Topic 1.

2- Ultrastructure of Cells
Unit 1- Cell Biology
 Understandings:

1.2 Ultrastructure of cells

1.2.1 Prokaryotes have a simple cell structure without
compartmentalization.
1.2.2 Eukaryotes have a compartmentalized cell structure.
1.2.3 Electron microscopes have a much higher resolution
than light microscopes.
1.2.6 Skill: Drawing of the ultrastructure of prokaryotic cells
based on electron micrographs.
 Applications:
1.2.4 Structure and function of organelles within
exocrine gland cells of the pancreas and
within palisade mesophyll cells of the leaf.
1.2.5 Prokaryotes divide by binary fission.
 Skills:
1.2.7 Skill: Drawing of the ultrastructure of
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells based on
electron micrographs.
1.2.8 Skill: Interpretation of electron
micrographs to identify organelles and
deduce the function of specialized cells.
 Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells

Formed 3.5 billion years ago Formed 1.5 billion years ago

Simple cells that do not have membrane Complex cells with membrane bound
bound organelles organelles

Do not have a nucleus Have proper nucleus

DNA is circular and found in the cytoplasm DNA is in the form of chromosomes found
in nucleus

Bacteria and archaea are prokaryotic cells All other forms of life are eukaryotic cells
Prokaryotic Cells
Prokaryotes are organisms whose cells lack a
nucleus

('pro' = before ; 'karyon' = nucleus) Thermus Aquaticus- Heat

resistant bacteria found in hot
springs
■ Archaebacteria – found in extreme
environments like high temperatures, salt
concentrations or pH (i.e. extremophiles)
■ Eubacteria – traditional bacteria including most
known pathogenic forms (e.g. E. coli, S. aureus, E.coli- Found in intestines
etc.)
Diagram of a Prokaryotic cell
Features of Prokaryotic Cells
■ Cytoplasm – internal fluid component of the cell
■ Nucleoid – region of the cytoplasm where the DNA is located (DNA strand is circular and
called a genophore)
■ Plasmids – autonomous circular DNA molecules that may be transferred between bacteria
(horizontal gene transfer)
■ Ribosomes – complexes of RNA and protein that are responsible for polypeptide synthesis
(prokaryote ribosome = 70S)
■ Cell membrane – Semi-permeable and selective barrier surrounding the cell
■ Cell wall – rigid outer covering made of peptidoglycan; maintains shape and prevents bursting
(lysis)
■ Slime capsule – a thick polysaccharide layer used for protection against dessication (drying
out) and phagocytosis
■ Flagella – Long, slender projections containing a motor protein that enables movement
(singular: flagellum)
■ Pili – Hair-like extensions that enable adherence to surfaces (attachment pili) or mediate
bacterial conjugation (sex pili)
Division of Prokaryotic cell
Binary fission is a form of asexual
reproduction used by prokaryotic cells
In the process of binary fission:
■ The circular DNA is copied in response to a
replication signal
■ The two DNA loops attach to the membrane
■ The membrane elongates and pinches off
(cytokinesis), forming two identical cells http://www.youtube.com/wat
ch?v=gEwzDydciWc
Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotes are organisms whose cells contain a nucleus
(‘eu’ = good / true ; ‘karyon’ = nucleus)
They have a more complex structure and are believed to
have evolved from prokaryotic cells (via endosymbiosis)
Eukaryotic cells are compartmentalised by
membrane-bound structures (organelles) that perform
specific roles and maintain their microenvironments.
 Advantages of Compartmentalization
● Greater efficiency of metabolism as enzymes and substrates are
enclosed, and therefore much more concentrated, in the particular
organelles responsible for specific functions.
● Internal conditions such as pH can be differentiated in a cell to
maintain the optimal conditions for different enzymes.
● Isolation of toxic or damaging substances away from the
cytoplasm, such as the storage of hydrolytic enzymes in
lysosomes.
● Flexibility of changing the numbers and position of organelles
within the cell based on the cell’s requirements.
Kingdoms of Eukaryotes
Eukaryotes can be divided into four distinct kingdoms:
■ Protista – unicellular organisms; or multicellular organisms without specialised
tissue
■ Fungi – have a cell wall made of chitin and obtain nutrition via heterotrophic
absorption
■ Plantae – have a cell wall made of cellulose and obtain nutrition autotrophically (via
photosynthesis)
■ Animalia – no cell wall and obtain nutrition via heterotrophic ingestion
Features of Eukaryotic Cells
The features of eukaryotic cells are as follows:
1. Eukaryotic cells have the nucleus enclosed within the nuclear
membrane.
2. The cell has mitochondria.
3. Flagella and cilia are the locomotory organs in a eukaryotic cell.
4. A cell wall is the outermost layer of the eukaryotic cells.
5. The cells divide by a process called mitosis.
6. The eukaryotic cells contain a cytoskeletal structure.
7. The nucleus contains a single, linear DNA, which carries all the
genetic information.
Organelles

Organelles are specialised sub-structures within a cell that serve a

specific function
Prokaryotic cells do not typically possess any membrane-bound
organelles, whereas eukaryotic cells possess several organelles.
 The endomembrane
system is a group of
membranes and
organelles in
eukaryotic cells that
works together to
modify, package,
and transport lipids
and proteins.

Endomembrane system of a cell to transport materials

WATCH VIDEO HERE
 Universal Cell Organelles- Both in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Cytoskeleton Plasma membrane

Ribosomes Structure: A filamentous Structure: Phospholipid
Structure: Two subunits scaffolding within the bilayer embedded with
made of RNA and protein; cytoplasm (fluid portion of proteins (not an organelle;
larger in eukaryotes (80S) the cytoplasm is the cytosol) but a vital structure)
than prokaryotes (70S) Function: Provides internal Function: Semi-permeable
Function: Site of polypeptide structure and mediates and selective barrier
synthesis (this process is intracellular transport (less surrounding the cell
called translation) developed in prokaryotes)
 Eukaryotic cell organelles- in both plant and animal cells
Structure: Double membrane structure with pores; contains an inner
region called a nucleolus
Function: Stores genetic material (DNA) as chromatin; nucleolus is site
Nucleus of ribosome assembly

Structure: A membrane network that may be bare (smooth ER) or studded

with ribosomes (rough ER)
Function: Transports materials between organelles (smooth ER = lipids ;
Endoplasmic Reticulum rough ER = proteins)

Structure: An assembly of vesicles and folded membranes located

near the cell membrane
Function: Involved in the sorting, storing, modification and export of
secretory products
Golgi Apparatus
 Eukaryotic cell organelles- in both plant and animal cells
Structure: Double membrane structure, inner membrane highly
folded into internal cristae
Function: Site of aerobic respiration (ATP production)
Mitochondria

Structure: Membranous sac containing a variety of catabolic

enzymes
Function: Catalyses breakdown of toxic substances (e.g. H2O2)
and other metabolites
Peroxisome

Structure: Microtubule organising centre (contains paired

centrioles in animal cells but not plant cells)
Function: Radiating microtubules form spindle fibres and
Centrosome contribute to cell division (mitosis / meiosis)
 Eukaryotic cell organelles- in plant cells only
Structure: Double membrane structure with internal stacks of
membranous discs (thylakoids)
Function: Site of photosynthesis – manufactured organic
Chloroplast molecules are stored in various plastids

Structure: Fluid-filled internal cavity surrounded by a membrane

(tonoplast)
Function: Maintains hydrostatic pressure (animal cells may have
small, temporary vacuoles)
Vacuole

Structure: External outer covering made of cellulose (not an

organelle ; but a vital structure)
Function: Provides support and mechanical strength; prevents
Cell Wall excess water uptake
Eukaryotic cell organelles- in animal cells only

Lysosome
Structure: Membranous sacs filled with
hydrolytic enzymes
Function: Breakdown / hydrolysis of
macromolecules (presence in plant cells
is subject to debate)
IDENTIFYING ULTRASTRUCTURE OF ORGANELLES

CELL MEMBRANE
IDENTIFYING ULTRASTRUCTURE OF ORGANELLES

NUCLEUS
IDENTIFYING ULTRASTRUCTURE OF ORGANELLES

RIBOSOMES
IDENTIFYING ULTRASTRUCTURE OF ORGANELLES

MITOCHONDRIA
IDENTIFYING ULTRASTRUCTURE OF ORGANELLES

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM-
ROUGH AND SMOOTH
IDENTIFYING ULTRASTRUCTURE OF ORGANELLES
IDENTIFYING ULTRASTRUCTURE OF ORGANELLES

VESICLES for Transport

IDENTIFYING ULTRASTRUCTURE OF ORGANELLES

LYSOSOME
IDENTIFYING ULTRASTRUCTURE OF ORGANELLES

Centrosomes- Forming Spindle

fibres during cell division- MITOSIS
IDENTIFYING ULTRASTRUCTURE OF ORGANELLES
ANI
MA
LS ONL
Y*

FLAGELLUM
IDENTIFYING ULTRASTRUCTURE OF ORGANELLES
ANI
MA
LS O
NLY
*

CILIA
IDENTIFYING ULTRASTRUCTURE OF ORGANELLES
PLA
NTS
ONL
Y

PLANT CELL WALL

IDENTIFYING ULTRASTRUCTURE OF ORGANELLES
PLA
NTS
ONL
Y

CHLOROPLAST
IDENTIFYING ULTRASTRUCTURE OF ORGANELLES
PLA
NTS
ONL
Y

CENTRAL VACUOLE
 Nature of Science
Improvements in technology and equipment allow developments in scientific research.

Technology allows us to sense or

record phenomena which are
outside the limits of our senses.
The first versions of a light
microscope containing two or
more lenses was invented by
Jansen brothers already in 1590
and used to observe cells. More
optically complex microscopes
with a series of lenses gave
sufficient magnification to observe
bacteria, chromosomes and some
of the larger cell organelles.
Electron microscopes have a much higher resolution than light microscopes.
Resolution is defined as the shortest distance between two points that can be distinguished
• Light microscopes are limited in resolution by the
wavelengths of visible light (400–700 nm).
• Electrons have a much shorter wavelength (2 – 12 pm)
therefore electron microscopes have a much higher
resolution
• Light microscopes are usually limited to 1000x because,
due to the resolution, nothing is gained by increasing the
magnification – try zooming in on an image on your
laptop or phone after a certain point there is no benefit
to zooming in as the image becomes pixelated
resolution
Millimetres Micrometres Nanometres
(mm) (μm) (nm)
Human eye 0.1 100 100,000

Light microscopes 0.0002 0.2 200

Electron 0.000001 0.001 1

microscopes
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Electron_Microscope.jpg
1.2.S3 Interpretation of electron micrographs to identify organelles and deduce the
function of specialized cells.
What organelles can you identify in the top most layer of cells?
Think about the role of the organelles that occur most common
and deduce the function of the cell.

Evidence & conclusions:

• Nucleus present
• No cell wall – this is an animal cell
• Cells closely packed – does not allow infiltration of substances
from the lumen
• Has a cilia dominated ‘brush border’ adjacent to a lumen – cilia
are moving fluids in the lumen
• Likely to be a protective layer of cells that actively sweep fluids
away from the surface

• Is in fact: ciliated epithelial cell from a mammalian lung

http://bcrc.bio.umass.edu/histology/files/images/Pseudostratified%20Columnar%20Ciliated%20Epithelium1.jpg
1.2.S3 Interpretation of electron micrographs to identify organelles and deduce the
function of specialized cells.
What organelles can you identify? Think about the role of the
organelles that occur most common and deduce the function of
the cell.

Evidence & conclusions:

• Nucleus present
• No cell wall – this is an animal cell
• rER is present and dominates the cell – lots of protein product
is made for secretion
• Lots of mitochondria – the synthesis of protein requires energy
– this a metabolically active cell
• Lots of secretory granules/vesicles near the inside border
• Likely to be a cell that specializes in secreting a protein product,
possibly a hormone or enzyme

• Is in fact: a mammalian exocrine secretory cell from the

pancreas
1.2.S3 Interpretation of electron micrographs to identify organelles and deduce the
function of specialized cells.
What organelles can you identify? Think about the role of the
organelles that occur most common and deduce the function of
the cell.

Evidence & conclusions:

• Cell wall present – must be a plant cell
• No chloroplasts – must be found inside the stem or in the roots
• Vacuoles relatively small – the cell does not have a storage,
transport or support function
• Nucleus relatively large / cell size small – likely to be a new cell
recently undergone mitosis
• Possibly recently divided cell tissue from a plant root

Is in fact: a plant cell found at the root-tip

http://www.vcbio.science.ru.nl/images/tem-plant-cell.jpg
MOST DETAILED IMAGE OF A CELL- Released By NASA

This is the most detailed model of a

human cell to date, obtained using
x-ray, NMR and cryoelectron
microscopy datasets.

“Cellular landscape cross-section

through a eukaryotic cell.”
- by Evan Ingersoll and Gael McGill.

FOR MORE IMAGES

CLICK HERE