CHAPTER

10

Measuring Instruments

10.1 INTRODUCTION
The instruments which are used to measure the electrical quantities like curent.
voltage, power, energy, etc. are known as electrical measuring instruments.
Instruments can be divided broadly as absolute and secondary instruments
Absolute instruments are those, which give the value of the quantity to be
measured in terms of the deflection and instrument constant. Tangent
galvanometer and Rayleigh's current balance are few examples of absolute
instruments. These instruments are used in standard laboratories and institutions
as standardizing instruments.
Secondary instruments are those, in which the value of quantity to be meas
ured is determined from the deflection of the pointer, as the scale is calibrated
in terms of the unit of quantity. These instruments are commonly used inla
ratories, institutions, industries and power stations, etc. They are further ckass-
fied into three groups, that is
indicating instruments, recording instrumens
integrating instruments.
Indicating instruments are those which indicate the magnitude ofne meas
etc
uring quantity at that time. Instruments like ammeter, voltmeter, wattmetc
those
are some examples of indicating instruments. Recording instruments arc

which give the continuous record of the variations of the measuring 9

over a specified peri0d of time.
theeler
Integrating instruments are those which measure the total amount o m e t e r a

trical quantuity (eg. energy) supplied over a period oftime. Energy

ampere hour meter are few examples of integrating instruments. Vpesof
In this chapter, indicating instruments, their essential devices
types
and no
indicating instruments are discussed. Permanent magnet moving e
ing iron instruments are explained in detail. Electrodynamome
 Measuring Instruments
sne energy 309
duction type meter,
ents g e t c o n v e r
megger
ersant with all and
multimeter also
the
e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n .
instruments to be are discussed, so that
used in the
laboratory for
10.2 INDICATING INSTRUMENTS
ating
An indicating instru
ated scale. The indicates the instrument
moving magnitude of a
such an quantity being measured
on
athat
that moves over the system of ured
pointer
calibrated instrutment is
The weight and the inertia of the scale to indicate the fitted with a
nd on the bearings
oad on bearings and the
and the pointer is kept low in reading.
order to reduce
necessary damping
n the scale is limited by buffers or torque. The swing of the the
ale. To avoid bending of the
Scale. stops to a little more than point-
the range of the
den overloads or reversal of the pointer, when it
current, strikes the stops sharply on sud-
corings. The scale of these instruments is stops åre constructed as
the
face of a metal plate. Measuring normally printed on the enamelled very light
the circuit conditions, when instruments of sur-
these are connected indicating type should not alter
uring a certain quantity. in a
They should draw particular circuit for meas-
operation. The moving system of the minimum possible
instrument power for their
ble by using aluminium. The should be light which is possi-
o minimum by using a frictional forces inthese
spindle. mounted instruments are reduced
balancing the system properly. between jewel
bearings and also by
10.3
ESSENTIALS OF INDICATING
Indicating instruments must INSTRUMENTS
their satisfactory operation. possess the following three
essential devices for
0) A
deflecting device producing a mechanical force by electric
voltage or power, to move the current,
() A
controlling
device to
pointer from its zero position.
the deflecting force. produce a mechanical force equal and
) A
opposite to
damping device to prevent oscillations of the
enable it to come to moving system and
its equilibrium position rapidly.
10.4 DEFLECTING DEVICE
A de
ts deflecting device produces the deflecting force for
ina
ng position.
effects. The deflecting force can be moving the pointer from
produced by any one of the
follow
(1) Magnetic effect-gene ammeters and voltmeters. for
i) ating effect-for ammetersS and
voltmeters
iv) Electrodynan
hemical effect-for ammeters, voltmeters and wattmeters.
effect-for dc ampere hour meters.
(v)Elect
hour roma_
meters.
(vi Electrosta
effect-for ammeters, voltmeters, wattmeters and watt

static effect- voltmeters only.

 310 Basic Electrical Engineering

The
deflecting device of the measuring instrument converts the quantitu
measured (electric current or potential) into a mechanical force to be
generally kna
as deflecting force which is
responsible for the deflection of the pointer. known
10.5 CONTROLLING DEVICE
The controlling device of an indicating instrument serves the following
es. pupos

(i) Produces force equal and opposite to the

a
deflecting force, so that the
pointer deflects to a definite position for a particular
rent. In the absence of a magnitude of cur-
system would be indefinite.
controlling device, the deflection of the moving
(ii) To bring the moving system back to its zero position, when the cause
(current or
potential) is removed. In the absence of a
the controlling
pointer of the instrument once deflected will not come back to itsdevice
zero
position on removing the current.
Controlling devices can be broadly classified into two
(i) Spring control types.
(commonly used in modern
(ii) Gravity control (not much used in instruments).
modern instruments).
10.5.1 Spring Control
Usually a spiral hair spring attached to the
vides the spindle of the
torque in indicating instruments. moving syste piral
pro
controlling
springs are preferred in practically all Normally, Ila o
requirement of these springs is less indicating instruments because tne pace
The
springs used in compared to other types.
torque must have the measuring instruments for providing the couo
i) These should be of
following properties.
Cii) Specific resistance non-magnetic material.
should be low.
(ii) Resistance
(iv) These should temperature coefficient should be low.
not be affected
much by mechanical
Phosphor bronze is the most suitable fatigue. of indicating
instruments and satisfies most of material for the springs
springs atigue
tatigue in
springs is reduced to a minimum the above properties.
ture. To avoid
the effect
by annealing and
ageing Mechanicanta
two of temperature variation upon theduring
springs coiled in opposite length
the spring
tem, so directions should be used for the Ond
that one spring is extended and the other is con them
ing system deflects.
Figure 10.I shows the
compressed while

spiral hair springs A and Bcommonly

of
used spring
control systenm u
beryllium-copper. non-magnetic
The inner ends of the
alloy such phospho as
the moving springs attached to the
system, which is mounted between are
spind
attached to one end of the lever L jewel bearings. The ou s
spring AA is
spring
pivoted at P, which enabi g
make the zero adjustment of the instrument. The
outer end of the sprs
 Measuring Instruments 311

avoid
the effect of temperature B
To
ed.
riation he
upon the length of the spring.

1a
springs A
and
and B are wound in opposite
directions.

moving systen (pointer)

the
When

due to curre or voltage, one

while the other unwinds.

d e f l e c t s

wind. up
sprin.
twist in the springs pro
The
combined
duce the the desired controlling torque,
of
proportional to the angle
which is deflection of the
angular
twist. The
proportional to the
nointer is directly Fig. 10.1 Spring control
As the angle of twist of
deflecting torque.
he snrings depends upon the angular deflection of the pointer, the controlling
provided by the springs can be made equal and opposite to the deflect-
torque
ing torque, so that the pointer detlects to a final steady position for a particular
magnitude of current.

10.5.2 Gravity Control

for indicat-
Figure 10.2 shows the gravity control
ing instruments, in which two masses A and B are
attached to the spindle S of the moving system. P
The basic function of mass A is to balance the
weight of the pointer P. The controlling torque is
produced by mass B. Mass B hangs vertically S
downwards when the pointer P of the instrument is
at its zero position.
When current flows through the instrument, the
B
pointer deflects through an angle 4 shown by dot
d
ed position in Fig. 10.2. Mass B also deflects !rom

ts Fig. 10.2 Gravity control

Cororiginal position by an angle 6 thus providing a
control-line torque equal to the product of the weight of B and the distance d
nce the controlling torque is proportional to the sine of the angular deflection.

10.5.3
0.5.3 Comparison Between Spring and Gravity Control
OWing points clearly give the comparison between spring and gravity con-
trol.
The controlling torque increases very slowly in gravity control as it is
proportional to the sine of angular deflection, whereas the increase is
much more in spring eontrol, as the controlling torque in this case is pro-
deflection. Thus the scale is more at the
portional
to the angular
ower end in case of instruments using gravity control. Hence spring con
cramped
trol is better than the contro. gravity
 312 Basic Electrical Engineering

ii) Instruments provided with gravity control can be used in vertica!

only, so that the control may operate. Instruments provided wiiion
control can be used in horizontal position, which
measurements.
hich is
is advantageou advantageorspringfor
(i) Another disadvantage in gravity control is that the
instrument sholds
properly levelled before being used, otherwise there will be
error.
a
serious 2a
(iv) The only advantage of gravity control compared to
low cost.
spring control is ts
Hence, gravity control is not suited for the
indicating instruments and mos
modern instruments do not employ this
system of control. Instead, spring con.
trol is used in almost all types of indicating instruments.

10.6 DAMPING DEVICE

The major function of the
damping device is to produce a damping force while
the moving system is in motion. The
tude that the pointer of the
damping force should be of such a magni-
moving system comes to its final steady value quick
ly without any oscillation.
When current is
passed through an ammeter, the moving system of the
ammeter deflects and comes to rest at a position, where the deflecting torque is
equal and opposite to the controlling torque. The combined inertia or
deflecting and controlling devices do not allow the moving system to
quickly at its final position and the pointer of the moving system Seue
about the final steady oscla
position before its comes to rest. Hence, the moving
tem takes a considerable time to
settle down to its final steady position
such the time consumed in anuwill
recording
be quite long. Thus, it is desirable
a
particular reading of the
instruam
damp
to provide sufficient
out the oscillations and to enable damping torgusito
the pointer to reach its final steady P
quickly.
Figure 10.3 shows under-damped, critically damped and over-dampeds
lo
sys
a lot
tems. If the instrument is t e m oscillates a

before it finally settles down to its under-damped,

the moving system
damped
critically
steady value. case
instruments, the pointer reaches its final
In of
smothy
moothly

Such instrument is also called dead-beat

an
steady position over-damped
rapialy ed instru
instrument. An pol
thepoint
ment produces damping
torque more than the required value, as su h
er moves slowly to its final
steady value. torquein

Following methods are

commonly used for producing the dampi"
measuring instruments.
(i) Eddy current damping.
ii) Air damping.

10.6.1 Eddy Current Damping the

c o t

c
on
based

Damping torque in measuring instruments can be produ duced

ced
d u c e db a s e d

cept of eddy current flowing in a closed path in which emf is "**

 Measuring Instruments 313

Under-damped
Critically-damped
Over-damped

Time
Fig. 10.3 Damping system
the principles of
electromagnetic
induction.
Figure 10.4 illustrates one form of eddy cur-
P
rent damping, where a thin disc D N
of alu-
minium is mounted on a D
spindle P, which
can move between the
poles of a permanent
magnet M. When the spindle moves clock-
M
wise, the disc D cuts through the field of the
permanent magnet M, thereby an emf 1s
induced in the disc. The emf induced in the
disc causes eddy currents as shown by dot-
ted lines in
Fig. 10.4. Eddy currents circulat-
ng in the disc produce the necessary
ing torque. With constant field strength, the
damp M
damping torque produced by eddy currents D
Is
proportional to the velocity of the conduc-
tor. This is the most
efficient type of damp- Fig. 10.4 Eddy current damping9
ing and is used for hot wire,
moving coil and induction type instruments.
10.6.2 Air Damping
Figure 10.5 shows air damping,
where a thin metal vane V is attached
to a spindle S. The vane V can move
in the
sector-shaped box C. The ten-
dency of moving system to oscillate
about its final
steady position is
damped by the action of air on the
Vane. This method of Fig. 10.5 Air damping
ve
y
damping is
Simple and quite inexpensive. However precautions must be taken against
 314 Basic Electrical Engineering

the bending of the vane. Normally hot wire and moving iron inct.
provided with this type of damping. aments ate
10.7 TYPES OF INDICATING INSTRUMENTS
Table 10.l gives a brief and clear picture ot various typesof
of electrical :indica
ing instruments along with their methods of control and damping

Table 10.1 Indicating Instruments

S. No. Suitable for Method of

Type of instrument
control
Method of
measuring
damping
dc current, dc voltage Hair springs
Permanent magnet Eddy current
moving coil (PMMC)
2. Moving iron (MI) ac and dc current Hair springs Air
& voltage
3. Thermo-couple ac and dc current Hair springs Eddy current
&voltage
dc and ac current Hair springs Air
4. Dynamometer
voltage and power
5. Rectifier dc or ac current Hair springs Eddy current
&voltage
dc and ac voltage gravity spring Air or
Electrostatic
eddy current
ac current, voltage Eddy curTent
7. Induction spring
power & energy

of many types, but

Though, ammeters and voltmeters as indicated above are
the commonly used ammeters and voltmeters for dc measurement are perm
nent magnet moving coil type, which give quite accurate results. Similan
Ad

moving iron ammeters and voltmeters are most suited for ac measurements.
Such discussions on ammeters and voltmeters will be limited to these two typE

10.8 AMMETERS AND VOLTMETERS

me, and hence
The operating principles of ammeters and voltmeters are the same. detlect

both these meters are discussed together. In all types of ammeters,u v o l t m e t e r s ,

the

ing torque is produced by the current to be measured. For vonalto the

o
deflecting torque is also produced by the current, which is propor
voltage being measured. these

Ammeters are used to measure the current flowing in a circuit, as nalsof

connected in series with the circuit. The voltage drop across tneed by e
the ammeter should be as low as possible, so that the
umed

power coI l o w
meter is small. Hence the resistancé of the ammeters should be veryacrossany
Voltmeters are used in ment of voltage.
circuit for the measuremer
a thecircuit

two points of the circuit. Thus these are

connected in parallel with
so

When connected in a circuit, the voltmeter must draw a very l a l l currer

sm cuen
ery s
 Measuring Instruments |315
hat the power consumption of the meter is smal1.
Hence. the resistance of the
voltmeters should be very high.

10.9 PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT

Permanent magnet moving col (PMMC) ammeters and voltmeters are used for
measuring current and voltage respectively in de systems. These instruments are
most accurate for de measurements.

10.9.1 Operating Principle

The operation of these instruments is based upon the fact that when a current
carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a force acts upon the conduc-
tor which tends to move it. If the strength of the magnetic field is constant, force
exerted on the conductor will be proportional to the current carried by it. Hence
the deflecting torque will be proportional to the current to be measured.
Thus, deflecting torque = KI
where, K is a constant for the given instrument and is equal to NBA. N being the
Tof turns in the coil, B the flux density and A the area of the coil.
The controlling torque of the spiral springs is proportional to the
angular
deflection =C6
where. C= a constant for the springs used in the meter
6= angular deflection.
For final steady deflection.
Deflecting torque = Controlling torque
or KI = CO

-
Thus, the deflection of the moving coil instrument is directhy proportional to
ne current to be measured. Hence the measuring scale of these instruments is
unitormly calibrated. Because of uniform scale, the measurements are more
accurate in these types of instruments.

10.9.2 Construction
ure 10.6 shows the constructional details ofa permanent magnet moving coil
m e n t . As the name suggests, these instruments consist of a permanent
e t M and a rectangular coil C having a large number of turns of enamelled
h COvered copper wire. The coil is wound on aluminium former supported
i n t e bearings and controlled by spiral hairsprings AA. The euTent is led
nto and out
dout of the coil by spiral hairsprings. The danmping torque is produced
by thee motion of aluminium former in the magnetic field of the permanent
magnet.
the air The coil is free to move
in the field of the permanent magnet, that is in
by P between the pole pieces PP and the soft iron cylinder B supported
rdss plate (not shown in Fig. 10.6). Core B increases the field strength
and gives a radial
rad magnetic flux of uniform flux density. The permanent
agnetSEd
used in
in modern
1 instruments is relatively short in size, because of the
 Basic Electrical Engineering
316

M
P
P

C
(a)

(6)

Fig. 10.6 Permanent magnet moving coil instrument

of better materials like Alcomax (iron, aluminium, cobalt, nicke

availability
and copper alloy) having a high coercive force.

10.9.3 Range of the Instrument

As discussed above, spiral hairsprings serve as current-leads to the moving
limited
oI the instrument. The current carrying capability of these springsbeing asur

because of their delicate nature, this type of instrument is suitable for

(above
ing currents up to about 50 mA directly. For measuring higher currct Oving
50 mA), a shunt having low resistance, is connected in parallel with t thes k
ca
coil to bypass the current around the coil and the spring. In such a case,the
Conducting
of the instrument is calibrated to read the total
directly
current.

materials resistance like mangan

having negligible temperature coefficient of resistancc n e r a l y

can be used as shuts for these

instruments. An additional resisaingcoil, coil.
in

known as swamping resistance) is connected in series with the nmovi c o i lwith

order to reduce the error due to variation of resistan of the movin, t a k e n

the variation of
temperature. The resistance of swamping resistom Strumet
nearly three limes that of the coil, so that the
will be reduced by about 75 the possible
errOr
per cent.
The moving coil instrument o dit
can also be converted into a
Ler by using shunts of
different values as shown in Fig. 10.7. of with ts
ferent values have been >i series
shunt

connected across the in

milli-amnec
C l e r

swamping resistance r. When the selector switch S is on tne

3 0A tap,
n e n t . T h e value

having a very low resistance is

connected across the instrun
 Measuring Instruments 317
the shunt resistance i1s such that the meter
gives a full scale deflection when the Milli-ammeter r2
&
total is 30 A. If the selector
current

switch S is now shifted on the 10 A tap.

the resistance of the shunt is such that it
gives a full scale deflection with 10 A. S 30 A
Normally these meters are available in
dual ranges with a multiple of two, for 10 A
example 5/10 A, 10/20 A, etc. for which
Fig. 10.7 Dual range ammeter
the values of the shunts will be in the
ratio of 1:2. These instruments are then
value of the current can be read
provided with two scales, so that the
directly on the scales.
The moving coil instrument can be used as
voltmeter for measuring the volt-
ages across any two points by connecting a
high resistance of managanin in
series with the moving coil. The value of resistance
to be connected in series
with the moving coil can be calculated as
per the range desired. The scale of the
voltmeter is then calibrated to read the same
The above voltmeter can be
voltage directly.
easily converted into a multiple range voltmeter
simply by using a tapped resistor in series with the milli-ammeter.
voltmeters are built in dual ranges similar to Normally
ammeters, for example 150/300 V,
300/600 V. etc. In such a case, only the middle
tapping is needed to get the two
ranges. The voltmeter can be used for two ranges with the
switch S. Two scales are help of selector
be taken
generally provided in the meter, so that readings can
directly as per the use of the meter.
10.9.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of PMMC Instruments
The major advantages in using moving coil instruments for the measurement of
current and
voltage are,
) high sensitivity,
i) uniform scale,
(11) well shielded from any stray magnetic field,
I) low power
consumption,
()no hysteresis loss, and
) can cover a wide range of current and voltage using shunt and series
resistances.
However these instruments also suffer from the following
disadvantages.
More expensive than the moving iron instruments,
11) can be used only for dc measurement, and
develop errors due to ageing of control springs and permanent magnets.
10.9.5 Extension of Range for Moving Coil Ammeters
range of a moving coil ammeter can be extended by connecting a shunt of
th
low resistance across its terminals as shown in Fig. 10.8. Let the resistance of
the
ammeter be r ohms.
 Basic Electrical Engineering
318

Then referring to Fig. 10.8, Ammeter

( - 'm) Ry m
Or +R,,) =IR,h
+Ryh
Rsh Shunt
V-
factor 1-Im Rsh
Let = m, the multiplying
of the shunt or current multiplying fac-
Fig. 10.8 Extension of range
tor

Then Rsh -1 (10.1)

Using Eq. (10.1), the proper value of the shunt resistance for a particularratio
of the extension of range can be determined.

10.9.6 Extension of Range for Moving Coil Voltmeter

The range of moving coil voltmeter can be
Voltmeter
extended by connecting a resistance in series R
with the voltmeter as shown in Fig. 10.9. As
per Fig. 10.9, the voltage across the series-
connected resistance R, = V- V.

Thus IR, = V- V

or
R,- Fig. 10.9 Extension of range
Let the resistance of the voltmeter be R,
Then V = IR

or
1 RV
Thus R, (V-VRn
If n1, the
voltage multiplying factor
(10.2)
Then R, =(m-) R, can be cal-
Hence the proper value of the resistance to be connected in series
e
culated using Eq. (10.2) for a particular case.
Examples on Moving Coil Instruments
with
Example 10.1 A moving
coil instrument gives full scale
deflecuo"
20 mA. The resistance of the coil is 4 2. It is
u m e n t

desired to convert this insu

 Measuring Instruments 319

into an anmeter to read upto 2 A. Find the resistance of the shunt to be connect
anmmeter

narallel with the instrument. Also determine the value of series resistance
edi
far the above instrument to read upto a voltage of 30 V.

Solution:
) Current through the coil = 20x 10 A
Resistance of the coil = 4 Q
Thus voltage across the coil = (20 x 10 ) x 4
= 0.08 V
Current through the shunt = total current to be measured - current through
the coil
Current through shunt = 2 - 0.02
= 1.98 A

Voltage across the shunt

Also current through the shunt=
Resistance of the shunt
Voltage across the coil
Resistance of the shunt
0.08
Thus, Resistance of the shunt = L.98 0.0404 2

(i) Let R be the resistance connected in series with the instrument. Then
resistance between the terminal points = R+4.
Voltage to be measured = 30 V
Current through the coil = 20 mA =0.02 A

30
Thus
0.02 R+4
30 = 1500 Q
or R+4
0.02
Resistance to be connected in series with the moving coil
= 1500-4 = 1496 2

Example 10.2 If the instrument mentioned in Example 10.1 is to be convert-

Cd into a multi-range voltmeter to read upto 60 V and 90 V, find the additional
resistance to be connected in series with the instrument.
Solution:
Kesistance in series to read upto 30 V = 1496 2 (Example 10.1)
1otal resistance to be connected in series, when the instrument is to

read upto 60 V = 0 60 -4 3000-4

2996 Q
Additional resistance needed = 2996 - 1496
= 1500 2
lotal resistance in series needed to read upto 90 V

90
-4 4500 4
0.02

= 4496 Q
Additional resistance = 4496 - 2996 = 1500 2
320 Basic Electrical Engineering

Now the total resistance connected in series with the

4496 2. First tapping should be provided after a
instrument shaula
resistance value of be
which is to read up to 30 V. Second tapping should be 140
provided after a resicta
value of 1500 2 beyond the first which e
tapping. would be
corresponding to
Third tapping should 60 y
obviously
be at the end of 4496 2 resistor, where the inet ru-
ment could be used for 90 V.
Example 10.3 For the instrument mentioned in
Example 10.1, find the valsa
of shunt resistances to convert the instrument into a
upto 2, 4 and 6 A.
multirange ammeter readino
Solution
Resistance of the shunt for 2 A range 0.0404 2
Current through the coil = 0.02 A
=
(Example 10.1)
Voltage across the coil = 0.08 V (Example 10.1)
voltage across the coil
Resistance of the shunt=
current through the shunt
When the total current to be measured 4 A =

Current through the shunt 4 -0.02 3.98 A

= =

Resistance of the shunt for 4 A range = 0.08 0.0201 2

3.98
Current through the shunt, when the total current to be measured is
6 A = 6 -0.02 = 5.98 A

0.08
Resistance of the shunt for 6 A range = 0=0.01338 S2

Example 10.4 The coil of a moving coil instrument is wound with 50 turns,
the area of the coil being 5 cm, flux density in the gap is .12 Wb/mf. Find the
deflecting torque, when the coil is carrying a current of 15 mA. Also determine
the deflection of pointer, if the constant of the control is 18x 10 N
spring m
pe
degree.
Solution: Deflecting torque in of
case moving coil instruments is given Dy
T =N xB xA xI
Number of turns in the coil, N= 50
Flux density in the gap, B =
0.12 Wb/m
Area of the coil, A 5 cm = 5 x
=
10 m
Current through the coil 15 mA = = 15 x 10 AA
Thus deflecting torque, T 50 x 0.12 x 5 x 10
=
x 15 x 10
= 45x 10° N - m
Controlling torque for spring controlled meters = C8
Constant for the spring, C 18 x 10"/ N
=
m per degree -

Controlling torque, T, = 18 x 10x 0N - m

At final steady position of the pointer,
T T
or 45x 10 =18 x I0'x e
4 X 10-6
Deflection, = 25°
T8 x 10-7
 Measuring Instruments 321

ample 10.5 The coil of a moving coil instrument is wound with 80 turns.
Exam and 3 wide. The flux
is
Thecoil ol
cm long cm
density in the air gap is 0.5 Wb/m.
spring exerts a torque of 2.0 x 1 0 Nm, when the deflection is 100
Asions on full scale. Estimate the resistance which must be connected in series
with the coil to give 2 V per division. The resistance of the instrument coil may
the series resistance to be connected.
he neglected compared with
Solution:
Deflecting torque in moving coil instruments is given by.
Ta =NxBxAxI
Number of turns in the coil, N 80 =

Flux density in the gap, B = 0.5 Wb/m

Area of the coil = 5 x 3 = 15 cm
= 15 x 10 m2
Thus deflecting torque = 80 x 0.5 x 15 x 10 xI
= 600 x 10 IN- mn
Controlling torque at full scale deflection = 2.0 x 10N- m

Under final steady state condition

Deflecting torque = Controlling torque

or 600x 10xl =2x 104

I = 2/600 A
Let the resistance to be connected in series with this coil be R2, so that instru-
ment reads up to 200 V. Resistance of the instrument being negligible, the total
resistance of the voltmeter circuit = R S2.

Voltage across the instrument = IR

= (2/600) x R

the instrument = 100 x 2 200 V

Also, voltage across

2
Thus 200 600 xR

200 x 600
= 60,000 2
Series resistance, R =

instrument whose resistance is 10 2 gives a

Example 10.6 A moving coil
the manganin shunt to
full-scale deflection. 10 mA. Find (a) the resistance of
resistance to extend the range of
extend its range to 1 A, and (b) value of series
same instrument to 15 V.
Solution:
(a) Resistance of the instrument coil = 10 2
A
Current through the coil 10 mA =
= 10 x l0
Voltage across the coil I R
=

0.1 V
10) x 10 =
=
(10 x

Thus voltage across the shunt 0.1 V =

be extended = 1A
lotal current for which the range is to
the shunt
hus c u e n t to be diverted through
= 1.0 0.01 = 0.99 A
S2
Let the resistance of the shunt be r

Then 0.99 xr = 0.1

0. S2
or the resistance of the shunt, r= o990.101
 322 Basic Electrical Engineering

(b) Voltage across the instrument = 0.1 V

Total voltage to which the range is to be extended = 15 V
Thus voltage across the series resistance, R, = 15 - 0.1

= 14.9 V

Current through the series resistance = 10 mA = 10 x 10 A

Thus the series resistance, R, = 10x

14.9 =1490 2
10-3 * 1 4 9 0

10.10 MOVING IRON AMMETERS AND VOLTMETERS

Moving iron ammeters and voltmeters are the least expensive among differet
types of meters. These can be used both for ac and dc measurements. As such
these instruments have become very popular for
laboratory or switch board use,
where absolute accuracy is not needed.

10.10.1 Operating Principle

As the name suggests, the moving element of the system is a vane of soft iron
orhigh permeability steel. The magnetic field is produced by the stationary coil,
when it is actuated by current or
voltage under measurement. The soft iron vane
moves in the
magnetic field in such a way, that it increases the flux produced by
the coil. Hence the
torque produced is in such a direction that it increases the
inductance of the coil. Let L be the inductance of the
coil and / the curent tlow
ing through it, then energy stored in the magnetic field is
by, given
W=LP
dW
Deflecting torque, T de
(10.3)
The controlling torque provided by control
T = C 0
springs is given by.
where C =control spring constant
6 deflection of pointer in radians
When final steady condition is reached
Detlecting torque Controlling torque
=

Ta = T

or deflection of pointer, (104

Hence in moving iron de6=5c ispro

instruments,
portional to square of the rms value ofdeflection
on of the moving
S y s t e m

mov result,
sult, scale
these instruments will be operating current. ASa lower sca e n da. n d

non-uniform. It is much crowded lower e

at its
ed at
i
 Measuring Instruments 323

m e w h a t at its higher end. These instruments can be used both for

c o m p r e s s e d

measurements because the deflection is directly proportional to the

ac and de
current.
of operating
square
10.10.2 Classificatioon

instruments can be divided into two types.

Maving iron
which sheet of soft iron is attracted towards sole-
l Atraction type-in a a

noid.
ii) Repulsion type-in which two parallel strips of soft iron magnetized
inside a solenoid repel each other.
for the types (attraction and repulsion) is directly
The deflecting torque both
nroportional to the square of current for a given position of the moving system.
waveform and corresponding detlecting torque in a
Figure 10.10 shows current
moving iron instrument, which clearly indicates, that if the frequency of current
hundred times
wave is 50 Hz, torque varies between zero and maximum value,
a second.
Hence the moving system takes up a position corresponding to the
mean torque, because
of its inertia. In both types of moving iron instruments,
to the voltage to be meas-
the current to be measured (or a current proportional
ured) is passed through a coil. The number of turns in the coil will depend upon
the current passing through the coil. For proper operation of the instrument,a
certain number of ampere turns is needed, which can be made up by having a

large number of turns and less current or vice versa.

Deflecting
torque

m
Mean torque

Time

Current

instrument
Fig. 10.10 Deflecting torque in moving iron

0.10.3 Attraction Type

iron instrument have been
COnstructional details of attraction type moving
disc of soft iron, which is
eccen-
show 10.11. The moving iron is a flat
ico g. when current tlows through the
coitpivoted. A magnetic field is produced,
iron tends to move from
the weaker
instrument and thus the moving
Ma ne field inside it. Controling
C Iield outside the coil into the stronger
 324 Basic Electrical Engineering

Airdamping
chamber
Pointer

Coil
winding
Balance
weight Movingiron

Control
0cor
weight
Fig. 10.11 Attraction type moving iron instrument

torque is generally provided by springs,

however gravity control can be used for
panel type of instruments, which are nor-
mally mounted in a vertical position.
Usually air damping is provided by a vane
moving in a sector shaped air chamber.

10.10.4 Repulsion Type

Figure 10. 12 shows the details of repulsion
(a)
type of moving iron instrument, in which C
3A C
represents the solenoid. A soft iron rod or
S
strip A is attached to the bobbin on which
the coil is wound. Another soft iron rod or
strip B is carried by the spindle D. D
When current flows through the coil C
soft iron rods A andB are
magnetized in the
same direction. Hence soft iron and B tries
to move away from the rod A, because the
poles with the same polarity repel each
(b)
other, thus producing a clockwise deflecting me

torque on the moving system. Repulsion type

Fig. 10. 12 iron instrument

The controlling torque is provided by

hairsprings SS. Air damping is provided by the vane V moving in a*

ber.
nents

10.10.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of MI Instru

.afvol hage
e n t o fv o l a g

The major advantages in using MI instruments for the

and current are the following
measure
i) They can be used for both dc and ac circuits.
 Measuring Instruments 325

can wit d overloads momentarily.

They
) are robust and cheaper.
in) il) They
awever. these instruments also suffer from the following disadvantages.
Howe

) Non-uniform scale.

Effectof hysteresis and stray magnetic field.

of frequency variations.
üi) Effect
is more.
(iv) Power consumption

10.11 ELECTRODYNAMOMETER TYPE WATTMETERs

In case of dc circuit, the power consumed is given by,
Power =
VxI watts
Thus power can be measured by connecting properly a voltmeter and an
ammeter in the circuit. However, the instantaneous power in ac circuits is given
by
Power =v xi
where, v and i are the instantaneous values of voltage and current. Moreover,
average power over a cycle is given by,

P =VI cos o watts

where, V and I are the rms values of the voltage and currents and cos ó is the
power factor of the load. Hence, power in ac circuit can be measured
by prop-
erly connecting a voltmeter, an ammeter and a power factor meter in the circuit.
Use of three different types of meters makes this method of power measurement
quite expensive. Moreover, the accuracy of measurement will be lower, because
0I the use of
three meters. Hence, the most convenient and accurate method for
ue
measurement of power in single phase and
Se Of
3-phase ac circuits is that by the
wattmeter properly connected in the circuit. A wattmeter
properly con-
nected in the circuit gives direct indication of the power being measured.
ACctrodynamometer or dynamometer wattmeters are commonly used for
uring power in ac circuits. This type of instrument basically works upon
Cectromagnetic force exerted between the fixed and the moving coils car
h ing rent. The fixed and moving coils are connected in different circuits for

withmeasurement
the load and
of power. The fixed coil or the field coil is connected in series
fixed coil forms thuhus carries the current flowing in the load circuit. Hence the
the current coil of the wattmeter. The moving coil of the
wattmeter
the l
is con
connected across the load and thus carries a current proportional to
voltage.
In order
to limit the current through the moving coil, a high non-
ctive resistance Is connected in series with it. As the moving coil carries a
current prop
Sure coportional to the voltage across the load, it is normally called the pres-
coil of the
wattmeter.
The electrodynan
nd Odynamometer type wattmeter consist of two current cols CCi.
give CC, as
shown Fig. 10.13, which can be connected in series or parallel to
two
ived
current
Cnt ratings.
Is achieved.and if the
ratings. If the coils are connected in series, lower current range
curre
rent coils are connected in parallel higher current range
 Basic Electrical Engineering
326

Pointer
Moving coil
Fixed coils
PC
CC& CC
CC CC2

O
Supply
A

10.13 Electrodynamometer type wattmeter

Fig.
coils have laige
Current coils have few turns of thick wire while pressure
number of turns of thin wire. The pressure coil is mounted centrally and is a
ried on a pivoted spindle and carries the pointer which moves over a canord

scale. nected
Based on the above discussion, the two coils of the wattmeter are co
e load
connected in series witn u
properly for measuring power. The fixed coil is ortion

and moving coil across the supply. The current in the moving coil isprop the instant

al to and practically in phase with the supply voltage V. Hence, tne

neous force on each side of the moving coil is given by
Instantaneous force c (instantaneous current through fixed cou
moving
x (instantaneous current
through
Dad
or, instantaneous force o instantaneous current through the lOau t h eload

potential difference acros

x instantaneous
load
instantaneous power drawn by
Hence, average deflecting force on the moving coil is directlyprop
the average value of power over a complete number of cycies
Thus, when wattmeter is used in an ac circuit, the movi
tia takes up a position, where the average deflecting torquenstrume
balanced by the restoring torque of the spiral springs. H e n s
its.
be calibrated to read the mean value of the power in ac circ
 Measuring Instruments 327

The Advantages of electrodynamic wattmeter are the following.

Accurately measures both ac and de power.
) Uniform scale.
GiCan be used as standard meter for calibration.
However, these instruments suffer from following disadvantages
a The inductance of the moving coil can cause error
specially at low power
factors.
i) Effect of stray magnetic fields.

10.12 INDUCTION TYPE ENERGY METER

Energy meter is an integrating meter which measures electrical energy
consumed by a load. Induction type energy meters are very commonly used to
measure electrical energy consumed in domestic, commercial and industrial
installations. These meters measure energy in kWh.
It consists of a current coil in series with the line and load and a pressure coil
across the line as shown in Fig. 10.14. The coils are wound on a magnetic frame.
A light aluminium disk is suspended in the magnetic field of the current coil and
eddy currents are induced in it. The flux created by the eddy current reacts with
the flux of the pressure coil and the disk rotates under a torque at a
high speed.
In order to brake the high speed into a steady rotating speed the disk rotates
between the two small permanent magnets located opposite each other at the
rim of the disk. The
rotating disk cuts magnetic lines of force inducing eddy
currents and flux opposing the motion of the disk, there
by creating braking
action.
When energy meter is connected in the circuit, the current coil carries a
Current equal to the load current and the pressure coil carries a current propor
tional to the supply voltage. The deflecting torque on the dise is proportional to

Spindle

Magnetic core

1-0 ac PC Aluminium disc

supply

Load

CC CC

lnduction type energy meter

Fig. 10.14 Single phase
 328 Basic Electrical Engineering

the active power consumed in the circuit. The

aking torque isis due
braking due t
currents
proportional to the disc speed. to the eddy
induced in the disc and is
move with a steady speed only when the
braking torque is equal toThethedis will
ing torque. Hence, the total number of revolutions made dedeflect
time by the dise
gives a measure of
energy consumed by the load in tthat a giver
The shaft of the aluminium disk is connected interval ti
by gear arrangement to aofdr
readout in kWh. Calibration of the energy meter is done digital
cent of full load.
at full load and 10
10 per

10.13 EXTENSION OF RANGE USING INSTRUMENT

TRANSFORMER
The range of instruments can be appreciably increased
ac

transformers, properly connected in conjuction with them. by using instrument

Such instrument
transformers are current transformers and
formers are used to increase the current potential transformers. Current trans
range of ac instruments whereas poten-
tial transformers are used to increase
the voltage range.
10.13.1 Current Transformer
A current transformer works on the same
principle as a power transformer. Ihe
cross-sectional area of the core of a current
as to reduce the
transformer (CT) is made large so
working flux density.
The core is in the form of a toroid and s
made of high
permeabilitysteel, which reduces the magnetising current and nud
the ratio of primary and
secondary currents is constant under all loads.
The primary
winding of the CT is connected in series with the load cu
whose current is to be
measured. The ammeter or the current coil o the
wattmeter is connected across the in
secondary winding of the C l as
own

Fig. 10.15. These transformers are

5A commonly designed for seconduy
While usSing the current sec
transformers, it should be ascertained thae the
gh the
ondary Winding is never opened, so long as current is
primary.If the above condition occurs, it may induce passing voltages
in the dangerous1y
secondary winding, moreover there will be considerable n
across the
primary winding.
10.13.2 Potential Transformer
(PT
In ac circuits, where high potential transformer

is
voltage is to be measured, ange o fthe

interposed between the circuit and the instrument, to extend coil

instrument. Figure 10.15 shows the tn pressure

t e r and anstormer.
of wattmeter through a PT. connections of a voltm
Usually, the of a potentia
designed for a rated value of l10 V. Highsecondary
the pi
to

mary of the PT and the voltage side is conne co

standard instrument
p r e s s u r e

(volti
h e volmmet

wattmeter) is connected to the t h e v o l u g te

when divided by the

secondary of the PT. The reading o
transformation ratio, gives the true value o
be measured.