SELF PACED LEARNING MODULE

IN

GE 4 (Mathematics in the Modern World)

VISION MISSION
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and prime catalyst for a progressive and sustainable Quirino appropriate knowledge and technologies to meet the needs of
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“Molding Minds, SHAping

 Module 3 Problem Solving and Reasoning
a. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
b. Intuition, proof and certainty
c. Polya’s 4 – steps in Problem Solving
d. Mathematical Problems involving Patterns
e. Recreational Problems using Mathematics
Competencies 1. 1. Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and arguments
made about mathematics and mathematical concepts.
2. 2. Write clear and logical proofs.
3. 3. Solve problems involving patterns and recreational problems following
Polya’s four steps.
4. 4. Organize one’s methods and approaches for proving and solving
problems.
Discussion Most occupations require good problem – solving skills. For instance,
architects and engineers must solve many complicated problems as they
design and construct modern buildings that are aesthetically pleasing,
functional and that meet stringent safety requirements. The goal of this
module is to help you become a better problem solver and to demonstrate
that problem solving can be an enjoyable experience.

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Inductive Reasoning
The type of that forms a conclusion based on the examination of specific
examples is called inductive reasoning. The conclusion formed by using
inductive reasoning is often called a conjecture, since it may or may not be
correct.
When you examine a list of numbers and predict the next number in the
list according to some pattern you have observed, your are using inductive
reasoning.

Example 1. Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of

the following list.
a. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ? b. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ?

Solution
a. Each successive number is 3 larger than the preceding number. Thus we
predict that the next number in the list is 3 larger than 15, which is 18.
b. The first two numbers differ by 2. The second and the third numbers
differ by 3. It appears that the difference between any two numbers is
always 1 more than the preceding number difference. Since 10 and 15
differ by 5, we predict that the next number in the list will be 6 larger than
15, which is 21.

Example 2. Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture.

Consider the following procedure. Pick a number. Multiply the number by
8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3.
Complete the above procedure for several different numbers. Use inductive
reasoning to make a conjecture about the relationship between the size of
the resulting number and the size of the original number.

Solution
Suppose we pick 5 as our original number. Then the procedure would
produce the following results:

Original number: 5
Multiply by 8: 8 x 5 = 40
Add 6: 40 + 6 = 46
Divide by 2: 46/2 = 23
Subtract 3: 23 – 3 = 20

We started with 5 and followed the procedure to produce 20. Starting with

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and prime catalyst for a progressive and sustainable Quirino appropriate knowledge and technologies to meet the needs of
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 6 as our original number produces a final result of 24. Starting with 10
produces a final result of 40. Starting with 100 produces a final result of
400. In each of these cases the resulting number is four times the original
number. We conjecture that following the given procedure produces a
number that is four times the original number.

Example 3. Use Inductive reasoning to Solve an Application

Use the data in the table and inductive reasoning to answer each of the
following questions.
Length of Pendulum, Period of pendulum,
in units in heartbeats
1 1
4 2
9 3
16 4
25 5
36 6

a. If a pendulum has a length of 49 units, what is its period?

b. If the length of a pendulum is quadrupled, what happens to its period?

Solution
a. In the table, each pendulum has a period that is the square root of its
length. Thus, we conjecture that a pendulum with a length of 49 units will
have a period of 7 heartbeats.
b. In the table, a pendulum with a length of 4 units has a period that is
twice that of a pendulum with a length of 1 unit. A pendulum with a length
of 16 units has a period that is twice that of a pendulum with a length of 4
units it appears that quadrupling the length of a pendulum doubles its
period.

Counterexample
A statement is a true statement provided that it is true in all cases. If you
can find one case for which a statement is not true, called a
counterexample, then the statement is a false statement.

Example 4. Find a Counterexample

Verify that each of the following statement is a false statement by finding a
counterexample.
For all numbers x:
a. |x|>0 b. x 2> x c. √ x 2=x

Solution
A statement may have many counterexamples, but we need only find one
counterexample to verify that statement is false.

a. Let x = 0. Then |0|=0 . Because 0 is not greater than 0, we have found a

counterexample. Thus “for all numbers x, |x|>0 ” is a false statement.
b. For x = 1 we have 1² = 1. Since 1 is not greater than 1, we have found a
counterexample. Thus, “for all numbers x, x 2> x” is a false statement.
c. Consider x = -3. Then √(−3)2= √ 9=3. Since 3 is not equal to -3, we have
found a counterexample. Thus, “for all numbers x, √ x 2=x ” is a false
statement.

Deductive Reasoning
Another type of reasoning is called deductive reasoning. Deductive
reasoning is distinguished from inductive reasoning in that it is the process
of reaching a conclusion by applying general principles and procedures.

Example 5. Use Deductive Reasoning to Establish a Conjecture

Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a
number that is four times the original number.

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 Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product,
divide the sum by 3, and subtract 3.

Solution:
Let n represent the original number.
Multiply the number by 8: 8n
Add 6 to the product: 8n + 6
Divide the sum by 2: (8n + 6)/2 = 4n + 3
Subtract 3: 4n + 3 – 3 = 4n

We started with n and ended with 4n. The procedure given in this example
produces a number that is four times the original number.

Example 6. Determine Types of Reasoning

Determine whether each of the following arguments is an example of
inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning.

a. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums every other year.
Last year the tree did not produce plums, so this year the tree will produce
plums.
b. All home improvements cost more than the estimate. The contractor
estimated that my home improvement will cost Php 35,000.00. Thus, my
home improvement will cost more than Php 35,000.00.

Solution
a. This argument reaches a conclusion based on specific examples, so it is
an example of inductive reasoning.
b. Because the conclusion is a specific case of a general assumption, this
argument is an example of deductive reasoning.

Problem Solving Strategies

Polya’s 4-steps in Problem Solving
1. Understand the Problem. This part of Polya’s four-step is often
overlooked. You must have a clear understanding of the problem. To help
you focus on understanding the problem, consider the following questions.
 Can you restate the problem in your own words?
 Can you determine what is known about these types of problems?
 Is there missing information that, if known would allow you to solve
the problem?
 Is there extraneous information that is not needed to solve the
problem?
 What is the goal?

2. Devise a Plan. Successful problem solvers use a variety of techniques

when they attempt to solve a problem. Here are some frequently used
procedures.
 Make a list of the known information.
 Make a list of information that is needed.
 Draw a diagram.
 Make an organized list that shows all the possibilities.
 Make a table or a chart.
 Work backwards.
 Try to solve a similar but simpler problem.
 Look for a pattern.
 Write an equation. If necessary, define what each variable
represents.
 Perform an experiment.
 Guess at a solution and check your result.

3. Carry Out the Plan. Once you have a devised a plan, you must carry it

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and prime catalyst for a progressive and sustainable Quirino appropriate knowledge and technologies to meet the needs of
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“Molding Minds, SHAping

 out.
 Work carefully
 Keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts.
 Realize that some of your initial plans will not work and that you
may have to devise another plan or modify your existing plan

4. Review the Solution. Once you have found a solution, check the solution.
 Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of the problem.
 Interpret the solution in the context of the problem.
 Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the solution that
could play to other problems.

Example 1. Apply Polya’s Strategy (Solve a similar but simpler problem)

Consider the map shown in figure. Allison wishes to walk along the streets
from point A to point B. How many direct routes can Allison take?

Solution
Understand the Problem. We would not be able to answer the question if
Allison retraced her path or traveled away from point B. Thus we assume
that on a direct route, she always travels along a street in a direction that
gets her closer to point B.
Devise a Plan. The map in the figure has many extraneous details. Thus
we make a diagram that allows us to concentrate on the essential
information.

Because there are many routes, we consider the similar but simpler
diagrams shown below. The number at each street intersection represents
the number of routes from point A to that particular intesection.

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and prime catalyst for a progressive and sustainable Quirino appropriate knowledge and technologies to meet the needs of
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 Look for patterns. It appears that the number of routes to an intersection is
the sum of the number of routes to the adjacent intersection to its left and
the number of routes to the intersection directly above. For instance, the
number of routes to the intersection labeled 6 is the sum of the number of
routes to the intersection its left, which is 3, and the number of routes to
the intersection diretly above, which is also 3.

Carry Out the Plan. Using the pattern discovered above, we see from the
figure at the left that number of routes from point A to point B is 20 + 15 =
35.

Review the Solution. Ask yourself whether a result of 35 seems

reasonable. If you were required to draw each route, could you devise a
scheme that would enable you to draw each rout without missing a route
or duplicting a route?

Examaple 2. Apply Polya’s Strategy (Make an organized list)

A baseball team won two out of their last four games. In hlow many
different orders could they have two wins and two losses in four games?

Solution
Understand the Problem. There are many different orders. The team may
have won two straight games and lost the last two (WWLL). Or maybe they
lost the first two games and won the last two (LLWW). Of course there are
other possibilities such as WLWL.

Devise a Plan. We will make an organized list of all the posibble orders. An
organized lisy is a list that is prodeuced using a system that ensures that
each of the different orders will be listed once and only once.

Carry out the Plan. Each entry in our list must contain two Ws and two
Ls. We will use a strategy that makes sure each order is considered, with ni
duplications. One such startegy is to always write a W unless doing so will
produce too many Ws or a duplicate of one of the previous orders. If it is
possible to write a W, then and only then do we write an L. This strategy
produces the six different orders shown below.
1. WWLL (Start with two wins)
2. WLWL (Start with one win)
3. WLLW
4. LWWL (Start with one loss)
5. LWLW
6. LLWW (Start with two losses)

Review the Solution. We have made an organized list. The list has no
duplicates and the list considers all possibilities, so we are confident that
there are six different orders in which a baseball team can win exactly two
out of four games.

Mathematical Problems involving patterns

Sequences. A sequenceis an ordered list of numbers. Each number in a
sequence is called a term of the sequence. The notation a n is used to
designate the nth term of a sequence. A formula that can be used to
generate all the terms of a sequence is called an nth – term formula.

Example:
Assume the pattern shown by the square tiles in the following figures
continues.
a. What is the nth-term formula for the number of tiles in the nth figure of
the sequence?

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 b. How many tiles are in the eighth figure of the sequence?
c. Which figure will consists of exactly 320 tiles?

Solution
a. Examine the figures for patterns. Note that the second figure has two tile
son each of the horizontal sections and one tile between the horizontal
sections. The third figure has three tiles on each horizontal section and two
tiles between the horizontal sections. The fourth tiles has four tiles on each
horizontal section and three tiles between the horizontal sections.

Thus the number of tiles in the nth figure is given by two groups of n plus a
group of n less one. That is.
a n=2 n+(n−1)
a n=3 n−1
b. The number of tiles in the eighth figure of the sequence is 3(8) – 1 = 23.
c. To determine which figure in the sequence will have 320 tiles, we solve
the equation
320=3 n−1
320+1=3 n
321=3 n
107=n
The 107th figure is composed of 320 tiles.

Difference tables. A difference table shows the differences betwwen

succesive terms of a sequence, and in some cases it can be used to predict
the next term in a sequence.

Example
Use a difference table to predict the next term in the sequence.
2, 7, 24, 59, 118, 207, …

Solution
Construct a difference table as shown below.

The third difference, shown in blu in row (3), are all the same constant, 6.
Extending row (3) so, that it includes an additional 6 enables us to predict
that the next second diffrence will be 36. Adding 36 to the first difference

VISION MISSION
The leading center for academic and technological excellence Develop competent and morally upright professionals and generate
and prime catalyst for a progressive and sustainable Quirino appropriate knowledge and technologies to meet the needs of
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley. Quirino Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.

“Molding Minds, SHAping

 89 gives the next first difference, 125. Adding 125 to the sixth term 207
yields 332. Using the method of extendiing the difference table, we predict
that 332 is the next term in the sequence.

Fibonacci Sequence. Let F n represent the nth Fibonacci number. Them

ther terms in the Fibonacci sequences are given by the recursive definition:
F 1=1 , F 2=1 ,∧F n=F n−1+ F n−2

Example
Use the definition of Fibonnaci numbers to find the seventh and eighth
Fibonacci numbers.

Solution
The first six Fibonacci numbers are 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, and 8. The seventh
Fibonacci number is the sum of the two previous Fibonacci numbers.
Thus,
F 7=F 6+ F 5
F 7=8+5
F 7=13
The eighth Fibonacci number is
F 8=F 7+ F 6
F 8=13+8
F 8=21

*Recommended Reading
1. Intuition, proof and certainty
2.Recreational Problems using mathematics
Enrichment 1. Sudoku is a deductive reasoning, number – placement puzzle. The object
Activities in a 6 by 6 mini-Sudoku puzzle is to fill all empty squares so that the
counting numbers 1 to 6 appear exactly one in each row, each column and
each 2 by 3 regions, which are delineated by the thick line segments. Solve
the following 6 by 6 mini-Sudoku puzzles.

Comprehension Apply Polya’s Strategy to solve the problem

Check 1. If six people greet each other at a meeting by shaking hands with one
another, how many handshakes will take place?
2.A true or false quiz contains five questions. In how many ways can a
student answer the questions if the student answers two of the questions
with “false” and the other three with “true”?
Reference Mathematical Excursions 3rd edition by Aufmann, et.al.

VISION MISSION
The leading center for academic and technological excellence Develop competent and morally upright professionals and generate
and prime catalyst for a progressive and sustainable Quirino appropriate knowledge and technologies to meet the needs of
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley. Quirino Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.

“Molding Minds, SHAping