2 2.50
7 16.25 24.31 1.44 17.94 0.923 15.75 13.04 9.84 1.4 1.8 2 2.50
8 18.75 26.44 1.57 19.65 0.757 17.25 12.74 9.84 1.5 2.0 2 2.50
9 21.25 28.56 1.77 22.10 0.675 18.75 13.33 9.84 1.7 2.2 3 1.67
10 23.75 30.69 2.04 25.51 0.675 20.25 15.47 9.84 1.6 2.6 3 1.67
11 26.25 32.81 2.35 29.36 0.675 21.75 17.76 9.84 1.7 3.0 3 1.67
12 28.75 34.94 2.70 33.73 0.675 23.25 20.22 9.84 1.7 3.4 4 1.25
Asum = 17.98
 CASE 9

H= 30 ft Kaf= 0.283 p= 0.9 X= 1829.22 m = 0.072016544 in

L= 24 ft k0f= 0.440807097 t= 0.35 t= 50 yrs
tan 0.5 P-EV = 1.35 St= 1.0 ft
H= 5.294118 ft V2= 18 k/ft Sl= 0.5 ft
H1= 35.29412 ft F*min= 0.311666667 Tranverse W11 0.374 in diameter
La= 10.58824 ft F*max= 0.623333333
r= 125 pcf Kab = 0.537 Longitudinal W20 0.505 in diameter
b= 125 pcf Fy= 65 ksi
P-EH = 1.5
PLAIN STEEL GRIDS AND GOOD QUALITY FILL (3000 -cm< min < 10,000 -cm)
COHERENT GRAVITY METHOD
Level Z Zp-ave H Tmax F* Le pPr tTn Np Nt Ng Sh
(ft) (ft) ksf k/ 5 ft wide panel dim (ft) k/ft k/wire - - - -
1 1.25 9.90 0.47 5.86 0.604 13.41 18.03 2.33 1.7 2.5 3 3W20 + W11 x 1.0'
2 3.75 12.40 0.65 8.07 0.565 13.41 21.13 2.33 1.8 3.5 4 4W20 + W11 x 1.0'
3 6.25 14.90 0.82 10.21 0.526 13.41 23.64 2.33 1.9 4.4 5 5W20 + W11 x 1.0'
4 8.75 17.40 0.98 12.26 0.487 13.41 25.57 2.33 2.0 5.3 6 6W20 + W11 x 1.0'
5 11.25 19.90 1.14 14.24 0.448 13.41 26.90 2.33 2.1 6.1 7 7W20 + W11 x 1.0'
6 13.75 22.19 1.29 16.13 0.409 14.25 29.10 2.33 2.1 6.9 7 7W20 + W11 x 1.0'
7 16.25 24.31 1.44 17.94 0.370 15.75 31.89 2.33 2.1 7.7 8 8W20 + W11 x 1.0'
8 18.75 26.44 1.57 19.65 0.331 17.25 33.98 2.33 2.2 8.4 9 9W20 + W11 x 1.0'
9 21.25 28.56 1.77 22.10 0.312 18.75 37.56 2.33 2.2 9.5 10 10W20 + W11 x 1.0'
10 23.75 30.69 2.04 25.51 0.312 20.25 43.58 2.33 2.2 11.0 11 11W20 + W11 x 1.0'
11 26.25 32.81 2.35 29.36 0.312 21.75 50.05 2.33 2.2 12.6 13 13W20 + W11 x 1.0'
12 28.75 34.94 2.70 33.73 0.312 23.25 56.96 2.33 2.2 14.5 15 15W20 + W11 x 1.0'
Asum = 19.63
 99

APPENDIX G

List of Symbols and Summary of Equations

List of Symbols
A constant in Equation (23)
Ac cross sectional area of reinforcement at the end of service
Aⴱc statistical variable for Ac
b width of strip-type reinforcement
C time in years for zinc depletion from galvanized reinforcements
COVQ coefficient of variation for load bias
COVR coefficient of variation for resistance bias
CR corrosion rate used in Equation (16)
Di initial diameter of bars/wires
Dⴱ diameter of bar or wire corrected for corrosion loss
Ec strip thickness corrected for corrosion loss
fz(rz) pdf representing zinc corrosion rates, rz in Equation (18)
Fs cumulative density function representing steel corrosion rates in Equation (18)
Fy yield strength of steel
F ⴱy statistical variable for Fy
Fult ultimate strength of steel
F ⴱult statistical variable for Fult
g random variable representing safety margin
K coefficient of lateral earth pressure
k constant in Equation (1)
n exponent for Equation (1), or number of longitudinal wires in Equation (12)
pf probability of occurrence (e.g., probability that yield stress will be exceeded before
the end of intended service life)
P[X1⎟ X2] probability of X1 given X2 in Equation (18)
Q random variable representing “measured or actual” load
Qni nominal (i.e., computed) loads from sources that may include earth loads, sur-
charge loads, impact loads or live loads
Qn nominal load from single source
r0 the lowest rate of zinc corrosion for which base steel will be consumed within tf and
is equal to zi/tf as used in Equation (18)
100

rs mean steel corrosion rate

rz1 mean of the initial rate of zinc corrosion, i.e. until reaching t1
rz2 mean corrosion rate of zinc subsequent to t1
rz mean zinc corrosion rate [used in Equation (18)]
R random variable representing “measured or actual” resistance
Rn nominal (i.e., computed) resistance
S initial thickness of strip-type reinforcements
ΔS loss of thickness due to corrosion
SH horizontal spacing of reinforcements
SV vertical spacing of reinforcements
t time (years) in Equation (1)
t1 time for which rz1 prevails, usually taken as 2 to 3 years
tf service life in years
tdesign design life used in Equations (17a) and (17b)
Tmax maximum reinforcement tension at a given level per unit width of wall
Tnominal nominal tension/prestress applied to rock bolts during installation and used in Eq. (24)
Trem remaining tensile strength
x loss of thickness per side or loss of radius as used in Equation (1)
X loss of steel
X′ given amount of steel loss used in Equation (18)
zi initial thickness of zinc coating for galvanized reinforcements
β reliability index
βT target reliability index
φ resistance factor
γi load factor for the ith load source as used in Equation (6)
γQ load factor as used in Equations (21) and (22)
λAc bias of remaining cross section defined as the ratio of measured (actual) to nominal
(computed) values
λFy bias of yield stress defined as the ratio of measured (actual) to nominal (computed) values
λR resistance bias defined as the ratio of measured (actual) to nominal (computed) values
λQ load bias defined as the ratio of measured (actual) to nominal (computed) values
ρ resistivity of fill material
σH, σv horizontal and vertical stress, respectively, at depth of interest in the reinforced zone
ΔσH supplemental factored horizontal pressure due to external surcharges
σs standard deviation of steel corrosion rate as used in Equation (18)
σz standard deviation of zinc corrosion rate as used in Equation (18)

Summary of Equations
Chapter 1—Background
Durability and Performance Issues for Earth Reinforcements
Romanoff (1957) proposed the following power law to predict rates of corrosion of buried
metal elements:

x = kt n (1)
 101

Darbin et al. (1988) and Elias (1990) proposed equations, having the same form as Equation (1),
to estimate steel loss for plain steel and galvanized elements, respectively. These models are devel-
oped using measurements of corrosion from elements buried in fill representative of MSE construc-
tion. The following models apply to galvanized and plain steel reinforcements, respectively:

for galvanized elements

1.54
⎛z ⎞ ⎛ μm ⎞ 0.65
if tf > ⎜ i ⎟ then X ( μm ) = 50 ⎜ × t f ( yr ) − 2 × z i ( μm )
⎝ 25 ⎠ ⎝ yr ⎟⎠
1.54 (2)
⎛z ⎞
if tf ≤ ⎜ i ⎟ then X ( μm ) = 0
⎝ 25 ⎠

for plain steel elements

μm 0.8
X ( μm ) = 80 ×tf (3)
yr

For Equation (2) loss of base steel occurs subsequent to depletion of the zinc coating, and zi is
the initial zinc thickness. Equation (2) is applicable to the range of fill conditions representative of
MSE wall construction that exhibit ρmin greater than 1,000 Ω-cm. Data reviewed for Equation (3)
are based on the NBS data set for plain steel and include a wider range of fill conditions.
Although corrosion rates for both galvanized and plain steel clearly vary exponentially with
respect to time, a number of models (including the AASHTO model) approximate loss of steel
using linear extrapolation for the purpose of design. Calibration of LRFD resistance factors for
galvanized reinforcements assumes that the steel cross section is not consumed before the zinc
coating, which serves as the sacrificial anode protecting the base steel. Since the zinc layers do
not contribute to the tensile strength of the reinforcements, strength loss is also delayed until the
zinc is consumed, and loss of steel section is described according to Equation (4). In general the
thickness of steel, X, consumed per side over the design life, tf, may be computed as
μm
X ( μm ) = ( t f ( yrs ) − C ( yrs )) × rs (4)
yr

⎛ ( zi − rz1 × t1 ) ⎞
where C is the time for zinc depletion (C = t1 + ⎜ C = t1 + ⎟⎠ , which is computed
⎝ rz 2
based on the initial zinc thickness, zi, the initial corrosion rate for zinc, rz1, the subsequent zinc
corrosion rate, rz2, and the duration for which rz1 prevails (t1 − usually taken as 2 to 3 years). The
corrosion rate of the base steel subsequent to zinc depletion is rs.
Equation (5) is based on Equation (4) but uses the AASHTO model parameters where the
steel loss per side (X) in μm/yr for a given service life, tf , and initial thickness of zinc coating, zi,
is computed as

⎛ ⎞
μm ⎜ ( zi − 30 μm ) ⎟
X ( μm ) = 12 × ⎜ t f − 2 yr − ⎟ yr (5)
yr ⎜ μm ⎟
4
⎝ yr ⎠

Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)

LRFD is a reliability-based design method by which loads and resistances are factored such that

∑ γ iQni ≤ φRn (6)

102

Load and resistance factors are applied such that the associated probability of the load exceed-
ing the resistance is low. The limit state equation corresponding to Equation (6) is:

g ( R, Q ) = R − Qi = λ R Rn − ∑ λ Qi Qni > 0 (7)

Chapter 2—Research Approach

Yield Limit State
Reinforcement loads are computed based on the horizontal stress carried by the reinforce-
ments computed as

σ H = Kσ v + Δσ H (8)

The maximum reinforcement tension per unit width of wall is computed from σH based on
the vertical spacing of the reinforcements as

Tmax = σ H SV (9)

Equations (8) and (9) describe the demand placed on the reinforcements, the capacity is the
yield resistance of the reinforcements computed as

Fy Ac
R= (10)
SH

for strip-type reinforcements

Ac = bEc
Ec = ( S − ΔS ) for ΔS < S , and 0 for ΔS ≥ S (11)

and for steel grid-type reinforcements

Dⴱ2
Ac = n × π × (12)
4
Dⴱ = D1 − ΔS for ΔS < Di , and 0 for ΔS ≥ Di

For galvanized reinforcements

ΔS = 2 × rs × ( t f − C ) For C < t f
(13a)
ΔS = 0 For C ≥ t f

( zi − 2 × rz1 )
C = 2 yrs + (13b)
rz 2

For plain steel reinforcements

ΔS = 2 × rs × tf (14)

Using the statistics and observed distribution for measurements of corrosion rate, the bias of
the remaining strength is computed and used as input for the reliability-based calibration of
resistance factor. The bias is computed as

F ⴱy Aⴱc
λR = (15)
Fy Ac
 103

Resistance Factor Calibration

The Monte Carlo analysis for calibration of resistance factor computes values for the limit state
function, g = R − Q, considering the uncertainty of R and Q, and renders the probability that
g <0. The variables R and Q can be related to nominal value as follows:

Q = Qn × λ Q , and based on the LRFD equation [Equ

uation 6],
λ R × γ Q × Qn
R = λ R × Rn =
φ

Chapter 3—Findings and Applications

Trends
A power law was regressed to achieve the “best fit” with the data describing the relationship
between corrosion rates and fill resistivity rendering the following equation, which is limited to
galvanized reinforcements that are less than 20 years old:

CR ≈ 1, 400ρ−0.75 (16)

Metal Loss Models and Reliability

Two different metal loss models for computing nominal sacrificial steel requirements with
respect to marginal quality fills are studied to illustrate how this impacts the reliability of service
life estimates. The first model (Model I) is from Jackura et al. (1987) for “neutral” fill and the
second model (Model II) is a similar form, but with double the corrosion rate for steel as follows:

μm
Model I : X ( μm ) = ( t design − 10 ) years × 28 (17aa)
year

μm
Model II : X ( μm ) = ( t design − 10 ) years × 56 (177 b)
year

Verification of Monte Carlo Analysis

Sagues Formulation. Equation (18) was proposed by Sagues et al. (2000) to compute the prob-
ability that loss of base steel, X, from galvanized reinforcements exceeds a given threshold, X′ as:
∞
P [ X > X ′ t f , z i , rz , σ z , rs , σ s ] = ∫ f z ( rz )(1 − Fs (( X ′ ) ( t f − z i rz ))) drz (18)
r0

For each value of X the bias of the remaining cross section (strip-type reinforcements) is com-
puted as:

(S − 2 × X )
λ Ac = (19)
[S − 2 × 12 × (tf − C )]
wherein the AASHTO metal loss model, Equation (5), is used in the denominator to compute
nominal remaining cross section. A mean and standard deviation were determined from the dis-
tribution of the computed bias to describe the variation of λAc. The bias of the remaining tensile
strength was then computed as:

λ R = λ Ac × λ Fy (20)
104

Closed-form Solutions for Reliability Index. For a specific limit state and a single load source, the
reliability index (β) and the resistance factor (φ) can be related using the following formula (Allen
et al., 2005), which assumes that the load and resistance bias both have normal distributions:

⎛ γQ ⎞
⎜⎝ φ ⎟⎠ λ R − λ Q
β= R
(21)
2
⎛ ⎛ γQ ⎞ ⎞
⎜⎝ COVR ⎜⎝ φ ⎟⎠ λ R ⎟⎠ + (COVQ λ Q )
2

In the case of lognormal distributions for load and resistance bias:

⎡γ λ ⎤
ln ⎢ Q R (1 + COVQ2 ) (1 + COVR2 ) ⎥
φ λ
β= ⎣ R Q ⎦ (22)
ln [(1 + COVQ )(1 + COVR )]
2 2

For a given load factor, and known load and resistance statistics, Equations (21) and (22) are
satisfied for selected values of resistance factor, rendering related pairs of reliability indices and
resistance factors. From the computed pairs of β versus φR, resistance factors can be selected cor-
responding to the targeted level of reliability.

Type II—Condition Assessment

Rock Bolts
Metal loss of exposed portions of the reinforcement behind the anchor plate, or other areas,
may be expressed using the Romanoff equation as

⎛ μm ⎞ ⎛ μm ⎞ 0.8
X⎜ = A⎜ t ( yr )
⎝ side ⎟⎠
(23)
⎝ yr side ⎟⎠

The resistance bias is computed as follows:

Fultⴱ Aⴱc
λR = (24)
Tnominal

πD ∗2
Aⴱc = (25)
4

D∗2 = Di − 2 X ∗ for 2X ∗ < Di

(26)
D∗2 = 0 for 2X ∗ ≥ Di

Chapter 4—Conclusions
and Recommendations
Recommended Resistance Factors for LRFD
The following equations are recommended to estimate nominal sacrificial steel requirements
for plain steel reinforcements (i.e., not galvanized) for good and high quality fills:
 105

⎛ μm ⎞ μm
Good Quality Fill: X ⎜ ⎟ = 80 × t 0.8 ( yr ) (27)
⎝ side ⎠ yr side

⎛ μm ⎞ μm
High Quality Fill: X ⎜ ⎟ = 13 × t ( yr ) (28)
⎝ side ⎠ yr side

The following equation is recommended for computing nominal sacrificial steel requirements
for galvanized reinforcements in marginal quality fills:

⎛ μm ⎞ ⎛ μm ⎞
X⎜ = ( t f − 10 yrs ) × 28 ⎜
⎝ side ⎟⎠
(29)
⎝ yr side ⎟⎠
Abbreviations and acronyms used without definitions in TRB publications:
AAAE American Association of Airport Executives
AASHO American Association of State Highway Officials
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
ACI–NA Airports Council International–North America
ACRP Airport Cooperative Research Program
ADA Americans with Disabilities Act
APTA American Public Transportation Association
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
ATA Air Transport Association
ATA American Trucking Associations
CTAA Community Transportation Association of America
CTBSSP Commercial Truck and Bus Safety Synthesis Program
DHS Department of Homeland Security
DOE Department of Energy
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
FHWA Federal Highway Administration
FMCSA Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration
FRA Federal Railroad Administration
FTA Federal Transit Administration
HMCRP Hazardous Materials Cooperative Research Program
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
ISTEA Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991
ITE Institute of Transportation Engineers
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NASAO National Association of State Aviation Officials
NCFRP National Cooperative Freight Research Program
NCHRP National Cooperative Highway Research Program
NHTSA National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
NTSB National Transportation Safety Board
PHMSA Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration
RITA Research and Innovative Technology Administration
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
SAFETEA-LU Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act:
A Legacy for Users (2005)
TCRP Transit Cooperative Research Program
TEA-21 Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (1998)
TRB Transportation Research Board
TSA Transportation Security Administration
U.S.DOT United States Department of Transportation