Forces & Energy Requirements,

Cutting Fluids and Tool Life

Power is a product of force and speed

Cutting power , Nc = Pc V
Shear power , Ns = Fs Vs
Friction power , NF = F Vc

From Merchant’s circle

Total power = cutting power + feeding (thrust) power
NT = Nc + Nf

where Nc = Pc V Note that Vf << V , and Pt << Pc

Nf = Pt Vf  Nf << Nc

Therefore  total power ≈ cutting power

NT = Nc = Pc V

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Example 1:
An orthogonal cutting with the following conditions
- un-deformed chip thickness 0.127 mm
- chip thickness 0.229 mm
- cutting speed 120 m/min
- rake angle 100
- chip width 6.35 mm
- cutting force 567 N
- feeding (thrust) force 227 N
Find the percentage ratio of friction power with respect to the cutting
power

Example 2:
An 8-in diameter stainless steel bar is being turned on a lathe at 600
rpm and at a depth of cut d=0.1 in. I fthe power of the motor is 4 hp,
what is the maximum feed that you can have before the motor stalls?

Forces and energy - 3

Empirical force and energy

Cutting force
Pc = pc.h.w …… N
where pc = nominal cutting stress or specific cutting pressure…N/m2
A = h.w = cross-sectional area of un-deformed chip…m2

Specific cutting energy E1 the energy consumed in removing a unit

volume of material
PL  J N 
E1  c  3 or 2 
hwL  m m 
where L = the distance over which the force acts

dull tool  specific cutting energy  increased by 30 %

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 Forces and energy - 5

Material removal factor K1 gives a feel for the amount of material
that can be removed in unit time with a drive of unit power
1  m3 
K1   
E1  Ws 
Not really constant  also depend on process parameters h ,  and V
Adjusted specific cutting energy
a
 h 
E  E1    E1h  a
 href
 
where href = 1 and a ranges from 0.2 to 0.4  0.3 for most materials

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 The power to be developed by the machine tool  for a given rate of
material removal Vt and efficiency of machine tool  (0.7-0.8)

EVt  W .s mm3  EVt  hp.min in3 

Power (W)    or Power  hp    
  mm 3
s    in
3
min 

Cutting force calculated from power divided by speed  for a given

cutting speed V in m/s or ft/min
power W  33000 power  hp 
Pc  N or Pc   lbf 
V V

Example (Schey page 634)

A 4340 steel bar of HB 270 hardness is cut at a speed of 0.6 m/s. The
undeformed chip thickness is 0.3 mm and the width of chip is 1.5 mm.
Calculate the power requirement and the cutting force

Forces and energy - 7

Temperatures
Energy during cutting  concentrated in a very small zone  small
fraction is stored in the wp & chip, vast majority is converted to heat
The cutting zone keeps moving
into the wp  little heating ahead
of the tool (@ high speed cutting,
over 80 % of heat is carried away
by chip). However, tool is in
continuous contact with the chip

Typical temperature distribution in the cutting zone. Note the

severe temperature gradients within the tool and the chip, and
that the workpiece is relatively cool. Source: After G. Vieregge.
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Estimated temperature  assuming that all energy is converted into
heat 1
 Vh  2
Mean tool face temperature TT  E  
 k c 
where k is the heat conductivity,  is the density and c is the specific
heat of wp (heat content per unit volume)

Some heat diffuses into the wp  compensation for dimensional

change.
Heat build up in the tool is a significant factor limiting cutting speed

High cutting temperature if ….

Example (Schey page 635)  read it

Forces and energy - 9

Cutting Fluids

Major functions
1. Lubrications
The fluid enters the sliding zone & some may seep in from the
sides of the chip.
• Low cutting speed  rake-face friction ↓   ↑, the chips
thinner & curls more tightly, power consumption ↓
• Cutting speed with BUE  BUE formation is shifted to higher
speed
• Higher speed where a sticking zone is developed  the length of
sticking zone ↓
In general  lubricant access to the flank face is possible &
rubbing ↓  surface finish ↑

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2. Cooling
• Temperatures in the shear zone is not affected  highly
concentrated and moves extremely fast
• Temperatures of the chip as it leaves secondary shear zone & the
workpiece are reduced
• Reduce the bulk temperature
3. Chip removal
Flush away chips from the cutting zone and prevent clogging or
binding the tool

Categories
a. Mineral oils + additives  for low speed & HSS tooling
b. Water based (aqueous)  emulsions, semi-synthetic or synthetic

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Method of applications
a. Manual b. Flooding
c. Coolant-fed tooling d. Mist application
e. Treatment of lubricants and chips

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6
Tool life
The economy of the process is largely control by tool life
1. Flank wear  due to abrasive and adhesive mechanism 
undesireable: dimensional control ↓, surface finish ↓, heat generation ↑
2. Notch wear  may lead to total tool failure
3. Crater wear  due to high temperature on the rake face & high shear
stresses
Influenced by abrasion, adhesion, dragging out tool material, diffusion,
thermal softening and plastic deformation.
Leads to catastrophic edge failure
4. Edge rounding  by abrasion
Cutting forces are higher, the machine tool must be very stiff

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5. Edge chipping  due to periodic break-off the BUE or usage of

brittle tool for interrupted cuts
6. Edge cracking  cyclic mechanical load & thermal fatique
7. Catastrophic failure  brittle materials in interrupted cuts

Flank & crater wear (a) may be

characterized by the dimensions shown.
(b) From the progression of flank wear
(c) the tool life constant C and n may be
extracted

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Wear Patterns on Tools
(a) Flank wear and
crater wear in a cutting
tool (b) View of the
rake face of a turning
tool, showing various
wear patterns. (c) View
of the flank face of a
turning tool, showing
various wear patterns.
(d) Types of wear on a
turning tool: 1. flank
wear; 2. crater wear; 3.
chipped cutting edge; 4.
thermal cracking on rake
face; 5. built-up edge; 6.
catastrophic failure.
Source: Courtesy of
Kennametal, Inc.

Types of Wear seen in Cutting Tools

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 Effect of workpiece microstructure on tool life in turning. Tool life is given in terms of the time (in minutes)
required to reach a flank wear land of a specified dimension. (a) Ductile cast iron; (b) steels, with identical
hardness. Note in both figures the rapid decrease in tool life as the cutting speed increases.

Forces and energy - 17

(a) Tool-life curves for a variety of cutting-tool materials. The negative inverse of the slope of these curves is
the exponent n in tool-life equations. (b) Relationship between measured temperature during cutting and tool
life (flank wear). Note that high cutting temperatures severely reduce tool life.
Source: After H. Takeyama and Y. Murata.
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Tool life criteria
Affects the choice of tool, process conditions, economy of operation
and the possibility of automation and computer control.
Criteria : flank wear, crater wear, total loss of the tool edge or nose,
total (flank and crater) wear volume, number of products, surface
finish, dimensional control, increased cutting force
Example :

Unit : time (minutes), hours, number of holes drilled or tapped

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Prediction of tool life

Gradual wear is produced by temperature-dependent mechanism
where V is the cutting speed (m/min or ft/min)
Vt n  C T is the tool life (min)
C is the cutting speed for a tool life of 1 min

Consider the effect of cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut
Vt n d x f y  C where d is the depth of cut (mm)
f is the feed rate (mm/rev or in/rev)

For a constant tool life :

• Feed rate or depth of cut ↑, cutting speed must be ↓
• A reduction in speed, may results in a volume material removal ↑due
to feed rate or depth of cut ↑

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Example 3:
Stainless steel material having E1=1.4 Ws/mm3 , diameter 12.7 mm
is machined on a lathe machine such that its diameter becomes
12.192 mm for152 mm length. If the machining is performed with n
of 400 rpm, feeding speed vf of 203 mm/min and Kr of 900, find v, Vt
(RMR), t, Pc and Nc

Example 4:
A machine tool is machining a steel block where the length of the cut
is 30 mm and the chip is straightened to 24 mm. The rake angel of
the tool is 100. Other known conditions are cutting speed 35m/min,
depth of cut 1 mm, cutting force 275 N and feeding force 95N. Find
the coefficient of friction, chip ratio,thickness of the chip, shear
plane angle and velocity of the chip along the tool face. Find
horsepower at the spindle and at the motor if the efficiency is 65%.

Example 5:
An annealed 1045 steel tube with hardness of HB 150 is bore
out,a layer of 3 mm thickness being removed in a single cut.
The tube outer diameter is 150 mm, the wall is 15 mm thick
and the tube length is 300 mm. For the process described
above, find.
 The recommended cutting speed and feed if the process is
using disposable carbide insert tooling.
 The power requirement.
 The time required to finish the cut, and.
 The cutting force.

Example 6:
Using the Taylor equation for tol wear, letitng n=0.4, calculate the
percentage increase in tool life if the cutting speed is reduced by (a)
20% and (b) 50%.

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 Read by yourself
 Ferrous and non-ferrous materials
 Cutting tools (tool materials, tool construction,
tool holders and fixtures

page 648 – 660  Schey

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