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UNIT I
INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Definition and Classification

An embedded system is a systemthat has software embedded intocomputer-hardware,

which makes asystem dedicated for an application (s)or specific part of an application orproduct or

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part of a larger system.

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An embedded system is one thathas dedicated purpose softwareembedded in
computerhardware.

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It is a dedicated computerbased system for anapplication(s) or product. It maybe an
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independent system or apart of large system. Itssoftware usually embeds into aROM (Read Only
Memory) orflash.
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―It is any device that includes aprogrammable computer but isnot itself intended to be
ageneral purpose computer.‖ –Wayne Wolf, Ref: 61
arn

―Systems are theelectronic systems that contain amicroprocessor or amicrocontroller, but

we do notthink of them as computers– thecomputer is hidden or embedded inthe system.‖ – Todd
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D. Morton,Ref: 38
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Main Embedded System Components

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1. Embeds hardware to give computer like functionalities

2. Embeds main application software generally into flash or ROM and the application
software performs concurrently the number of tasks.
3. Embeds a real time operating system (RTOS), which supervises the application software
tasks running on the hardware and organizes the accesses to system resources according to
priorities and timing constraints of tasks in the system.

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PROCESSOR IN EMBEDDED SYSTEM

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Fig: Typical Embedded System Hardware Unit.

Program Flow and data path ControlUnit (CU) —includes a fetch unit forfetching
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instructions from thememory

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Execution Unit (EU) —includescircuits for arithmetic and logical unit

(ALU), and for instructions for aprogram control task, say, datatransfer instructions, halt,
interrupt,or jump to another set of instructionsor call to another routine or sleep orreset
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1a. General purpose microprocessor

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For example, Intel 80x86, Sparc, orMotorola 68HCxxx

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1b. Embedded general purpose processor

Fast context switching features,use of on-chip Compilers, forexample, Intel® XScale™
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Applications Personal Internet ClientArchitecture-based PDAs, cell phonesand other wireless

devices,

2.Application Specific Instruction-Set Processor (ASIP)

(a)Microcontroller — Intel, Motorola,Hitachi, TI, Philips and ARM,for example, an Intel®

MCS51, Philips®51XA, 51MX, orMotorola — 68HC11, 68HC12, 68HC16

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(b) DSP orTypically a Texas Instruments- C28xSeries, C54xx or C64xx orAnalog Devices
SHARC orTigerSHARC, Motorola 5600xx

(c) Media processor TI DSP TMS320DM310 or TrimediaPhillips Media Processor

1x00series for Processing Streaming andData Networks and Image, Videoand Speech: PNX 1300,
PNX 1500(2002)
(d) IO processor or
(e) Network processor or

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(f) A domain specific processor

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3. GPP or ASIP core (s)
GPP or ASIP integrated into either anApplication Specific Integrated Circuit

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(ASIC), or a Very Large ScaleIntegrated Circuit (VLSI) circuit or aFPGA core integrated with
processorunit(s) in a VLSI (ASIC) chip
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4. Application Specific SystemProcessor (ASSP)
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Typically a set top box processor or mpeg video-processor or network application

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processor or mobile application processor

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5. Single purpose processor orApplication Specific Instructionprocessor

• Floating point Coprocessor

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• CCD Pixel coprocessor and imagecodec in digital camera

• Graphic processor
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• Speech processor
• Adaptive filtering processorEncryption engine
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• Decryption engine
• Communication protocol stackprocessor
• Java acceleratorExamples Java Accelerator NazoninCommunications Java codes run 15
to60 Times fast,Video Accelerator for fast VideoProcessing
6. Multi core processors ormultiprocessor system usingGPPs
Examples
• Multiprocessor system for Real timeperformance in a video-conferencesystem,
• Embedded firewall cum router, High-end cell phone.

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Hardware Elements in theEmbedded Systems

(i) Power Source
1. System own supply with separatesupply rails for IOs, clock, basicprocessor
and memory and analog units
2. Supply from a system to which theembedded system interfaces, for example in
a network card,
3. Charge pump concept used in asystem of little power needs, forexamples, in the

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mouse or contact-lesssmart card.
Power Dissipation Management

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1. Clever real-time programming byWait and Stop instructions
2. Clever reduction of the clock rateduring specific set of instructions
3. Optimizing the codes and
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4. Clever enabling and disabling of useof caches or cache blocks
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(ii) Clock Oscillator Circuit and ClockingUnits
1. Appropriate clock oscillatorcircuit
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2. Real Time Clock( System Clock)and Timers driving hardware andsoftware

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(iii) Reset Circuit

1. Reset on Power-up
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2. External and Internal Reset circuit

3. Reset on Timeout of Watchdog timer
(iv) Memory
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a. Functions Assigned to the ROM orEPROM or Flash

1. Storing 'Application' program from wherethe processor fetches the instruction codes
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2. Storing codes for system booting,initializing, Initial input data and Strings.
3. Storing Codes for RTOS.
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4. Storing Pointers (addresses) of variousservice routines.

b. Functions Assigned to the Internal,External and Buffer RAM
1. Storing the variables during program run,
2. Storing the stacks,
3. Storing input or output buffers for example,for speech or image .
c. Functions Assigned to the EEPROMor Flash
Storing non-volatile results of processing
d. Functions Assigned to the Caches

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1. Storing copies of the instructions, data andbranch-transfer instructions in advance

from external memories
2. Storing temporarily the results in writeback caches during fast processing
(v) Interrupts Handler

Interrupt Handling element for the externalport interrupts, IO interrupts, timer and
RTC interrupts, software interrupts andExceptions
(vi)Linking Embedded System Hardware

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• Linking and interfacing circuitfor theBuses by using the appropriatemultiplexers, and

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decoders,demultiplexers Interface the varioussystem units

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3. IO Communication Unit ine
a. Communication Driver(s):Network Ethernet or serial driverto communicate with
hostembedded system ExpansionFacility …
Serial Bus(es): For example, UART(512 kbaud/s), 1-wire CAN (33 kbps),
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Industrial I2C (100kbps), SM I2C Bus(100 kbps), SPI (100 kbps), Faulttolerant CAN (110 kbps),
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Serial Port(230 kbps), MicroWire (300 kbps), SCSI parallel (40 Mbps), Fast SCSI
(8M to 80 Mbps) , Ultra SCSI-3 (8Mto 160 Mbps), FireWire/IEEE 1394(400 Mbps, 72 meter),
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High SpeedUSB 2.0 (480 Mbps, 25 meter)

Parallel Bus(es): PCI, PCI-X
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b. Media IO Control Element

c. Keypad or Keyboard IO Interface
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d. LCD Display System Interface

e. ADC – Single or Multi channel
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f. DAC
g. GPIB Interface Element
h. Pulse Dialling Element
i. Modem
j. Bluetooth, 802.11, IrDA,

Software forEmbedding in a System

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ROM image, Programming Languages and Program models

1. ROM Image
• Final stage software also called ROMimage
(Just as an image is a unique sequence andarrangement of pixels, embedded softwareis also a
unique placement and arrangementat each ROM address of bytes forinstructions and data.)

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Final machine software

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 Bytes at each address defined for creatingthe ROM image.

 By changing this image, the same hardwareplatform work differently and can be usedfor
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entirely different applications or for newupgrades of the same system.

 Distinct ROM image in a distinctEmbedded System
_ Hardware elements between thedistinct systems can be identical but itis the software that makes
a systemunique and distinct from the other.
 Compressed Codes and Data ROM image may alternatively becompressed software (for
example, thezip format) and data (for example, thepictures in jpg or gif format) alongwith
the software required fordecompression algorithm
Programming Languages

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1. Machine Language CodingProgrammer defines the addresses andthe corresponding

bytes or bits at eachaddress.
2. Used in configuring some specificphysical device or subsystem liketransceiver, the
machine code- basedcoding is used

3. Assembly Language CodingNeeded for Invoking Processor

Specific InstructionsRequires understanding of theprocessor and instruction set.

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A program or a small specific partcoded in the assembly language usingan Assembler (software
used fordeveloping codes in assembly).

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Three steps when using assemblylanguage
' Assembler',
'Linker' and eri
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'Locator'before finally burned at the ROM
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w.
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3. Programming language C or C++ or Visual

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C++ or Java

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Application Software - Different Program Layers

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Program various layers–

 processor commands,
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 main function,
 task functions and
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 library functions,
 interrupt service routines
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 and kernel (scheduler), Compiler

 Generates an object file. Using linker and locator, the file for ROM image is created for
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the targeted hardware. C++ and Java are other languages used for software coding.

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Program Models
 Sequential Programming Model
 Object Oriented Programming Model
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 Control and Data flow graphs or

Synchronous Data Flow (SDF) Graph or Multi Thread Graph (MTG) Model
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 Finite State Machine for data path

 Multithreaded Model
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 Concurrent Processing of processes orthread or tasks

Software for embedding in System- Part 2
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Device drivers, Device manager, OS, RTOS and Software tools

Devices
o In an embedded system, there arenumber of physical devices.
o Physical devices – keypad, LCDdisplay or touch screen, memory stick(flash
memory), wireless networkingdevice, parallel port and networkcard In an
embedded system, there arenumber of virtual devices.

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o Virtual devices – pipe, file, RAM disk,socket,

A device driver is software forcontrolling (configuring), receivingand sending a byte or a

stream of bytesfrom or to a device.
A set of generic functions, such as create ( ),open ( ), connect ( ), listen ( ), accept ( ),
read ( ), write ( ), close ( ), delete ( ) for useby high level programmersEach generic function calls a
specificsoftware (interrupt service routine), whichcontrols a device function or device inputor
output

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Device controls and functions by :
1. Calling an ISR (also called InterruptHandler Routine) on hardware orsoftware interrupt

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2. Placing appropriate bits at the controlregister or word.
3. Setting status flag(s) in the statusregister for interrupting, thereforerunning (driving) the

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ISR, Resettingthe status flag after interrupt service.
Device Manager for the devices and drivers
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Device Management software (usually a part of the OS) provide codes fordetecting the
presence of devices, forinitializing (configuring) these and fortesting the devices that are present.
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Also includes software for allocatingand registering port(s) or device codesand data at
En

memory addresses for thevarious devices at distinctly differentaddresses, including codes

fordetecting any collision between the allocated addresses, if any
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Multitasking using an operating

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 system (OS) and Real time operating system (RTOS), Concurrent Processes, tasks
or threads
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 A System is composed of twoor more concurrent processes that execute Operating

System
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 Multitasking (multiprocessing ormultithreaded) software Scheduling multiple tasks,

 Processes, memory, device, ports,network, file system, timers, eventfunctions, inter
processorcommunication, shared memory,security, GUIs, ... management
Real Time Operating System (RTOS)
Embedded software is most often designedfor deterministic performance and task and ISR
latencies in addition to the OSfunctions

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Performing multiple actions andcontrolling multiple devices and their ISRswith defined
real time constraints and with deadlines for these Task and ISRs priority allocations, their
preemptive scheduling, OS for providing deterministic performance during concurrent processing
and execution with hard(stringent) or soft timing requirements with priority allocation and pre-
emption. RTOS is needed when the tasks for thesystem have real time constraints anddeadlines for
finishing the tasks

Important RTOSes

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 OS μCOS-II


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VxWorks
 Windows CE

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 OSEK
 Linux 2.6.24 or RTLinux
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 QNX

So Development Toolsftware tools

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1. Editor,
2. Interpreter,
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3. Compiler,
4. Assembler and Cross Assembler, IDE,
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5. Prototyper
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Application Software DevelopmentTools

 Source Code Engineering Tools

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Stethoscope (tracks the switching fromone task to another as a function oftime,

stores beats)
 Trace Scope (traces changes in aparameter(s) as a function of time)
Simulator
A Simulator used to simulate the targetprocessor and hardware elements on a hostPC and
to run and test the executable module.

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Project Manager
To manage the files that associateswith a design stage project and keepseveral versions of
the source file(s) inan orderly fashion.

EXAMPLES OFEMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Examples
o Telecom
o Smart Cards,

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o Missiles and Satellites,
o Computer Networking,

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o Digital Consumer Electronics, and
o Automotive
Applications
o Mobile phone eri
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o Digital camera
o Robots
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o Point of sales terminals

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o Automatic Chocolate Vending Machine

o Stepper motor controllers for a robotics system
o Washing or cooking system
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o Multitasking Toys
o Microcontroller- based single or multi-displaydigital panel meter for voltage,
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current, resistance and frequency

o Keyboard controller
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o Serial port cards

o CD drive or Hard Disk drive controller
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o Peripheral controllers,, a CRT displaycontroller, a keyboard controller, a

DRAMcontroller, a DMA controller, a printercontroller,
o a laser printer-controller, a LAN controller,a disk drive controller
o Fax or photocopy or printer or scannerMachineRemote (controller) of TV
o Telephone with memory, display and othersophisticated features
o Motor controls Systems - for examples, anaccurate control of speed and position of
d.c. motor, robot, and CNC machine;, theautomotive applications like such as a

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closeloop engine control, a dynamic ride control,and an anti-lock braking system

monitor
o Electronic data acquisition and supervisory control system Spectrum analyzer
o Biomedical systems - for example,an ECG LCD display-cum-recorder,a blood- cell
recorder cum analyzer and a patient monitor system service.
Electronic instruments, such asindustrial process controller
Electronic smart weight display system, and an industrial moisture recorder cum controller.
Digital storage system for a signalwave form or Electric or Water MeterReading

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Computer networking systems, - forexamples, router, front-end processor in aserver, switch,
bridge, hub, and gateway

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For Internet appliances, there are numerous application systems
(i) Intelligentoperation, administration and maintenancerouter (IOAMR) in a distributed

(ii)
network,and
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Mail Client card to store e-mail andpersonal addresses and to smartly connectto a modem
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or server
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Banking systems - for examples, BankATM and Credit card transactions

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Signal Tracking Systems - for examples, anautomatic signal tracker and a target tracker.
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Communication systems, for examples, suchas for a mobile-communication a SIM card,a

numeric pager, a cellular phone, a cableTV terminal, and a FAX transceiver with orwithout a
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graphic accelerator. Image Filtering, Image Processing, PatternRecognizer, Speech Processing and
Video Processing.
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Entertainment systems - such as videogame, music system and Video Games

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A system that connects a pocket PC to theautomobile driver mobile phone and awireless
receiver. The system then connectsto a remote server for Internet or e-mail orto remote computer
at an ASP (applicationService Provider).A personal information manager usingframe buffers in
hand- held devices.

Thin Client to provide the disk-less nodeswith the remote boot capability.[Application of
thin- clients is accesses to adata center from a number of nodes; or in an Internet Laboratory
accesses to the Internetleased line through a remote Server]. Embedded Firewall / Router using

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ARM7/multi-processor with twoEthernet interfaces and interfacessupport to for PPP, TCP/IP and
UDPprotocols.

Sophisticated Applications
 Mobile Smart Phones and Computingsystems
 Mobile computer
 Embedded systems for wireless LAN andconvergent technology devices
 Embedded systems for Video, Interactivevideo, broadband IPv6 (Internet Protocolversion

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6) Internet and other products, realtime video and speech or multimediaprocessing systems

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 Embedded Interface and Networking systems using high speed (400 MHz plus), and
ultra high speed (10 Gbps) and largebandwidth: Routers, LANs, switches andgateways,

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SANs (Storage Area Networks), WANs (Wide Area Networks),Security products and
High-speed Networksecurity, Gigabit rate encryption rateproducts
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SYSTEM-ON-CHIP (SoC) AND USE OF VLSI CIRCUIT DESIGN TECHNOLOGY
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VLSI chip
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 Integration of high-level components

 Possess gate-level sophistication in circuits above that of the counter, register, multiplier,
floating point operation unitand ALU.
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System on chip (SoC) a new design innovation

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SoC is a system on a VLSI chip that has all needed analog as well as digitalcircuits,
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processors and software, forexample, single-chip mobile phone.

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SYSTEM-ON-CHIP
Embeds:
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• Multiple processors,
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• memories,
• multiple standard source solutions (IPCores),
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• Logic and analog units

Embedding a Microprocessor
General Purpose Processor (GPP)microprocessor can be embedded on aVSLI chip.
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Embedding an ASIP
Processor with instruction set designedfor specific application on a VLSI chipfor example,
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microcontroller, DSP, IO,media, network or other domainspecific processorEmbedding a

Microcontroller core
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 68HC11xx,
 HC12xx,
 HC16xx8051,
 80251 PIC 16F84 or
 16C76, 16F876 and PIC18Microcontroller
 Enhancements of ARM9/ARM7 ARM
 Cortex M3 from Philips, Samsung and ST Microelectronics

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Embedding a DSP Core

 TMS320Cxx, OMAP1Tiger SHARC 5600xx PNX 1300, 15002
 DSP for mobile phones, for example,OMAP of Texas Instruments use theeffective power
dissipation methods ofdynamic switching both of power supplyvoltage and operating
frequency of the CPUcore.
 Filtering, noise cancellation, echoelimination, compression and encryption
Embedding a Multi-processor or DualCore using General PurposeProcessors (GPP)
 Speech signal-compression and coding

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 Signal decoding and decompression
Embedding an Accelerator

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Accelerate the execution of codes, forexample, a floating point coprocessoraccelerates the
mathematicaloperations and Java acceleratoraccelerates the Java code execution.
Embedding Single purpose processors
 eri
For Dialling, Modulating, Transmitting. Demodulating and Receiving.
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 Keypad interface and display interfacehandling.
 Touch screen
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 Message display and creation, SMS (ShortMessage Service) and MMS

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 Protocol- stack generation.

 Pixel coprocessor and CODEC in a digitalCamera
arn

SoC
 Embedded processor GPP or ASIP core,

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Single purpose processing cores or multipleprocessor cores,

 A network bus protocol core,

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An encryption and decryption functions cores,

 Cores for FFT and Discrete cosine transformsfor signal processing applications,
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 Memories

Multiple standard source solutions,called IP (Intellectual Property)cores,

 Programmable logic device and FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array) cores
 Other logic and analog units.

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IPs in SoC
 IP –a standard source solution forsynthesizing a higher-level component byconfiguring a
core of VLSI circuit orFPGA core available as an IntellectualProperty, called (IP).
 High Level Components with gate levelsophistication circuit much above level ofcounters
and registers.
IPs
 Designer or designing company holdsthe copyright for the synthesizeddesign of a higher-

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level component forgate-level implementation of an IP.
 One might have to pay royalty forevery chip shipped. An embeddedsystem may

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incorporate several IPs.
An IP may provide a design for adaptive filtering of a signal.

eri
full design for implementing HypertextTransfer Protocol (HTTP) or File Transfer
Protocol (FTP) to transmit a web page orfile on Internet.
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 USB port controller, Bluetooth, GPSinterface, Wireless 802.11or 802.16interfaces
 An FPGA consists of a large numberof programmable gates on a VLSIchip. There is a set
g

of gates in eachFPGA cell, called 'macro cell'.

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 Embedded system designed with aview of offering enhancingfunctionalities in future, then

FPGAcore can be used in the circuits.Each cell has several inputs andoutputs. All cells
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interconnect like anarray (matrix).Each interconnection is programmablethrough the

associated memory RAMin a FPGA programming tool.
 A concept is using FPGA (FieldProgrammable Gate Arrays) core alongwith single or
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multiple processors.
Use of Xilinx Spartan-3 90 nm based FPGAs with Power PCs(2003 )
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Use of FPGAs cum ProcessorCores

 FPGA 125136 Logic Cells along withthe Four IBM PowerPC processors[Exemplary
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Application: System witha Data Encryption Engine at 1.5 Gbps]

FPGA
 An SIMD instruction, Fourier transform andits inverse, DFT or Laplace transform andits
inverse, compression or decompression,encrypting or deciphering, a specificpattern-
recognition (for recognizing asignature or finger print or DNA sequence).
 Configure an algorithm into the logic gatesof the FPGA.

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UNIT II

DEVICES AND BUSES FOR DEVICES NETWORK 9

IO port types- Serial and parallel IO ports

A port is a device to receive the bytes from external peripheral(s) [or device(s) or
processor(s) or controllers] for reading them later using instructions executed on the processor to

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send the bytes to external peripheral or device or processor using instructions executed on
processor.

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A Port connects to the processor using address decoder and system buses. The processor
uses the addresses of the port-registers for programming the port functions or modes, reading port

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status and for writing or reading bytes. ine
Example
 SI serial interface in 8051
 SPI serial peripheral interface in 68HC11
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 PPI parallel peripheral interface 8255

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 Ports P0, P1, P2 and P3 in 8051 or PA, PB,PC and PD in 68HC11

 COM1 and COM2 ports in an IBM PC
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IO Port Types
Types of Serial ports

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Synchronous Serial Input

 Synchronous Serial Output

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Asynchronous Serial UART input

 Asynchronous Serial UART output (both as input and as output, for example,modem.)
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
Types of parallel ports
 Parallel port one bit Input
 Parallel one bit output
 Parallel Port multi-bit Input
 Parallel Port multi-bit Output

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Synchronous Serial Input Example

Inter-processor data transfer, reading from CD or hard disk, audio input, video input, dial
tone, network input, transceiver input, scanner input, remote controller input, serial I/O bus input,
writing to flash memory using SDIO (Secure Data Association IO based card).

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Synchronous Serial Input

 The sender along with the serial bits also sends the clock pulses SCLK (serial clock) to the
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receiver port pin. The port synchronizes the serial data input bits with clock bits. Each bit
in each byte as well as each byte in synchronization

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Synchronization means separation by a constant interval or phase difference. If clock

period = T, then each byte at the port is received at input in period = 8T.

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The bytes are received at constant rates. Each byte at input port separates by 8T and data
transfer rate or the serial line bits is (1/T) bps. [1bps = 1 bit per s]
 Serial data and clock pulse-inputs
 On same input line − when clock pulses either encode or modulate serial data input bits
suitably. Receiver detects the clock pulses and receives data bits after decoding or
demodulating.
 On separate input line − When a separate SCLK input is sent, the receiver detects at the
middle or+ ve edge or –ve edge of the clock pulses that whether the data-input is 1 or 0 and

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saves the bits in an 8-bit shift register. The processing element at the port (peripheral) saves
the byte at a port register from where the microprocessor reads the byte.
Master output slave input (MOSI) and Master input slave output (MISO)
MOSI when the SCLK is sent from the sender to the receiver and slave is forced to
synchronize sent inputs from the master as per the inputs from master clock.

 MISO when the SCLK is sent to the sender (slave)from the receiver (master) and slave is
forced to synchronize for sending the inputs to master as per the master clock outputs.

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 Synchronous serial input is used for interprocessor transfers, audio inputs and streaming
data inputs.

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Example Synchronous Serial Output

Inter-processor data transfer, multiprocessor communication, writing to CD or hard disk,
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audio Input/output, video Input/output,dialer output, network device output, remote TV Control,
transceiver output, and serial I/O bus output or writing to flash memory using SDIO
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Synchronous Serial Output

 Each bit in each byte sent in synchronization with a clock.
 Bytes sent at constant rates. If clock period= T, then data transfer rate is (1/T) bps.
 Sender either sends the clock pulses at SCLK pin or sends the serial data output and clock
pulse-input through same output line with clock pulses either suitably modulate or encode
the serial output bits.

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Synchronous serial output using shift register

 The processing element at the port (peripheral) sends the byte through a shift register at the
port to where the microprocessor writes the byte.
 Synchronous serial output is used for inter processor transfers, audio outputs and streaming
data outputs.

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Synchronous Serial Input/output

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 Each bit in each byte is in synchronization at input and each bit in each byte is in
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synchronization at output with the master clock output.

 The bytes are sent or received at constant rates. The I/Os can also be on same I/O line
w.

when input/output clock pulses either suitably modulate or encode the serial input/output,
respectively. If clock period = T, then data transfer rate is (1/T)bps.
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 The processing element at the port (peripheral)sends and receives the byte at a port register
to or from where the microprocessor writes or reads the byte

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Asynchronous Serial port line RxD (receive data).
g

 Does not receive the clock pulses or clock information along with the bits.
En

 Each bit is received in each byte at fixed intervals but each received byte is not in
synchronization.
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 Bytes separate by the variable intervals or phase differences.

 Asynchronous serial input also called UART input if serial input is according to UART
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protocol
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Example Serial Asynchronous Input

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 Asynchronous serial input is used for keypad inputs and modem inputs in computers
 Keypad controller serial data-in, mice, keyboard controller, modem input, character send
inputs on serial line [also called UART (universal receiver and transmitter) input when
according to UART mode]

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UART protocol serial line format eri
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 Starting point of receiving the bits for each byte is indicated by a line transition from 1to 0
for a period = T. [T−1 called baud rate.]
g

 If sender‘s shift-clock period = T, then a byte at the port is received at input in period=
En

10.T or 11.T due to use of additional bits at start and end of each byte. Receiver detects n
bits at the intervals of T from the middle of the start indicating bit. The n = 0, 1, …, 10 or
arn

11 and finds whether the data-input is 1 or 0 and saves the bits in an 8-bit shift register.
 Processing element at the port (peripheral)saves the byte at a port register from where the
microprocessor reads the byte.
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Asynchronous Serial Output

 Asynchronous output serial port line TxD(transmit data).
w.

 Each bit in each byte transmit at fixed intervals but each output byte is not in
synchronization (separates by a variable interval or phase difference). Minimum separation
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is 1 stop bit interval TxD.

 Does not send the clock pulses along with the bits.
 Sender transmits the bytes at the minimum intervals of n.T. Bits receiving starts from the
middle of the start indicating bit,
 n = 0, 1, …, 10 or 11 and sender sends the bits through a 10 or 11 -bit shift register.
The processing element at the port(peripheral) sends the byte at a port register to where the
microprocessor is to write the byte.

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 Synchronous serial output is also called UART output if serial output is according to
UART protocol
Example Serial Asynchronous Output
_ Output from modem, output for printer, the output on a serial line [also called UART output
when according to UART]
Half Duplex
 Half duplex means as follows: at an instant communication can only be one way (input or
output) on a bi-directional line.

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 An example of half-duplex mode─ telephone communication. On one telephone line, the
talk can only in the half duplex way mode.

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Full Duplex
 Full duplex means that at an instant,the communication can be both ways.

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An example of the full duplexasynchronous mode of communicationis the communication between
themodem and the computer though TxDand RxD lines or communication using
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SI in modes 1, 2 and 3 in 8051
Parallel Port single bit input
g

 Completion of a revolution of a wheel,

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 Achievingpreset pressure in a boiler,

 Exceeding the upper limit of permittedweight over the pan of an electronicbalance,
arn

 Presence of a magnetic piece in the vicinityof or within reach of a robot arm to its endpoint
and Filling of a liquid up to a fixed level.
Parallel Port Output- single bit
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 PWM output for a DAC, which controlsliquid level, or temperature, or pressure, orspeed or
angular position of a rotating shaftor a linear displacement of an object or ad.c. motor
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control
 Pulses to an external circuit
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 Control signal to an external circuit

Parallel Port Input- multi-bit
 ADC input from liquid level measuringsensor or temperature sensor or pressuresensor or
speed sensor or d.c. motor rpmsensor
 Encoder inputs for bits for angular positionof a rotating shaft or a linear displacementof an
object.

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Parallel Port Output- multi-bit

 LCD controller for Multilane LCD displaymatrix unit in a cellular phone to display onthe
screen the phone number, time,messages, character outputs or pictogrambit-images for
display screen or e-mail orweb page
 Print controller output
 Stepper-motor coil driving bits
Parallel Port Input-Output
 PPI 8255

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 Touch screen in mobile phone
Ports or DevicesCommunication and communicationprotocols

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Two Modes of communication between the devices and computer system
Full Duplex – Both devices or device and computer system simultaneously communicate each
other.
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Half Duplex – Only one device can communicate with another at an instance
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Three ways of communication betweenthe ports or devices
1. Synchronous
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2. Iso-synchronous
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3. Asynchronous
1. Synchronous and Iso-synchronous Communication in Serial Ports or Devices Synchronous
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Communication.
When a byte (character) or a frame (acollection of bytes) in of the data isreceived or
transmitted at the constanttime intervals with uniform phasedifferences, the communication
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iscalled as synchronous. Bits of a fullframe are sent in a prefixed maximumtime interval.

Iso-synchronous
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Synchronous communication special case−when bits of a full frame are sent in

themaximum time interval, which can bevariable.
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Synchronous Communication
Clock information is transmittedexplicitly or implicitly insynchronous communication.
Thereceiver clock continuously maintainsconstant phase difference with thetransmitter clock. Bits
of a data framemaintain uniform phase differenceand are sent within a fixed maximumtime
interval.

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Example of synchronous serial communication

 Frames sent over a LAN. Frames of data communicate with the constant time
intervals between each frame remaining constant.
 Another example is the inter-processor communication in a multiprocessor system
Optional Synchronous Code bits
 Optional Sync Code bits or bi-sync code bits orframe start and end signaling bits─
Duringcommunication few bits (each separated byinterval ΔT) sent as Sync code to
enable the framesynchronization or frame start signaling.

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 Code bits precede the data bits.
 May be inversion of code bits after each frame incertain protocols.

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 Flag bits at start and end are also used in certainprotocols. Always present
Synchronous device portdata bits


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Reciprocal of T is the bit per second(bps).
Data bits─ m frame bits or 8 bitstransmit such that each bit is at the linefor time ΔT
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or, each frame is at the linefor time (m. T)m may be 8 or a large number. Itdepends
on the protocolSynchronous device clock bits
g

 Clock bits ─ Either on a separate clockline or on data line such that the
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clockinformation is also embedded with thedata bits by an appropriate encoding

ormodulation
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 Generally not optional

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First characteristics of synchronouscommunication
g

1. Bytes (or frames) maintain a constant phasedifference, which means they are
En

synchronous,i.e. in synchronization. No permission ofsending either the bytes or the frames at

therandom time intervals, this mode therefore doesnot provide for handshaking during
arn

thecommunication interval ─ This facilitates fastdata communication at pre-fixed bps.

Second characteristics of synchronouscommunication
2. A clock ticking at a certain rate has always tobe there for transmitting serially the bits of
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allthe bytes (or frames) serially. Mostly, theclock is not always implicit to thesynchronous data
receiver. The transmittergenerally transmits the clock rate information
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Asynchronous Communication from SerialPorts or Devices

Asynchronous CommunicationClocks of the receiver and transmitterindependent,
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unsynchronized, but ofsame frequency and variable phasedifferences between bytes or bits of
twodata frames, which may not be sentwithin any prefixed time interval.
Example of asynchronous communication
• UART Serial, Telephone or modemcommunication.
• RS232C communication between the UARTdevices
• Each successive byte can have variabletime-gap but have a minimum in-betweeninterval
and no maximum limit for fullframe of many bytes

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Two characteristics of asynchronouscommunication

1. Bytes (or frames) need not maintain a constantphase difference and are asynchronous,
i.e., notin synchronization. There is permission to sendeither bytes or frames at variable
timeintervals─ Thisfacilitates in-betweenhandshaking between the serial transmitter portand serial
receiver port

2. Though the clock must ticking at a certain ratealways has to be there to transmit the bits

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of asingle byte (or frame) serially, it is alwaysimplicit to the asynchronous data receiver and
isindependent of the transmitter

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Clock Features
_ The transmitter does not transmit (neitherseparately nor by encoding using

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modulation)along with the serial stream of bits any clockrate information in the
asynchronouscommunication and receiver clock thus is notable to maintain identical frequency
ine
andconstant phase difference with transmitter clock
Example: IBM personal computer has two COMports (communication ports)
g

 _ COM1 and COM2 at IO addresses 0x2F8-0xFFand 0xx38-0x3FF

En

 _ Handshaking signals─ RI, DCD, DSR, DTR,RTS, CTS, DTR

 _ Data Bits─ RxD and TxDExample: COM port and Modem Handshakingsignals
arn

 _ When a modem connects, modem sendsdata carrier detect DCD signal at

aninstance t0.
 _ Communicates data set ready (DSR)signal at an instance t1 when it receives
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thebytes on the line.

 _ Receiving computer (terminal) responds atan instance t2 by data terminal
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ready(DTR) signal.
After DTR, request to send (RTS) signal is sent at aninstance t3
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 _ Receiving end responds by clear to send (CTS) signalat an instance t4. After the
response CTS, the data bitsare transmitted by modem from an instance t5 to
thereceiver terminal.
 _ Between two sets of bytes sent in asynchronous mode,the handshaking signals
RTS and CTS can again beexchanged. This explains why the bytes do not
remainsynchronized during asynchronous transmission.

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3. Communication Protocols
1. Protocol
A protocol is a standard adopted,which tells the way in which the bits ofa frame must be
g

sent from a device (orcontroller or port or processor) toanother device or system

En

[Even in personal communication wefollow a protocol – we say Hello! Thentalk and then say good
bye!]
arn

A protocol defines how are the framebits:

1) sent− synchronously or Isosynchronouslyor asynchronously and at what rate(s)?
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2) preceded by the header bits?How the receiving device addresscommunicated so

that only destineddevice activates and receives the bits?
[Needed when several devicesaddressed though a common line(bus)]
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3) How can the transmitting deviceaddress defined so that receivingdevice comes to

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know the sourcewhen receiving data from severalsources?

4) How the frame-length defined so thatreceiving device know the frame-sizein advance?
5) Frame-content specifications –Arethe sent frame bits specify the controlor device
configuring or commend ordata?
6) Are there succeeding to frame thetrailing bits so that receiving devicecan check the
errors, if any inreception before it detects end of theframe ?
A protocol may also define:
7) Frame bits minimum and maximumlength permitted per frame

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8) Line supply and impedances andline-Connectors specifications

Specified protocol at an embedded systemport or communication deviceIO port bits sent
after first formattedaccording to a specified protocol, whichis to be followed when
communicatingwith another device through an IO portor channel
Protocols
 _ HDLC, Frame Relay, for synchronouscommunication
 _ For asynchronous transmission from a deviceport− RS232C, UART, X.25, ATM, DSL
and

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ADSL
 _ For networking the physical devices intelecommunication and computer networks −

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Ethernet and token ring protocols used in LANNetworks
Protocols in embedded network devices
o _ For Bridges and routers
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o _ Internet appliances application protocolsand Web protocols ─HTTP (hyper
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texttransfer protocol), HTTPS (hyper texttransfer protocol Secure Socket
Layer),SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol),POP3 (Post office Protocol version
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3),ESMTP (Extended SMTP),

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File transfer, Boot Protocols in embedded devicesnetwork

o _ TELNET (Tele network),
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o _ FTP (file transfer protocol),

o _ DNS (domain network server),
o _ IMAP 4 (Internet Message ExchangeApplication Protocol) and
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o _ Bootp (Bootstrap protocol).Wireless Protocols in embedded devices network

o _ Embedded wireless appliances useswireless protocols─ WLAN 802.11,802.16,
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Bluetooth, ZigBee, WiFi, WiMax,

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TIMING ANDCOUNTING DEVICES

Timer
• Timer is a device, which counts theinput at regular interval (δT) usingclock pulses at its
input.
• The counts increment on each pulseand store in a register, called countregister
• Output bits (in a count register or at theoutput pins) for the present counts.
Evaluation of Time

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• The counts multiplied by the intervalδT give the time.

• The (present counts −initial counts) ×δT interval gives the time intervalbetween two
instances when presentcount bits are read and initial countswere read or set.
Timer
 _ Has an input pin (or a control bit incontrol register) for resetting it for allcount bits = 0s.
 _ Has an output pin (or a status bit instatus register) for output when allcount bits = 0s
after reaching themaximum value, which also meansafter timeout or overflow.
Counter

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• A device, which counts the input dueto the events at irregular or regularintervals.
• The counts gives the number of inputevents or pulses since it was last read.

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• Has a register to enable read of presentcounts
• Functions as timer when countingregular interval clock pulses

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_ Has an input pin (or a control bit incontrol register) for resetting it for allcount bits = 0s.
_ Has an output pin (or a status bit instatus register) for output when allcount bits = 0s after
ine
reaching themaximum value, which also meansafter timeout or overflow.
g
En

Timer or Counter Interrupt

_ When a timer or counter becomes 0x00or 0x0000 after 0xFF or 0xFFFF(maximum value), it can
arn

generate an‗interrupt‘, or an output ‗Time-Out‘ orset a status bit ‗TOV‘

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w.
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Free running Counter (Blind runningCounter)
g

• A counting device may be a free running(blind counting) device giving overflowinterrupts at

En

fixed intervals
• A pre-scalar for the clock input pulses to fixthe intervals
arn

Free Running Counter

It is useful for action or initiating chain of actions,processor interrupts at the preset
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instances noting the instances of occurrences of theevents

_ processor interrupts for requesting theprocessor to use the capturing of counts atthe input
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instance
_ comparing of counts on the events for futureActions
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Free running (blind counting) device ManyApplications Based on
ine
_ comparing the count (instance) withthe one preloaded in a compare register[an additional
register for defining aninstance for an action]
_ capturing counts (instance) in anadditional register on an input event.
g

[An addition input pin for sensing anevent and saving the counts at theinstance of event and taking
En

action.]
Free running (Blind Counts) input OCenablepin (or a control bit in controlregister)
arn

• For enabling an output when all count bits atfree running count = preloaded counts in
thecompare register.
• At that instance a status bit or output pin alsosets in and an interrupt ‗OCINT‘ ofprocessor
Le

can occur for event of comparisonequality.

• Generates alarm or processor interrupts atthe preset times or after preset interval
w.

fromanother event
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Free running (Blind Counts) input capture -enable pin (or a control bit in controlregister)
for Instance of Event Capture
• A register for capturing the counts onan instance of an input (0 to 1 or 1 to 0or toggling)
transition
_ A status bit can also sets in andprocessor interrupt can occur for thecapture event
Free running (Blind Counts) Pre-scaling
• Prescalar can be programmed as p = 1, 2,4, 8, 16, 32, .. by programming a prescalerregister.
•Prescalar divides the input pulses as perthe programmed value of p.

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• Count interval = p × δT interval

• δT = clock pulses period, clockfrequency = δT −1
Free running (Blind Counts) Overflow
• It has an output pin (or a status bit instatus register) for output when allcount bits = 0s
after reaching themaximum value, which also meansafter timeout or overflow
• Free running n-bit counter overflowsafter p × 2n × δT interval
Uses of a timer device
 _ Real Time Clock Ticks (System HeartBeats). [Real time clock is a clock,

.in
which, once the system starts, does notstop and can't be reset and its countvalue can't be
reloaded. Real timeendlessly flows and never returnsback!] Real Time Clock is set for

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ticksusing prescaling bits (or rate set bits) inappropriate control registers.
 Initiating an event after a preset delaytime. Delay is as per count valueloaded.

eri
Initiating an event (or a pair of eventsor a chain of events) after acomparison(s) with
between the pre-settime(s) with counted value(s). [It issimilar to a preset alarm(s).].
ine
 Apreset time is loaded in a CompareRegister. [It is similar to presetting analarm].
 Capturing the count value at the timeron an event. The information of time(instance of the
g

event) is thus stored atthe capture register.

En

 Finding the time interval between twoevents. Counts are captured at eachevent in capture
register(s) and read.The intervals are thus found out.
arn

 Wait for a message from a queue ormailbox or semaphore for a preset timewhen using
RTOS. There is aApredefined waiting period is donebefore RTOS lets a task run.
Watchdog timer.
Le

It resets the systemafter a defined time.

 _ Baud or Bit Rate Control for serialcommunication on a line or network.Timer timeout
w.

interrupts define thetime of each baud

 _ Input pulse counting when using atimer, which is ticked by giving nonperiodicinputs
ww

instead of the clockinputs. The timer acts as a counter if, inplace of clock inputs, the inputs
aregiven to the timer for each instance tobe counted.
 _ Scheduling of various tasks. A chain ofsoftware-timers interrupt and RTOSuses these
interrupts to schedule thetasks.
 _ Time slicing of various tasks. Amultitasking or multi-programmedoperating system
presents the illusion thatmultiple tasks or programs are runningsimultaneously by
switching betweenprograms very rapidly, for example, afterevery 16.6 ms.

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 _ Process known as a context switch.[RTOSswitches after preset time-delay from

onerunning task to the next. task. Each task cantherefore run in predefined slots of time]
Time division multiplexing (TDM)
 _ Timer device used for multiplexing theinput from a number of channels.
 _ Each channel input allotted a distinctand fixed-time slot to get a TDMoutput. [For
example, multipletelephone calls are the inputs and TDMdevice generates the TDM output
forlaunching it into the optical fiber.
Software Timer

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_ A software, which executes andincreases or decreases a count-variable(count value) on an
interrupt from on asystem timer output or from on a realtimeclock interrupt.

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_ The software timer also generateinterrupt on overflow of count-value oron finishing value of the
countvariable.

System clock eri

ine
• In a system an hardware-timing device isprogrammed to tick at constant intervals.
• At each tick there is an interrupt
g

• A chain of interrupts thus occur at periodicintervals.

En

• The interval is as per a presetcount value

• The interrupts are called system clockinterrupts, when used to control the schedulesand
arn

timings of the system

Software timer (SWT)

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• SWT is a timer based on the system clockinterrupts

• The interrupt functions as a clock input toan SWT.
w.

• This input is common to all the SWTs thatare in the list of activated SWTs.
• Any number of SWTs can be made active ina list.
ww

• Each SWT will set a status flag on itstimeout (count-value reaching 0).

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• Actions are analogous to that of ahardware timer. While there is physicallimit (1, 2 or 3 or
4) for the number ofhardware timers in a system, SWTscan be limited by the number
g

ofinterrupt vectors provided by the user.

• Certain processors (microcontrollers)also defines the interrupt vectoraddresses of 2 or 4
En

SWTs
SERIAL BUSCOMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS– I2C
arn

Interconnecting number of device circuits, Assume flash memory, touch screen,ICs for
measuring temperatures andICs for measuring pressures at anumber of processes in a plant.
Le

_ ICs mutually network through acommon synchronous serial bus I2C An 'Inter Integrated Circuit'
(I2C) bus,a popular bus for these circuits.
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_Synchronous Serial Bus Communication fornetworking

_ Each specific I/O synchronous serial devicemay be connected to other using specificinterfaces,
ww

for example, with I/O deviceusing I2C controller

_ I2C Bus communication− use of onlysimplifies the number of connections andprovides a
common way (protocol) ofconnecting different or same type of I/Odevices using synchronous
serialcommunication
IO I2C Bus
_ Any device that is compatible with a I2Cbus can be added to the system(assuming an appropriate
device driverprogram is available), and a I2C devicecan be integrated into any system thatuses that
I2C bus.

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Originally developed at PhilipsSemiconductors
Synchronous Serial Communication 400kbps up to 2 m and 100 kbps forlonger distances
Three I2C standards
g

1. Industrial 100 kbps I2C,

En

2. 100 kbps SM I2C,

3. 400 kbps I2C
arn

I2C Bus
_ The Bus has two lines that carry itssignals— one line is for the clock andone is for bi-
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directional data.
_ There is a standard protocol for the I2Cbus.
Device Addresses and Master in the I2C bus
w.

_ Each device has a 7-bit address usingwhich the data transfers take place.
ww

_ Master can address 127 other slaves atan instance.

_ Master has at a processing elementfunctioning as bus controller or amicrocontroller with I2C
(InterIntegrated Circuit) bus interfacecircuit.
Slaves and Masters in the I2C bus
_ Each slave can also optionally has I2C (InterIntegrated Circuit) bus controller andprocessing
element.
_ Number of masters can be connected on thebus.

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_ However, at an instance, master is one,which initiates a data transfer on SDA(serial data) line
and which transmits theSCL (serial clock) pulses. From master, adata frame has fields beginning
from startbit

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Synchronous Serial Bus Fields and its length

En

_ First field of 1 bit─ Start bit similar to onein an UART

_ Second field of 7 bits─ address field. Itdefines the slave address, which is beingsent the data
arn

frame (of many bytes) by themaster

_ Third field of 1 control bit─ defineswhether a read or write cycle is in progress
Le

_ Fourth field of 1 control bit─ defineswhether is the present data is anacknowledgment (from
slave)
_ Fifth field of 8 bits─ I2C device data byte
w.

_ Sixth field of 1-bit─ bit NACK (negativeacknowledgement) from the receiver. Ifactive then
ww

acknowledgment after a transferis not needed from the slave, elseacknowledgement is expected
from theslave
_ Seventh field of 1 bit ─ stop bit like in anUART
Disadvantage of I2C bus
• Time taken by algorithm in thehardware that analyzes the bits throughI2C in case the slave
hardware does notprovide for the hardware that supportsit.
• Certain ICs support the protocol andcertain do not.
• Open collector drivers at the masterneed a pull-up resistance of 2.2 K oneach line

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SERIAL BUSCOMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS– CAN

Distributed Control Area Networkexample - a network of embeddedsystems in automobile
_ CAN-bus line usually interconnects to aCAN controller between line and host at thenode. It
gives the input and gets outputbetween the physical and data link layers atthe host node.
_ The CAN controller has a BIU (businterface unit consisting of buffer anddriver), protocol
controller, status-cumcontrolregisters, receiver-buffer andmessage objects. These units connect
thehost node through the host interface circuit

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eri
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En
arn
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Three standards:
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1. 33 kbps CAN,
2. 110 kbps Fault Tolerant CAN,
ww

3. 1 Mbps High Speed CAN

CAN protocol
There is a CAN controller between the CANline and the host node.
_ CAN controller ─BIU (Bus Interface Unit)consisting of a buffer and driver
_ Method for arbitration─ CSMA/AMP(Carrier Sense Multiple Access withArbitration on
Message Priority basis)
Each Distributed Node Uses:

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• Twisted Pair Connection up to 40 m –for bi-directional data

• Line, which pulls to Logic 1 through aresistor between the line and + 4.5V to +12V.
• Line Idle state Logic 1 (Recessivestate)
• Uses a buffer gate between an inputpin and the CAN line
• Detects Input Presence at the CAN linepulled down to dominant (active) statelogic 0 (ground ~
0V) by a sender tothe CAN line
• Uses a current driver between theoutput pin and CAN line and pulls linedown to dominant
(active) state logic 0(ground ~ 0V) when sending to theCAN lineProtocol defined start bit

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followed bysix fields of frame bitsData frame starts after first detecting thatdominant state is not
present at the CANline with logic 1 (R state) to 0 (D statetransition) for one serial bit interval

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• After start bit, six fields starting fromarbitration field and ends with seven logic0s end-field
• 3-bit minimum inter frame gap before nextstart bit (R→ D transition) occurs

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En
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w.
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Protocol defined First field in frame bits

_ First field of 12 bits ─'arbitration field.
_ 11-bit destination address and RTR bit
(Remote Transmission Request)

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_ Destination device address specified in an11-bit sub-field and whether the data bytebeing sent is
a data for the device or arequest to the device in 1-bit sub-field.
_ Maximum 211 devices can connect a CANcontroller in case of 11-bit address fieldstandard11-bit
address standard CAN
_ Identifies the device to which data isbeing sent or request is being made.
_ When RTR bit is at '1', it means thispacket is for the device at destinationaddress. If this bit is at
'0' (dominantstate) it means, this packet is a requestfor the data from the device.
Protocol defined frame bits Second field

.in
_ Second field of 6 bits─ control field.
The first bit is for the identifier‘sextension.

ng
_ The second bit is always '1'.
_ The last 4 bits specify code for dataLength

eri
_ Third field of 0 to 64 bits─ Its lengthdepends on the data length code in thecontrol field.
• Fourth field (third if data field has nobit present) of 16 bits─ CRC (CyclicRedundancy Check)
ine
bits.
• The receiver node uses it to detect theerrors, if any, during the transmission
g

• Fifth field of 2 bits─ First bit 'ACK slot'

En

• ACK = '1' and receiver sends back '0' in this slotwhen the receiver detects an error in the
reception.
• Sender after sensing '0' in the ACK slot, generallyretransmits the data frame.
arn

• Second bit 'ACK delimiter' bit. It signals the endof ACK field.
• If the transmitting node does not receive anyacknowledgement of data frame within a
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specifiedtime slot, it should retransmit.

Sixth field of 7-bits ─ end- of- theframespecification and has seven '0's
w.

SERIAL BUSCOMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS– USB

USB Host ApplicationsConnecting
ww

• flash memory cards,

• pen-like memory devices,
• digital camera,
• printer,
• mouse-device,
• PocketPC,
• video games,
• Scanner

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Universal Serial Bus (USB)

_ Serial transmission and receptionbetween host and serial devices

_ The data transfer is of four types: (a)Controlled data transfer, (b) Bulk datatransfer, (c) Interrupt
driven datatransfer, (d) Iso-synchronous transfer
_ A bus between the host system andinterconnected number of peripheraldevices

USB Protocol Features

.in
_ Maximum 127 devices can connect ahost.

ng
_ Three standards: USB 1.1 (a low speed1.5 Mbps 3 meter channel along with ahigh speed 12
Mbps 25 meter channel),USB 2.0 (high speed 480 Mbps 25meter channel), and wireless USB(high
speed 480 Mbps 3 m)
eri
ine
Host connection to the devices or nodes
_ Using USB port driving software andhost controller,
g

_ Host computer or system has a hostcontroller,which connects to a roothub.

En

_ A hub is one that connects to othernodes or hubs.

_ A tree- like topology
arn
Le
w.
ww

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.in
ng
eri
g ine

USB Device features

En

_ Can be hot plugged (attached), configuredand used, reset, reconfigured and used
_ Bandwidth sharing with other devices: Hostschedules the sharing of bandwidth amongthe
arn

attached devices at an instance.

_ Can be detached (while others are inoperation) and reattached.
Le

_ Attaching and detaching USB device orhost without rebooting

USB device descriptor
w.

_ Has data structure hierarchy asfollows:

_ It has device descriptor at the root,which has number of configurationdescriptors, which has
ww

number ofinterface descriptor and which hasnumber of end point descriptor.

Powering USB device
_ A device can be either bus-powered orself- powered.
_ In addition, there is a powermanagement by software at the host forUSB ports
USB protocol
_ USB bus cable has four wires, one for+5V, two for twisted pairs and one forground.
_ Termination impedances at each end asper the device-speed.
_ Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)-shielded cable for the 15 Mbps USBdevices.

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_ Serial signals NRZI (Non Return toZero (NRZI)

_ The synchronization clock encoded byinserting synchronous code (SYNC)field before each USB
packet
_ Receiver synchronizes its bits recoveryclock continuously
USB Protocol
• A polled bus
• Host controller regularly polls the presenceof a device as scheduled by the software.
• It sends a token packet.

.in
• The token consists of fields for type,direction, USB device address and deviceend-point number.
• The device does the handshaking through ahandshake packet, indicating successful

ng
orunsuccessful transmission.
• A CRC field in a data packet permitserror detection
USB supported three types of pipes
eri
1. 'Stream' with no USB- defined protocol. Itis used when the connection is
ine
alreadyestablished and the data flow starts
2. 'Default Control' for providing access.
g

3. 'Message' for the control functions for of thedevice.

En

• Host configures each pipe with the databandwidth to be used, transfer service typeand buffer
sizes.
PARALLEL BUSDEVICE PROTOCOLS – PCI Bus
arn

_ Parallel bus enables a host computer orsystem to communicate simultaneously

32-bit or 64-bit with other devices orsystems, for example, to a networkinterface card (NIC) or
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graphic card
Computer system PCI
w.

• When the I/O devices in the distributedembedded subsystems are networked allcan communicate
through a commonparallel bus.
ww

• PCI connects at high speed to othersubsystems having a range of I/O devicesat very short
distances (<25 cm) using aparallel bus without having to implementa specific interface for each
I/O device.
PCI bus Applications
Connects
_ display monitor,
_ printer,
_ character devices,

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_ network subsystems,
_ video card,
_ modem card,
_ hard disk controller,
PCI busconnects
_ thin client,
_ digital video capture card,
_ streaming displays,

.in
_ 10/100 Base T card,
_ Card with 16 MB Flash ROM with a routergateway for a LAN and

ng
_ Card using DEC 21040 PCI Ethernet LANcontroller.
• When the I/O devices in the distributedembedded subsystems are networked, allcan communicate
through a commonparallel bus.
eri
• PCI connects at high speed to othersubsystems having a range of I/O devicesat very short
ine
distances (<25 cm) using aparallel bus without having to implementa specific interface for each
I/O device.
g

PCI Bus Feature

En

_ 32- bit data bus extendible to 64 bits.

_ PCI protocol specifies the ways ofinteraction between the differentcomponents of a computer.
arn

_ A specification version 2.1─synchronous/asynchronous throughputis up to 132/ 528 MB/s [33M

× 4/ 66M× 8 Byte/s], operates on 3.3V to 5Vsignals.
_ PCI driver can access the hardwareautomatically as well as by theprogrammer assigned
Le

addresses.
_ Automatically detects the interfacingsystems and assigns new addresses
w.

_ Thus, simplified addition and deletion(attachment and detachment) of thesystem peripherals.

FIFO in PCI device/card
ww

_ Each device may use a FIFO controllerwith a FIFO buffer for maximumthroughput.
Identification Numbers
_ A device identifies its address space bythree identification numbers, (i) I/Oport (ii) Memory
locations and (iii)Configuration registers of total 256Bwith a four 4-byte unique ID. Each
PCIdevice has address space allocation of256 bytes to access it by the host
Computer
PCI device identification
_ A sixteen16-bit register in a PCI deviceidentifies this number to let that deviceauto- detect it.

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_ Another sixteen16-bit registeridentifies a device ID number. Thesetwo numbers let allow the
device tocarry out its auto-detection by its hostcomputer.
Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) Bus
_ Independent from the IBMarchitecture.
_ Number of embedded devices in acomputer system use PCI
_ Three standards for the devicesinterfacing with the PC
_ PCI 32bit/33 MHz, and 64bit/66 MHz
_ PCI Extended (PCI/X) 64 bit/100 MHz ,

.in
_ Compact PCI (cPCI) Bus
Two super speed versions

ng
_ PCI Super V2.3 264/528 MBps 3.3V (on64- bit bus), and 132/264 (on 32-bit bus)and
_ PCI-X Super V1.01a for 800MBps 64- bitbus 3.3Volt.
PCI bridge
eri
_ PCI bus interface switches a processorcommunication with the memory bus to PCIbus.
ine
_ In most systems, the processor has a singledata bus that connects to a switch module
_ Some processors integrate the switchmodule onto the same integrated circuit asthe processor to
g

reduce the number of chipsrequired to build a system and thus the system cost.
En

_ Communicates with the memorythrough a memory bus (a set ofaddress, control and data buses),
adedicated set of wires that transfer databetween these two systems.
arn

_ A separate I/O bus connects the PCIswitch to the I/O devices.

Advantage of Separate memory and I/Obuses
_ I/O system generally designed formaximum flexibility, to allow as manydifferent I/O devices as
Le

possible tointerface to the computer

_ Memory bus is designed to provide themaximum-possible bandwidth betweenthe processor and
w.

the memory system.

PCI-X (PCI extended)
ww

• 133 MBps to as much as 1 GBps

• Backward compatible with existing
PCI cards
• Used in high bandwidth devices(Fiber Channel, and processors thatare part of a cluster and
GigabitEthernet)
• Maximum 264 MBpsthroughput, uses 8,16, 32, or 64 bit transfers
• 6U cards contain additional pins for userdefined I/Os
• Live insertion support (Hot-Swap),

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• Supports two independent buses on theback plane (on different connectors)

• Supports Ethernet, Infiniband, and StarFabric support (Switched fabric basedsystems) Compact
PCI (cPCI)
Each PCI device on Bus
_ Perform a specific function,
_ May contain a processor and software toperform a specific function.
_ Each device has the specific memoryaddress-range, specific interrupt-vectors(pre-assigned or
auto configured) and thedevice I/O port addresses.

.in
_ A bus of appropriate specifications andprotocol interfaces these to the hostcomputer system or
compute

ng
Configuration address space
_ Unique feature of PCI bus uniquefeature is its configuration addressspace.
PCI controller Features
• Accesses one device at a time eri
ine
• All the devices within host device orsystem can share the I/O port andmemory addresses, but
cannot sharethe configuration registers
g

• Device cannot modify otherconfiguration registers but can accessother device resources or share
En

thework or assist the other device

• If there are reasons for doing it so, aPCI driver can change the default bootup assignments on
arn

configurationtransactions.
PCI Device Initialization
A device can initialize at booting time
Le

• Avoids any address collision

• Device on boot up disables its interruptand closes its door to its address spaceexcept to the
w.

configuration registersspace
ww

PCI BIOS (Basic Input-Output System)

Performs the configuration transactionsand then, memory and address spacesautomatically map to
the address spacein the device hosting system

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UNIT III PROGRAMMING CONCEPTS AND EMBEDDED PROGRAMMING IN C,

C++ 9

Programming in Assembly and HLL

• Processor and memory-sensitiveinstructions: Program codes maybe written in assembly
• Most of codes: Written in a highlevel language (HLL), ‗C‘, ‗C++‘or Java

Assembly Language Programming

Advantage

.in
Assembly codes sensitive to the processor,memory, ports and devices hardware
Gives a precise control of the processorinternal devices
Enables full use of processor specific featuresin its instruction set and its addressing modes

ng
Machine codes are compact, processor andmemory sensitive
System needs a smaller memory.
Memory needed does not depend on theprogrammer data type selection and

eri
ruledeclarations
Not the compiler specific and libraryfunctionsspecific
Device driver codes may need only a fewassembly instructions.
ine
Bottom-up-design approach

Advantage of using high levellanguage (HLL) for Programming

Short Development Cycle
g

• Code reusability─ A function or routinecan be repeatedly used in a program

• Standard library functions─ Forexamples, the mathematical functionsand delay ( ), wait ( ), sleep
En

( ) functions
• Use of the modular building blocks
• Sub-modules are designed first forspecific and distinct set of actions,then the modules and
arn

finallyintegration into complete design.

• First code the basic functionalmodules and then build a biggermodule and then integrate into
thefinal system
• First design of main program (blueprint),then its modules and finallythe sub-modules are
Le

designed forspecific and distinct set of actions.

• Top-down design Most favouredprogram design approach
w.

Use of Data Type and Declarations

• Examples, char, int, unsigned short,long, float, double, Boolean.
• Each data type provides anabstraction of the (i) methods to use,manipulate and represent, and (ii)
ww

setof permissible operations.

Use of Type Checking
• Type checking during compilationmakes the program less prone toerrors.
• Example─ type checking on a chardata type variable (a character) doesnot permit subtraction,
multiplicationand division.

Use of Control Structures, loops andConditions

• Control Structures and loops
• Examples─ while, do-while, breakand for
• Conditional Statements examples
• if, if- else, else - if and switch - case)

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• Makes tasks simple for the programflowDesign

Use of Data Structures
_ Data structure
- A way of organizinglarge amounts of data.
_ A data elements‘ collection
_ Data element in a structure identifiedand accessed with the help of a fewpointers and/or indices
and/orfunctions.
Standard Data structure
• Queue
• Stack
• Array – one dimensional as a vector
• Multidimensional

.in
• List
• Tree

ng
Use of Objects
_ Objects bind the data fields andmethods to manipulate those fields
_ Objects reusability

eri
_ Provide inheritance, methodoverloading, overriding and interfacing
_ Many other features for ease inprogramming
ine
Advantage of using C for Programming
C
•Procedure oriented language (Noobjects)
• Provision of inserting the assemblylanguage codes in between (called inlineassembly) to obtain a
g

directhardware control.
• A large program in ‗C‘ splits into thedeclarations for variables, functions anddata structure,
En

simpler functional blocksand statements.

In-line assembly codes of C functions
• Processor and memory sensitivepart of the program within the inlineassembly, and the
arn

complexpart in the HLL codes.

• Example function ouportb (q, p)
• Example─ Mov al, p; out q, al
Le

C Program Elements
Preprocessor include Directive
w.

_ Header, configuration and otheravailable source files are madethe part of an embedded
systemprogram source file by thisdirective
Examples of Preprocessor includeDirectives
ww

# include "VxWorks.h" /* IncludeVxWorks functions*/

# include "semLib.h" /* IncludeSemaphore functions Library */
# include "taskLib.h" /* Includemultitasking functions Library */
# include "sysLib.c" /* Include system libraryfor system functions */
# include "netDrvConfig.txt" /* Include a textfile that provides the 'Network DriverConfiguration'.
*/
# include "prctlHandlers.c" /* Include file forthe codes for handling and actions as perthe
protocols used for driving streams tothe network. */

Preprocessor Directive for theDefinitions

• Global Variables ─ # definevolatile booleanIntrEnable
• Constants ─ # define false 0

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• Strings─ # define welcomemsg"Welcome To ABC Telecom"

Preprocessor Macros
• Macro - A named collection of codes that isdefined in a program as preprocessor directive.
• Differs from a function in the sense that oncea macro is defined by a name, the compilerputs the
corresponding codes at the macro atevery place where that macro-name appears.re used for short
codesonly.
Difference between Macro and Function
• The codes for a function compiledonce only
• On calling that function, theprocessor has to save the context,and on return restore the context.
• Macros are used for short codesonly.
• When a function call is used instead ofmacro, the overheads (context savingand return) will take

.in
a time, Toverheads that is the same order of magnitude asthe time, Texec for execution of
shortcodes within a function.
• Use the function when the Toverheads<<Texec and macro when Toverheads ~= or >

ng
Texec.
Use of Modifiers
 auto
 unsigned
 static
 const
eri
ine
 register
 interrupt
 extern
g

 volatile
En

 volatile static

Use of infinite loops

_ Infinite loops- Never desired inusual programming. Why? Theprogram will never end and
arn

neverexit or proceed further to the codesafter the loop.

_ Infinite loop is a feature inembedded system programming!
Example:
Le

A telephone is never switching off.

The system software in thetelephone has to be always in awaiting loop that finds the ring onthe
line. An exit from the loop willmake the system hardwareredundant.
# define false 0
w.

# define true 1
void main (void) {
ww

/* Call RTOS run here */

rtos.run ( );
/* Infinite while loops follows in eachtask. So never there is return from theRTOS. */
}
void task1 (....) {
/* Declarations */.
while (true) {
/* Run Codes that repeatedly execute */
/* Run Codes that execute on an event*/
if (flag1) {....;}; flag1 =0;
/* Codes that execute for message to thekernel */
message1 ( ); } }

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Use of typedef
_ Example─ A compiler version may notprocess the declaration as an unsigned byte
_ The 'unsigned character' can then be used asa data type.
_ Declared as follows: typedef unsignedcharacter portAdata
_ Used as follows: #define PbyteportAdata0xF1
Use of Pointers
Pointers are powerful tools whenused correctly and according tocertain basic principles.
# define COM ((structsio near*) 0x2F8);
This statement with a single masterstroke assigns the addresses to all 8variables
Byte at the sio Addresses
0x2F8: Byte at RBR/THR /DLATCH-LByte

.in
0x2F9: Byte at DLATCH-HByte
0x2FA: Byte at IER; 0x2FB: Byte at LCR;
0x2FC: Byte at MCR;

ng
0x2FD: Byte at LSR; 0x2FE: Byte at MSR
0x2FF: Byte Dummy Character
Example

eri
Free the memory spaces allotted to a datastructure.
#define NULL (void*) 0x0000
• Now statement & COM ((structsionear*) = NULL;assigns the COM to Null and make freethe
memory between 0x2F8 and 0x2FFfor other uses.
ine
Data structure
• Example─ structure sio
• Eight characters─ Seven for thebytes in BR/THR/DLATCHLByte,IER, IIR, LCR, MCR, LSR,
g

MSRregisters of serial line device andone dummy variablere consisting of 8 charactervariables

structure for the COM port 2 inthe UART serial line device at an IBMPC.
En

Example of Data structure declaration

• Assume structured variable COM at theaddresses beginning 0x2F8.
# define COM ((structsio near*) 0x2F8)
arn

• COM is at 8 addresses 0x2F8-0x2FF andis a structure consisting of 8 charactervariables

structure for the COM port 2 inthe UART serial line device at an IBMPC.
# define COM1 ((structsio near*) 0x3F8);
It will give another structured variableCOM1 at addresses beginning 0x3F8using the data
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structure declared earlieras sio

Use of functions
(i) Passing the Values (elements):
w.

The values are copied into thearguments of the functions. Whenthe function is executed in
thisway, it does not change a variable'svalue at the function, which callsnew function.
(ii) Passing the References
ww

When an argument value to afunction passes through a pointer,the called function can change
thisvalue. On returning from thisfunction, the new value may beavailable in the calling program
oranother function called by thisfunction.
Use of Reentrant Function
• Reentrant function- A functionusable by the several tasks androutines synchronously (at thesame
time). This is because all thevalues of its argument areretrievable from the stack.
Three conditions for a function calledas reentrant function
1. All the arguments pass the valuesand none of the argument is apointer (address) whenever
acalling function calls that function.
2. When an operation is not atomic, thatfunction should not operate on anyvariable, which is
declared outside thefunction or which an interrupt serviceroutine uses or which is a globalvariable

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but passed by reference andnot passed by value as an argumentinto the function. [The value of
such avariable or variables, which is notlocal, does not save on the stack whenthere is call to
another program.]
3. That function does not call any otherfunction that is not itself Reentrant.

Data Structures: Arrays

• Array: A structure with a series ofdata items sequentially placed inmemory
(i) Each element accessible by anidentifier name (which points tothe array) and an index, i
(whichdefine offset from the firstelement)
(ii) istarts from 0 and is +ve integer

.in
ng
eri
g ine
En
arn

One dimensional array (vector)

Example 1:
Le

unsignedintsalary [11];
salary[0] – 1st month salary.
salary[11] – 12th month salary
Each integer is of 32-bit (4 bytes);
w.

salaryassigned 48 bytes addressspace

ww

Example 2: sioCOM [1];

COM [0]– COM1 port data record with structure equivalent to sio
COM [1]– COM2 port data record with structure equivalent to sio
COM assigned 2*8 characters = 16 bytes address space

Two dimensional array

Example 3:
unsignedintsalary [11, 9];
salary[3, 5]– 4th month 6th year salary
salary[11, 4] – 12th month 5th yearsalary
salaryassigned 12*10*4 = 480 bytesaddress space

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Multi-dimensional array
Example 4:
charpixel [143,175, 23];
pixel [0, 2, 5] – 1st horizontal line index x,3rd vertical line index y, 6th color c.pixel assigned
144*176*24 = 608256bytes address space in a coloredpicture of resolution 144x 176 and 24colors.

Programming using functions andfunction queues

_ Use of multiple function calls in the main ( )
_ Use of multiple function calls in cyclic order
_ Use of pointer to a function
_ Use of function queues and

.in
_ Use of the queues of the function pointers built bythe ISRs.
It reduces significantly the ISR latencyperiods. Each device ISR is therefore able toexecute within
its stipulated deadline

ng
1.Multiple function calls
2. Multiple function calls in cyclic order

eri
Use
• One of the most commonmethods is the use of multiplefunction-calls in a cyclic order inan
infinite loop of the main ( ).
3. Use of function pointers
ine
* sign when placed before thefunction name then it refers to allthe compiled form of thestatements
in the memory that arespecified within the curly braceswhen declaring the function.
• A returning data type specification (forexample, void) followed by'(*functionName)
g

(functionArguments)'calls the statements of thefunctionNameusing thefunctionArguments, and on a

return, itreturns the specified data object. Wecan thus use the function pointer forinvoking a call to
En

the function.
4. Queue of Function-pointers
Application
arn

_ Makes possible the designing ofISRs with short codes and byrunning the functions of the ISRsat
later stageso all pending ISRsfinishes
Multiple ISRs insertion of Function pointers into a Queue
• The ISRs insert the function pointers
Le

• The pointed functions in the queue execute at later stages by deleting from the queue
• These queued functions execute after the service to all pending ISRs finishes
Priority Function Queue of Multiple ISRs
w.

• When there are multiple ISRs, a high priority interrupt service routine is executed first
and the lowest priority.
• The ISRs insert the function pointers into a priority queue of function pointers[ISR can
ww

now be designed short enough sothat other source don‘t miss a deadline forservice]

CONCEPTS ANDEMBEDDED PROGRAMMING INC, C++

Multitasking
Function main with a waiting loop
main ( ) passes the control to an RTOS
Each task controlled by RTOS and
Each task will also have the codes in aninfinite loop
A waiting task is passed a signal by theRTOS to start.

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main ( ) calling RTOS

# define false 0
# define true 1
/********************************************************************/
void main (void) {
/* Call RTOS run here */
Infinite loop in main ( )
while (1) {rtos.run ( );
/* Infinite while loops follows in each task.So never there is return from the RTOS. */
}
}

.in
/********************************************************************/
Task 1
void task1 (....) {

ng
/* Declarations */
.
while (true) {

eri
/* Codes that repeatedly execute */
.
/* Codes that execute on an event */
ine
if (flag1) {....;}; flag1 =0;
/* Codes that execute for message to the kernel */
message1 ( );
}}
g

/*********************************************/
En

Task2 ( )
void task2 (....) {
arn

/* Declarations */
.
while (true) {
/* Codes that repeatedly execute */
Le

.
/* Codes that execute on an event */
if (flag2) {....;}; flag2 =0;
w.

/* Codes that execute for message to the kernel */

message2 ( );
}}
ww

/*********************************************/
TaskN_1 ( )
void taskN_1 (....) {
/* Declarations */
.
while (true) {
/* Codes that repeatedly execute */
.
/* Codes that execute on an event */
if (flagN_1) {....;}; flagN_1 =0;
/* Codes that execute for message to the kernel */

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messageN_1 ( );
}}
/*********************************************/
TaskN
voidtaskN (....) {
/* Declarations */
.
while (true) {
/* Codes that repeatedly execute */
.
/* Codes that execute on an event */

.in
if (flagN) {....;}; flagN =0;
/* Codes that execute for message to the kernel */
messageN ( );

ng
}}
/*********************************************/
2. Polling for events and messages

eri
_ A Programming method is to facilitate execution of one of the multiple possible function calls
and the function executes after polling
ine
_ Polling example is polling for a screen state (or Window menu) j and for a message m from an

ISR as per the user choice

g

Mobile phone
En

_ Assume that screen state j is between 0 and K,among 0, 1, 2, ..or K – 1 possible states.(set
ofmenus).
_ An interrupt is triggered from a touch screen GUIand an ISR posts an event-message m = 0, 1, 2,
arn

…,or N – 1 as per the selected the menu choice 0, 1,2, …, N – 1 when there are N menu- choices
for amobile phone user to select from a screen in statej.
Polling for a menu selection from screen state
Le

voidpoll_menuK {/* Code for polling forchoice from menu m for screen state K*/
}
}
/*********************************/
w.

Object OrientedLanguage and C++

ww

Object-oriented language features

_ defining of the object or set of objects,which are common to similar objectswithin a program and
between the manyprograms,
_ defining the methods that manipulate theobjects without modifying theirdefinitions, and
_ Creation of multiple instances of thedefined object or set of objects or newobjects
Object-oriented language
_ Inheritance
_ overloading of functions
_ overriding of functions

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_ Data encapsulation, and

_ Design of reusable components
Object Characteristics
1. An identity (a reference to amemory block that holds its stateand behavior).
2. A state (its data, property, fieldsand attributes).
3. A behavior(method or methodsthat can manipulate the state ofthe object).

Procedure oriented language

Procedure oriented language Alarge program in ‗C‘ splits intothe simpler functional blocks
andstatements. ‗C‘ is calledprocedure oriented language.

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Object Oriented Language Characteristics
• A large program in objected orientedlanguage C++ or Java, splits into thelogical groups (also
known as classes).

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• Each class defines the data andfunctions (methods) of using data.
• Each class can inherit another classelement.
• A set of these groups (classes) then givesan application program of the EmbeddedSystem

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• Each group has internal user-level fieldsfor data and has methods of processingthat data at these
fields
• Each group can then create many objectsby copying the group and making itfunctional.
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• Each object is functional. Each objectcan interact with other objects toprocess the user's data.
• The language provides for formationof classes by the definition of a groupof objects having
similar attributesand common behavior. A classcreates the objects. An object is aninstance of a
class.
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En

Embedded Programming in C++

• C++ is an object oriented Program(OOP) language, which inaddition, supports the
procedureoriented codes of C.
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• Program coding in C++ codesprovides the advantage of objectedoriented programming as well

asthe advantage of C and in-lineassembly.

C++
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_ structthat binds all the member functionstogether in C. But a C++ class has objectfeatures. It can
be extended and childclasses can be derived from it. A number ofchild classes can be derived from
a commonclass. This feature is called polymorphism.
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A class can be declared as public or private.The data and methods access is restrictedwhen a class
is declared private. Structdoesnot have these features.
_ A class binds all the member functions togetherfor creating objects. The objects will have
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memoryallocation as well as default assignments to itsvariables that are not declared static.
_ A class can derive (inherit) from another classalso. Creating a child class from RTCSWT as
aparent class creates a new application of theRTCSWT.
_ Methods (C functions) can have same name in theinherited class. This is called method
overloading
_ Methods can have the same name as well asthe same number and type of arguments in
the inherited class. This is called methodoverriding. These are the two significantfeatures that are
extremely useful in a largeprogram.
_ Operators in C++ can be overloaded like inmethod overloading.
_ For example, operators ++ and! areoverloaded to perform a set of operations.

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Some disadvantages
• Lengthier Code when using Template,Multiple Inheritance (Deriving a class frommany parents),
Exceptional handling, Virtualbase classes and classes for IO Streams.

Ways to overcome the disadvantages

1) Declare private as many classes aspossible. It helps in optimising thegenerated codes.
2) Use char, intand boolean(scalar datatypes) in place of the objects (referencedata types) as
arguments and use localvariables as much as feasible.
3) Recover memory already used once bychanging the reference to an object toNULL.

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4) A special compiler for an embeddedsystem can facilitate the disabling ofspecific features
provided in C++.Embedded C++ is a version of C++ thatprovides for a selective disabling of
theabove features

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5) Use Embedded C++: It provides for lessruntime overhead and less runtimelibrary. The solutions
for the libraryfunctions are available and ported in Cdirectly.
6) The IO stream library functions in anembedded C++ compiler are alsoreentrant.

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7) Using embedded C++ compilers or thespecial compilers make the C++ morepowerful coding
language than C forembedded systems due to the OOP featuresof software re-usability,
extendibility,polymorphism, function overriding andoverloading along portability of C codes
andin-line assembly codes.
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UNIT IV REAL TIME OPERATING SYSTEMS – PART - 1 9
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Process Concepts
En

 A process consists of executable program (codes), state of which is controlled by OS,

the state during running of a process represented by process-status (running, blocked,
or finished), process structure—its data, objects and resources, and process control
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block (PCB).
 Runs when it is scheduled to run by the OS (kernel)
 OS gives the control of the CPU on a process‘s request (system call).

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Runs by executing the instructions and the continuous changes of its state takes
Place as the program counter (PC) changes.
• Process is that executing unit of computation, which is controlled by some process (of
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the OS) for a scheduling mechanism that lets it execute on the CPU and by some
process at OS for a resource management mechanism that lets it use the system-
memory and other system resources such as network, file, display or printer.
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Application program can be said to consist of number of processes

Example - Mobile Phone Device embedded software
 Software highly complex.
 Number of functions, ISRs, processes threads, multiple physical and virtual device
drivers, and several program objects that must be concurrently processed on a single
processor.
 Voice encoding and convoluting process─ the device captures the spoken words through a
speaker and generates the digital signals after analog to digital conversion, the digits are
encoded and convoluted using a CODEC,

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 Modulating process,
 Display process,
 GUIs (graphic user interfaces), and
 Key input process ─ for provisioning of the user interrupts

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
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Process Control Block

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 A data structure having the information using which the OS controls the
Process state.
 Stores in protected memory area of the kernel.
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 Consists of the information about the process state

Information about the process state at Process Control Block…


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Process ID,
 process priority,
 parent process (if any),

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child process (if any), and

 address to the next process PCB which will run,
 allocated program memory address blocks in physical memory and in secondary (virtual)
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memory for the process-codes,

 allocated process-specific data addressblocks
 allocated process-heap (data generated during the program run) addresses,
 allocated process-stack addresses for the functions called during running of the
process,
 allocated addresses of CPU register-save area as a process context represents by CPU
registers, which include the program counter and stack pointer
 allocated addresses of CPU register-save area as a process context [Register-contents
(define process context) include the program counter and stack pointer contents]
 process-state signal mask [when mask is set to 0 (active) the process is inhibited from
running and when reset to 1, the process is allowed to run],

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 Signals (messages) dispatch table [process IPC functions],

 OS allocated resources‘ descriptors (for example, file descriptors for open files, device
descriptors for open (accessible) devices, device-buffer addresses and status, socket-
descriptor for open socket), and
 Security restrictions and permissions.

Context
 Context loads into the CPU registers from memory when process starts running, and the
registers save at the addresses of register-save area on the context switch to another process
 The present CPU registers, which include program counter and stack pointer are called
context

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 When context saves on the PCB pointed process-stack and register-save area addresses,
then the running process stops.
 Other process context now loads and that process runs─ This means that the context

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has switched.

Threads and Tasks

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Thread Concepts
 A thread consists of executable program (codes), state of which is
controlled by OS,
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 The state information─ thread-status (running, blocked, or finished), threadstructure—its
data, objects and a subset of the process resources, and thread-stack. Considered a
lightweight process and a process level controlled entity.[Light weight means its running
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does not depend on system resources] .

En

Process… heavyweight
• Process considered as a heavyweight process and a kernel-level controlled entity.
• Process thus can have codes in secondary memory from which the pages can be
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swapped into the physical primary memory during running of the process. [Heavy
weight means its running may depend on system resources]
• May have process structure with the virtual memory map, file descriptors,
user–ID, etc.
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• Can have multiple threads, which share the process structure thread
• A process or sub-process within a process that has its own program counter, its own
stack pointer and stack, its own priority parameter for its scheduling by a thread
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scheduler
• Its‘ variables that load into the processor registers on context switching.
• Has own signal mask at the kernel. Thread‘s signal mask
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• When unmasked lets the thread activate and run.

• When masked, the thread is put into a queue of pending threads.
Thread‘s Stack
• A thread stack is at a memory address block allocated by the OS.

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ng
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Application program can be said to consist of number of threads or
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Processes:

Multiprocessing OS
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• A multiprocessing OS runs more than one processes.

En

• When a process consists of multiple threads, it is called multithreaded

process.
• A thread can be considered as daughter process.
•
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A thread defines a minimum unit of a multithreaded process that an OS schedules

onto the CPU and allocates other system resources.

Thread parameters
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• Each thread has independent parameters ID, priority, program counter, stack
pointer, CPU registers and its present status.
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• Thread states─ starting, running, blocked (sleep) and finished

Thread’s stack
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• When a function in a thread in OS is called, the calling function state is placed on

the stack top.
• When there is return the calling function takes the state information from the stack
top
• A data structure having the information using which the OS controls the thread
state.
• Stores in protected memory area of the kernel.
• Consists of the information about the thread state

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Thread and Task

• Thread is a concept used in Java or Unix.

• A thread can either be a sub-process within a process or a process within an
application program.
• To schedule the multiple processes, there is the concept of forming thread groups
and thread libraries.
• A task is a process and the OS does the multitasking.
• Task is a kernel-controlled entity while thread is a process-controlled entity.
• A thread does not call another thread to run. A task also does not directly call

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another task to run.
• Multithreading needs a thread-scheduler. Multitasking also needs a task-scheduler.
• There may or may not be task groups and task libraries in a given OS

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Task and Task States

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Task Concepts
• An application program can also be said to be a program consisting of the tasks and
task behaviors in various states that are controlled by OS.
• A task is like a process or thread in an OS.
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• Task─ term used for the process in the RTOSes for the embedded systems.
For example, VxWorks and μCOS-II are the RTOSes, which use the term
task.
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• A task consists of executable program (codes), state of which is controlled by

OS, the state during running of a task represented by information of process status
En

(running, blocked, or finished),process-structure—its data, objects and resources,

and task control block (PCB).
• Runs when it is scheduled to run by the OS (kernel), which gives the control of the
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CPU on a task request (system call) or a message.

• Runs by executing the instructions and the continuous changes of its state takes
place as the program counter (PC) changes.
• Task is that executing unit of computation, which is controlled by some process at
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the OS scheduling mechanism, which lets it execute on the CPU and by some
process at OS for a resource-management mechanism that lets it use the system
memory and other system-resources such as network, file, display or printer.
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• A task─ an independent process.

• No task can call another task. [It is unlike a C (or C++) function, which can call
another function.]
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• The task─ can send signal (s) or message(s) that can let another task run.
• The OS can only block a running task and let another task gain access of CPU to
run the servicing codes

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Task States eri
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(i) Idle state [Not attached or not
registered]
(ii) Ready State [Attached or registered]
(iii) Running state
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(iv) Blocked (waiting) state

En

(v) Delayed for a preset period

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w.
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Idle (created) state

• The task has been created and memory allotted to its structure however, it is not
ready and is not schedulable by kernel.

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Ready (Active) State

• The created task is ready and is schedulable by the kernel but not running at
present as another higher priority task is scheduled to run and gets the system
resources at this instance.

Running state
• Executing the codes and getting the system resources at this instance. It will run till
it needs some IPC (input) or wait for an event or till it gets pre-empted by another
higher priority task than this one.
•
Blocked (waiting) state
• Execution of task codes suspends after saving the needed parameters into its

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Context. It needs some IPC (input) or it needs to wait for an event or wait for higher
priority task to block to enable running after blocking.

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Deleted (finished) state
• Deleted Task─ The created task has memory deallotted to its structure. It frees the

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memory. Task has to be re-created.

Function
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• Function is an entity used in any program, function, task or thread for performing
specific set of actions when called and on finishing the action the control returns to
the function calling entity (a calling function or task or process or thread).
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• Each function has an ID (name)

• has program counter and
En

• has its stack, which saves when it calls another function and the stack restores on
return to the caller.
• Functions can be nested. One function call another, that can call another, and so on
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and later the return is in reverse order

Memory Management Functions

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Memory allocation
 when a process is created, the memory manager allocates the memory addresses (blocks) to
it by mapping the process address space.
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 Threads of a process share the memory space of the process

 Memory manager of the OS─ secure, robust and well protected.

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 No memory leaks and stack overflows

 Memory leaks means attempts to write in the memory block not allocated to a process or
data structure.
 Stack overflow means that the stack exceeding the allocated memory block(s)

Memory Management after Initial Allocation

Memory Managing Strategy for a system

 Fixed-blocks allocation
 Dynamic -blocks Allocation

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 Dynamic Page-Allocation
 Dynamic Data memory Allocation
 Dynamic address-relocation
 Multiprocessor Memory Allocation
 Memory Protection to OS functions

Memory allocation in RTOSes

 RTOS may disable the support to the dynamic block allocation, MMU support to dynamic
page allocation and dynamic binding as this increases the latency of servicing the tasks and
ISRs.
 RTOS may not support to memory protection of the OS functions, as this increases the

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latency of servicing the tasks and ISRs.
 User functions are then can run in kernel space and run like kernel functions
 RTOS may provide for disabling of the support to memory protection among the tasks as

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this increases the memory requirement for each task

Memory Manager functions

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(i) use of memory address space by a process,
(ii) specific mechanisms to share the memory space and
(iii) specific mechanisms to restrict sharing of a given memory space
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(iv) optimization of the access periods of a memory by using an hierarchy of memory (caches,
primary and external secondary magnetic and optical memories).
Remember that the access periods are in the following increasing order: caches, primary and
external secondary magnetic and then or optical.
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Fragmentation Memory Allocation

En

Problems
Fragmented not continuous memory addresses in two blocks of a process
 Time is spent in first locating next free memory address before allocating that to the
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process.
 A standard memory allocation scheme is to scan a linked list of indeterminate length to find
a suitable free memory block.
 When one allotted block of memory is deallocated, the time is spent in first locating next
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allocated memory block before deallocating that to the process.

 the time for allocation and de-allocation of the memory and blocks are variable (not
deterministic) when the block sizes are variable and when the memory is fragmented.
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 In RTOS, this leads to unpredicatble task performance

Memory management Example
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RTOS COS-II
 Memory partitioning
 A task must create a memory partition or several memory partitions by using function
OSMemCreate ( )
 Then the task is permitted to use the partition or partitions.
 A partition has several memory blocks.
 Task consists of several fixed size memory blocks.
 The fixed size memory blocks allocation and de-allocation time takes fixed time
(deterministic).
 OSMemGet ( )
─ to provide a task a memory block or blocks from the partition

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 OSMemPut ( )
─ to release a memory block or blocks to the partition

Interrupt Service routine

• ISR is a function called on an interrupt from an interrupting source.

• Further unlike a function, the ISR can have hardware and software assigned
priorities.
• Further unlike a function, the ISR can have mask, which inhibits execution on the
event, when mask is set and enables execution when mask reset.
Task

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• Task defined as an executing computational unit that processes on a CPU and state
of which is under the control of kernel of an operating system.

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Distinction Between Function, ISR and Task
Uses
• Function─ for running specific set of codes for performing a specific set of actions
as per the arguments passed to it
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• ISR─ for running on an event specific set of codes for performing a specific set of
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actions for servicing the interrupt call.
• Task ─ for running codes on context switching to it by OS and the codes can be in
endless loop for the event (s)
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Calling Source
En

• Function─ call from another function or process or thread or task.

• ISR─ interrupt-call for running an ISR can be from hardware or software at any
Instance.
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• Task ─ A call to run the task is from the system (RTOS). RTOS can let another
higher priority task execute after blocking the present one. It is the RTOS (kernel)
only that controls the task scheduling.
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Context Saving

• Function─ run by change in program counter instantaneous value. There is a stack.

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On the top of which the program counter value (for the code left without running)
and other values (called functions‘ context) save.
• All function have a common stack in order to support the nesting
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• ISR─ Each ISR is an event-driven function code. The code run by change in
program counters instantaneous value. ISR has a stack for the program counter
instantaneous value and other values that must save.
• All ISRs can have common stack in case the OS supports nesting
• Task ─ Each task has a distinct task stack at distinct memory block for the context
(program counter instantaneous value and other CPU register values in task control
block) that must save .
• Each task has a distinct process structure (TCB) for it at distinct memory block

Response and Synchronization

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• Function─ nesting of one another, a hardware mechanism for sequential nested

mode synchronization between the functions directly without control of scheduler
or OS
• ISR─ a hardware mechanism for responding to an interrupt for the interrupt source
calls, according to the given OS kernel feature a synchronizing mechanism for the
ISRs, and that can be nesting support by the OS.
• ISR─ a hardware mechanism for responding to an interrupt for the interrupt source
calls, according to the given OS kernel feature a synchronizing mechanism for the
ISRs,and that can be nesting support by the OS

Structure

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• Function─ can be the subunit of a process or thread or task or ISR or subunit of
another function.
•

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ISR─ Can be considered as a function, which runs on an event at the interrupting
source.
• A pending interrupt is scheduled to run using an interrupt handling mechanism in

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the OS, the mechanism can be priority based scheduling.
• The system, during running of an ISR, can let another higher priority ISR run.
• Task ─ is independent and can be considered as a function, which is called to run
by the OS scheduler using a context switching and task scheduling mechanism of
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the OS.
• The system, during running of a task, can let another higher priority task run. The
kernel manages the tasks scheduling
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Global Variables Use

En

• Function─ can change the global variables. The interrupts must be disabled and
after finishing use of global variable the interrupts are enabled.
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• ISR─ When using a global variable in it, the interrupts must be disabled and after
finishing use of global variable the interrupts are enabled (analogous to case of a
function).
• Task ─ When using a global variable, either the interrupts are disabled and after
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finishing use of global variable the interrupts are enabled or use of the semaphores
or lock functions in critical sections, which can use global variables and memory
buffers.
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Posting and Sending Parameters

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• Function─ can get the parameters and messages through the arguments passed to it
or global variables the references to which are made by it. Function returns the
results of the Operations.
• ISR─ using IPC functions can send (post) the signals, tokens or messages. ISR
can‘t use the mutex protection of the critical sections by wait for the signals, tokens
or messages.

• Task ─ can send (post) the signals and messages.

• can wait for the signals and messages using the IPC functions, can use the mutex or
lock protection of the code section by wait for the token or lock at the section
beginning and messages and post the token or unlock at the section end.

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Semaphore as an event signalling variable or notifying variable

• Suppose that there are two trains.

• Assume that they use an identical track.
• When the first train A is to start on the track, a signal or token for A is set (true,
taken) and
• same signal or token for other train, B is reset (false, not released).

OS Functions for Semaphore as an event signalling variable or notifying variable:

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OS Functions provide for the use of a semaphore for signalling or notifying of
certain action or notifying the acceptance of the notice or signal.
• Let a binary Boolean variable, s, represents the semaphore. The taken and post

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operations on s─ (i)signals or notifies operations for communicating the occurrence
of an event and (ii) for communicating taking note of the event.
• Notifying variable s is like a token ─ (i) acceptance of the token is taking note of

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that event (ii) Release of a token is the occurrence of an event
Binary Semaphore
• Let the token (flag for event occurrence) s initial value = 0
• Assume that the s increments from 0 to 1 for signalling or notifying occurrence of
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an event from a section of codes in a task or thread.
• When the event is taken note by section in another task waiting for that event, the s
decrements from 1 to 0 and the waiting task codes start another action.
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• When s = 1─ assumed that it has been released (or sent or posted) and no task code
section has taken it yet.
En

• When s = 0 ─ assumed that it has been taken (or accepted) and other task code
• section has not taken it yet
Binary Semaphore use in ISR and Task
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• An ISR can release a token.

• A task can release the token as well accept the token or wait for taking the token
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Device Management Functions

 Number of device driver ISRs in a system,
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 Each device or device function having s a separate driver, which is as per its hardware
 Software that manages the device drivers of each device
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 Provides and executes the modules for managing the devices and their drivers ISRs.
 effectively operates and adopts appropriate strategy for obtaining optimal performance for the
devices.
 Coordinates between application-process, driver and device-controller.
Device manager
 Process sends a request to the driver by an interrupt; and the driver provides the actions by
executing an ISR.
 Device manager polls the requests at the devices and the actions occur as per their priorities.

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Manages IO Interrupts (requests) queues.

creates an appropriate kernel interface and API and that activates the control register specific
actions of the device. [Activates device controller through the API and kernel interface.]
 manages the physical as well as virtual devices like the pipes and sockets through a common
strategy.
Device management has three standard approaches
Three types of device drivers:
(i) Programmed I/Os by polling from each device its the service need from each device.
(ii) Interrupt(s) from the device drivers‘ device- ISR and

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(iii) Device uses DMA operation used by the devices to access the memory.
Most common is the use of device driver ISRs
Device Manager Functions

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 Device Detection and Addition
 Device Deletion

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 Device Allocation and
 Registration
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 Detaching and Deregistration
 Restricting Device to a specific process
 Device Sharing
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 Device control
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 Device Access Management

 Device Buffer Management
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 Device Queue, Circular-queue or blocks of queues Management

 Device drivers updating and upload of new device-functions
 Backup and restoration
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Device Types
 char devices and
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 block devices
Set of Command Functions for the Device Management
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Commands for Device

 create
 open
 write
 read
 ioctl
 close and
 delete

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IO control Command for Device

 (i) Accessing specific partition information
 (ii) Defining commands and control functions of device registers
 (iii) IO channel control
Three arguments in ioctl ( )
 First Argument: Defines the chosen device and its function by passing as argument the device
descriptor (a number), for example, fd or sfd Example is fd = 1 for read, fd = 2 for write.
 Second Argument: Defines the control option or uses option for the IO device, for example,
baud rate or other parameter optional function

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 Third Argument: Values needed by the defined function are at the third argument
Example

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 Status = ioctl (fd, FIOBAUDRATE, 19200) is an instruction in RTOS VxWorks.
 fd is the device descriptor (an integer returned when the device is opened)

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 FIOBAUDRATE is the function that takes value = 19200 from the argument.
 This at configures the device for operation at 19200-baud rate.
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Device Driver ISR functions
ISR functions
 intlock ( ) to disable device-interrupts systems,
 intUnlock ( ) to enable device-interrupts,
g
En

 intConnect ( ) to connect a C function to an interrupt vector

 Interrupt vector address for a device ISR points to its specified C function.
 intContext ( ) finds whether interrupt is called when an ISR was in execution
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Unix OS functions
UNIX Device driver functions
 Facilitates that for devices and files have an analogous implementation as far as possible.
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 open ( ),
 close ( ),
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 read ( ),
 write ( ) functions analogous to a file open,
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close, read and write functions.

APIs and kernel interfaces in BSD (Berkley sockets for devices)
 open,
 close,
 read
 write
in-kernel commands
(i) select ( ) to check whther read/write will succeed and then select
(ii) ioctl ( )

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(iii) stop ( ) to cancel the output activity from the device.

(iv) strategy ( ) to permit a block read or write or character read or write

Round Robin Time Slicing of tasks of equal priorities

Common scheduling models
 Cooperative Scheduling of ready tasks in a circular queue. It closely relates to function
queue scheduling.
 Cooperative Scheduling with Precedence Constraints
 Cyclic scheduling of periodic tasks and Round Robin Time Slicing Scheduling of equal
priority tasks
 Preemptive Scheduling

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 Scheduling using 'Earliest Deadline First' (EDF) precedence.
Common scheduling models
 Rate Monotonic Scheduling using ‗higher rate of events occurrence First‘ precedence

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 Fixed Times Scheduling
 Scheduling of Periodic, sporadic and aperiodic Tasks
 Advanced scheduling algorithms using the probabilistic Timed Petri nets (Stochastic) or

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Multi Thread Graph for the multiprocessors and complex distributed systems.
Round Robin Time Slice Scheduling of Equal Priority Tasks
Equal Priority Tasks
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 Round robin means that each ready task runs turn by in turn only in a cyclic queue for a
limited time slice.
 Widely used model in traditional OS.
 Round robin is a hybrid model of clock-driven
g

 model (for example cyclic model) as well as event driven (for example, preemptive)
En

 A real time system responds to the event within a bound time limit and within an explicit
time.
Tasks programs contexts at the five instances in the Time Scheduling Scheduler for C1 to C5
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Programming model for the Cooperative Time sliced scheduling of the tasks
Program counter assignments on the scheduler call to tasks at two consecutive time slices.
Each cycle takes time = N  tslice
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Case : Tcycle = N  Tslice

 Same for every task = Tcycle
 Tcycle ={Tslice )}N + tISR.
w.

 tISR is the sum of all execution times for the ISRs

 For an i-th task, switching time from one task to another be is st and task execution time be
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is et
 Number of tasks = N
Worst-case latency
 Same for every task in the ready list
 Tworst = {N (Tslice)} + tISR.
 tISR is the sum of all execution times for the ISRs
 i = 1, 2, …, N 1 , N

VoIP Tasks Example

 Assume a VoIP [Voice Over IP.] router.

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 It routes the packets to N destinations from N sources.

 It has N calls to route.
 Each of N tasks is allotted from a time slice and is cyclically executed for routing packet
from a source to its destination
Round Robin
 Case 1: Then each task is executed once and finishes in one cycle itself.
 When a task finishes the execution before the maximum time it can takes, there is a
waiting period in-between period between two cycles.
 The worst-case latency for any task is then Ntslice. A task may periodically need execution.
A task The period for the its need of required repeat execution of a task is an integral
multiple of tslice.

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Case 2: Alternative model strategy
 Case 2: Certain tasks are executed more than once and do not finish in one cycle
 Decomposition of a task that takes the abnormally long time to be executed.

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 The decomposition is into two or four or more tasks.
 Then one set of tasks (or the odd numbered tasks) can run in one time slice, t'slice and the
another set of tasks (or the even numbered tasks) in another time slice, t''slice.

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Decomposition of the long time taking task into a number of sequential states
ine
 Decomposition of the long time taking task into a number of sequential states or a number
of node-places and transitions as in finite state machine. (FSM).
 Then its one of its states or transitions runs in the first cycle, the next state in the second
g

cycle and so on.

 This task then reduces the response times of the remaining tasks that are executed after a
En

state change.
arn

UNIT V REAL TIME OPERATING SYSTEMS – PART - 2 9

REAL TIME OPERATING SYSTEMPROGRAMMING-I: C/OS-II

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andVxWorks
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Kernel of an RTOS
• Used for real-time programmingfeatures to meet hard and soft real timeconstraints,
• Provides for preemption points atkernel, user controlled dynamic prioritychanges, fixed memory
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blocks,asynchronous IOs, user processes inkernel space and other functions for asystem.

Common options available forselecting an RTOS

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.in
ng
eri
Complex multitasking embeddedsystem design requirements
ine
 Integrated Development Environment,
 Multiple task functions in Embedded C orEmbedded C++,
 Real time clock─ hardware and softwaretimers,
 Scheduler,
g

 Device drivers and device manager,

En

 Functions for inter inter-processcommunications using the signals, eventflag group,

semaphore- handling functions,functions for the queues, mailboxes, pipe,and sockets,
 Additional functions for example, TCP/IPor USB port, other networking functions,
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 Error handling functions and Exceptionhandling functions, and

 Testing and system debugging software fortesting RTOS as well as developedembedded
application
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Basic functions expected fromkernel of an RTOS

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RTOS features in general

 Basic kernel functions and scheduling:Preemptive or Preemptive plus time slicing

 Support to Limited Number of tasks andthreads
 Task priorities and Inter Service Threadspriorities definitions
 Priority Inheritance feature or option ofpriority ceiling feature
 Task synchronization and IPC functions
 Support to task and threads running in kernelspace
 IDE consisting of editor, platform builder,GUI and graphics software, compiler,debugging

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and host target support tools
 Device Imaging tool and device drivers
 Clock, time and timer functions,

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 Support to POSIX,
 Asynchronous IOs,
 Fixed memory blocks allocation anddeallocation system,


 eri
Support to different file systems and flashmemory systems
TCP/IP protocols, network and busesprotocols,
Development environment with Java
ine
 Componentization (reusable modules fordifferent functions), which leads to smallfootprint
(small of size of RTOS codes placedin ROM image)
 Support to number of processor architectures,such as INTEL, ARM, Philips, …
g

Development Approaches
En

Host and Target Based DevelopmentApproach:

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 A host machine (Computer) for example, a PCuses a general purpose OS, for example,
Windowsor Unix for system development. The targetconnects by a network protocol for
exampleTCP/IP during the development phase. Thedeveloped codes and the target RTOS
functionsfirst connect a target. The target with downloadedcodes finally disconnects and
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contains a small sizefootprint of RTOS. For example, the target doesnot download host
machine resident compiler,cross compiler, editor for programs, simulationand debugging
programs, and MMU support.
w.

Self-host Based Development Approach:

 Same system with full RTOS is used fordevelopment on which the application willbe
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running. This also does not require crosscompilation. When application codes areready, the
required RTOS functions codesand application codes are downloaded intothe ROM of the
target board

Types of RTOSes

1. In-House Developed RTOSes

2. Broad based Commercial RTOSes
3. General Purposes OSes with RTOS
4. Special Focus RTOSes

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μC/OS-II System level and taskFunctions

 void OSInit (void)At the beginning prior to the OSStart( )

 void OSStart (void)After OSInit ( ) and task-creating function(s)
 void OSTickInit (void)In first task function that executes once.Initializes the system timer
ticks (RTCinterrupts)

Interrupt Service Task (ISR) Start andEnd

 OSIntEnter ( ) and OSIntExit ( )

 Function void OSIntEnter (void)─ used at the start of ISRFor sending a message to RTOS

.in
kernel fortaking control─ compulsory to let OS kernelcontrol the nesting of the ISRs in
case ofoccurrences of multiple interrupts ofvarying priorities.
 Function void OSIntExit (void)─ used just before the return from the runningISR─ For

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sending a message to RTOS kernel forquitting control of presently running ISR

Critical Section Start and End

 OS_ENTER_CRITICAL
eri
 Macro to disable interrupts before acritical section
ine
 Used at the start of a ISR or task - for sending amessage to RTOS kernel and disabling
theinterrupts
 Use compulsory when the OS kernel is to takenote of and disable the interrupts of the
g

system
 OS_EXIT_CRITICAL─ Macro to enable interrupts. [ENTERand EXIT functions form a
En

pair in thecritical section]

 used at the end of critical section
 for sending a message to RTOS kernel andenabling the interrupts
arn

 Use is compulsory to OS kernel for taking noteof and enables the disabled interrupts.

Function void OSTickInit (void)

─ is used to initiate the system clockticks and interrupts at regular intervals asper
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OS_TICKS_PER_SEC predefinedwhen defining configuration of MUCOS

Task Service Functions

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 Service functions mean the functionsof multitasking service (task create,suspend or

resume), time setting andtime retrieving (getting) functions.
OSTaskCreate
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 unsigned byte OSTaskCreate (void(*task) (void *taskPointer), void*pmdata,

OS_STK*taskStackPointer, unsigned bytetaskPriority)Called for creating a task.
Macro OS_TASK_CREATE_EN
 Must be preprocessor directive to enableinclusion of task management functionsby
MUCOS
OSTaskSuspend and OSTaskResume
 unsigned byte OSTaskSuspend(unsigned byte taskPriority)
 Called for blocking a task
 unsigned byte OSTaskResume(unsigned byte taskPriority)
 Called for resuming a blocked task

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System Time and Time DelayFunctions

• void OSTimeSet (unsigned intcounts)
Used when system time is to be set bycounts

OSTimeGet( ) and OSTimeDly(delayCount)

• unsigned int OSTimeGet (void)
to find present counts when system time isread.
• void OSTimeDly (unsigned shortdelayCount)
To delay a task by period of count-inputsequal to delayCount -1
OSTimeDlyHMSM
void OSTimeDlyHMSM (unsigned bytehr, unsigned byte mn, unsigned byte sec,unsigned short

.in
ms)
OSTimeDlyResume
• unsigned byte OSTimeDlyResume(unsigned byte taskPriority)

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When a task of priority = taskPriority is toresume before the preset delay, which was bya value
defined either by delayCount or (hr,mn and ms) and which is in blocked statenow.

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Macros to find status after execution ofOS Time Delay Functions
• OS_NO_ERR, when our arguments arevalid and resumption after delay succeeds.
• OS_TIME_INVALID_HOURS,
• OS_TIME_INVALID_MINUTES,
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• OS_TIME_INVALID_SECONDS and
• OS_TIME_INVALID_MILLI, returns true
• OS_TIME_ZERO_DLY, returns true ifall the arguments passed are 0.
g

• OS_NO_ERR returns trueif all the arguments passed or whenresumption after delay succeeds.
• OS_TASK_NOT_EXIST returns true,if task was not created earlier.
En

• OS_TIME_NOT_DLY returns true,if the task was not delayed.

• (vi) OS_PRIO_INVALID returns true,when taskPriority parameter that was passedis more than
the OS_PRIO_LOWEST (23)when maximum number of user tasks = 8
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Memory Allocation RelatedFunctions

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OSMemCreate
OSMemPut (*memCBPointer, *memErr)
OSMemGet (*memCBPointer, *memErr)
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OSMemQuery (* memCBPointer, *memData)

Semaphore Functions
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Provides for using same semaphorefunctions as an event signaling flagor mutex or counting
semaphore.
OSSemCreate (semVal)
OSSemPend (*eventPointer, timeOut,*SemErrPointer)
OSSemAccept (*eventPointer)
OSSemPost (*eventPointer)
OSSemQuery (*eventPointer)

Mailbox Functions

 Used to communicate a pointer forinformation.

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 μC/OS-II permits one message-pointerper mailbox.

 At the pointer, there can be a string ordata structure of no size limit.
 Assume an event pointer to themailbox = *mboxMsg,
 Pointer to the message, *MsgPointer(for retrieving the message itself).
OSMboxCreate(*mboxMsg)
To create a mailbox message pointer ECBof a mailbox message.
OSMboxPend(*mboxMsg, timeout,*MboxErr)
To check if mailbox message not pending(available) then read *mboxMsg is and emptymailbox [*
mboxMsg = NULL again]. If messageis not available [*mboxMsg points to NULL],then wait,
suspend the task (block furtherrunning) till *mboxMsg not Null or timeout.
OSMboxAccept (*mboxMsg)

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To check if mailbox message at the*MsgPointer, is available at *mboxMsg.
Unlike OSMboxPend function, it does notblock (suspend) the task if message is notavailable. If
available, it returns the pointer.

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OSMboxPost (*mboxMsg, *MsgPointer)
─ Sends a message of task at address MsgPointerby posting the address pointer to the mboxMsg.
─ If box is already full (*mboxMsg not Null),then the message is not placed and error statussent.

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OSMboxQuery (*mboxMsg, *mboxData)
─ To get mailbox error information
─ Pointer Null or Not Null,
ine
Queue Functions
• The message pointers post into a queueby the tasks either at the back as in aqueue or at the front
as in a stack.
g

• A task can thus insert a given messagefor deleting either in the first in firstout (FIFO) mode or in
En

priority modefor priority message.

• Assume pointer, **Qtop, to a queue ofpointers for the messages and
• Assume two pointers, *QfrontPointerand *QbackPointer to insert (post) anddelete (retrieve),
respectively, thepointer of the message.
arn

Functions
OSQCreate (**QTop, qSize)
OSQPost (*QMsgPointer, *QMsg)
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OSQPostFront (*QMsgPointer, *QMsg)

OSQPend (*QMsgPointer, timeOut, *Qerr)
OSQFlush(*QMsgPointer)
w.

OSQQuery (*QMsgPointer, *QData)

IPC Objects
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 For which there is waiting process orthread

 A process (thread or scheduler, task orISR) generates some information by orvalue and
sends event or semaphore ormessage into queue or a single IPC ormultiple objects as
output so that it letsanother process waiting for that objectin order to take note or use the
object.
 A process waits for an IPC or object (s)in order to take note or use the object(s)

IPC Object Functions

WaitForSingleObject
WaitForMultipleObjects

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