BANASTHALI VIDYAPITH

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
(ELECTRONICS AND INSTRUMENTATION)

LAB MANUAL

SUBJECT: ANALOG INTEGRATED CIRCUIT

SUBJECT CODE: ELE301L
ID: BTBTN19064
ROLL NO.: 1913512
SUBMITTED TO: Dr. Vijay Mohan
SUBMITTED BY: SAKSHI
 CONTENTS

1. Inverting Amplifier
2. Non-Inverting Amplifier
3. Adder/summer
4. Differential Amplifier
5. Integrator
6. Differentiator
7. Active filters
8. Schmitt trigger
9. RC Phase Shift Oscillator
 References

ANALOG CIRCUITS LABORATORY

MANUAL B.TECH (II YEAR – II SEM)
(2020-21) MALLA REDDY COLLEGE
OF ENGINEERING & TE

ANALOG ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

LAB MANUAL

LAB MANUAL
 EXPERIMENT 1

● AIM:
To design Inverting amplifier using 741 IC and:-

1. Calculate the gain theoretically and practically and verify the results.
2. Calculate the bandwidth.
3. Design phase shifter and verify its gain.

● REQUIREMENTS:

Software - Multisim Live

S.No ITEM VALUE

1 One UA741CD Op-Amp

2 One AC Voltage Source 1 Volts

3 Two DC Voltage Sources 15 Volts

4 One Resistor 1㏀

5 One Resistor 5㏀

6 Two Voltmeters

7 Ground
● THEORY:

An inverting amplifier is a type of operational amplifier circuit which produces

an output which is out of phase with respect to its input by 180°.
This means that if the input pulse is positive, then the output pulse will be
negative and vice versa.
Because of this virtual earth node the input resistance of the amplifier is
equal to the value of the input resistor,𝑅𝑖𝑛 and the closed loop gain of the
inverting amplifier is set by the ratio of the two external resistors i.e. 𝑅𝑖𝑛 and
𝑅𝑓 .

● CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

● GRAPH:
Required waveform

● CALCULATIONS:
i) Calculation of Gain(Theoretical)
−𝑅𝑓
Acl =
𝑅1
As per the above ckt,
−5𝑘
Acl =
1𝑘
= -5

ii) Calculation of Bandwidth

We know,

Here, => Go = -5
=> Go / (2)1/2
=> (- 5) / 1.414
=> - 3.54

thus, from above graph analysis,

Value of x axis corresponding to the value of y i.e., 3.54 = 36k Hz

Thus, Bandwidth = 35.2k Hz

● OBSERVATION TABLE:

freq Vo(V) Vin(mV) Gain(Theo) Vo / Vin

(Prac)
0 hz 0 0 -5 0

1 hz -4.9495 990.02 -5 -4.9990

10 hz 4.9920 -998.49 -5 -4.9995

100 hz 4.9800 -997.54 -5 -4.9990

1000 hz 4.9800 -997.54 -5 -4.9900

10k hz 4.9900 -997.83 -5 -5.0000

15k hz 4.9850 -997.35 -5 -4.9980

24k hz 4.7284 -989.61 -5 -4.7700

30k hz 4.0490 -999.58 -5 -4.0580

35k hz 3.5268 -999.70 -5 -3.5334

40 k hz 3.0994 -999.98 -5 -3.0900

PHASE SHIFTER:

The phase shift circuits produce phase shifts that depend on the frequency and
maintain a constant gain. It does not change the value of gain, but just changes
the phase of input and output voltage signals. These circuits are also called
constant-delay filters or all-pass filters. That constant delay refers to the fact that
the time difference between input and output remains constant when frequency is
changed over a range of operating frequencies.
This is called all-pass because normally a constant gain is maintained for all the
frequencies within the operating range.

Circuit diagram:
Phase shifter Waveform:

● PRECAUTIONS:

1. Check for proper connections and ground connections before running the
simulation.
2. Make sure of proper colour coding of resistors.
3. The terminal of the resistance should be properly connected.

● RESULT
Hence Inverting amplifier is successfully studied and verified.
 EXPERIMENT 2

● AIM:
To design non-inverting amplifier using 741 IC

1. Calculate the gain theoretically and practically and verify the results.
2. Calculate the bandwidth.
3. Design phase shifter and verify its gain.

● REQUIREMENTS:
Software - Multisim Live

S.No ITEM VALUE

1 One UA741CD Op-Amp

2 Two DC Voltage Sources 15 Volts

3 One AC Voltage Source 1 Volt

4 One Resistor 1㏀

5 One Resistor 5㏀

6 Voltmeter

7 Ground
• THEORY

A non-inverting op amp is an operational amplifier circuit with an output

voltage that is in phase with the input voltage. When we apply any signal to
the non – inverting input, it does not change its polarity when it gets amplified
at the output terminal.
In the non-inverting circuit configuration, the input impedance Rin increases
to infinity and the feedback impedance Rƒ reduces to zero. The output is
connected directly back to the negative inverting input so the feedback is
100% and Vin is exactly equal to Vout giving it a fixed gain of 1 or unity. As
the input voltage Vin is applied to the non-inverting input, the voltage gain of
the amplifier is therefore given as:
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴(𝑉𝑖𝑛 )
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
⇒ 𝐴𝑣 = = +1
𝑉𝑖𝑛
Since, 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = +𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −𝑣𝑒
Since no current flows into the non-inverting input terminal the input
impedance is infinite (ideal conditions) so zero current will flow through the
feedback loop. Thus any value of resistance may be placed in the feedback
loop without affecting the characteristics of the circuit as no current flows
through it so there is zero voltage drop across it resulting in zero power loss.

● CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

●
●
●
●
 ● GRAPH:

● CALCULATION

i) Calculation of Gain(Theoretical)
Let Ri =1k ohms Rf =5k ohms Vi = 1V
𝑅𝑓
Acl = ( 1+ )Vi
𝑅1
As per the above ckt,
5
Acl =( 1+ )1
1
=6v
ii) Calculation of Bandwidth

We know,

Here,
=> Go = 6
=> Go / (2)1/2
=> (6) / 1.414
=> 4.24

thus, from above graph analysis,

Value of x axis corresponding to the value of y i.e., 4.24 = 36k Hz

Thus, Bandwidth = 35.2k Hz

 ● OBSERVATION
freq Vo(V) Vin(mV) Gain(Theo) Vo / Vin
(Prac)
0 hz 0 0 6 0
1 hz 5.9495 990.02 6 5.9990

10 hz 5.9920 998.49 6 5.9995

100 hz 5.9800 997.54 6 5.9990

1000 hz 5.9800 997.54 6 5.9900

10k hz 5.9900 997.83 6 6.0000

15k hz 5.9850 997.35 6 5.9980

24k hz 5.7284 989.61 6 5.7700

30k hz 5.0490 999.58 6 5.0580

35k hz 4.5268 999.70 6 4.5334

40 k hz 4.0994 999.98 6 4.0900

● RESULT
Hence Inverting non amplifier is successfully studied and verified.
 EXPERIMENT 3

● AIM:
Design of Adder:
1. Design using inverting configuration and verify the result.
2. Design using non inverting configuration and verify the result.

● REQUIREMENTS:
Software - Multisim Live

S.No ITEM VALUE

1 One UA741CD Op-Amp

2 4- 5 DC Voltage Sources 0.25-15 V

3 One Resistor 10 ㏀

4 One Resistor 1 and 2 ㏀

7 Voltmeter

8 Ground
● THEORY:

Inverting summer- An inverting amplifier (also known as an inverting

operational amplifier or an inverting op-amp) is a type of operational
amplifier circuit which produces an output which is out of phase with
respect to its input by 180o.
This means that if the input pulse is positive, then the output pulse will be
negative and vice versa.
Non-Inverting summer- Non-inverting amplifier is an op-amp-based
amplifier with positive voltage gain.
The op amp has two input terminals (pins). One is inverting denoted with a
minus sign (-), and other is non-inverting denoted with a positive sign (+).
When we apply any signal to the non – inverting input, it does not change
its polarity when it gets amplified at the output terminal. So, in that case,
the gain of the amplifier is always positive.

● CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
ii) Inverting summer
 iii) Non-inverting summer

● GRAPH:

i) Inverting summer
 ii) Non-inverting summer

● CALCULATION:

i) Inverting summer(Theo)
Since, for inverting summer
Vo = - [ (Rf / R1) V1+ (Rf /R2) V2+ (Rf / R3) V3]
Thus,
Vo = - [ (10 /10 ) 0.5+ (10 /10) 0.25+ (10/ 10) 0.5 ]
= - ( 0.5 + 0.25 + 0.5 )
= - 1.25

ii) Non-Inverting summer(Theo)

Since, for non-inverting summer
Vo = (1 + Rf / R1) x (V1 + V2 + V3 ) / 3
Here, Rf = 2R1
Thus,
 Vo= V1 + V2 + V3
= (0.5 + 0.25 + 0.5)
= 1.25

● OBSERVATION:

Inverting Non inverting

summer (Vo) summer (Vo)

Practically -1.25 1.25

Theoretically -1.25 1.25

● RESULT:
Hence both Inverting and Non-inverting summer is successfully
studied and verified.
 EXPERIMENT 4

● AIM:
To design a Differential amplifier
1. Design using op-amp and verify the result.
2. Design Subtractor.

● MATERIAL REQUIRED:
Software - Multisim Live

S.No ITEM VALUE

1 One UA741CD Op-Amp

2 Two DC Voltage Sources(Vcc) 15 Volt

3 One DC Voltage Sources(V1) 3V

4 One DC Voltage Sources(V2) 5V

5 One Resistor 3㏀

6 One Resistor 6㏀

7 One Resistor 8㏀

8 One Resistor 12㏀

9 One Voltmeter

10 Ground
● THEORY
A difference amplifier is a device that amplifies the difference between two
inputs but rejects any signals common to the two inputs.
Difference (or differential) amplifiers are used in various applications
where there is a need to amplify the difference between two input signals.

● CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
● GRAPH

● CALCULATIONS
❖ When the op amp circuit is a difference
amplifier, Vo becomes:
𝑹𝟏
𝑹𝟐(𝟏+ ) 𝑹𝟐
𝑹𝟐
𝑽𝒐 = 𝑹𝟑 𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟏
𝑹𝟏(𝟏+ ) 𝑹𝟏
𝑹𝟒
 ❖ From the circuit:
V1 = 3V, V2 = 5V, R1=3KΩ, R2=6KΩ, R3=8KΩ, R4=12KΩ
𝑹𝟏
𝑹𝟐(𝟏+ ) 𝑹𝟐
𝑹𝟐
𝑽𝒐 = 𝑹𝟑 𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟏𝟑𝑽
𝑹𝟏(𝟏+ ) 𝑹𝟏
𝑹𝟒
𝟑
𝟔 (𝟏 +
)
⇒ 𝑽𝒐 = 𝟔 (𝟓𝑽) − 𝟔 (𝟑𝑽)
𝟖 𝟑
𝟑 (𝟏 + )
𝟏𝟐
⇒ 𝑽𝒐 = 𝟑𝑽

● OBSERVATION

Parameters Theoretical Value Practical Value

VO 3V 2.9991V≃3V

● RESULT

A Subtractor/ difference amplifier is designed whose output Vo=3V, for

both practical and theoretical methods.
 EXPERIMENT 5

● AIM:
To design an Integrator
1. Design using op-amp and verify the result.
2. Calculate the bandwidth

● MATERIAL REQUIRED:
Software - Multisim Live

S.No ITEM VALUE

1 UA741CD Op-Amp

2 AC voltage source 1 Volt

2 Two DC Voltage Sources 15 Volt

3 Two Capacitors 0.01 μF

4 One Resistor 2㏀

5 Two Voltmeters

6 Ground
● THEORY
In a low pass circuit, if the time constant is very large in comparison with
the time required for the input signal to make an appreciable change, the
circuit is called an “integrator”. Under these circumstances the voltage drop
across C will be very small in comparison to the drop across R and almost
the total input Vi appears across R.

An integrator is a component whose output signal is the time integral of its

input signal. It is the continuous analog of a counter, cumulating the input
into an output. In this case, current is summer over a period of time and
the resultant voltage generated is the integral of that current as a function
of time. This means that if constant voltage is given to the ramp with a
constant slope is generated at the output when the input is positive, the
output of the OP-AMP ramps negative. In doing so it pulls the inverting
terminal negative so as to maintain a virtual earth condition. The input
𝑉𝑖𝑛
current ( ) is being equaled by the current flowing through the capacitor.
𝑅𝐼
This equilibrium is maintained.

𝑑𝑣
The equation governing the behavior of a capacitor is 𝐶 =𝐼
𝑑𝑡
where dv/dt is the rate of change of voltage across the capacitor.
𝑡
1
𝑉𝑜 = − ∫ 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑡
𝑅1 𝐶 0
So when a square wave is applied to the input of a circuit, a triangular
waveform is generated. R2 helps in providing DC stability. The circuit has
low output impedance.
● CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

● GRAPH
 ● CALCULATION
i) Calculation (Theoretical)
𝑡
1
𝑉𝑜 = − ∫ 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑐
𝑅1 𝐶 0
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡)
where 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2 × 𝜋 × 103
𝑡
1
⇒ 𝑉𝑜 = − ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + 𝑐
𝑅1 𝐶 0
⇒ 𝑉𝑜 = 7.96 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡) + 𝑐

ii) Calculation (Practical)

𝑉1 = 12.948 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝑉2 = −2.7561 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝑉1 − 𝑉2 = 15.7
15.7
𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = = 7.852 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
2
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟, 𝑒 = 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 − 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
= −0.108
1 𝑡
𝑉𝑜 = − ∫ 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑡
𝑅1 𝐶 0
1
𝑉𝑜 = − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 //ω = 2πƒ
𝑗𝜔 𝑅1 𝐶
1
𝑉𝑜 = − (−645.47)
2𝜋∗1000∗2∗103 ∗0.01∗10−6
1
𝑉𝑜 = *(70.1476)
2𝜋
𝑉𝑜 = 11.17

1
𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ, 𝐹𝑜 =
2𝜋𝑅1 𝐶
1
𝐹𝑜 =
2∗3.14∗2∗0.01
𝐹𝑜 = 7.961 kHz
 ● OBSERVATION

Integrator(Vo) bandwidth

Practically 11.134 Volts

Theoretically 11.17 Volts 7.671 kHz

● RESULT

Hence integrator is successfully studied and verified.

The practical and theoretical amplitudes are the same with the error of 0.108
between them.
Hence bandwidth = 7.671 kHz
 EXPERIMENT 6

● AIM:
To design Differentiator
1. Design using op-amp and verify the result.
2. Calculate the bandwidth

● REQUIREMENT:
Software - Multisim Live

S.No ITEM VALUE

1 One UA741CD Op-Amp

2 Two DC Voltage Sources 15 Volt

3 Capacitors 1𝜇F

4 One Resistor 220 ㏀

5 One Resistor 5㏀

6 Three Resistors 6.8 ㏀

7 Voltmeter

8 Ground
● THEORY

In a high pass RC circuit, if the time constant is very small in comparison

with the time required for the input signal to make an appreciable change,
the circuit is called a “Differentiator”. Under these circumstances the
voltage drop across R will be very small in comparison with the drop
across C. Hence we may consider that the total input Vi appears across C.
So that the current is determined entirely by the capacitor.

A differentiator is a circuit that is designed such that the output of the

circuit is approximately directly proportional to the rate of change (the time
derivative) of the input. A true differentiator cannot be physically realized,
because it has infinite gain at infinite frequency. A similar effect can be
achieved, however, by limiting the gain above some frequency. A
differentiator circuit (also known as a differentiating amplifier or inverting
differentiator) consists of an operational amplifier in which a resistor R
provides negative feedback and a capacitor is used at the input side.

The circuit is based on the capacitor's current to voltage relationship. If 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡

is the voltage across the resistor and 𝑉𝑖𝑛 is the voltage across the capacitor,
we can rearrange these two equations to obtain the following equation:
𝑑𝑣1
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −𝑅𝐶
𝑑𝑡
● CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

● GRAPH
● CALCULATION (theoretical)
𝑑𝑣1
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −𝑅𝐶
𝑑𝑡
Now, V1 = 1 sin ωt
Vout = – C R {d(sin ωt) / dt}
Vout = – C R. ω. cos ωt
=-(0.1*10^-6)*(5000)* 2𝜋*1000*cosωt
Vout= 3.14 cosωt

In the circuit, V1 = -564.94mV

So, Vout = -(0.1*10^-6)*(5000)*(-0.56494)*2𝜋*1000
= 1.8 volts

● CALCULATION (theoretical)
V1= 3 volts
V2= -3 volts
amplitude = 6/2= 3
Error = 3.14 - 3 = 0.14
1
𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ, 𝐹𝑜 =
2𝜋𝑅 𝐶
1
𝐹𝑜 =
2∗3.14∗5000∗10−7
𝐹𝑜 = 318Hz
 ● OBSERVATION

Differentiator(Vo) bandwidth

Practically 2.6 Volts 338Hz

Theoretically 1.8 Volts 318Hz

● RESULT
Hence the differentiator is successfully studied and verified.
The practical and theoretical amplitudes are the same with the error of 0.14
between them.
Hence bandwidth = 318 Hz
 EXPERIMENT 7-(I)

● AIM:
To design Low Pass Filter using 741 IC

● REQUIREMENT:
Software - Multisim Live

S.No ITEM VALUE

1 One UA741CD Op-Amp

2 Two DC Voltage Sources 15 Volt

3 One AC Voltage Source 1 Volt

4 One Capacitor 0.01𝜇𝐹

5 One Resistor 15.9 𝛺

6 Two Resistors 10 ㏀

7 Voltmeter

8 Ground
● THEORY
A Low Pass Filter is a circuit that can be designed to modify, reshape or
reject all unwanted high frequencies of an electrical signal and accept or
pass only those signals wanted by the circuits designer. A low pass filter
has a constant gain from 0 Hz to a high cutoff frequency 𝑓𝐻 . Therefore, the
bandwidth is also 𝑓𝐻 . At 𝑓𝐻 the gain is down by 3 dB; after that (𝑓 > 𝑓𝐻 ) it
decreases with the increase in the input frequency. The frequency
between 0 Hz and 𝑓𝐻 are known as the passband frequencies, whereas
the range of frequencies, those beyond 𝑓𝐻 that are attenuated includes the
stopband frequencies.

● DIAGRAM
● EXPECTED WAVEFORM

● CALCULATION

i) Calculation(Practical)

𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 2
𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = = = 1.41
√2 √2
For 𝑓𝑜 = 1 𝑘𝐻𝑧, 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = 1.41
Thus, 𝑓𝑜 = 1 𝑘𝐻𝑧
 ii) Calculation(Theoretical)

1 1
𝑓= = ≃ 1 𝑘𝐻𝑧
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 2 × 3.14 × 1.59 × 103 × 0.01 × 10−6

● OBSERVATION

Parameters Theoretical Value Practical Value

fO 1.04kHz≃1kHz 1kHz

● RESULT
Thus the practical and theoretical results are verified.
 EXPERIMENT 7-(II)

● AIM:
To design High Pass Filter using 741 IC

● REQUIREMENT:
Software - Multisim Live

S.No ITEM VALUE

1 One UA741CD Op-Amp

2 Two DC Voltage Sources 15 Volt

3 One AC Voltage Source 1 Volt

4 One Capacitor 0.01𝜇𝐹

5 One Resistor 15.9 𝛺

6 Two Resistors 10 ㏀

7 Voltmeter

8 Ground
● THEORY

A High Pass Filter is the exact opposite to the low pass filter circuit as the
two components have been interchanged with the filters output signal now
being taken from across the resistor. Whereas the low pass filter only
allowed signals to pass below its cut-off frequency point,𝑓𝐶 , the passive
high pass filter circuit as its name implies, only passes signals above the
selected cut-off point, 𝑓𝑐 , eliminating any low frequency signals from the
waveform.
A high pass filter only allows high frequency signals from its cut-off
frequency, 𝑓𝑐 point and higher to infinity to pass through while blocking
those any lower.

● DIAGRAM
● EXPECTED WAVEFORM

● CALCULATION

i) Calculation(Practical)
𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 2
𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = = = 1.41
√2 √2
For 𝑓𝑜 = 1 𝑘𝐻𝑧, 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = 1.41
Thus, 𝑓𝑜 = 1 𝑘𝐻𝑧

ii) Calculation(Theoretical)

1 1
𝑓= = ≃ 1 𝑘𝐻𝑧
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 2 × 3.14 × 1.59 × 103 × 0.01 × 10−6
● OBSERVATION

Parameters Theoretical Value Practical Value

fO 1.04kHz≃1kHz 1kHz

● RESULT
Thus the practical and theoretical results are verified.
 EXPERIMENT 8

● AIM:
To design Schmitt Trigger using 741 IC

● REQUIREMENTS:
Software - Multisim Live

S.No ITEM VALUE

1 One UA741CD Op-Amp

2 One AC Voltage Source 1 Volts

3 Two DC Voltage Sources 15 Volts

4 One Resistor 1㏀

5 One Resistor 5㏀

6 Three Voltmeters

7 Ground
● THEORY

Schmitt trigger is a bistable circuit and the existence of only two stable states
results from the fact that positive feedback is incorporated into the circuit
and from the further fact that the loop gain of the circuit is greater than unity.
There are several ways to adjust the loop gain. One way of adjusting the
loop gain is by varying 𝑅𝑐1 .
Under quiescent conditions Q1 is OFF and Q2 is ON because it gets the
required base drive from Vcc through 𝑅𝑐1 and 𝑅1 . So the output voltage is
𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑐𝑐 − 𝐼𝑐2 . 𝑅𝑐2
is at its lower level. Until then the output remains at its lower level.

● DIAGRAM FOR INVERTING SCHMITT TRIGGER

● GRAPH FOR INVERTING SCHMITT TRIGGER

● DIAGRAM FOR NON INVERTING SCHMITT

TRIGGER
● GRAPH FOR NON INVERTING SCHMITT TRIGGER

● Calculation of schmitt trigger(theoretically)

The triggering point 𝑉𝑇 is calculated as

𝑅2
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑜𝑢𝑡

For non inverting schmitt trigger

If Vout=+𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 , VT = +ve

Thus when output is +𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 , the upper threshold point is given as

𝑅2
𝑉𝑈𝑇 = (+𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 )
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

Here,𝑅1 = 1 𝑘𝛺,𝑅2 = 5 𝑘𝛺,

𝑉𝑈𝑇 = 2.167 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡

For inverting schmitt trigger

If Vout=−𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 , VT= -ve

 when output is -Vsat, the lower threshold point is given as

𝑅2
𝑉𝐿𝑇 = (−𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 )
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

𝑉𝐿𝑇 = −2.167 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡

DUTY CYCLE
Duty cycle = Ton/Ton+Toff

Ton=(T2-T1)=(413.06ms - 412.63ms)=0.43ms

Toff=(T3-T1)=(413.55ms - 412.63ms)=0.92ms

Duty cycle=0.43/0.92=0.46 or 46%

● OBSERVATION

Theoretically Practically

VUT 2.167 2.165

VLT -2.167 -2.165

● RESULT
Hence both Inverting and Non-inverting Schmitt triggers are successfully
studied and verified.
 EXPERIMENT 9

● AIM:
To determine the frequency of oscillation of an RC Phase Shift Oscillator.

● REQUIREMENT:
Software - Multisim Live

S.No ITEM VALUE

1 One UA741CD Op-Amp

2 Two DC Voltage Sources 15 Volt

3 Capacitors

4 One Resistor 220 ㏀

5 One Resistor 5㏀

6 Three Resistors 6.8 ㏀

7 Voltmeter

8 Ground
● THEORY:

Tuned Oscillators (LC) are good for generating high frequency oscillation,
but for low frequencies RC oscillators are more suitable as it is difficult to
fabricate L or C of very high value from an IC.
A single stage amplifier not only amplifies the input signal but also shifts it
by 1800. For oscillations a phase shift of 3600 is required (positive
feedback). A phase shift oscillator consists of an amplifier which provides
1800 phase shift and another 1800 is obtained by passing the signal
through a phase shift network consisting of 3 RC sections, each RC
section providing a 600 phase shift . RC phase Oscillator is suitable for
obtaining oscillation.

Resistance R and Capacitance C are selected that

θ = 600 for each section so that,
1
tan θ = 𝐶𝑅
𝜔

For suitable oscillation

Aβ > 1β

1
For phase shift should be
29
(OR)
1
A = 29 and β =
29

Frequency of oscillation is given by

1
2𝜋𝑅𝐶√6
● DIAGRAM

● EXPECTED WAVEFORM
 ● CALCULATION

i) Calculation of frequency(Theoretical)
1
𝑓=
2𝛱𝑅𝐶√6
1
𝑓=
2 ∗ 3.14 ∗ 6.8 ∗ 103 ∗ 0.01 ∗ 10−6 ∗ √6
𝑓 = 955.9 𝐻𝑧

i) Calculation of frequency(Practical)
t1 = 852.32 m
t2 = 855.43 m

T = t1 + t2 = 1.1

1 1
𝑓 = = = 909.09 𝐻𝑧
𝑇 1.1

Error, e = 𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 − 𝑓𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙

= 46.81

● RESULT
The theoretical and practical values are almost the same and thus the
result is verified. And the error/difference between the theoretical and
practical values are 46.81.