CONTENT TABLE

1. COMPANY PROFILE 2. INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING 3. HANDS ON EXPERIENCE

4-5 6 7

4. 5. 6. 7.

PRODUCT AND DEVICES 8 SUMMARY 9-10 BIBLIOGRAPHY 11-37 GLOSSARY 38-40

INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING
What Is a Network?
A network is basically all of the components (hardware and software) involved in connecting computers across small and large distances. Networks are used to provide easy access to information, thus increasing productivity for users.

Types of Networks
Local Area Network (LAN) Wide Area Network (WAN) Intranets, Extranets, and the Internet Peer-to-Peer Networks Client-Server Networks

Media
Twisted-Pair Copper Wire (POTS) Coaxial Cable (CoAx) Fiber Optics (Fiber)

Network Topologies
Linear Bus Network Star Network Ring Network Token-Ring Network

Protocols
Simplex Transmission Full-Duplex / Half-Duplex Transmission Synchronous / Asynchronous Transmission Ethernet Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)

Networking Hardware
Hubs Bridges and Switches Gateways

HANDS ON EXPERIENCE

OSI Reference Model

The OSI Model and Protocols

The OSI model is used to specify how computer devices communicate with each other.

What is OSI?
The Open Systems Interchange (OSI) model is a set of guidelines that describes all the aspects of the communication process. The main objective is to allow computers and networks to work together efficiently. The International Standardization Organization (ISO) develops product standards for the computer industry.

THE OSI Model

There are seven layers, or sections in the OSI model.
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 Each layer is responsible for one particular aspect of communication.

Data Transfer
When data is transferred over a network it must pass through each layer of the OSI model. Information is added at each layer When the data reaches the destination, the data must again pass through each layer. The additional information is then removed.

Application and Presentation Layer

The application layer is responsible for the exchanging information between the programs running on a computer and other services on a network. The presentation layer formats the information so that a software application can read the information

Session and Transport Layer

The session layer determines how two devices communicate as well as establishes and monitors connections between computers. The transport layer corrects transmission errors and ensures that information is delivered reliably.

Network and Data Link Layer

The network Layer identifies computers on a network and determines how to direct information transferring over a network. The Data Link layer groups data into sets to prepare the data for transport over a network.
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Physical Layer
The Physical layer defines how a transmission medium such as cable, connects to a computer. This layer also specifies how electrical information transfers on the transmission medium The OSI model has seven layers. These seven layers can be summarized as follow:

Seven layers are defined: 7) Application : Provides different services to the applications 6) Presentation : Converts the information 5) Session : Handles problems which are not communication issues 4) Transport : Provides end to end communication control 3) Network : Routes the information in the network 2) Data Link : Provides error control between adjacent nodes

1) Physical : Connects the entity to the transmission media

TCP/IP Model

What Is TCP/IP?
TCP/IP is a universal standard suite of protocols used to provide connectivity between networked devices. It is part of the larger OSI model upon which most data communications is based. One component of TCP/IP is the Internet Protocol (IP) which is responsible for ensuring that data is transferred between two addresses without being corrupted.

TCP/IP Protocol
TCP/IP Protocol is a collection, or stack of protocols used to allow communication between networks with different types of computer systems. It is also the protocol used on the internet.

What is TCP?
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is used to transfer information between two devices on a TCP/IP Network.TCP uses Virtual ports to make connections and also monitors the transmission of information.

What is IP?
Internet Protocol (IP) is responsible for addressing information and is used to direct information to its proper destination on a TCP/IP network.

IP address
Ip address is a logical address or a software which is used to identify a node in a network ip(internet protocol)

What Do IP Addresses Look Like?

All devices connected to the Internet have an Internet Protocol (IP) address. Just like a telephone number, it helps to uniquely identify a user of the system. IP addresses are in reality a string of binary digits or "bits". Each bit is either a 1 or a 0. IP addresses have 32 bits in total. For ease of use, IP addresses are written in what is called a "dotted decimal" format, four numbers with dots in between. None of the numbers between the dots may be greater than 255. An example of an IP address would be 97.65.25.12. The numbers between the dots are frequently referred to as "octets" Some groups of IP addresses are reserved for use only in private networks and are not routed over the Internet. These are:

Private IP Addresses 10.0.0.0 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255 10.255.255.255

Home networking equipment / devices usually are configured in the factory with an IP address in the range 192.168.1.1 to 192.168.1.255.

What Is Local host?

Whether or not your computer has a network interface card it will have a built in IP address with which network aware applications can communicate with one another. This IP address is defined as 127.0.0.1 and is frequently referred to as local host

Network Topology
There are three types of Topology.
1) Bus topology 2) Star topology 3) Ring topology

Bus Topology

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Features:
The cable runs from one pc to another. One pc sends data;All the host receive it and accepts only whose network address matches. Only one pc can send data at a time. The network does not fail if one pc fails. Break cable or loose connector can make whole network failed. It needs termination at either end. For 10base2 cable it is 50W and for 10Base5 it is 75W. It is very difficult to troubleshoot in Bus Topology. Easy to extend the network; means new comp. Can be easily connected. The network speed decrease as the no of computers increases so this topology is suitable for very small network. It generally uses co-axial cable and T-connector.

Star Topology

Features:
The cable runs from each pc to the central device. The central device may be hub or switch.

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Thus, star topology needs more cable requirement than any other topologies. Easy to add new pc and thus easy to extend network. No termination is required. Whole network does not fail if single pc or cable or connector fails. Very easy to troubleshoot as compared to any other topology. Mostly uses UTP CAT5 cables and RJ-45 connectors now a days. The only major disadvantage is if the central device fails whole network goes down.

Ring Topology

Features:
In Ring Topology each pc is connected to the next pc and finally last pc is connected to the first pc .so in Ring Topology doe snot required termination. It is considered improved version of Bus Topology. Each pc sends what it receives until the final destination arrives. Whole network fails if one pc fails. It is the most efficient and speedy because it uses token passing media access scheme because of this each pc sends source address and destination address along with data and thus no need to match address.

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Types of Cable
Twisted Pair
Twisted pairs consist of two insulated wires twisted together. They are specifically intended for carrying signals and were invented in the 1880s for wiring up the early telephone systems. Twisted pairs offer low noise pick-up and low noise emission from a cable because it is a balanced line and because a balanced line offers "common-mode noise rejection".

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable, or coax, for short, is the other most popular cable configuration. The signal on the cable is not the same on the two conductors since the shield carries both ground and signal. The two conductors are not the same size, same resistance. Therefore, coax is not a balanced line. It is an unbalanced line.

Fiber-optic

Consists of a small core of glass or plastic surrounded by a cladding layer and jacket.
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Fibers are unidirectional (light only travels in one direction) so two fibers are used, one for sending and one for receiving. Kevlar fibers are placed between the two fibers for strength. Good for very high speed, long distance data transmission. NOT subject to electrical interference. Cable can't be tapped and data stolen => high security Most expensive and difficult to work with. Immune to tapping. can transmit at 100 Mbps and way up to 2 Gbps Up to 2000 meters without a repeater. Supports data, voice and video. Needs specialized knowledge to install => expensive all round.

Products & Divisions

What are internetworking devices?
Internetworking devices are products used to connect networks. As computer networks grow in size and complexity, so do the internetworking devices used to connect them. The purposes of having devices: First, they allow a greater number of nodes to be connected to the network. Second, they extend the distance over which a network can extend. Third, they localize traffic on the network.

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 Fourth, they can merge existing networks. Fifth, they isolate network problems so that they can be diagnosed more easily.

Networking Hardware
Hubs Bridges and Switches Gateways Routers

Connectivity Hardware
Network Interface Card (NIC) Modem Fax Modem Cable Modem

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LOCAL AREA NETWORKS AND DEVICES

LAN Devices

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Host
Provides users with connection to network computers (both clients and servers) printers scanners other user devices Connects directly to a network segment Operates at all 7 layers of the OSI model

NIC
Network interface card Printed circuit board usually installed inside a computer case Also called network adapter Adapts host device to the network Layer 2 device Carries a unique code called a MAC address

Media
Carries a flow of information, in the form of bits and bytes, through a LAN Considered layer 1 component Includes Cat 5 UTP optical fiber free space coaxial cable

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Repeater
Regenerates and retimes network signals Allows signal to travel a longer distance on the media Single-port in and single-port out device Classified as layer 1 device

Bridge
Connects two LAN segments to make one larger continuous LAN Filters LAN traffic to keep local traffic local Allows connectivity to other parts of the LAN Simple to install and managecosts less than router Checks MAC address to make forwarding decisions Considered layer 2 device

ROUTER & ROUTING ALGO

What is a Router?
As stated before, switches and hubs usually only have servers connected to them that have been configured as being part of the same network.
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 Routers will connect into multiple switches to allow these networks to communicate with one another. Routers can also be configured to deny communication between specific servers on different networks. They can also filter traffic based on the TCP port section of each packet. For example, it is possible to deny communication between two servers on different networks that intend to communicate on TCP port 80, and allow all other traffic between them. Routers therefore direct and regulate traffic between separate networks, much like a traffic policeman. If you intend to route between networks, then for each network, you must reserve an IP address for a router and make sure that the router is directly connected to the LAN associated with that network. Routers Work at the Network Layer Use the Protocols to carry Data over Network Link Networks used for different purposes Apply rules or filters to let certain data in Route data Connections Over Specific Set of Network

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What is a Gateway?

Another name for a router.

What is a Default Gateway?

A default gateway is really a gateway of last resort. Say for example:

You have two routers R1 and R2 R1 is connected to both your SOHO home network (192.168.1.0) and the internet R2 is connected to both your SOHO home network (192.168.1.0) and your credit card transaction payment the network (10.46.123.0) which is also connected to other corporate networks with addresses starting with 10.X.X.X You could put a route on your SOHO servers that states: Go to network 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 via router R2 Go to everything else via router R1. R1 therefore would be considered your default gateway For most home networks, your default gateway would be the router / firewall connected to the Internet.

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What is a NIC?
Your network interface card is frequently called a NIC. Currently, the most common types of NIC used in the home are Ethernet and wireless Ethernet cards.

What is a DTE?
DTE stands for Digital Terminal Equipment, a terminology originally intended for computer terminals located at remote offices or departments that were directly connected modems. The terminals would have no computing power and only functioned as a screen / keyboard combination for data processing. Nowadays most PCs have their COM and Ethernet ports configured as if they were going to be connected to a modem or other type of purely networking oriented equipment.

What is a DCE?
DCE is the acronym for Data Circuit-Terminating Equipment. Modems and other purely networking oriented equipment.

ROUTING
Routing is a protocol that is designed to defined path for packet delivery to the destination

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LAB DESIGNING: 1) Set our hostname and get our interfaces up. 2) Ping our directly connected interfaces 3) Configure routing for our topology 4) View our routing table 5) Verify that we can ping all routers

Hub & Switch Whats a Smart Hub?

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 A smart hub can be configured and remotely managed. For example, ports can be shut off. However, this doesnt mean that it does anything smart with network traffic. It has no switching capabilities. Traffic is always forwarded to all ports. Our most common smart hub on campus is the Asant NetStacker. Networking no longer recommends hubs for wiring closets. It may be OK to use small unmanaged hubs to give selected offices additional ports. Use hubs with care!

Hubs
Operate at layer 2 of the network Data link layer Ethernet
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Main purposes Repeat traffic out all ports Media conversion inside a LAN

Advantages of Hubs
Easy to Understand Easy to Implement so theyre cheap

Disadvantages of Hubs
Wasteful of bandwidth Poor security HUB broadcasts packets on all other ports

Switches

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Also operate at layer 2 of the network Data link layer Ethernet Main purposes Repeat traffic out some ports Media conversion within a LAN Often called a bridge

Difference between Hub and Switch

A bridge with more than two interfaces (ports) is also known as a switch. There are important differences between switches and hubs. In particular, the way in which they forward frames.

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A Hub sending a packet form F to C.

A hub (or repeater) forwards a received frame out of all the interfaces (ports), resulting in the frame reaching all connected equipment, even though the frame may be only destined for a system connected to one particular interface (C, in the above diagram). A switch, on the other hand, forwards the frame to only the required interface. The switch learns the association between the systems MAC addresses and the interface ports in the same way as a bridge (see above). By sending the packet only where it need to go, the switch reduces the number of packets on the other LAN segments , increasing the overall performance of the connected LANs. The switch also improves security.

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A Switch sending a packet from F to C

Switches (like bridges) normally forward all multicast and broadcast packets to all receivers (some switches have extra processing to help improve performance of multicast forwarding). More details about this and the operation of switches may be found in a related page (see below).

A Switch sending a frame from F to a multicast / broadcast addres

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SUMMARY
In this training report I have tried to give an overview of the networking . by this report we can know about the networking. how a data transfer from one source to another source, type of topologies such as bus, star, ring type of network LAN, WAN etc. networking devices such as router, hub bridge, switches, etc. networking protocols such as Tcp/ip, rip, igrp, eigrp, pap, chap, hdlc etc. by this report we can also know how a router work & what are the essential commands for routing. How we make excess list. Now a days networking is very essential to share our data & transfer our data from source to destination. By the networking we can be connected in all over the world. Without networking human life is not possible. Networking is used every where such as in offices, in companies, in colleges etc. The best example of networking is internet. Lastly I would like to thank all the Staff members of STPI for cooperating me during this training.

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