Advanced Steel Construction – Vol. 15 No.

3 (2019) 259–266 259

DOI:10.18057/IJASC.2019.15.3.6

A REVIEW OF CLASS 4 SLENDER SECTION PROPERTIES CALCULATION FOR

THIN-WALLED STEEL SECTIONS ACCORDING TO EC3
Chi-King Lee 1, * and Sing-Ping Chiew 2
1
School of Engineering and Information Technology, University of New South Wales Canberra, Australia
2
Singapore Institute of Technology, Dover Campus, Singapore
* (Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected])

AB S T RACT ARTIC LE HI STO RY

A review is given to the procedure suggested by the Eurocode 3 for the section properties calculations of thin-walled Class 4 slender steel Received: 02 October 2018
sections consists of plate elements. Focus will be given to the effective width approach described in the Eurocode 3. The essential steps for Revised: 26 February 2019
the effective width calculation for single plate element subjected to different direct stress distribution are first given. It is then followed by Accepted: 03 June 2019
a study that compares the two different procedures, namely the full iteration procedure and the simplified procedure adopted by Eurocode
3 for Class 4 slender section properties calculation. Calculation examples are then given to demonstrate the calculation steps for both the
full and the simplified approaches. Results of the calculation examples indicate that while the simplified procedure eliminates the tedious K EYWO R D S
iteration steps and is much more convenient for manual calculation, the full iteration method in general will lead to less conservative
effective area and section modulus and thus could result in more economical design in practice. Class 4 Slender Sections;
Thin-walled steel sections;
Effective width method;
Effective area and modulus

Copyright © 2019 by The Hong Kong Institute of Steel Construction. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction also be provided to demonstrate the essential calculations steps and the
differences between the simplified and the full iteration procedures. It will be
In the design of steel structures, classification of steel section is shown that while the simplified procedure is much more suitable for manual
fundamentally important as it determines many basic properties of the section calculation and does not require the ratio between the axial force and the
as well as how the section resistances are calculated in many design guidelines bending moments applied for calculation, the full iteration procedure will
[1-3]. In the Eurocode 3 (EC3) [1], the following four classes of section are produce less conservative values of Aeff and Weff and therefore should be
defined. encouraged to use in practice.
Class 1 Plastic: Sections belong to this class can develop plastic hinge with
large rotation capacity. No reduction of plastic moment capacity is needed in 2. The EC3’s “Effective width” method for section properties calculation
plastic analysis and design [1]. The sectional compressive and bending
resistances of a Class 1 section are defined by the gross area Agross and the plastic 2.1. An overview
modulus Wpl, respectively.
Class 2 Compact: Sections belong to this class can develop plastic hinge It is well known that a side supported thin steel plate with aspect ratio
but with limited rotation capacity. While EC3 [1] does not allow this section =a/b1 (Fig. 1) subject to direct loading along in-plane direction tends to
class to be used in plastic analysis for design, the sectional compressive and buckle at a stress level cr less than the yield stress fy [4, 5]. However, after cr
bending resistances of a Class 2 section are again defined by the gross area Agross is reached, resistance of the plate is not completely exhausted and it shall have
and the plastic modulus Wpl, respectively. sufficient post-buckling strength due to stress redistribution. The ultimate
Class 3 Semi-compact: Sections belong to this class can only develop resistance of the plate will be reached after yielding occurred at the two
resistance up to the elastic limit so that only the extreme fiber stresses can reach supported sides and this will result in final a non-uniform stress distribution
the material yield strength. The sectional compressive and bending resistances act<fy (Fig. 2). This phenomenon is commonly known as “plate like buckling”
of a Class 3 section are defined by the gross area Agross and the elastic modulus [4, 5] and is most obvious for geometrical prefect elastic plate but less
Wel, respectively. remarkable for a realistic imperfect inelastic plate. It is also well known that as
Class 4 Slender: A Class 4 section will develop local buckling before the the value of  reduces, the post-buckling resistance of the plate will diminish
extreme fiber stresses attaining yield and therefore parts of the compressive gradually and the 2D plate like buckling behaviour of the plate will change back
zone of the section will be ineffective. As a result, the sectional compressive to the 1D buckling behaviour like a column. Obviously, the non-uniform
and bending resistances of a Class 3 section are defined by the effective area Aeff distribution of act is not ideal for design of thin plate subjected to direct stress.
and the effective modulus Weff, respectively. Hence, in EC3 Part 1-5 [2], two different design methods, namely the effective
The procedure to classify a given section is mainly governed by Table 5.2 width method (Fig. 2b) and the effective stress (Fig. 2c) method are suggested.
of EC3 Part 1-1 [1]. It should be noted that the limiting width to thickness ratios In short, both methods aim to employ uniform stress block for design. While the
(the term c/t in Table 5.2 of [1]) for different classes are depended on the stress effective width method reduces the gross width to an appropriate effective width
distributions of the section (hence the loadings applied to the section) as well as beff=b<b that subjected to the constant yield strength fy for design (Fig. 2b), the
the strength of steel used via the parameter =(235/fy)0.5. This implies that once effective stress method maintains a uniform stress equ=fy<fy along the whole
the section is classified as a non-Class 4 section, since for a given value of fy, width. The reduction factors  and  are calculated based on the principle of
Agross, Wel and Wpl are intrinsic geometrical properties of the cross-section, the equivalent in-plane force such that
section resistances will be independent of the applied loads. However, for a
Class 4 section since the effective width of the compression part shall depend 𝑏
For the effective width method: ∫0 𝜎𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑥=befffy=bfy (1)
on its stress distribution [2, 3], this implies that both Aeff and Weff (thus the section
resistances) are depended on the applied loads. It should be mentioned that due
𝑏
to such loading dependent nature of Class 4 sections, the section properties For the effective stress method: ∫0 𝜎𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑥=bequ=bfy=bfy (2)
calculation steps for Class 4 sections are more complicated than those for Class
1 to 3 sections. The main objective of this study is to summarize the principles It is obvious that for a cross section consist of a single plate, the two
adopted by the EC3 for Class 4 section properties calculation. In particular, both methods are equivalent to each another such that (Fig. 2b and Fig. 2c) bfy=bfy
the full iteration procedure and the simplified procedure recommended by the and =. However, for cross sections that consist of more than one plate
EC3 Part 1-1[1] and Part 1-5[2] for Class 4 section properties calculations are element (e.g. an I section), the two methods are not equivalent to each another
reviewed and discussed. In addition, a few practical calculation examples will [2, 4] and the effective stress method are generally more conservative.
Chi-King Lee and Sing-Ping Chiew 260
supported at both ends) and an outstanding compression element (i.e. only one
end of the plate is supported). Note that in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4, it is assumed that
Direct the stress distribution is linear and compressive stress is taken as positive.
stress 
Furthermore, for <0, the whole plate element is divided into two parts that are
under tension and compression respectively with widths equal to bt and bc, so
a that 𝑏̄= bt+bc and 𝑏𝑐 = 𝑏̅/(1 − 𝜓) (Fig. 3c, Fig. 4b and Fig. 4d). In general,
Prefect elastic Imperfect
plate (0=0, fy=) elastic plate,
the effective parts of the plate element consist of those parts that are either under
(0>0, fy=) Supported tensile stress (i.e. the stress is negative) or those compressive parts that locate
ends
equ
near the supported ends where local buckling is prevented to occur. Once the
cr b values of 𝑏̄/t and =2/1 are known, the effective width of the plate element
Plan view of plate supported
Direct on two sides could be computed by using the following steps.
stress 
Imperfect plate with (1) Use the equations listed in Table 1 to calculate the buckling factor k
yielding (0>0, fy<) a/2
according to the stress ratio  for different stress distributions shown in Fig.
 3 and Fig. 4.
0 Centre out of plane a/2
displacement
(2) Compute the plate slenderness ratio 𝜆̄𝑝 such that
0
Section view of plate
𝑏̅ /𝑡 235
supported on two sides
𝜆̄𝑝 = , 𝜀=√ (3)
28.4𝜀√𝑘𝜎 𝑓𝑦

Fig. 1 Failure of plate with =a/b >1 subject to in-plane direct loading
(3) Calculate the reduction factor  for the compressive part of the element
act such that (EC3 Part 1-5, Equations. 4.2 and 4.3)
For an internal plate element (Fig. 3):
equ fy
𝜆̄𝑝 −0.055(3+𝜓)
𝜌= ≤ 1.0 and 𝜆̄𝑝 > 0.5 + √0.085 − 0.055𝜓 (4a)
𝜆̄2𝑝
b
(a) Actual stress distribution
For an outstanding plate element (Fig. 4):
beff=b, ≤1 equ=fy, ≤1 𝜆̄𝑝 −0.188
𝜌= ≤ 1.0 and 𝜆̄𝑝 > 0.784 (4a)
𝜆̄2𝑝
fy equ fy
(4) Calculate beff, the effective width for the compressive part of the plate
element, (Fig. 3 and Fig. 4)
beff/2 beff/2 b
(b) Effective width method (c) Effective stress method For 0: 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝜌𝑏̄ (5a)
𝜌𝑏̄
Fig. 2 Actual stress distribution at failure, effective width and stress methods For <0: 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑓 = = 𝜌𝑏𝑐 (5b)
(1−𝜓)
Note that for the case of an internal compression element with 0 (i.e. the
Table 1 whole plate element is under compression), the effective width of the
Calculation of k element beff is further divided into two parts (Figs. 3(a) and 3(b)) with width
Internal compression part (Fig. 3) be1 and be2 such that be1+be2=beff. The relative sizes of be1 and be2 are defined
Range of  k in Fig. 3.
-3<-1 (Fig. 3c) 5.98(1-)2 (5) Finally, the total effective width of the whole plate elements is computed
-1<0 (Fig. 3c) 7.81-6.29+9.782 as beff (Fig. 3a, Fig. 4a and Fig. 4c) for 0 when the whole plate element
01 (Figs. 3a and 3b) 8.2/(1.05+)
is under compression or beff+bt for <0 when part of the plate element is
Outstand compression part with high stress
at supported ends (Figs. 4a and 4b) under tension (Fig. 3c, Fig. 4b, and Fig. 4d).
Range of  k
-1<0 (Fig. 4b) 1.7-5+17.12 1 2
10 (Fig. 4a) 0.578/(+0.34) 1
Outstand compression part with lower stress be1 be1
at supported ends (Figs. 4c and 4d) 2
b
Range of  k (a) Constant stress distribution, =1
be1 be2
1<-3 (Figs. 4c and 4d) 0.57-0.21+0.072 bc bt

1 b
2 (c) Ends with opposite stress status, 0
It should be noted that EC Part 1-5 can be considered as largely “biased”
towards the effective width method as Sections 4 to 7 (16 pages in length) of beff=be1+be2
be1 be2
For 0, i.e. (b), be1=2beff/(5-)
EC3 Part 1-5 were written based on this method while only Section 10 (2 pages
b For <0, i.e. (c), be1=0.4beff
in length) was devoted to describe the design approach if the effective stress
(b) Ends with same stress status, 10
method is employed. Hence, in the design of thin-walled structural components
like plate girder and box section using EC3, the calculation of effective width Fig. 3 Stress distribution and effective width for internal compression elements
of a Class 4 section is one of the most important steps during the section (i.e. both end supported), effective part of the plate is shaded
properties calculation [6-8]. Note: Compressive stress is positive with 2<1

2.2. Effective width calculation Fig. 5 shows the plots of the ratio (beff+bt)/𝑏̄ against the stress ratio  for a
plate element with fy=355MPa and =0.8136 for different values of 𝑏̄/t. From
In EC3 Part 1-5, for a given plate element (either supported on a single or Fig. 5, it is obvious that for any value of 𝑏̄/t, the ratio (beff+bt)/𝑏̄ always attends
on both sides) the effective width reduction factor  is solely based on two a minimum when =1 when the plate element is subjected to uniform
parameters: (i) 𝑏̄/t, the appropriate width (𝑏̄) to the plate thickness (t) ratio of compression. It should be also noted from these figures that for =-1 or when
the element and (ii) the stress ratio at the two ends =2/1 where 2<1. In bc=bt for the plate elements, there always exist a limiting value of 𝑏̄/t below
general, 𝑏̄ is the appropriate clear width between the supports of the plate which the plate element is fully effective (i.e. becomes a Class 3 section). For a
element. 𝑏̄is always slightly less than b, the overall width of the plate element, plate with fy=355MPa, these limiting values are corresponding to 𝑏̄/t=100 for
and should be calculated according to the section classification table (Table 5.2) an internal element (Fig. 5a) and an outstanding element with compressive
of EC3 [1] and Section 4.4 of [2]. Figs. 3 and 4 respectively show the possible stress at supported end (Fig. 5b) and 𝑏̄/t=15.8 for an outstanding element with
stress distributions for an internal compression element (i.e. the plate is tensile stress at supported end (Fig. 5c).
Chi-King Lee and Sing-Ping Chiew 261
2.3. Alternative value of  for stress level below the yield strength

1
1
From Clauses 4.4(3) and E.1 of EC3 Part 1-5, if the maximum design
2 2 compressive stress caused by all simultaneous actions is below the yield
beff strength, the reduction factor  for the compressive part of the element could be
beff
bc bt increased by first adjusting the factor 𝜆̄𝑝 defined in Equation 3 as
b b
(a) Supported end with higher stress, 1>0 (b) Supported end with higher stress, <0 𝜎
𝜆̄p,red = 𝜆̄𝑝 √ com,Ed (6)
𝑓𝑦 /γM0

1
In Equation 6, com, red<fy is the maximum design compressive stress in the
1
2 2 element caused by all simultaneous actions, calculated by using the effective
beff area of the section. After 𝜆̄𝑝,𝑟𝑒𝑑 is computed, the value of  is then given by
beff
bt bc (c.f. Equation 4a)
b
b
(c) Supported end with lower stress, 10 (d) Supported end with lower stress, <0 1−0.055(3+𝜓)/λ̄ p,red (𝜆̄𝑝 −𝜆̄p,red )
𝜌= + 0.18 but 𝜌 ≤ 1 (7)
𝜆̄p,red (𝜆̄𝑝 −0.6)

Fig. 4 Stress distribution and effective width for outstand compression elements (i.e. only Equations 6 and 7 will increase the value of  but they require engineers to
end supported), effective part of the plate is shaded use the actual values of NEd and MEd for design. Furthermore, EC3 Part 1-1,
Clause 5.2.2 (9) also allows one to increase the Class 3 width to thickness ratio
limit if com, red is used such that
𝑓𝑦 235 235
𝜀=√ √ 𝑓 = √𝜎 (8)
𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑚,𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑚,𝑟𝑒𝑑

However, Equation 8 is not allowed to apply for buckling resistance

calculation. Hence, in practice, while it could help to increase the section
resistance (EC3 Part 1-1, 6.2.9.3), it will not able to increase the buckling
strength of the member.

3. Principle of section properties calculation by EC3

As shown in Fig. 6a, a thin-walled steel section consists of a number of

plate elements is subjected to the simultaneous actions of an axial loading (NEd)
acting at the centroid of the gross section, Ggross and the biaxial bending
moments My,Ed and Mz,Ed respectively above the major axis y-y and the minor
(a) Internal compression plate element (Fig. 3) axis z-z of the gross section. For convenient, Ggross is taken as the origin the y-z
coordinate system. It is assumed that at least one of the plate elements with 𝑏̄/t
ratio exceeds the Class 3 limit so that some areas of the sections are ineffective
and have to be removed during the cross-sectional properties calculation.
According to EC3 [2, 4], in order to calculate the effective area of the whole
section, it is first assumed that all the plate elements of the section could be
separated into individual elements at their intersection points (Fig. 6b). After
this, by assuming that the interaction points could provide sufficient end
supports to the plate elements, effective areas of all plate elements will be
obtained by considering the direct stress distribution within the elements.
Finally, the section properties of the whole thin-walled section are obtained by
recombining all plate elements together (Fig. 6c). As all ineffective areas are
removed, the effective area of the section Aeff is less than the section gross area
Agross. In addition, in general, there will be a shift in the position of the centroid
Geff of the remaining effective area. Such shift in position can be generally
expressed as (y, z) with respect to the y-z coordinate system. From
elementary beam bending theory, the direct stress (y,z) at a given point (y,z) of
(b) Outstand plate element, support end with higher stress (Figs. 4a and 4b) the section can be expressed as (again compressive stress is taken as positive)
𝑁𝐸𝑑 (𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑 +𝑁𝐸𝑑 𝛥𝑧) (𝑀𝑧,𝐸𝑑 +𝑁𝐸𝑑 𝛥𝑦)
𝜎(𝑦, 𝑧) = + 𝑦+ 𝑧 (9)
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝐼𝑦,𝑒𝑓𝑓 (𝛥𝑦,𝛥𝑧) 𝐼𝑧,𝑒𝑓𝑓(𝛥𝑦,𝛥𝑧)

In Equation 9, Iy,eff and Iz,eff are the effective second moment of area of the
section about the y-y and z-z axes, respectively. NEdz and NEdy are additional
moments generated due to the change of the location of the centroid of the
effective area. Since all the plate elements of the section are straight elements,
the direct stress within all plate elements will vary linearly. The method and
equations described in Section 2 could be employed for the calculation of the
effective areas of individual plate elements.
From Equation 6, it can be seen that if the section symmetrical above both
the y-y axis and the z-z axis and is subjected to axial force only, one will have
z=y=0 since any reduction in effective area will be symmetrical with respect
to both the y-y and z-z axes. As a result, there shall be no shift of the location of
Ggross and the section properties of the effective areas could be calculated
directly without any iteration. However, whenever the section is unsymmetrical
(c) Outstand plate element, support end with lower stress (Figs. 4c and 4d) or when bending moment is applied, due to the presence of the terms NEdz and
NEdy and the fact that Iy,eff and Iz,eff are both functions of (y, z), the stress ratio
Fig. 5 Curves of (beff+bt)/𝑏̄ against  for different values of 𝑏̄/t for a plate element with
 at the two ends of the plate will be depended on the location of Geff. Eventually,
fy=355MPa
as the stress ratio  itself also affects the effective area and eventually the
Chi-King Lee and Sing-Ping Chiew 262
location of Geff, the exact position of Geff will not be expressed explicitly in
√𝛥𝑦 2 +𝛥𝑦 2
simple analytical form and it could only be calculated iteratively [2, 4]. 𝑆𝐺 (%) = × 100% (10a)
𝑚𝑖𝑛(𝑏,ℎ)

z
|𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 −𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 ′| |𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 −𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 ′|
𝐶𝐴 (%) = × 100% and 𝐶𝐼 (%) = × 100% (10b)
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓

NEd where b and h in Equation 10a is the overall width and depth of the section.
My,Ed
(7) Update the section properties so that GeffGeff’, AeffAeff’ and Ieff Ieff’.
y Ggross y (8) Check for convergence of the section properties: The section properties are
Class 4 yplate elements assumed to be converged if the following criteria are satisfied
SGStol CACAtol CICItol (11)
where Stol, CAtol and CItol are tolerances for the convergences of Geff, Aeff and
Ieff , respectively.
Mz,Ed (9) If the section properties are converged, output the value of Geff, Aeff, and Ieff
z NEd and stop. Otherwise, go to step (3)
My,Ed
(a) A thin-walled section consists of class 4 plate elements under axial force NEd and
biaxial bending moments My,Ed and Mz,Ed Note that in in Section 4.3 of EC3 Part 1-5 [2], no recommendation is made
on the convergence criteria of the full iteration procedure. Furthermore, Beg et
al. [4] suggested that the iteration procedure should be stopped when the
z Effective location of Geff converged which is equivalent to adopting the first criterion of
area
SGStol in Equation 11. Since the axial and bending resistances of the section are
largely depended on the values of Aeff and Ieff, their values are also critical when
NEd conducting the section resistance check. Hence, it is suggested that a maximum
value of 1% should be employed for the tolerance factors Stol, CAtol and CItol
Non-effective
y My,Ed Ggross y area during practical calculations.
From Box 1, it can be seen that if full iteration procedure is used, repeat
Connections
acted as supports
evaluations of Equations 3, 5 and 9 as well as calculations of the position of Geff
for individual and the values of Aeff and Ieff are needed. Furthermore, it is shown in Appendix
plate elements Direct stress acting
supported at on plate elements A that for an unsymmetrical section subject to axial force and biaxial bending,
intersections Mz,Ed in order to elevate the new position of Geff, the ratios between the axial force
z
and bending moments applied (i.e. My,Ed/NEd and Mz,Ed/NEd) are required. For
(b) Separation of the thin-walled section into individual plate elements complex sections consist of many plate elements such calculations are tedious
and are not convenient for manual calculation. Hence, in EC3 Part 1-5, two
z
simplified procedures as summarized Box 2 are suggested to allow designer to
calculate the effective area and section modulus manually.

Effective Box 2
NEd
area Simplified procedure for class 4 section properties calculation
My,Ed y
Simplification 1
y Ggross y For I and box sections under bending moment only, only one iteration step of
z
the full iteration procedure is required. That is, the first new position of centroid
Geff Non-effective
area
Geff’ and Aeff’ and Ieff’ the section properties in Step (5) of Box 1 could be used
for resistance check.
Simplification 2
Mz,Ed When both axial force and bending moments are presents, Aeff could be
z
calculated by considering the stress ratio  due to axial force only, while Ieff
(c) Final effective section after combining individual plates could be calculated by considering the stress ratio due to bending moment only.
Fig. 6 Calculation of section properties of a Class 4 thin-walled section However, in both cases, the addition moment generated by the axial load due to
the shift of centroid should be considered during resistance check.
3.1. The full iteration and the simplified procedures
It should be mentioned that in Simplification 2, while the calculation of Aeff
As explained in the previous section and stated in Section 4.3 of EC3 Part does not require any iteration, in general iterations are still required for the
1-5 [2], an iterative procedure is generally required to compute the section calculation of Ieff. However, in case that the section under consideration is an I
properties of a Class 4 slender section. In this paper, such approach is referred or a box section, Simplification 1 could be applied and only one iteration steps
as the full iteration procedure and the calculation steps are summarized in Box are needed to compute the value of Ieff. Furthermore, another important
1. consequence of using the Simplification 2 is that as the ratio (beff+bt)/𝑏̄ always
attends a minimum when =1, the simplification will always lead to a smaller
Box 1 (and thus conservative) value of Aeff when comparing with the full iteration
Full iteration calculation procedure for class 4 section properties calculation procedure. However, it will be shown in the next section that, both
Simplifications 1 and 2 will give a larger (and thus a non-conservative) value of
(1) By assuming the whole section is effective, calculate the gross section
Ieff.
properties (Ggross, Agross and Igross).
(2) Set Geff=Ggross, Aeff=Agross, Ieff=Igross and y=z=0
4. Section properties calculation examples
(3) Base on the current section properties, calculate the direct stress at end
points of all the plate elements using Equation 9 and then compute the stress
In this section, five examples involving symmetrical I and square box
ratio for all plate elements.
sections are given to demonstrate how the simplified or the full iteration
(4) Base on the stress ratio , determine the effective area of all plate elements
procedure could be employed to compute the section properties (Aeff and Ieff) of
by using Table 1, Equations. 3 to 5 and Fig. 3 and Fig. 4.
a Class 4 section. Loading cases involving pure axial force (NEd only), pure
(5) Compute the new centroid of the effective area Geff’ and the corresponding
bending (MEd only) and both axial force and uniaxial bending moment above
effective area Aeff’ and effective second moment of area Ieff’.
the major axis (NEd and MEd) are considered. In case that the full iteration
(6) Determine the shift of the centroid Geff - Geff’=(y, z) and the relative
procedure is employed, convergence of the solution is assumed if an accuracy
change of effective area and effective second moment of area such that
of CAtol=CItol=0.1% (Equations. 10 and 11) is reached or at most up to four
Chi-King Lee and Sing-Ping Chiew 263
iterations are completed. CI=3.84%>0.1% (Equation 10b). dc=1000-20+49.10=1029.1mm, dt=1000-
20-49.10=930.9mm
4.1. Example 1: An I section under pure bending [4] Weff=3522877.067/102.91=34232.60cm3
Since both CA and CI >0.1%, further iteration is carried out.
In the first example, an I section with a Class 4 web and Class 1 flange (Fig.
7) under pure bending is employed as an example to demonstrate the calculation Second iteration
steps for effect section properties. The gross section properties of the section are Calculation of effective area, Aeff
given by: =-(960-49.1)/(960+49.1)=-0.903, k=7.81-6.29+9.782=21.46
1920/10 1.793−0.055(3−0.903)
hw=1920mm, tw=10mm, Agross=51200mm2, 𝜆̄𝑝 = = 1.793 > 1.08, 𝜌 = = 0.522
28.4×0.814√21.46 1.7932
Igross=3663530.67cm4 and Wel=37382.96cm3
bc=hw/2+G=1920/2+49.10=1009.1mm, beff=0.5221009.1=526.8mm
In this example, the actual value of MEd applied is immaterial as the stress be1=0.4526.8=210.7mm, be2=0.6526.8=316.1mm
ratio can be obtained by determining the location of the neutral axis. The x=bc-be1-be2=1009.1-210.7-316.1=482.3mm
detailed calculation steps for the first two iterations are shown in Box 3 and Fig. Effective area reduction: A=10482.3=4823mm2 and Aeff=51200-
8. 4823=46377mm2
Hence, CA=1.07%>0.1% (Equation 10b).
Calculation of Weff
10 mm r=hw/2-be1-x/2=1920/2+210.7-482.3/2=508.15mm
hw=1920mm rA+AeffG=0 or G=-508.154823/46377=-52.84mm
This means that shift of G’ to G’’=(-49.10–(-52.84))=3.74mm (downward)
y G y
482.33 ×10
𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 = (3663530.67 × 10000 + 51200 × 52.842 − ( +
fy=355MPa 12
=0.814
4823(508.15 + 52.84)2 )) /10000=3516692.4cm4
25 mm CI=0.176%>0.1%, dc=1000-20+52.84=1032.84mm
400 mm dt=1000-20-52.84=927.16mm
Weff=3516692.41/103.281=34049.76cm3
Fig. 7 Example 1: An I section under pure bending
Eventually, after the third iteration, Aeff=46338.5mm2, Weff=34036.04cm3 so that
fy CA=0.08% and CI=0.01%. The calculation results are summarized in Table 2. It
be1
can be seen that both Aeff and Weff essentially converged after the first iteration
Compressive and this justifies the simplify approach suggested in EC2 (Box 2).
dc bc
x stress
r Table 2
be2
y G y Summary of Example 1
G Iteration Aeff (mm2) Ieff (cm4) Weff (cm3) G (mm) 
y’ G’ y’ y’ G’ y’
0 (Gross) 51200 3663530.67 37382.96 --- -1.0
dt bt tensile stress 1 46880 3522877.07 34232.60 49.10 -0.903
2 46377 3516692.40 34049.76 52.84 -0.8960
=fy< fy
3 (Full) 46385 3516296.83 34036.04 53.11 -0.8952
Simplified 46880 3522877.07 34232.60 49.10 -0.903
G=Centroid of gross section G’=Centroid of effective section
Full/Simplified 0.99 0.99 0.99 --- ---
(a) Effective section (Class 3 equivalent) (b) Stress distributions of
equivalent Class 3 section
(under sagging moment) 4.2. Example 2: A class 4 square box section under pure compression

Fig. 8 Calculation of effective cross section In this example, a class 4 square box section under pure compression is
considered (Fig. 9). The gross section properties of the section are given by
Box 3
bfl=1000mm, tf=tw=10mm, hw=980mm, Agross=39600mm2
Details calculation steps for iterations 1 and 2 for Example 1
Igross=646932cm4, Wel,gross=13069.33cm3.
First iteration
Calculation of effective area, Aeff Under pure compression, both the flanges and webs are Class 4 with their
=-1 (pure bending, fully effective section), k=23.9 central parts become non-effective (Fig. 10). However, as the section is doubly
ℎ /t 1920/10 symmetric, the non-effective parts at the centre of each side do not change the
𝜆̄𝑝 = 𝑤 𝑤 = = 1.699 > 1.08
28.4ε√𝑘𝜎 28.4×0.814√23.9 location of the centroid and will not generate any additional moment. Hence, no
iteration is needed to calculate Aeff as shown in Box 4. Obviously, in this
𝜆̄𝑝 −0.055(3+𝜓) 1.699−0.055(3−1)
𝜌= = = 0.550 example, the actual value of NEd applied is immaterial.
𝜆̄2𝑝 1.6992

bc=1920/2=960mm, beff=0.55960=528mm, A B
be1=0.4528=211.2mm, be2=0.6528=316.8mm,
x=960-211.2-316.8=432mm (Fig. 8)
Reduction of area: A=10432=4320mm2 h=1000mm
G
Aeff=51200-4320=46880mm2
y y
CA=8.44%>0.1% (Equation 10b).
Calculation of Weff
r=hw/2-be1-x/2=1920/2+211.2-432/2=532.8mm D C
rA+AeffG=0 or G=-532.84320/46880=-49.10mm
𝑥 3 𝑡𝑤
𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 =𝐼𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 + 𝐴(∆𝐺)2 − ( + ∆𝐴(𝑟 + ∆𝐺)2 ) All section thickness t=10mm
12
A Class 4 square box section, fy=355Mpa
4323 ×10
= (3663530.67 × 10000 + 51200 × 49.102 − ( + Fig. 9 Example 2: A class 4 square section under pure compression
12

4320(532.8 + 49.10)2 )) /10000=3522877.067cm4

Chi-King Lee and Sing-Ping Chiew 264
be1=0.4491.74=196.70mm, be2=0.6491.54=295.04mm,
A B
x=980/2+82.46–491.74 =80.72mm.
Aeff=Agross-565.510-21080.72=32330.6mm2
x
Aeff/Agross=32330.6/39600=81.64%
h=1000mm x (Note: This Aeff should only be used if the section is under pure bending only)
G
y y
Calculation of Weff
New position of G’ after considering the webs are Class 4
G’=-(4955650+80.72102(980/2-196.70-80.72/2))/32330.6=
D C -99.21mm
103 ×565.5
𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 = (646932 × 10000 + 39600 × 99.212 − ( + 5655 ×
12
2 80.723 ×10
Fig. 10 Effective cross section of Example 2 (5 + 980/2 + 99.21) ) − 2 × ( + 80.72 × 10 × (99.21 + 980/2 −
12

Box 4 196.70 − 80.72/2) ))/10000 = 466126.44cm4

2

Calculation of Aeff for Example 2 dc=1000/2-5+99.21=594.21mm, Weff=7844.47cm3

Calculation of Aeff under pure axial compression Weff/Wgross=7844.47/13069.33=60%
For the two flanges and the two webs =1 (pure axial compression), k=4
𝑏fl /t fl 980/10 4.4. Example 4: A class 4 square box section under axial compression and
𝜆̄𝑝 = = = 2.12 bending
28.4ε√𝑘𝜎 28.4 × 0.814√4
In this example, the same square box section used in Examples 2 and 3 is
𝜆̄𝑝 − 0.055(3 + 𝜓) 2.12 − 0.055(3 + 1) reconsidered again but now it is subjected to both axial compression and
𝜌= = = 0.423
𝜆̄2𝑝 2.122 bending above the y-y axis. In this case, if the Simplification 2 is used, one could
determine Aeff based on the compression force only (Example 2) and Weff based
beff=0.423980=414.5mm,
moment only (Example 3) so that Aeff =16980mm2 and Weff=7844.47cm3.
be1=0.5414.5=207.25mm,
However, in full iteration method, the stress ratio (and hence the
be2=0.5414.5=207.25mm,
classification) of the web shall depend on the magnitude of the compressive
x=980–414.5=565.5mm
force and the bending moment. Under some loading conditions, it is possible
Hence, Aeff =39600-4(10565.5)=16980mm2
that the web will remain as Class 3/4 but the bottom flange will be Class 4 as
Aeff /Agross=16980/39600=42.9%.
the compressive force may be large enough to make the bottom flange under
compression. In this case, in order to compute the section properties, it is
4.3. Example 3: A class 4 square box section under pure bending
necessary to know the values of NEd and MEd (or their ratio, as shown in
Appendix A). In this example, it is assumed that NEd=3500kN and MEd=800kNm
In this example, the square box section employed in Example 2 is
so that the flange CD will be under compression. Similar to the previous
considered again but now it is subject to pure bending so that the top flange AB
example, calculation is started by assuming that the section is fully effective
is under compression while the bottom flange CD is under tension and is fully
first so that Agross=39600mm2, Igross=646932cm4 and Wel,gross=13069.33cm3. Box
effective (Fig. 11). There is a shift of the centroid from G to G’. For the webs,
6 shows the first two iteration steps and eventually three iterations are carried
their classifications shall depend on the stress ratio at the top and bottom
out to achieve convergence. Table 3 summarizes the results obtained from the
extreme fibres. The distance between G and G’ shall depend on whether the
full and simplified procedures. Regarding the adequacy of the Section, for the
webs remain Class 3 or 4 after the new stress ratio of the webs is taken into
simplified method, from Equation 9, the maximum resultant stress is given by
account. For a box section under pure bending, Simplification 1 allows the
max=35001000/(16980)+80010001000/(7844.471000)
designer to use one iteration to calculate Weff. Box 5 summarizes the calculation
=308.14MPa<355MPa
steps.
while based on full iteration
max=35001000/(19054.4)+80010001000/(6821.531000)
A B =300.7MPa<355MPa
Hence, while the simplified method overestimated Weff, it underestimated
be1 565.5 Aeff a lot but it is still conservative in term of section resistance calculation.
x
h=1000mm
G Table 3
y be2 G y Summary of Example 4
G’ Iteration Aeff (mm2) Ieff (cm4) Weff (cm3) G (cm) 
0 (Gross) 39600 646932 13069.33 --- -1.0
D 1 19313.2 352077.57 6824.93 20.87 0.186
C
2 19058.4 351119.10 6820.50 19.80 0.251
3 (Full) 19054.4 351118.02 6821.53 19.72 0.255
Fig. 11 Examples 3 and 4 with flange CD under tension Simplified 16980* 466126.44^ 7844.47^ 99.21^ -0.712^
Full/Simplified 1.12 0.75 0.87 --- ---
Box 5 *By considering NEd only, ^By considering MEd only
Calculation of Weff for Example 3
Calculation of Aeff by assuming only the top flange CD is class 4 Box 6
For the flange AB, same as Example 2: Detailed calculation steps of first two iterations for Example 4
beff=414.5mm, be1=207.25mm, be2=207.25mm, x1= 565.5mm, 1st iteration
Aeff =Agross-565.510=33945mm2 Initial stress (assuming section is fully effective)
Hence, r=500-5=495mm, G=-4955655/33945=-82.46mm. Stress at top of webs:
Recheck for Class 3 limit for the two webs 35001000/39600+80010001000490/64693210000=148.98MPa
=-(980/2-82.46)/(980/2+82.46)=-0.712 Stress at bottom of webs:
Hence, 42/(0.67+0.331)=78.59 <hw/tw=98 35001000/39600-80010001000490/64693210000=27.79MPa
The two webs shall become Class 4. Since both flanges are under compression, they are Class 4 elements.
First iteration Effective width of top and bottom flanges (From Example 2)
=-0.712, k=7.81-6.29+9.782=17.25. beff=0.423980=414.5mm, be1=0.5414.5=207.25mm,
For the two flanges: 𝜆̄𝑝 = 1.021, 𝜌 = 0.859 be2=0.5414.5=207.25mm
beff=0.859(980/2+82.46)=491.74mm
Chi-King Lee and Sing-Ping Chiew 265
Effective width and areas of webs and section effective area Effective width of top flange
=27.79/148.98=0.186 The top flange is clearly Class 4 and remains Class 4 in all subsequent
Hence, 42/(0.67+0.33)=46.74<hw/tw=98 and the webs are Class 4. iterations so that
Stress ratio: =0.186, k=8.2/(1.05+)=6.63, 𝜆̄𝑝 = 1.646,𝜌 = 0.542 beff=0.423980=414.5mm, be1=0.5414.5=207.25mm,
beff=0.542980=531.16mm, be1=2beff/(5-)=220.67mm, be2=0.5414.5=207.25mm
be2=beff -be1=310.49mm Effective width of webs and section effective area
x=980-531.16 =448.84mm. =-126.23/176.74=-0.714
Hence, Aeff =Agross-565.5102-210448.84=19313.2mm2 Hence, 42/(0.67+0.33)=78.71<hw/tw=98 and therefore the webs are again
Ieff and Weff calculations Class 4.
Shift of centroid G=-(448.84102(980/2-220.67-448.84/2))/19313.2 Stress ratio: =-0.714, k=7.81-6.29+9.782=17.29, 𝜆
̄ 𝑝 = 1.019,
=-20.87mm 𝜌 = 0.860
𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 352077.57cm4, Weff=352077.5710/(490+20.87+5)=6824.93cm3 beff=0.860(980/2)=421.4mm, be1=0.4421.4=168.56mm,
be2=0.6421.4=252.84mm,
Updated stress at webs x=980/2-421.4 =68.6mm.
Compressive stress due to axial force: 35001000/19313.2=181.22MPa Hence, Aeff =Agross-565.510-21068.6=32573mm2
Bending stress at top of webs: Ieff and Weff calculations
80010001000(490+20.87)/(352077.5710000)=116.08MPa Shift of centroid:G=-98.03mm
Bending stress at bottom of webs:
80010001000(490-20.87)/(352077.5710000)=106.6MPa 𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 465696.55cm4, Weff=465696.5510/(495+98.03)=7852.83cm3
Total stress at top of webs: 181.22+116.08=297.3MPa (compression) Updated stress at webs
Total stress at bottom of webs: 181.22-106.6=74.62MPa (compression) Compressive stress due to axial force: 10001000/32573=30.7MPa
Bending stress at top of webs:
2nd iteration 200010001000(490+98.03)/465696.5510000)=252.54MPa
New stress ratio: =74.62/297.3=0.251 Bending stress at bottom of webs:
Effective width for webs and new Aeff -200010001000(490-98.03)/(465696.5510000)=-168.34MPa
k=8.2/(1.05+)=6.303, 𝜆̄𝑝 = 1.689,𝜌 = 0.529 Total stress at top of webs: 252.54+30.7=283.04MPa (compression)
beff=0.529980=518.42mm, be1=2beff/(5-)=218.33mm, Total stress at bottom of webs: -168.34+30.7=-137.64MPa (tension)
be2=beff-be1=300.09mm
x=980-518.42 =461.58mm. 2nd iteration
Aeff =Agross-565.5102-210461.58=19058.4mm2 New stress ratio  = -137.64/283.04=-0.486
Ieff and Weff calculations Effective width for webs and new Aeff
Shift of centroid G=-19.80mm. I.e. G’-G’’=20.87-19.80mm=1.07mm k=7.81-6.29+9.782=13.177, 𝜆̄𝑝 = 1.168,𝜌 = 0.755
(upward) beff=0.755(980/2+98.03)=443.96mm, be1=0.4443.96=177.58mm,
𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 351119.10cm4, Weff=351119.1010/(490+19.80+5)=6820.5cm3 be2=0.6443.96=266.38mm
x=980/2+98.03 – 443.96 =144.07mm,
Updated stress at webs Aeff =Agross-565.510-210144.96=31063.6mm2
Compressive stress due to axial force: 35001000/19058.4=183.65MPa Ieff and Weff calculation
Bending stress at top of webs: Shift of centroid G’=-112.41mm.
80010001000(490+19.80)/(351119.1010000)=116.15MPa I.e. G’-G’’=-98.03-(-112.41)=14.38mm (downward)
Bending stress at bottom of webs:
80010001000(490-19.80)/(351119.1010000)=107.13MPa 𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 451965.18cm4, Weff=451965.1810/(490+112.41+5)=7440.86cm3
Total stress at top of webs: 183.65+116.15=299.8MPa (compression) Updated stress at webs
Total stress at bottom of webs: 183.65-107.13=76.52MPa (compression) Compressive stress due to axial force: 10001000/31063.6=32.19MPa
The new stress ratio for next iteration is =76.52/299.8=0.255 Bending stress at top of webs:
200010001000(490+112.41)/(451965.1810000)=266.57MPa
4.5. Example 5: A class 4 square box section under axial compression and Bending stress at bottom of webs:
bending with bottom flanges under tension -200010001000(490-112.41)/(451965.1810000)=-167.09MPa
Total stress at top of webs: 266.57+32.19=298.76MPa (compression)
In the last example, the same square box section used in Example 4 is Total stress at bottom of webs: -167.09+32.19=-134.9MPa (tension)
subjected to a lower axial compression of NEd= 1000kN but a larger The new stress ratio for next iteration is =-134.9/298.76=-0.442
MEd=2000kNm so that flange CD is eventually under tension and four iterations
are conducted. Detailed calculations for the first two iterations are shown in Box Table 4
7 and all iterations results are summarized in Table 4. Regarding the adequacy Summary of Example 5
of the section, based, for the simplified method, the maximum resultant stress Iteration Aeff (mm2) Ieff (cm4) Weff (cm3) G (cm) 
of the section is given by 0 (Gross) 39600 646932 13069.33 --- -1.0
max=10001000/(16980)+200010001000/(7844.471000) 1 32573 465696.55 7852.83 98.03 -0.714
=313.5MPa<355MPa 2 31063.6 451965.18 7440.86 112.41 -0.486
while for the full iteration, 3 30764.2 449659.07 7370.37 115.09 -0.442
max=10001000/(30762.2)+200010001000/(7374.971000) 4 (Full) 30762.2 449872.97 7374.97 115.00 -0.445
=303.5MPa<355MPa Simplified 16980* 466126.44^ 7844.47^ 99.21^ -0.712^
Full/Simplified 1.81 0.97 0.94 --- ---
Again, the simplified method overestimated Weff but underestimated Aeff so that *By considering NEd only, ^By considering MEd only
the resistance estimation is still conservative.
Since the values of NEd and MEd are known and their simultaneous actions
Box 7 do not cause the section to yield, one could employ alternative Equations. 6 and
Detailed calculation steps of first two iterations for Example 5 7 to get a larger  so that a less conservative section resistance could be obtained.
1st iteration The corresponding results obtained are summarized in Table 5. From Table 5,
Initial stress (assuming section is fully effective) it can be seen that by using the alternative equations, the values of Aeff and Weff
Stress at top of webs: are respectively increased by 5.8% and 7.6% when comparing with the original
10001000/39600+200010001000490/64693210000=176.74MPa method.
Stress at bottom of webs:
10001000/39600-200010001000490/64693210000=-126.23MPa
Chi-King Lee and Sing-Ping Chiew 266
Table 5
Summary of Example 5 by using alternative value of  References
Iteration Aeff (mm2) Ieff (cm4) Weff (cm3) G 
[1] British Standard Institution, Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures: Part 1-1 General rules
(cm)
and rules for buildings, BS EN 1993-1-1, BSI London, 2005.
0 (Gross) 39600 646932 13069.33 --- -1.0 [2] British Standard Institution, Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures: Part 1-5 Plated
1 33945 485284.56 8403.78 82.46 -0.714 Structural elements, BS EN 1993-1-5, BSI London, 2006.
[3] Gardner L. and Nethercot D.A., “Designer’s guide to Eurocode 3: Design of steel buildings
2 33074.8 474994.33 8100.31 91.39 -0.522
EN 1993-1-1, -1-3 and -1-8”, Second edition, ICE publishing, 2011.
3 32712.4 470995.57 7982.43 95.04 -0.5 [4] Beg D., Kuhlmann, U., Davaine L. and Braun, B., “Design of plated Structures Eurocode 3:
4 (Alterative) 32564.4 469407.75 7935.62 96.52 -0.492 Design of steel structures: Part 1-5- Design of plated structures”, ECCS and Ernst & Sohn,
Full 30762.2 449872.97 7374.97 115.00 -0.445 2010.
[5] Timoshenko S.P and Gere J.M., Theory of Elastic Stability, McGraw Hill Book Company,
Simplified 16980* 466126.44^ 7844.47^ 99.21^ -0.712^
International Edition, 1963.
Alterative/Full 1.059 1.043 1.076 --- --- [6] Lee C.K. and Chiew S.P., “An efficient modified flanges only method for plate girder
Alterative/ 1.92 1.01 1.01 --- --- bending resistance calculation”, Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 89, 98-106, 2013.
Simplified [7] Gardner L. and Chan T.M., “Cross-section classification of elliptical hollow sections”, Steel
and Composite Structures, 7(3), 185-200, 2007.
[8] Prachar M., Hricak J., Jandera M., Wald F., Zhao B., “Experiments of Class 4 Open section
5. Conclusions beams at elevated temperature”, Thin-Walled Structures, 98, 2-18, 2016.

In this review, the basic principle adopted by EC3 for the calculation of
Class 4 slender thin-walled steel section properties is summarized. A detailed
discussion is given for the EC3’s effective width method for section properties
calculation. A summary of the effective width calculation steps for Class 4 plate
element are given. Summary charts for the variations of effective width for
internal and external plate elements under different direct stress ratio are also
presented. For the calculation of section properties of Class 4 slender sections,
both the full iteration procedure and the simplified procedure suggested by EC3
are discussed and summarized. In order to demonstrate the actual calculation
procedure for slender section subjected to different loading conditions, five
practical calculation examples are given and both the full iteration and the
simplified procedures are employed to obtain the section properties for
comparison. The calculation results show that while the simplified procedure
could reduce the number of iterations needed and does not require the ratios
between the axial force and the bending moments applied, it is encouraged to
use the full iteration procedure as in general it will lead to slightly higher
sectional resistance.

Appendix A: Elevation of stress ratio 

From Sections 2.3 and 3.1, in order to compute the effective width (or area)
of any arbitrary plate element 1-2 (Fig. A1), one must first obtain the direct
stress ratio  of the plate element. From Equation 9, the direct stress at the two
ends 1 and 2 of the elements can be expressed as
𝑁𝐸𝑑 (𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑 +𝑁𝐸𝑑𝛥𝑧) (𝑀𝑧,𝐸𝑑+𝑁𝐸𝑑 𝛥𝑦)
𝜎1 (𝑦, 𝑧) = + 𝑦1 + 𝑧1 (A1)
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝐼𝑦,𝑒𝑓𝑓 (𝛥𝑦,𝛥𝑧) 𝐼𝑧,𝑒𝑓𝑓 (𝛥𝑦,𝛥𝑧)

𝑁𝐸𝑑 (𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑 +𝑁𝐸𝑑 𝛥𝑧) (𝑀𝑧,𝐸𝑑+𝑁𝐸𝑑 𝛥𝑦)

𝜎2 (𝑦, 𝑧) = + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 (A2)
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝐼𝑦,𝑒𝑓𝑓 (𝛥𝑦,𝛥𝑧) 𝐼𝑧,𝑒𝑓𝑓(𝛥𝑦,𝛥𝑧)

where (y1, z1) and (y2, z2) are the coordinates of ends 1 and 2, respectively.
Assume that 2<1, the stress ratio  can be expressed as
𝑁𝐸𝑑 (𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑+𝑁𝐸𝑑𝛥𝑧) (𝑀𝑧,𝐸𝑑+𝑁𝐸𝑑𝛥𝑦)
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓
+ 𝐼 𝑦2 + 𝐼 𝑧2
𝜎2 𝑦,𝑒𝑓𝑓(𝛥𝑦,𝛥𝑧) 𝑧,𝑒𝑓𝑓(𝛥𝑦,𝛥𝑧)
𝜓= = 𝑁𝐸𝑑 (𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑+𝑁𝐸𝑑𝛥𝑧) (𝑀𝑧,𝐸𝑑+𝑁𝐸𝑑𝛥𝑦) (A3)
𝜎1 + 𝐼 𝑦1 + 𝐼 𝑧1
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑦,𝑒𝑓𝑓(𝛥𝑦,𝛥𝑧) 𝑧,𝑒𝑓𝑓(𝛥𝑦,𝛥𝑧)

or
𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑 𝑀𝑧,𝐸𝑑
( 𝑁 +𝛥𝑧) ( 𝑁 +𝛥𝑦)
1 𝐸𝑑 𝐸𝑑
+𝐼 𝑦 + 𝑧
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑦,𝑒𝑓𝑓(𝛥𝑦,𝛥𝑧) 2 𝐼𝑧,𝑒𝑓𝑓(𝛥𝑦,𝛥𝑧) 2
𝜎2
𝜓= = 𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑 𝑀𝑧,𝐸𝑑 (A4)
𝜎1 ( 𝑁 +𝛥𝑧) ( 𝑁 +𝛥𝑦)
1 𝐸𝑑 𝐸𝑑
+ 𝑦 + 𝑧
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝐼𝑦,𝑒𝑓𝑓(𝛥𝑦,𝛥𝑧) 1 𝐼𝑧,𝑒𝑓𝑓(𝛥𝑦,𝛥𝑧) 1

𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑 𝑀𝑧,𝐸𝑑
Hence, only the values of the ratios and are needed for the
𝑁𝐸𝑑 𝑁𝐸𝑑

calculation of  and then the evaluation of the effective section properties.

End 2
(x2, y2)

End 1
(x1, y1)

Fig. A1 Stress ratio calculation for a straight plate element 1-2