9th-Math EM

version: 1.
CHAPTER
Matrices and
1 eter inants
D
m
Animation 1.1 : Matrix
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1. Matrices and Determinants eLearn.Punjab 1. Matrices and Determinants eLearn.Punjab
Students Learning Outcomes 22. Verify the result (AB)-1 = B-1A-1

23. Solve a system of two linear equations and related real life

After studying this unit , the students will be able to: problems in two unknowns using
1. Define

• Matrix inversion method,

• a matrix with real entries and relate its rectangular layout (formation)

• Cramer’ s rule.

with real life,

• rows and columns of a matrix,

Introduction
• the order of a matrix,

• equality of two matrices.

The matrices and determinants are used in the field of Mathematics,
2. Define and identify row matrix, column matrix, rectangular matrix,

Physics, Statistics, Electronics and other branches of science. The
square matrix, zero/null matrix, diagonal matrix, scalar matrix, matrices have played a very important role in this age of Computer
identity matrix, transpose of a matrix, symmetric and skew- Science.
symmetric matrices. The idea of matrices was given by Arthur Cayley, an English
3. Know whether the given matrices are suitable for addition/

mathematician of nineteenth century, who first developed, “Theory
subtraction. of Matrices” in 1858.
4. Add and subtract matrices.
1.1 Matrix

5. Multiply a matrix by a real number.

6. Verify commutative and associative laws under addition.

7. Define additive identity of a matrix.

A rectangular array or a formation of a collection of real numbers,
8. Find additive inverse of a matrix. 1 3 4
say 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 7,such as, and then enclosed by

9. Know whether the given matrices are suitable for multiplication.

7 2 0
10. Multiply two (or three) matrices.

11. Verify associative law under multiplication.

brackets `[ ]’ is said to form a matrix Similarly
12. Verify distributive laws.

13. Show with the help of an example that commutative law under

is another matrix.
multiplication does not hold in general (i.e., AB ≠ BA). We term the real numbers used in the formation of a matrix

14. Define multiplicative identity of a matrix.

as entries or elements of the matrix. (Plural of matrix is matrices)

15. Verify the result (AB)t = BtAt.

The matrices are denoted conventionally by the capital letters

16. Define the determinant of a square matrix.

A, B, C, M, N etc, of the English alphabets.

17. Evaluate determinant of a matrix.

18. Define singular and non-singular matrices.

1.1.1 Rows and Columns of a Matrix

19. Define adjoint of a matrix.

20. Find multiplicative inverse of a non-singular matrix A and verify

It is important to understand an entity of a matrix with the

that AA-1 = I = A-1A where I is the identity matrix. following formation
21. Use adjoint method to calculate inverse of a non-singular matrix.

2 www.Quranmualim.com
3
1 2 0 R1 In matrix A, the entries presented in horizontal (i) are equal matrices.

way are called rows.
A= 3 5 4 R2
In matrix A, there are three rows as shown We see that:
2 1 -1 R3 by R1, R2 and R3 of the matrix A. (a) the order of matrix A = the order of matrix B

(b) their corresponding elements are equal. Thus A = B

2 3 5 In matrix B, all the entries presented in

vertical way are called columns of the (ii) are not equal matrices.
B= 0 1 -1
matrix B. We see that order of L = order of M but entries in the second row and
3 2 1
In matrix B, there are three columns as second column are not same, so L ≠ M.
C1 C2 C3 shown by C1, C2 and C3.
(iii) are not equal
It is interesting to note that all rows have same number of
elements and all columns have same number of elements but number matrices. We see that order of P ≠ order of Q, so P ≠ Q.
of elements in rows and columns may not be same. EXERCISE 1.1
1. Find the order of the following matrices.
1.1.2 Order of a Matrix

The number of rows and columns in a matrix specifies its order.

If a matrix M has m rows and n columns, then M is said to be of order
m-by-n. For example,
1 2 3 
M= 1 0 2 is of order 2-by-3, since it has two rows and three
 
 1 2 3
columns, whereas the matrix N = - 1 1 0  is a 3-by-3 matrix and 2. Which of the following matrices are equal?
 

 2 3 7 
P = [ 3 2 5 ] is a matrix of order 1-by-3.
1.1.3 Equal Matrices
Let A and B be two matrices. Then A is said to be equal to B,

and denoted by A = B, if and only if;
(i) the order of A = the order of B

(ii) their corresponding entries are equal.

3. Find the values of a, b, c and d which satisfy the matrix equation
Examples
5
(v) Null or Zero Matrix

A matrix is called a null or zero matrix, if each of its entries is 0.
1.2 Types of Matrices 0 0 0 
0 0  0  0 0 0  0 0 0 
e.g., 0 0 [0 0] , 0  0 0 0  and  
(i) Row Matrix  ,  ,  , 0 0 0
A matrix is called a row matrix, if it has only one row.
are null matrices of orders 2-by-2, 1-by-2, 2-by-1, 2-by-3 and 3-by-3
e.g., the matrix M = [2 –1 7] is a row matrix of order 1-by-3 and
respectively. Note that null matrix is represented by O.
M = [1 –1] is a row matrix of order 1-by-2.
(vi) Transpose of a Matrix

(ii) Column Matrix
A matrix obtained by interchanging the rows into columns or

A matrix is called a column matrix, if it has only one column.

columns into rows of a matrix is called transpose of that matrix. If A is

 2
1 0  a matrix, then its transpose is denoted by At.
e.g., M = 0 and N =   are column matrices of order 2-by-1
 
1 
and 3-by-1 respectively.
 1 2 3 1 2 - 1 
  2 1 4 
e.g., (i) If A =  2 1 0  then At =  
(iii) Rectangular Matrix

 -1 4 -2  3 0 - 2
,
A matrix M is called rectangular, if the number of rows of M is not
equal to the number of M columns. 1 2
1 0 2 0
(ii) If B =  2 -1 3  then Bt =  1
1 2  7   

  a b c 8   2 3 
e.g.,A = 1 1 B =  d e f  ;
C = [1 2 3] and D =  

2 3 ; 0
t
are all rectangular matrices. The order of A is 3-by-2, the order of (iii) If C= [0 1 ], then C =
B is 2-by-3, the order of C is 1-by-3 and order of D is 3-by-1, which

indicates that in each matrix the number of rows ≠ the number of If a matrix A is of order 2-by-3, then order of its transpose At is 3-by-2.
columns.
(vii) Negative of a Matrix
(iv) Square Matrix Let A be a matrix. Then its negative, -A is obtained by changing
A matrix is called a square matrix, if its number of rows is equal the signs of all the entries of A, i.e.,
to its number of columns.
 1 2 3
 2 -1  - 1 0 - 2
e.g., A =  0 3  B=   and C = [3]
 ,  0 1 3  (viii) Symmetric Matrix
A square matrix is symmetric if it is equal to its transpose i.e.,
are square matrices of orders, 2-by-2, 3-by-3 and 1-by-1 respectively.
matrix A is symmetric, if At = A.
7
= G
k 0 0
For example 0 k 0 where k is a constant ≠ 0,1.
1 2 3 0 0 k
 2 -1 4 
e.g., (i) If M=   is a square matrix, then
2 0 0
 3 4 0  3 0
Also A = 0 2 0 B= 0 3 and C =[5] are scalar matrices of
0 0 2  
1 2 3
 2 -1 4 
Mt =   = M. Thus M is a symmetric matrix. order 3-by-3, 2-by-2 and 1-by-1 respectively.
 3 4 0 
 2 1 3  2 -1 3 (xii) Identity Matrix

 -1 2 2  t 1 2 1 ≠ A A diagonal matrix is called identity (unit) matrix, if all diagonal
(ii) If A=   then A = 
 3 1 3 
,
 3 2 3
, entries are 1. It is denoted by I.
Hence A is not a symmetric matrix. 1 0 0
  1 0
e.g., A = 0 1 0 is a 3-by-3 identity matrix, B =   is a 2-by-2
0 0 1 0 1 
(ix) Skew-Symmetric Matrix
A square matrix A is said to be skew-symmetric, if At = –A. identity matrix, and C = [1] is a 1-by-1 identity matrix.
 0 2 3
 -2 0 1  Note: (i) A scalar and identity matrix are diagonal matrices.
e.g., if A=  
 -3 -1 0  (ii) A diagonal matrix is not a scalar or identity matrix.
 0 -2 -3
= G
0 -2 -3
then A =t  2 0 -1
= -(-2) 0 -1 = = -A
EXERCISE 1.2
 
 3 1 0  -(-3) -(-1) 0
1. From the following matrices, identify unit matrices, row matrices,
Since At = –A, therefore A is a skew-symmetric matrix.
column matrices and null matrices.
(x) Diagonal Matrix

A square matrix A is called a diagonal matrix if atleast any one of
the entries of its diagonal is not zero and non-diagonal entries are
zero.
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 
0 2 0    0 1 0 
e.g., A=   B = 0 2 0  and C =   are all
2. From the following matrices, identify
0 0 3 0 0 2 0 0 3

, (a) Square matrices (b) Rectangular matrices

diagonal matrices of order 3-by-3. (c) Row matrices (d) Column matrices
 2 0 1 0 (e) Identity matrices (f) Null matrices
M =  0 3 and N = 0 4 are diagonal matrices of order 2-by-2.
   
(xi) Scalar Matrix 3 1 2 
 -8 7 6 -4  1 0 
(ii) 0  3 4
A diagonal matrix is called a scalar matrix, if 2
(i)   (iii)  (iv)  (v)
all the diagonal entries are same and non-zero. 12 0 4   3 -2  
0 1   
1   5 6 
9
Addition of A and B, written A + B is obtained by adding the entries

of the matrix A to the corresponding entries of the matrix B.
1  1 2 3 0 0 
(vi) [3 10 -1] (vii) 0  (viii)  -1 2 0 (ix) 0 0 
     
0   0 0 1  0 0 
3. From the following matrices, identify diagonal, scalar and unit

(identity) matrices.
1.3.2 Subtraction of Matrices
If A and B are two matrices of same order, then subtraction

of matrix B from matrix A is obtained by subtracting the entries of
matrix B from the corresponding entries of matrix A and it is denoted
by A – B.
4. Find negative of matrices A, B, C, D and E when:
are conformable for
subtraction.
5. Find the transpose of each of the following matrices:
Some solved examples regarding addition and subtraction are given

below.
6. Verify that if then
(i) (At)t = A (ii) (Bt)t = B

1.3 Addition and Subtraction of Matrices
1.3.1 Addition of Matrices
Let A and B be any two matrices. The matrices A and B are
conformable for addition, if they have the same order.
2 3 0  -2 3 4
=e.g., A =  and B 1 are conformable for addition
1 0 6   2 3 
11
1.3.4 Commutative and Associative Laws of Addition of

Matrices
(a) Commutative Law under Addition

If A and B are two matrices of the same order, then A + B = B + A
is called commulative law under addition.
Note that the order of a matrix is unchanged under the operation of

matrix addition and matrix subtraction.
1.3.3 Multiplication of a Matrix by a Real Number
Let A be any matrix and the real number k be a scalar. Then the Thus the commutative law of addition of matrices is verified:
scalar multiplication of matrix A with k is obtained by multiplying each A+B = B+A
entry of matrix A with k. It is denoted by kA.
(b) Associative Law under Addition
 1 -1 4 
  If A, B and C are three matrices of same order, then
Let A =  2 -1 0  be a matrix of order 3-by-3 and k = 2 be a real
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C) is called associative law under addition.
−
 -1 3 2 
number.
Then,
 1 -1 4   (-2)(1) (-2)(-1) (-2)(4) 
KA =- ( 2)  2 -1
( 2) A =- 0  = (-2)(2) (-2)(-1) (-2)(0) 
   
 -1 3 2  (-2)(-1) (-2)(3) (-2)(2) 
 -2 2 -8
=  -4 2 0 
 
 2 -6 -4 

Scalar multiplication of a matrix leaves the order of the matrix

unchanged.
13
is additive inverse of A.
It can be verified as
Thus the associative law of addition is verified: (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
1.3.5 Additive Identity of a Matrix
If A and B are two matrices of same order and

A + B = A = B + A, then matrix B is called additive identity of matrix A. Since A + B = O = B + A .
For any matrix A and zero matrix O of same order, O is called additive Therefore, A and B are additive inverses of each other.
identity of A as
A+O=A=O+A EXERCISE 1.3
1. Which of the following matrices are conformable for addition?
1.3.6 Additive Inverse of a Matrix

If A and B are two matrices of same order such that 2. Find additive inverse of the following matrices:
A+B=O=B+A,
then A and B are called additive inverses of each other.
Additive inverse of any matrix A is obtained by changing to
negative of the symbols (entries) of each non zero entry of A.
3. If then find,
15
(i) (A + B)t = At + Bt (ii) (A – B)t=At – Bt

(i) (ii) (iii) c=+[-2 1 3 ] (iii) A + At is symmetric (iv) A – At is skew symmetric
(v) B + Bt is symmetric (vi) B – Bt is skew symmetric
(iv) (v) 2A (vi) ( 1)B

1.4 Multiplication of Matrices
−
(vii) ( 2) C
− (viii) 3D (ix) 3C
Two matrices A and B are conformable for multiplication, giving
4. Perform the indicated operations and simplify the following:
product AB, if the number of columns of A is equal to the number of
(i) (ii) rows of B.
Here number of columns

 1 2 3  1 1 1 
 1 -1 -1 +  2 2 2 
(iii) [2 3 1] + ( [1 0 2] − [2 2 2] ) (iv) =-
    of A is equal to the number of rows of B. So A and B matrices are
 0 1 2   3 3 3  conformable for multiplication.
Multiplication of two matrices is explained by the following examples.
2 0 2 0
(v) (vi) (i) If A = [1 2] and B =  3 1  then AB =
  [1 2]  3 1 
= [1 × 2 + 2 × 3 1 × 0 + 2 × 1] = [2 + 6 0 + 2] = [8 2], is a 1-by-
1 2 3 1 -1 1   -1 0 0  2 matrix.
2 3 1  B =  2 -2 2  and C =
  0 -2 3 
5. For the matrices A =   
1 -1 0   3 1 3   1 1 2  (ii) If A = and B = then
verify the following rules.

(i) A + C = C + A (ii) A+B=B+A
(iii) B + C = C + B (iv) A + (B + A) = 2A + B
(v) (C B) + A = C + (A B)
− − (vi) 2A + B = A + (A + B)
(vii) (C B) A = (C A) B
− − − (viii) (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
(ix) A + (B C) = (A C) + B
− − (x) 2A + 2B = 2(A + B) 1.4.1 Associative Law under Multiplication
6. find (i) 3A 2B
If A, B and C are three matrices conformable for multiplication
−
then associative law under multiplication is given as (AB)C = A(BC)

(ii) 2At − 3Bt.
 2 3  0 1  2 2
7. then find a and b. e.g., A =  -1 0  B =  3 1 and C =  -1 0  then
     
8. then verify that L.H.S. = (AB)C
17
R.H.S. = AB + AC
 2 3  0 1  2 2  
R.H.S = A(BC) =  -1 0   3 1  -1 0  
   
Which shows that

A(B + C) = AB + AC; Similarly we can verify (ii).
(b) Similarly the distributive laws of multiplication over
subtraction are as follow.
The associative law under multiplication of matrices is verified. (i) A(B - C) = AB -AC
(ii) (A - B)C = AC - BC
1.4.2 Distributive Laws of Multiplication over Addition and

Subtraction
(a) Let A, B and C be three matrices. Then distributive laws of

multiplication over addition are given below:
(i) A(B + C) = AB + AC (Left distributive law)
(ii) (A + B)C = AC + BC (Right distributive law)
L.H.S = A (B+C) R.H.S. = AB − AC
19
1.4.4 Multiplicative Identity of a Matrix
Let A be a matrix. Another matrix B is called the identity matrix

of A under multiplication if
which shows that AB = A = BA
A(B – C) = AB – AC; Similarly (ii) can be verified.
1.4.3 Commutative Law of Multiplication of Matrices
 0 1 1 0
Consider the matrices A=   and B=   , then
2 3 0 -2 
 0 1 1 0   0 ×1 + 1× 0 0 × 0 + 1(-2)   0 -2 
AB= 
=    =   
 2 3 0 -2   2 ×1 + 3 × 0 2 × 0 + 3(-2)   2 -6 
1 0   0 1   1× 0 + 0 × 2 1× 1 + 0 × 3   0 1
and BA = 
=    =   
0 -2   2 3 0 × 0 + (-2) × 2 0 × 1 + 3(-2)   -4 -6 
= =0 -3G
1 2
Which shows that, AB ≠ BA Which shows that AB = A = BA.

Commutative law under multiplication in matrices does not hold in 1.4.5 Verification of (AB)t = Bt At
general i.e., if A and B are two matrices, then AB ≠ BA.
Commutative law under multiplication holds in particular case. If A, B are two matrices and At, Bt are their respective
 2 0  -3 0  transpose, then (AB)t = BtAt.
e.g., if A = 0 1 and B =  0 4  then
   
Which shows that AB = BA.
21
5. verify
t t t whether
Thus (AB) = B A
(i) AB = BA. (ii) A(BC) = (AB)C
EXERCISE 1.4

(iii) A(B + C) = AB + AC (iv) A(B C) = AB AC

− −
6. For the matrices

1. Which of the following product of matrices is conformable for

multiplication?
Verify that (i) (AB)t = Bt At (ii) (BC)t = Ct Bt.
1.5 Multiplicative Inverse of a Matrix

1.5.1 Determinant of a 2-by-2 Matrix
be a 2-by-2 square matrix. The determinant of A,

3 0 6
2. If A =
=  , B 5  , find (i) AB (ii) BA (if possible)
 -1 2    denoted by det A or A is defined as
3. Find the following products.
4. Multiply the following matrices.

2 3 1 2 1.5.2 Singular and Non-Singular Matrix
2 -1 1 2 3  
(a)  1 1  3 4
0 
(b)  
  3  4 5 6   -1 1 
 0 -2     A square matrix A is called singular, if the determinant of A is
1 2  5 equal to zero. i.e., A= 0.
2 -
1 2 3  8 5   2
(c )  3 4    1 2
  4 5 6 
(d )   For example, A = is a singular matrix,
  6 4   -4 4  0 0 
 -1 1   
 
since det A = 1 × 0 – 0 × 2 = 0
 -1 2  0 0 
(e)  A square matrix A is called non-singular, if the determinant of A is not
1 3  0 0 
23
= G
1 1
 d -b  Adj M
equal to zero. i.e., A ≠ 0. For example, A = 0 2 is non-singular, and Adj
= M   , then
= M-1
 -c a  M
since det A = 1 × 2 – 0 × 1 = 2 ≠ 0.Note that, each square matrix with real
entries is either singular or non-singular. 2 1
e.g., Let A=   , Then
 - 1 -3 
1.5.3 Adjoint of a Matrix 2 1
A= =-6 - (-1) =-6 + 1 =-5 ≠ 0
-1 -3
Adjoint of a square matrix A = is obtained by  -3 -1 3 1 

  5
Adj A  1 2  -1  -3 -1 5
Thus
= A -1
= = =  
interchanging the diagonal entries and changing the signs of other A -5 5  1 2   -1 -2 
entries. Adjoint of matrix A is denoted as Adj A.  5 5 
3 1   6 1 2 2 
 - -
2 1 5 5  5 5 5 5 
and AA = 
-1
  -1 -2  =  3 3 
 -1 -3   - + 1 6
- +
 5 5   5 5 5 5 
1 0 
=  = I= AA -1
0 1 
1.5.4 Multiplicative Inverse of a Non-singular Matrix 1.5.6 Verification of (AB)–1 = B–1 A–1
Let A and B be two non-singular square matrices of same order.  3 1 0 -1

Let A =  -1 0  and B =  3 2 
Then A and B are said to be multiplicative inverse of each other if   
AB = BA = I. Inverse of Identity Then det A = 3 × 0 – (–1) × l = 1 ≠ 0
The inverse of A is denoted by A-1 , thus matrix is Identity and det B = 0 × 2 – 3(–1) = 3 ≠ 0
AA–1 = A–1 A = I. matrix. Therefore, A and B are invertible i.e., their inverses exist.
Inverse of a matrix is possible only if matrix is non-singular. Then, to verify the law of inverse of the product, take
 3 1   0 -1  3 × 0 + 1 × 3 3 × (-1) + 1 × 2   3 -1
1.5.5 Inverse of a Matrix using Adjoint =AB =     =
 -1 0   3 2   -1 × 0 + 0 × 3 -1 × (-1) + 0 × 2   0 1 
 3 -1
⇒ det (AB) = = 0 1
=3≠0
be a square matrix. To find the inverse of 
1 1
M, i.e., M-1, first we find the determinant as inverse is possible only 1 1 1 
3
1
and L.H.S. = (AB) =  0 3 =  3
−
of a non-singular matrix. 3  
0 1
1  2 1 1 0 -1
R.H.S. = B 1A 1, where B 1 = A 1
=
3  -3 0  , 1 1 3
− − − −
25
1  2 1  1 0 -1 1  2 × 0 + 1× 1 2 × (-1) + 1× 3 
=   .   =
3  -3 0  1 1 3 3  -3 × 0 + 0 ×1 -3 × (-1) + 0 × 3

1 0 + 1 -2 + 3 1 1 1 
1 1 6. then verify
= = 
= 3 3
3  0 3  3 0 3  0 1 
 that
(i) (AB) 1 = B 1A 1
1 1 1
= (AB) 1
Thus the law
1
(AB) = B A-1
1
is verified. (ii) (DA) = A D
− − −
− −
− − −
EXERCISE 1.5 1.6 Solution of Simultaneous Linear Equations

1. Find the determinant of the following matrices. System of two linear equations in two variables in general form
is given as
ax + by = m
cx + dy = n
where a, b, c, d, m and n are real numbers.
This system is also called simultaneous linear equations.
2. Find which of the following matrices are singular or non-singular? We discuss here the following methods of solution.
(i) Matrix inversion method
(ii) Cramer’s rule
(i) Matrix Inversion Method
3. Find the multiplicative inverse (if it exists) of each. Consider the system of linear equations
ax + by = m
cx + dy = n
4.
(i) A(Adj A) = (Adj A) A = (det A)I (ii) BB-1 = I = B 1B −
5. Determine whether the given matrices are multiplicative inverses

of each other.
27
Example 1
Solve the following system by using matrix inversion method.
4x – 2y = 8
3x + y = –4
Solution
4 -2   x   8 
Step 1 3 =
1   y   -4 


4 -2 
Step 2 The coefficient matrix M =  is non-singular,
3 1 
since det M = 4 × 1 3( 2) = 4 + 6 = 10 ≠ 0. So M–1 is possible.

− −
(ii) Cramer’s Rule  x -1  8  1  1 2  8 

Consider the following system of linear equations. Step 3 = y
M=  -4  10  -3 4   -4 
      
ax + by = m
1  8-8  1  0   0 

cx + dy = n = = =
10  -24 - 16  10  -40   -4 

We know that
 x  0 
⇒  y =
 
   -4 

⇒ x=0 and y =
-4
Example 2
Solve the following system of linear equations by using Cramer’s rule.
3x - 2y = 1
-2x + 3y = 2
Solution
3x - 2y = 1
-2x + 3y = 2
We have
 3 -2   1 -2  3 1
=A = A
 x 2 3
, = , A  -2 2 
 -2 3 
y
   
3 -2
A = = 9 - 4 = 5 ≠ 0 (A is non-singular
-2 3
29
Thus, by the equality of matrices, width of the rectangle x = 19 cm

1 -2
and the length y = 51 cm.
Ax 2 3 3+ 4 7
=x = = = Verification of the solution to be correct, i.e.,
A 5 5 5
p = 2 × 19 + 2 × 51 = 38 + 102= 140 cm
3 1
Also y = 3(19) – 6 = 57 – 6 = 51 cm
Ay -2 2 6+2 8
=y = = =
A 5 5 5 EXERCISE 1.6
Example 3 1 Use matrices, if possible, to solve the following systems of linear

The length of a rectangle is 6 cm less than three times its width. equations by:
The perimeter of the rectangle is 140 cm. Find the dimensions of the (i) the matrix inversion method (ii) the Cramer’s rule.
rectangle. (by using matrix inversion method) 2x 2y = 4 2x + y = 3
(i) (ii)
−
3x + 2y = 6 6x + 5y = 1
Solution 4x + 2y = 8 3x 2y = 6
(iii) (iv)
− −
If width of the rectangle is x cm, then length of the rectangle is 3x y = 1

− − 5x 2y = 10
− −
y = 3x – 6, 3x 2y = 4 4x + y = 9
(v) (vi)
−
from the condition of the question. − 6x + 4y = 7 3x y = 5

− − −
The perimeter = 2x + 2y = 140 (According to given condition) 2x 2y = 4 3x 4y = 4

(vii) (viii)
− −
⇒ x + y = 70 ……(i) − 5x 2y = 10
− − x + 2y = 8
and 3x – y = 6
……(ii) Solve the following word problems by using
In the matrix form (i) matrix inversion method (ii) Crammer’s rule.
2 The length of a rectangle is 4 times its width. The perimeter of
1 1   x  70  the rectangle is 150 cm. Find the dimensions of the rectangle.
3 =
 -1  y   6  3 Two sides of a rectangle differ by 3.5cm. Find the dimensions
1 1 1 1 of the rectangle if its perimeter is 67cm.
det  = =1 × (-1) - 3 × 1 =-1 - 3 =-4 ≠ 0
3 -1 3 -1 4 The third angle of an isosceles triangle is 16° less than the
sum of the two equal angles. Find three angles of the triangle.

We know that 5 One acute angle of a right triangle is 12° more than twice the
other acute angle. Find the acute angles of the right triangle.
AdjA
=X A=
-1
B and A -1 6 Two cars that are 600 km apart are moving towards each
A
other. Their speeds differ by 6 km per hour and the cars are
 x  1 -1 -1 70 
Hence   =   123 km apart after hours. Find the speed of each car.
 y  -4 -3 1  6 
 76 
-1 -70 - 6 -1  -76   4  19 
= = = = 
4 -210 + 6 4  -204   204  51
 4 
30 31

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R v wE
e ie xercise 1 SUMMARY
2. Complete the following: • A rectangular array of real numbers enclosed with brackets is said

=
0 0
G
to form a matrix.
(i) 0 0 is called ..... matrix.
• A matrix A is called rectangular, if the number of rows and number

= G
1 0
(ii) is called ..... matrix. of columns of A are not equal.
0 1
• A matrix A is called a square matrix, if the number of rows of A is
= G
1 -2

(iii) Additive inverse of 0 -1 is.......... equal to the number of columns.

(iv) In matrix multiplication,in general, AB ...... BA. • A matrix A is called a row matrix, if A has only one row.

(v) Matrix A + B may be found if order of A and B is ...... • A matrix A is called a column matrix, if A has only one column.

(vi) A matrix is called ..... matrix if number of rows and columns • A matrix A is called a null or zero matrix, if each of its entry is 0.

are equal. • Let A be a matrix. The matrix At is a new matrix which is called

transpose of matrix A and is obtained by interchanging rows of A

= = G,
a+3 4 -3 4
3. If = 6 b-1
G 6 2
then find a and b. into its respective columns (or columns into respective rows).
• A square matrix A is called symmetric, if At = A.

2 3
=1 0G = G
4. If A = , B= 5 -4 , then find the following. • Let A be a matrix. Then its negative, A, is obtained by changing the
-2 -1
−
signs of all the entries of A.

(i) 2A + 3B (ii) -3A + 2B • A square matrix M is said to be skew symmetric, if Mt = M,
2
−
(iii) -3(A + 2B) (iv) 3 (2A - 3B) • A square matrix M is called a diagonal matrix, if atleast any one

of entry of its diagonal is not zero and remaining entries are zero.
5. Find the value of X, if =2 1
G+ X = =4 -2
G. • A diagonal matrix is called identity matrix, if all diagonal entries are
3 -3 -1 -2

If A = = 0 G,
4
B= =5 G
1 -3
6. -2
, then prove that 1 0 0 
2 -3
1. A = 0 1 0  is called a 3-by-3 identity matrix.
(i) AB ≠ BA (ii) A(BC) = (AB)C  
0 0 1 
7. If A = = 3 2
G and B = = 2 4
G, then verify that • Any two matrices A and B are called equal, if
1 -1 -3 -5
(i) order of A= order of B (ii) corresponding entries are same

(i) (AB)t = BtAt (ii) (AB)-1 = B-1 A-1 • Any two matrices M and N are said to be conformable for addition,

if order of M = order of N.
• Let A be a matrix of order 2-by-3. Then a matrix B of same order is

said to be an additive identity of matrix A, if

B+A=A=A+B
33
• Let A be a matrix. A matrix B is defined as an additive inverse of A,

• The solution of a linear system of equations,

if B+A=O=A+B ax + by = m
• Let A be a matrix. Another matrix B is called the identity matrix of

cx + dy = n
A under multiplication, if
B × A = A = A × B. a b   x  m
by expressing in the matrix form  =
c d   y   n 
a b -1
• Let M =  be a 2-by-2 matrix. A real number λ is called  x a b  m
d  is given by   = 

c
 y  c d   n 
determinant of M, denoted by det M such that
a b
if the coefficient matrix is non-singular.
det M = = ad − bc = λ • By using the Cramer’s rule the determinental form of solution of

c d
equations
• A square matrix M is called singular, if the determinant of M is

equal to zero. ax + by =
m
• A square matrix M is called non-singular, if the determinant of M is

cx + dy =
n
not equal to zero.
is

a b
• For a matrix M =  , adjoint of M is defined by
d 

c
m b a m
 d -b 
Adj M =  . n d c n a b
 - c a  x= and y= , where ≠0
a b a b c d
a b c d c d
• Let M be a square matrix  , then
d 

c
1  d -b 
M1=
−
 -c a 
, where det M = ad bc ≠ 0.
ad - bc 
−
• The following laws of addition hold

M+N=N+M (Commutative)

(M + N) + T = M + (N + T) (Associative)

• The matrices M and N are conformable for multiplication to obtain

MN if the number of columns of M = number of rows of N, where

(i) (MN) ≠ (NM), in general
(ii) (MN)T = M(NT) (Associative law)
(iii) M(N + T) = MN + MT
(iv) (N + T)M = NM + TM (Distributive laws)
• Law of transpose of product

(AB)t = Bt At
• (AB) 1 = B 1 A 1
34 35
− − −
• AA 1 = I = A 1A

− −
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version: 1.1
CHAPTER
REAL AND
2 COMPLEX NUMBERS
Animation 2.1:Real And Complex numbers

Source & Credit: eLearn.punjab
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2. Real and Complex Numbers eLearn.Punjab 2. Real and Complex Numbers eLearn.Punjab
Students Learning Outcomes

2.1 Real Numbers
• After studying this unit , the students will be able to:
• Recall the set of real numbers as a union of sets of rational and We recall the following sets before giving the concept of real numbers.
irrational numbers.
• Depict real numbers on the number line. Natural Numbers
• Demonstrate a number with terminating and non-terminating The numbers 1, 2, 3, ... which we use for counting certain objects

recurring decimals on the number line. are called natural numbers or positive integers. The set of natural
• Give decimal representation of rational and irrational numbers. numbers is denoted by N.
• Know the properties of real numbers. i.e., N = {1,2,3, ....}

• Explain the concept of radicals and radicands.

• Differentiate between radical form and exponential form of an Whole Numbers
expression. If we include 0 in the set of natural numbers, the resulting set is

• Transform an expression given in radical form to an exponential the set of whole numbers, denoted by W,
form and vice versa. i.e., W = {o,1,2,3, ....}

• Recall base, exponent and value.

• Apply the laws of exponents to simplify expressions with real Integers
exponents. The set of integers consist of positive integers, 0 and negative integers
• Define complex number z represented by an expression of the and is denoted by Z i.e., Z = { ..., –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ... }
form z= a + ib , where a and b are real numbers and i= -1

• Recognize a as real part and b as imaginary part of z = a + ib. 2.1.1 Set of Real Numbers
• Define conjugate of a complex number.
• Know the condition for equality of complex numbers. First we recall about the set of rational and irrational numbers.
• Carry out basic operations (i.e., addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division) on complex numbers. Rational Numbers
All numbers of the form p/q where p, q are integers and q is
Introduction not zero are called rational numbers. The set of rational numbers is
denoted by Q,
The numbers are the foundation of mathematics and we use  p 
i.e=., Q  | p, q ∈ Z ∧ q ≠ 0 

different kinds of numbers in our daily life. So it is necessary to be

q 
familiar with various kinds of numbers In this unit we shall discuss real Irrational Numbers
numbers and complex numbers including their properties. There is a The numbers which cannot be expressed as quotient of integers
one-one correspondence between real numbers and the points on the are called irrational numbers.
real line. The basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication The set of irrational numbers is denoted by Q’,
 p 
and division on complex numbers will also be discussed in this unit. Q=′  x | x ≠ , p, q ∈ Z ∧ q ≠ 0 
Version: 1.1  q  Version: 1.1
3
The number ‘a’ associated with a point P on l is called the

For example, the numbers 2, 3, 5, p and e are all irrational numbers.

coordinate of P, and l is called the coordinate line or the real number

The union of the set of rational numbers and irrational numbers is
line. For any real number a, the point P’(– a) corresponding to –a lies
known as the set of real numbers. It is denoted by R,
at the same distance from O as the point P (a) corresponding to a but
i.e., R = QjQ/
in the opposite direction.

Here Q and Q’ are both subset of R and QkQ/ =f

Note:
2.1.3 Demonstration of a Number with Terminating and
Non-Terminating decimals on the Number Line
(i) NfWfZfQ
(ii) Q and Q/ are disjoint sets. First we give the following concepts of rational and irrational
(iii) for each prime number p, p

numbers.
is an irrational number.
(iv) square roots of all positive
(a) Rational Numbers
non- square integers are
The decimal representations of rational numbers are of two types,
irrational.

terminating and recurring.

2.1.2 Depiction of Real Numbers on Number Line (i) Terminating Decimal Fractions
The decimal fraction in which there are finite number of digits in

The real numbers are represented geometrically by points on a

its decimal part is called a terminating decimal fraction. For example
number line l such that each real number ‘a’ corresponds to one and

2 3
only one point on number line l and to each point P on number line l
= 0.4
= and 0.375
5 8
there corresponds precisely one real number. This type of association
or relationship is called a one-to-one correspondence. We establish (ii) Recurring and Non-terminating Decimal Fractions

such correspondence as below. The decimal fraction (non-terminating) in which some digits

We first choose an arbitrary point O (the origin) on a horizontal

are repeated again and again in the same order in its decimal part is
line l and associate with it the real number 0. By convention, numbers
called a recurring decimal fraction. For example
to the right of the origin are positive and numbers to the left of the
2 4
origin are negative. Assign the number 1 to the point A so that the line = 0.2222
= and 0.363636...
9 11
segment OA represents one unit of length.
(b) Irrational Numbers
It may be noted that the decimal representations for irrational
numbers are neither terminating nor repeating in blocks. The decimal
form of an irrational number would continue forever and never begin

to repeat the same block of digits.
Version: 1.1 Version: 1.1

5
e.g., = 1.414213562..., p= 3.141592654..., e= 2.718281829..., etc.

23

Thus 0.23 = is a rational number.

Obviously these decimal representations are neither terminating

99
nor recurring.
2.1.4 Representation of Rational and Irrational Numbers on
We consider the following example.
Number Line

Example
In order to locate a number with terminating and non-terminating

p
Express the following decimals in the form q where p, q d Z

recurring decimal on the number line, the points associated with the
and q m0 rational numbers

m
and -
m
where m, n are positive integers, we
(a) 0.3 = 0.333... (b) 0.23 = 0.232323... n n
subdivide each unit length into n equal parts. Then the mth point of
Solution
m
(a) Let x = 0.3 which can be rewritten as division to the right of the origin represents and that to the left
n
x = 0.3333...
…… (i)
m
Note that we have only one digit 3 repeating indefinitely. of the origin at the same distance represents -
n
So, we multiply both sides of (i) by 10, and obtain
10x = (0.3333...) x 10
Example
or 10x = 3.3333... …… (ii) Represent the following numbers on the number line.

Subtracting (i) from (ii), we have

2 15 7
10x – x = (3.3333...) – (0.3333...)

(i ) - (ii ) (iii ) - 1
5 5 9
1
or 9x = 3 ⇒ x = Solution
3
1 2
Hence 0.3 = (i) For representing the rational number - on the number line l,
3 5
(b) Let= = 0.23 23 23...

x 0.23
divide the unit length between 0 and –1 into five equal parts and take
the end of the second part from 0 to its left side. The point M in the
Since two digit block 23 is repeating itself indefinitely, so we multiply
2
both sides by 100 . following figure represents the rational number -
5
Then 100 x = 23.23

100 x =23 + 0.23 =23 + x

⇒ 100 x - x = 23
⇒ 99x = 23
Version: 1.1 23
⇒ x = Version: 1.1

99 6 www.Quranmualim.com
7
15 1
(ii ) = 2 + : it lies between 2 and 3.
7 7
EXERCISE 2.1
Divide the distance between 2 and 3 into seven equal parts. The point 1. Identify which of the following are rational and irrational
numbers.
15 1
P represents the number =2 . 1 15
7 7 (i) 3 (ii) (iii) p (iv) (v) 7.25 (vi) 29
7 6 2
(iii) For representing the rational number, -1 . divide the unit
9 2. Convert the following fractions into decimal fractions.
length between –1 and –2 into nine equal parts. Take the end of the
7th part from –1. The point M in the following figure represents the 17 19 57 205 5 25
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi)
7 25 4 8 18 8 38
rational number, -1 .

9 3. Which of the following statements are true and which are false?
2
(i) is an irrational number. (ii) p is an irrational number.

3
1 3
(iii) is a terminating fraction. (iv) is a terminating fraction.

9 4
4
(v) is a recurring fraction.
Irrational numbers such as 5 etc. can be located on the line ℓ by

2, 5
geometric construction. For example, the point corresponding to 2 4. Represent the following numbers on the number line.
may be constructed by forming a right ∆OAB with sides (containing
the right angle) each of length 1 as shown in the figure. By Pythagoras
2 4 3 5 3
(i) (ii) - (iii) 1 (iv) - 2 (v) 2 (vi) 5
Theorem, 3 5 4 8 4
OB = (1) 2 + (1) 2 = 2 3 5
5. Give a rational number between and .
By drawing an arc with centre at O and radius OB = 2 , we get the

4 9
6. Express the following recurring decimals as the rational number
point P representing 2 on the number line.

p
where p, q are integers and q ≠ 0 (i) 0.5 (ii) 0.13 (iii) 0.67
q
9
2.2 Properties of Real Numbers (v) Additive Inverse
If a, b are real numbers, their sum is written as a + b and their For every a d R, there exists a unique real number –a , called the

product as ab or a x b or a . b or (a) (b). additive inverse of a, such that

a + (–a) = 0 = (–a) + a

(a) Properties of Real numbers with respect to Addition and e.g., additive inverse of 3 is –3 since 3 + (–3) = 0 = (–3) + (3)

Multiplication Properties of real numbers under addition

are as follows:
Properties of real numbers under multiplication are as follows:
(i) Closure Property (i) Closure Property

a + b d R, a, b d R
e. g., if -3 and 5 d R, ab d R, a, b d R
then -3 + 5 = 2 d R

e.g., if -3, 5 d R,

then (-3)(5) d R
(ii) Commutative Property or -15 d R
a + b = b + a, a, b d R
e.g., if 2, 3 d R, (ii) Commutative Property
then 2+3=3+2
ab = ba, ∀ a, b ∈ R

or 5=5
1 3
e.g., if , ∈ R
3 2
(iii) Associative Property  1  3   3  1 
then    =   
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c), a, b, c d R  3  2   2  3 
e.g., if 5, 7, 3 d R,

or =
1 1
then (5 + 7) + 3 = 5 + (7 + 3) 2 2
or 12 + 3 = 5 + 10
or 15 = 15 (i) Associative Property
(iv) Additive Identity (ab)c = a(bc), a, b, c d R

There exists a unique real number 0, called additive identity, such
e.g., if 2, 3, 5 d R,

that

then (2 % 3) % 5 = 2 % (3 % 5)
a + 0 = a = 0 + a, adR or 6 % 5 = 2 % 15

or 30 = 30
11
(ii) Multiplicative Identity Note:

There exists a unique real number 1, called the multiplicative
(i) The symbol means “for all”,

identity, such that

(ii) a is the multiplicative inverse of a–1, i.e., a = (a–1)–1
a • 1 = a = 1 • a, adR
(iii) Multiplicative Inverse

(b) Properties of Equality of Real Numbers
For every non-zero real number, there exists a unique real

Properties of equality of real numbers are as follows:

number called multiplicative inverse of a, such that

(i) Reflexive Property
a = a, adR
(ii) Symmetric Property

If a = b, then b = a, a, b d R
(iii) Transitive Property

If a =b and b = c, then a = c, a, b, c d R
So, 5 and are multiplicative inverse of each other.

(iv) Additive Property

(vi) Multiplication is Distributive over Addition and Subtraction If a = b, then a + c = b + c, a, b, c d R
For all a, b, c d R
a(b + c) = ab + ac (Left distributive law)

(v) Multiplicative Property

(a + b)c = ac + bc (Right distributive law)

If a = b, then ac = bc, a, b, c d R

e.g., if 2, 3, 5 d R, then

2(3 + 5) = 2 % 3 + 2 % 5

or 2 % 8 = 6 + 10 (vi) Cancellation Property for Addition

or 16 = 16 If a + c = b + c, then a = b, a, b, c d R
And for all a, b, c d R
a(b - c) = ab - ac (Left distributive law)

(vii) Cancellation Property for Multiplication

(a - b)c = ac - bc (Right distributive law)

If ac = bc, c ≠ 0 then a = b, a, b, c d R

e.g., if 2, 5, 3 d R, then

2(5 - 3) = 2 % 5 - 2 % 3
or 2 % 2 = 10 - 6
or 4 = 4
13
(c) Properties of Inequalities of Real Numbers EXERCISE 2.2

Properties of inequalities of real numbers are as follows:

(i) Trichotomy Property 1. Identify the property used in the following

a, b d R (i) a+b=b+a (ii) (ab)c = a(bc)

a b

(iii) 7%1=7 (iv) x > y or x = y or x < y
(v) ab = ba (vi) a + c = b + c ⇒ a = b
(ii) Transitive Property (vii) 5 + (-5) = 0 (viii)
a, b, c d R (ix) a > b ⇒ ac > bc (c > 0)

(a) a b and b > c ⇒ a > c 2. Fill in the following blanks by stating the properties of real
numbers used.
(iii) Additive Property 3x + 3(y - x)
= 3x + 3y - 3x, ……..
[ a, b, c d R
= 3x – 3x + 3y, ……..
a b⇒a+c>b+c = 0 + 3y , ……..
and (b)
a b⇒c+a>c+b = 3y

……..
3. Give the name of property used in the following.
(iv) Multiplicative Property
(a) a, b, c d R and c > 0
a > b ⇒ ac > bc a b ⇒ ca > cb a b ⇒ ac < bc a bc
(i) (ii)
a > b ⇒ ca < cb a cb
2.3 Radicals and Radicands

(v) Multiplicative Inverse Property
a, b d R and a ≠ 0, b ≠ 0 2.3.1 Concept of Radicals and Radicands
If n is a positive integer greater than 1 and a is a real number,

then any real number x such that xn = a is called the nth root of a, and
in symbols is written as

=x a , or x (a )1/ n ,
=
n
In the radical n
a , the symbol is called the radical sign, n is
15
called the index of the radical and the real number a under the radical
sign is called the radicand or base.
Solution
Note:
2.3.2 Difference between Radical form and Exponential Example 2

form
In radical form, radical sign is used
e.g., is a radical form. Solution
are examples of radical form.

In exponential form, exponential is used in place of radicals,
e.g., x = (a)1/n is exponential form.
x3/2, z2/7 are examples of exponential form.
Properties of Radicals
Let a, b d R and m, n be positive integers. Then,

n
a a
=(i) n ab n
a n b (ii) n
= n
EXERCISE 2.3
b b
=(iii) n m a

nm
a (iv) n a m ( n=
= a ) m (v) n a n a 1. Write each radical expression in exponential notation and each
exponential expression in radical notation. Do not simplify.
2.3.3 Transformation of an Expression given in Radical
form to Exponential form and vice versa

The method of transforming expression in radical form to
2. Tell whether the following statements are true or false?
exponential form and vice versa is explained in the following examples.
Example 1
Write each radical expression in exponential notation and each
3. Simplify the following radical expressions.
exponential expression in radical notation. Do not simplify.
17
Solution
x -2 x -3 y 7 x -5 y 7
=(i) -3 4 = -3 4
(a m a n a m+ n )
x y x y
y 7-4 y 3  am m-n 

= = =
 a 
2.4 Laws of Exponents / Indices x -3+5 x 2  a n

-2 -2
 4a 3b0   4a 3+5 × 1   am 
(ii)   , b0 1
m-n
2.4.1 Base and Exponent -5 
= =  n a=
 9a   9  a 
-2 +2 -n
 4a 8 
n
In the exponential notation a (read as a to the nth power) we call  9  a b

n

= =   8  =
   
‘a’ as the base and ‘n’ as the exponent or the power to which the base  9   4a  b a
n
is raised. a a
n
81
=
=  
From this definition, recall that, we have the following laws of 16a16 b b
n

exponents.
If a, b d R and m, n are positive integers, then Example 2
Simplify the following by using laws of indices:

I am • an = am+n II (am)n = amn -4/3

 8  4(3) n
(i)   (ii) n+1 n
III (ab)n = anbn IV

 125  3 -3
V = am/an, am-n , a ≠ 0 VI a0 = 1, where a ≠ 0

Solution
1
=
VII a , where a ≠ 0 -n
Using Laws of Indices,
an
2.4.2 Applications of Laws of Exponents
The method of applying the laws of indices to simplify algebraic

expressions is explained in the following examples.
EXERCISE 2.4
Example 1
Use rules of exponents to simplify each expression and write the
1. Use laws of exponents to simplify:

answer in terms of positive exponents.
-2
x -2 x -3 y 7  4a 3b0 
(i) -3 4 (ii)  -5 

x y  9a 
19
Note:
-4/3
 x -2 y -1 z -4  (81) n .35 - (3) 4 n-1 (243)
(iii)  4 -3 0  (iv)
 x y z  (92 n )(33 ) The Swiss mathematician Leonard Euler (1707 – 1783) was the
first to use the symbol i for the number -1

2. Show that

Numbers like -1, -5 etc. are called pure imaginary numbers.

a +b b+c c+a
 xa   xb   xc 
 b ×  c  ×  a  =
1

x  x  x  Integral Powers of i
3. Simplify By using i= -1 ,we can easily calculate the integral powers of i .
e.g., i 2 =-1, i 3 =i 2 × i =-i, i 4 =i 2 × i 2 =(-1)(-1) =1, i 8 =(i 2 ) 4 =(-1) 4 =1,
2 × (27) × (60)
1/3 1/3 1/2
(216) × (25) 2/3 1/2 i10 =
(i 2 )5 = -1, etc.
(-1)5 =
(i) -1/3
(ii) A pure imaginary number is the square root of a negative real
(180) × (4) × (9)
1/2 1/4
(.04) -1/2
3 number.
(iii) 52 ÷ (52 )3 (iv) ( x3 ) 2 ÷ x3 , x ≠ 0
2
2.5.1 Definition of a Complex Number

2.5 Complex Numbers
A number of the form z = a + bi where a and b are real numbers
and i= -1 ,is called a complex number and is represented by z i.e.,
We recall that the square of a real number is non-negative. So
z = a + ib

the solution of the equation x2 + 1 = 0 or x2 = –1 does not exist in R.

To overcome this inadequacy of real numbers, we need a number
whose square is –1. Thus the mathematicians were tempted to
2.5.2 Set of Complex Numbers
introduce a larger set of numbers called the set of complex numbers
The set of all complex numbers is denoted by C, and
which contains R and every number whose square is negative. They
invented a new number –1, called the imaginary unit, and denoted C= a + bi, where a, b ∈ R and i =
{z | z = -1}

it by the letter i (iota) having the property that i 2 = -1. Obviously i is
not a real number. It is a new mathematical entity that enables us The numbers a and b, called the real and imaginary parts of z,
to enlarge the number system to contain solution of every algebraic are denoted as a = R(z) and b = lm(z).

equation of the form x2 = –a, where a > 0. By taking new number Observe that:
i= -1 , the solution set of x2 + 1 = 0 is
(i) Every a d R may be identified with complex numbers of the form
a + Oi taking b = 0. Therefore, every real number is also a complex
number. Thus R f C. Note that every complex number is not a real
number.
(ii) If a = 0, then a + bi reduces to a purely imaginary number bi. The
set of purely imaginary numbers is also contained in C.
21
(iii) If a= b = 0, then z = 0 + i0 is called the complex number 0. 2x = 4 and y2 = 9, i.e., x = 2 and y = ± 3

The set of complex numbers is shown in the following diagram
Properties of real numbers R are also valid for the set of complex

numbers.
(i) z1 = z1 (Reflexive law)

(ii) If z1 = z2, then z2 = z1 (Symmetric law)
(iii) If z1 = z2 and z2 = z3, then z1 = z3 (Transitive law)
EXERCISE 2.5
1. Evaluate
2.5.3 Conjugate of a Complex Number (i) i7 (ii) i50 (iii) i12
(iv) (-)8 (v) (-i)5 (vi) i27
If we change i to –i in z = a + bi, we obtain another complex

2. Write the conjugate of the following numbers.
number a – bi called the complex conjugate of z and is denoted by z (i) 2 + 3i (ii) 3 - 5i (iii) -i
(read z bar). (iv) -3 + 4i (v) -4 - i (vi) i-3
3. Write the real and imaginary part of the following numbers.
(i) 1+i (ii) -1 + 2i (iii) -3i + 2
(iv) -2 - 2i (v) -3i (vi) 2 + 0i
The numbers a + bi and a — bi are called conjugates of each other.
4. Find the value of x and y if x + iy + 1 = 4 - 3i.

Note that:
2.6 Basic Operations on Complex Numbers
(i) z=z

(i) Addition
(ii) The conjugate of a real number z = a + oi coincides with the

Let z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id be two complex numbers and

number itself, since z = a + 0i = a - 0i..

a, b, c, d d R.
(iii) conjugate of a real number is the same real number.

The sum of two complex numbers is given by

z1 + z2 = (a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i

i.e., the sum of two complex numbers is the sum of the
corresponding real and the imaginary parts.
2.5.4 Equality of Complex Numbers and its Properties e.g., (3 -8i) + (5 + 2i) = (3 + 5) + (-8 + 2)i = 8 - 6i
For all a, b, c, d d R, (i) Multiplication

a + bi = c + di if and only if a= c and b = d. Let z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id be two complex numbers.
e.g., 2x + y2i = 4 + 9i if and only if The products are found as
23
(i) If k d R, kz1 = k(a + bi) = ka + kbi. Operations are explained with the help of following examples.
(Multiplication of a complex number with a scalar)

(ii) z1z2 = (a + bi) (c + di) = (ac - bd) + (ad + bc)i Example 1

(Multiplication of two complex numbers)
Separate the real and imaginary parts of

The multiplication of any two complex numbers (a + bi) and

(c + di) is explained as Solution
z1z2 = (a + bi) (c + di) = a(c + di) + bi(c + di)

= ac + adi + bci + bdi2

= ac + adi + bci + bd(-1) (since i2 = -1)

= (ac - bd) + (ad + bc)i (combining like terms)

e.g., (2 - 3i) (4 + 5i) = 8 + 10i - 12i - 15i2 = 23 - 2i.

(since i2 = -1)

(iii) Subtraction
Let z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id be two complex numbers.
Example 2
The difference between two complex numbers is given by

z1 - z2 = (a + bi) - (c + di) = (a - c) + (b - d)i

e.g., (-2 + 3i) - (2 + i) = (- 2 - 2) + (3 - 1)i = - 4 + 2i

i.e., the difference of two complex numbers is the difference of

Solution
the corresponding real and imaginary parts.
(iv) Division
Let z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id be two complex numbers such that

z2 ≠ 0.
The division of a + bi by c + di is given by

(Multiplying the numerator

and denominator by c - di, the
complex conjugateof c +di).
Example 3

25
Solution (i) (2 + 3i) + (7 - 2i) (ii) 2(5 + 4i) -3 (7 + 4i)

4 + 5i 1 4 + 5i (iii) -(-3 + 5i) - (4 + 9i) (iv) 2i2 + 6i3 + 3i16 - 6i19 + 4i25
= (4 + 5i ). × (multiplying and dividing by the

4 - 5i 4 - 5i 4 + 5i
conjugate of (4 - 5)i ) 3. Simplify and write your answer in the form a+ bi.
(4 + 5i ) 16 + 40i + 25i
2 2
= = (simplifying)
(4) - (5i )
2 2
16 - 25i 2
16 + 40i + 25
= , (since i 2 = -1)
16 - 25
-9 + 40i 9 40 4. Simplify and write your answer in the form a + bi.
= = - + i
41 41 41
Example 4
Solve (3 - 4i) (x + yi) = 1 + 0 . i for real numbers x and y, where

i= -1 .
Solution 5. Calculate (a) z (b) z + z (c) z - z (d) z z, for each of the following

We have (3 - 4i) (x + yi)

=1+0.i
or 3x + 3iy - 4ix - 4i2y = 1 + 0 . i (i) z = -i (ii) z=2+i
or 3x + 4y + (3y - 4x)i =1+0.i (iii) (iv)
Equating the real and imaginary parts, we obtain
3x + 4y = 1 and 3y - 4x = 0

olving these two equations simultaneously, we have 6. If z = 2 + 3i and w = 5 - 4i, show that
EXERCISE 2.6
1. Identify the following statements as true or false.

(i) (ii) i73 = -i (iii) i10 = -1
(iv) Complex conjugate of (-6i + i2) is (-1 + 6i)
(v) Difference of a complex number z = a + bi and its conjugate
7. Solve the following equations for real x and y.
is a real number.

(vi) If (a – 1) – (b +3)i = 5 + 8i, then a = 6 and b = -11.

(i) (2 - 3i) (x + yi) = 4 + i
(vii) Product of a complex number and its conjugate is always
(ii) (3 - 2i) (x + yi) = 2(x - 2yi) + 2i - 1
a non-negative real number.

2. Express each complex number in the standard form a + bi, (iii) (3 + 4i)2 - 2(x - yi) = x + yi
where a and b are real numbers.
27
REVIEW EXERCISE 2
al 3 a m 3 a n
7. Simplify 3 × ×
1. Multiple Choice Questions. Choose the correct answer. am an al
SUMMARY
2. True or false? Identify.
* Set of real numbers is expressed as R = Q U Q/ where
(i) Division is not an associative operation. .........

(ii) Every whole number is a natural number. ......... p 

(iii) Multiplicative inverse of 0.02 is 50. ......... =  , Q
Q  | p, q ∈ Z ∧ q ≠ 0= { x | x is not rational}.
q 
(iv) p is a rational number. .........
(v) Every integer is a rational number. ......... * Properties of real numbers w.r.t. addition and multiplication:
(vi) Subtraction is a commutative operation. ......... Closure: a + b d R, ab d R, a, b d R
(vii) Every real number is a rational number. ......... Associative:
(viii) Decimal representation of a rational number is either (a + b) + c = a + (b + c), (ab)c = a(bc), a,b,c dR
terminating or recurring. ......... Commutative:
3. Simplify the following:

a + b = b + a, ab = ba, a, b d R
Additive Identity:
(i) 4 81 y x (ii) 25 x
-12 -8 10 n
y 8m
a + 0 = a = 0 + a, a dR
1/5 2/5
 x3 y 4 z 5   32 x -6 y -4 z  Multiplicative Identity:
(iii)  -2 -1 -5  (iv)  -4 

 625 x y z 
4

x y z  a . 1 = a = 1 . a, adR
Additive Inverse:
(216) 2/3 × (25)1/2
4. Simplify
(0.04) -3/2 a + (-a) = 0 = (-a) + a,

adR
5. Simplify Multiplicative Inverse:
p+q q+r
 ap   aq 
 q .  r  ÷ 5(a p . a r ) p -r , a ≠ 0
a  a 

Multiplication is distributive over addition and subtraction:
 a 2l  a 2 m  a 2 n  a(b + c) = ab + ac, [ a, b, c d R
6. Simplify  l + m  m+ n  n+l  (b + c)a = ba + ca [ a, b, c d R
 a  a  a 

a(b - c) = ab - ac [ a, b, c d R
(a - b)c = ac - bc [ a, b, c d R
29
2. Real and Complex Numbers eLearn.Punjab
* Properties of equality in R
Reflexive: a = a, [ a d R

Symmetric: a = b ⇒ b = a, [ a, b d R
Transitive: a = b, b = c ⇒ a = c, [ a, b,c d R

Additive property: If a = b, then a + c = b + c, [ a, b, c d R

Multiplicative property: If a = b, then ac = bc, [ a, b ,c d R
Cancellation property: If ac = be, c m 0, then a = b ,[ a, b,c d R
* In the radical
is radical sign, x is radicand or base and n
is index of radical.
* Indices and laws of indices:

[a, b,c d R and m, n d z ,

(am)n = amn , (ab)n = anbn
n
a a
n
= ,b ≠ 0
b b
n
aman = am+n
am
= n
a m-n , a ≠ 0
a
1
a-n
= ,a ≠ 0
an
a0 = 1

* Complex number z = a + bi is defined using imaginary unit i=

-1 .
where a, b d R and a = Re (z), b = Im (z)
* Conjugate of z = a + bi is defined as z = a - bi
Version: 1.1
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30
version: 1.1
CHAPTER
LOGARITHMS
3
Animation 3.1:Laws of logarithms

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3. Logarithms eLearn.Punjab 3. Logarithms eLearn.Punjab

3.1 Scientific Notation
After studying this unit, the students will be able to:
There are so many numbers that we use in science and technical
• express a number in standard form of scientific notation and vice

work that are either very small or very large. For instance, the distance
versa.
from the Earth to the Sun is 150,000,000 km approximately and a
• define logarithm of a number y to the base a as the power to which
hydrogen atom weighs 0.000,000,000,000,000,000,000,001,7 gram.
a must be raised to give the number (i.e., ax = y ⇔ logay = x, a > 0,
While writing these numbers in ordinary notation (standard notation)
• a ≠ 1 and y > 0).
there is always chance of making an error by omitting a zero or
• define a common logarithm, characteristic and mantissa of log of
writing more than actual number of zeros. To overcome this problem,
a number.
scientists have developed a concise, precise and convenient method
• use tables to find the log of a number.
to write very small or very large numbers, that is called scientific
• give concept of antilog and use tables to find the antilog of a
notation of expressing an ordinary number.
number.
A number written in the form a x 10n, where 1 < a < 10 and n is an
• differentiate between common and natural logarithm.

integer, is called the scientific notation.

• prove the following laws of logarithm
The above mentioned numbers (in 3.1) can be conveniently written
• loga(mn) = logam + logan,

m in scientific notation as 1.5 x 108 km and 1.7 x 10-24 gm respectively.

• loga ( n ) = logam – logan,

• logamn = nlogam,
Example 1
• logam logmn = logan.
Write each of the following ordinary numbers in scientific notation
• apply laws of logarithm to convert lengthy processes of

(i) 30600 (ii) 0.000058

multiplication, division and exponentiation into easier processes
of addition and subtraction etc.
Solution
30600 = 3.06 x 104 (move decimal point four places to the left)
Introduction

0.000058 = 5.8 x 10-5 (move decimal point five places to the right)

The difficult and complicated calculations become easier by using

Observe that for expressing a number in scientific notation

logarithms.
(i) Place the decimal point after the first non-zero digit of given
Abu Muhammad Musa Al Khwarizmi first gave the idea of logarithms.

number.
Later on, in the seventeenth century John Napier extended his work

(ii) We multiply the number obtained in step (i), by 10n if we shifted

on logarithms and prepared tables for logarithms He used “e” as

the decimal point n places to the left

the base for the preparation of logarithm tables. Professor Henry

(iii) We multiply the number obtained in step (i) by 10-n if we shifted

Briggs had a special interest in the work of John Napier. He prepared

the decimal point n places to the right.

logarithim tables with base 10. Antilogarithm table was prepared by

(iv) On the other hand, if we want to change a number from scientific

Jobst Burgi in 1620 A.D.

notation to ordinary (standard) notation, we simply reverse the

process.

3
Example 2 loga y = x, where a > 0, a ≠ 1 and y > 0.

Change each of the following numbers from scientific notation to

i.e., the logarithm of a number y to the base ‘a’ is the index x of the

ordinary notation. (i) 6.35 % 106 (ii) 7.61 % 10-4 power to which a must be raised to get that number y.
The relations ax = y and logay = x are equivalent. When one relation
Solution

is given, it can be converted into the other. Thus

(i) 6.35 % 106 = 6350000 (move the decimal point six places
to the right)
(ii) 7.61 % 10-4 = 0.000761 (move the decimal point four places ax = y ⇔ logay = x

to the left)
EXERCISE 3.1
ax = y and loga y = x are respectively exponential and logarithmic
Express each of the following numbers in scientific notation. form of the same relation.
To explain these remarks ,we observe that
(i) 5700
(ii) 49,800,000
(iii) 96,000,000

32= 9 is equivalent to 1og3 9 = 2
(iv) 416.9
(v) 83,000
(vi) 0.00643
(vii) 0.0074 (viii) 60,000,000 (ix) 0.00000000395 1
and 2-1= is equivalent to log2 = -1

(x) 275,000
2 Logarithm of a negative
0.0025 number is not defined at
this stage.
Similarly, we can say that
Express the following numbers in ordinary notation.

log327 = 3 is equivalent to 27 = 33

(i) 6 x 10-4 (ii)

5.06 x 1010
(iii) 9.018 x 10-6 (iv)

7.865 x 108 Example 3

Find 1og42, i.e., find log of 2 to the base 4.

3.2 Logarithm
Solution
Logarithms are useful tools for accurate and rapid computations.
Let 1og42 = x.
Logarithms with base 10 are known as common logarithms and Then its exponential form is 4x = 2
those with base e are known as natural logarithms. We shall define i.e., 22x = 21 ⇒ 2x = 1

logarithms with base a > 0 and a ≠ 1.

∴ x= ⇒ log42 =
3.2.1 Logarithm of a Real Number

Deductions from Definition of Logarithm
If ax = y, then x is called the logarithm of y to the base ‘a’ and is

1. Since a0 = 1, loga1 = 0
2. Since a1 = a,
logaa = 1
written as

5
3.2.2 Definitions of Common Logarithm, Characteristic

and Mantissa Definition of Common Logarithm Observe that

In numerical calculations, the base of logarithm is always taken

The logarithm of any number consists of two parts:
as 10. These logarithms are called common logarithms or Briggesian (i) An integral part which is positive for a number greater than 1 and

logarithms in honour of Henry Briggs, an English mathematician and negative for a number less than 1, is called the characteristic of

astronomer, who developed them. logarithm of the number.

(ii) A decimal part which is always positive, is called the mantissa of

Characteristic and Mantissa of Log of a Number the logarithm of the number.

Consider the following
103 = 1000 ⇔ log 1000 =3
102 = 100 ⇔ log 100 =2 (i) Characteristic of Logarithm of a Number > 1
101 = 10 ⇔
log 10 =1 The first part of above table shows that if a number has one

100 = 1 ⇔
log 1
=0 digit in the integral part, then the characteristic is zero; if its integral
10–1 = 0.1 ⇔ log 0.1 = –1 part has two digits, then the characteristic is one; with three digits in
10–2 = 0.01 ⇔ log 0.01 = –2 the integral part, the characteristic is two, and so on.
10–3 = 0.001 ⇔ log 0.001 = –3 In other words, the characteristic of the logarithm of a number

greater than 1 is always one less than the number of digits in the
Note: integral part of the number.
When a number b is written in the scientific notation, i.e., in the

By convention, if only the common logarithms are used

form b = a x10n where 1 < a < 10, the power of 10 i.e., n will give the

throughout a discussion, the base 10 is not written. characteristic of log b.
Also consider the following table Examples
For the numbers the logarithm is Characteristic of

Number Scientific Notation

the Logarithm
Between 1 and 10 a decimal
Between 10 and 100 1 + a decimal 1.02 1.02 x100 0
99.6 9.96 x 101 1
Between 100 and 1000 2 + a decimal
102 1.02 x 102 2
Between 0.1 and 1 –1 + a decimal 1662.4 1.6624 x 103 3
Between 0.01 and 0.1 –2 + a decimal
Between 0.001 and 0.01 –3 + a decimal

7
Characteristic of Logarithm of a Number < 1 logarithmic tables. These tables have been constructed to obtain the
The second part of the table indicates that, if a number has no
logarithms up to 7 decimal places. For all practical purposes, a four-
zero immediately after the decimal point, the characteristic is –1; if it figure logarithmic table will provide sufficient accuracy.
has one zero immediately after the decimal point, the characteristic A logarithmic table is divided into 3 parts.
is –2; if it has two zeros immediately after the decimal point, the (a) The first part of the table is the extreme left column headed by
characteristic is –3; etc. blank square. This column contains numbers from 10 to 99
In other words, the characteristic of the logarithm of a number

corresponding to the first two digits of the number whose
less than 1, is always negative and one more than the number of zeros logarithm is required.
immediately after the decimal point of the number. (b) The second part of the table consists of 10 columns, headed by
0, 1, 2, ...,9. These headings correspond to the third digit from
the left of the number. The numbers under these columns
Example
record mantissa of the logarithms with decimal point omitted
Write the characteristic of the log of following numbers by

for simplicity.

expressing them in scientific notation and noting the power of 10.

(c) The third part of the table further consists of small columns
0.872, 0.02, 0.00345

known as mean differences columns headed by 1, 2, 3, ...,9.

These headings correspond to the fourth digit from the left of
Solution the number. The readings of these columns are added to the
mantissa recorded in second part (b) above.
Characteristic of
Number Scientific Notation
the Logarithm
When the four-figure log table is used to find the mantissa of the
0.872 8.72 x 10-1 -1 logarithm of a number, the decimal point is ignored and the number
0.02 2.0 x 10-2 -2 is rounded to four significant figures.
0.00345 3.45 x 10-3 -3
3.2.3 Using Tables to find log of a Number
When a number is less than 1, the characteristic of its logarithm is The method to find log of a number is explained in the

written by convention, as 3, 2 or 1 instead of -3, -2 or -1 respectively following examples. In the first two examples, we shall confine to
(3 is read as bar 3 ) to avoid the mantissa becoming negative. finding mantissa only.
Note: Example 1
2.3748 does not mean -2.3748. In 2.3748, 2 is negative but .3748

Find the mantissa of the logarithm of 43.254

is positive; Whereas in -2.3748 both 2 and .3748 are negative.

Solution
(ii) Finding the Mantissa of the Logarithm of a Number Rounding off 43.254 we consider only the four significant digits

While the characteristic of the logarithm of a number is written 4325

merely by inspection, the mantissa is found by making use of
9
1. We first locate the row corresponding to 43 in the log tables and Example 3
2. Proceed horizontally till we reach the column corresponding to 2. Find (i) log 278.23
(ii) log 0.07058

The number at the intersection is 6355.

3. Again proceeding horizontally till the mean difference column Solution
corresponding to 5 intersects this row, we get the number 5 at the (i) 278.23 can be round off as 278.2

intersection. The characteristic is 2 and the mantissa, using log tables, is .4443
4. Adding the two numbers 6355 and 5, we get .6360 as the mantissa ∴ log 278.23 = 2.4443

of the logarithm of 43.25. (ii) The characteristic of log 0.07058 is -2 which is written as 2 by

convention. Using log tables the mantissa is .8487, so that
Example 2 log 0.07058 = 2.8487
Find the mantissa of the logarithm of 0.002347

3.2.4 The Concept of Antilogarithm and Use of Antilog

Solution Tables
Here also, we consider only the four significant digits 2347

We first locate the row corresponding to 23 in the logarithm tables The number whose logarithm is given is called antilogarithm.
and proceed as before. i.e., if logay = x, then y is the antilogarithm of x, or y = antilog x

Along the same row to its intersection with the column corresponding
to 4 the resulting number is 3692. The number at the intersection of Finding the Number whose Logarithm is Known
this row and the mean difference column corresponding to 7 is 13. We ignore the characteristic and consider only the mantissa. In the

Hence the sum of 3692 and 13 gives the mantissa of the logarithm of antilogarithm page of the log table, we locate the row corresponding
0.002347 as 0.3705 to the first two digits of the mantissa (taken together with the decimal
point). Then we proceed along this row till it intersects the column
Note: corresponding to the third digit of the mantissa. The number at the
intersection is added with the number at the intersection of this row
The logarithms of numbers having the same sequence of
and the mean difference column corresponding to the fourth digit of

significant digits have the same mantissa. e.g., the mantissa

the mantissa.

of log of numbers 0.002347 and 0.2347 is 0.3705

Thus the significant figures of the required number are obtained.
Now only the decimal point is to be fixed.
For finding the common logarithm of any given number, (i) If the characteristic of the given logarithm is positive, that number

increased by 1 gives the number of figures to the left of the decimal

(i) Round off the number to four significant digits.

point in the required number.

(ii) Find the characteristic of the logarithm of the number by inspection.

(ii) If the characteristic is negative, its numerical value decreased by

(iii) Find the mantissa of the logarithm of the number from the log 1 gives the number of zeros to the right of the decimal point in the
tables. required number.
(iv) Combine the two.
11
Example (iii) log5 n = 2 (iv) 10p = 40

Find the numbers whose logarithms are (i) 1.3247 (ii) 2.1324

5. Evaluate

Solution
(i) 1.3247
Reading along the row corresponding to .32 (as mantissa 6. Find the value of x from the following statements.
x

= 0.3247), we get 2109 at the intersection of this row with the column (i) log2x = 5 (ii) log819 = x (iii) log648 =
2

corresponding to 4. The number at the intersection of this row and (iv) logx64 = 2
(v) log3x = 4

the mean difference column corresponding to 7 is 3. Adding 2109 and

3 we get 2112.
3.3 Common Logarithm and Natural Logarithm
Since the characteristic is 1 it is increased by 1 (because there
should be two digits in the integral part) and therefore the decimal
In 3.2.2 we have introduced common logarithm having base
point is fixed after two digits from left in 2112.

10. Common logarithm is also known as decadic logarithms named

Hence antilog of 1.3247 is 21.12.
after its base 10. We usually take logx to mean log10x , and this type

(ii) 2.1324
of logarithm is more convenient to use in numerical calculations.
Proceeding as in (i) the significant figures corresponding to the
John Napier prepared the logarithms tables to the base e. Napier’s

mantissa 0.1324 are 1356. Since the characteristic is 2, its numerical

logarithms are also called Natural Logarithms He released the first
value 2 is decreased by 1. Hence there will be one zero after the
ever log tables in 1614. loge x is conventionally given the notation In x.
decimal point.
In many theoretical investigations in science and engineering, it is
Hence antilog of 2.1324 is 0.01356.

often convenient to have a base e, an irrational number, whose value

is 2.7182818...
EXERCISE 3.2
3.4 Laws of Logarithm
1. Find the common logarithm of each of the following numbers.

(i) 232.92 (ii) 29.326

In this section we shall prove the laws of logarithm and then

(iii) 0.00032 (iv) 0.3206

apply them to find products, quotients, powers and roots of numbers.

2. If log 31.09 = 1.4926, find values of the following

(i) log 3.109,

(ii) log 310.9, (iii) log 0.003109,

(iv) log 0.3109 without using tables.

3. Find the numbers whose common logarithms are

(i) 3.5621
(ii) 1.7427

4. What replacement for the unknown in each of following will make

the statement true?

(i) log3 81 = L
(ii) loga 6 = 0.5

13
(i) loga(mn) = logam + logan Hence y = antilog 3.0912 = 0.001234

Proof
Let logam = x and logan = y

Writing in exponential form ax = m and ay = n.

∴ ax % ay = mn
i.e., ax+y = mn

Proof
or loga(mn) = x + y = logam + logan

Let
logam = x and logan = y

Hence loga(mn) = logam + logan

Then
ax = m and ay = n

Note:
(i)
loga(mn) ≠ logam x logan
(ii)
logam + logan ≠ loga(m + n)
(iii)
loga(mnp ...) =logam + logan + logap + …
The rule given above is useful in finding the product of two or

more numbers using logarithms. We illustrate this with the following

examples. Note:
Example 1
Evaluate 291.3 % 42.36

Solution Note that

logaa = 1
Let
x = 291.3 % 42.36
Then log x = log (291.3 % 42.36)

Example 1
= log 291.3 + log 42.36 ,
(logamn = logam + logan)

= 2.4643 + 1.6269 = 4.0912

x = antilog 4.0912 = 12340

Solution
Example 2
Evaluate 0.2913 % 0.004236.

Solution
Let
y = 0.2913 % 0.004236

Then log y = log 0.2913 + log 0.004236

Thus x = antilog 0.8374 = 6.877
= 1.4643 + 3.6269

= 3.0912

15
Example 2 (iv) Change of Base Formula
Solution Proof
Let
logb n = x so that n = bx

Taking log to the base a, we have

or log y = log 0.002913 - log 0.04236 loga n = logabx = x loga b = logb n loga b
Thus loga n = logb n loga b …… (i)

log y = 3.4643 - 2.6269
Putting n = a in the above result, we get

= 3 + (0.4643 - 0.6269) - 2
= 3 - 0.1626 - 2 logb a % loga b = loga a = 1
= 3 + (1 - 0.1626) - 1 - 2, (adding and subtracting 1)

= 2.8374 [ 3 - 1 - 2 = -3 -1 - (-2) = -2 = 2 ]
Therefore, y = antilog 2.8374 = 0.06877
(iii) loga(mn) = n logam

Using the above rule, a natural logarithm can be converted to a

common logarithm and vice versa.

Proof
Let logamn = x, i.e., ax = mn

and logam = y, i.e., ay = m

Then ax = mn = (ay)n

i.e., ax = (ay)n = ayn ⇒ x = ny

i.e.,logamn = n loga m
The values of loge 10 and log10 e are available from the tables:
and log10 e = log 2.718 = 0.4343
Example 1

Example:
Solution
Calculate log23 % 1og38

Solution:
We know that


17
3.5 Application of Laws of Logarithm in

Numerical Calculations
So far we have applied laws of logarithm to simple type of
products, quotients, powers or roots of numbers. We now extend their
application to more difficult examples to verify their effectiveness in
simplification.
Note:
(i) During conversion the product form of the change of base rule

Example 1
may often be convenient. Show that
(ii) Logarithms can be defined to any positive base other than 1, e
or 10, and are useful for solving equations in which the unknown

appears as the exponent of some other quantity.

Solution
EXERCISE 3.3
= 7[log 16 - log 15] + 5[log 25 - log 24] + 3[log 81 - log 80]
1. Write the following into sum or difference = 7[log 24 - log (3 x 5)] + 5[log 52 - log (23 x 3)] + 3[log 34 -
log (24 x 5)]
= 7[4 log 2 - log 3 - log 5] + 5[2 log 5 - 3 log 2 - log 3] + 3[4
log 3 - 4 log2 - log 5]

= (28 - 15 - 12) log 2 + (-7 - 5 + 12) log 3 + (-7 + 10 - 3)log 5

= log 2 + 0 + 0 = log 2 = R.H.S.
2. Express log x – 2 log x + 3 log (x + 1) – log (x2 – 1) as a single Example 2
logarithm. Evaluate:
3. Write the following in the form of a single logarithm.
(i) log 21 + log 5
(ii) log 25 – 2 log 3

Solution
(iii) 2 log x – 3 log y

(iv) log 5 + log 6 – log2

4. Calculate the following:

(i) log32 % 1og281
(ii) log53 % 1og325
5. If log 2 = 0.3010, log 3 = 0.4771, log 5 = 0.6990, then find the

values of the following
(i) log 32
(ii) log 24
(iii) log

(iv) log
(v) log 30


19
2. A gas is expanding according to the law pvn = C. Find C when

p = 80, v = 3.1 and
3. The formula p = 90 (5)-q/10 applies to the demand of a product,

where q is the number of units and p is the price of one unit.
How many units will be demanded if the price is Rs 18.00?
22
4. If A = pr2, find A, when p = 7 and r = 15
1 22
or y = antilog 1.4762 = 0.2993
5. If V = 3
p r2h, find V, when p = 7
, r = 2.5 and h = 4.2

Example 3 REVIEW EXERCISE 3

Given A = Aoe-kd. If k = 2, what should be the value of d to make
1. Multiple Choice Questions. Choose the correct answer.
Solution
Given that A = Aoe-kd. ⇒ 2. Complete the following:
(i) For common logarithm, the base is ……..
1
Substituting k = 2, and , we get 2 = e-2d
(ii) The integral part of the common logarithm of a number is called
Taking common log on both sides, the …..
log101 - log102 = -2d log10e, where e = 2.718
(iii) The decimal part of the common logarithm of a number is called
0 - 0.3010 = -2d (0.4343)
the ….
(iv) If x = log y, then y is called the ........... of x.
(v) If the charactcristic of the logarithm of a number is 2, that

number will have ......... zero(s) immediately after the decimal

EXERCISE 3.4 point.
(vi) If the characteristic of the logarithm of a number is 1, that
1. Use log tables to find the value of number will have digits in its integral part.

3. Find the value of x in the following:
(i) log3 x = 5 (ii) log4256 = x
(iii) (iv)

21
4. Find the value of x in the following: • The number corresponding to a given logarithm is known as
(i) log x = 2.4543
(ii) log x = 0.1821
antilogarithm.
(iii) log x = 0.0044

(iv) logx = 1.6238
• loge10 = 2.3026 and log10e = 0.4343
5. If log 2 = 0.3010, log 3 = 0.4771 and log 5 = 0.6990, then find the • Laws of logarithms.
values of the following: (i) loga (mn) = loga m + loga n

(ii) loga ( m ) = loga m - logan

n

(i) log 45 (ii) log 16 (iii) log 0.048 (iii) loga (mn) = n loga m
15

(iv) loga n = logb n - loga b

6. Simplify the following:
SUMMARY
• If ax = y, then x is called the logarithm of y to the base a and is

written as x = loga y, where a > 0, a ≠ 1 and y > 0.

• If x = loga y, then ax = y.
• If the base of the logarithm is taken as 10, it is known as
common logarithm and if the base is taken as e(c2.718)
then it is known as natural or Naperian logarithm.
• The integral part of the common logarithm of a number is called
the characteristic and the decimal part the mantissa.
• (i) For a number greater than 1, the characteristic of its logarithm

• is equal to the number of digits in the integral part of the

number minus one.

• (ii) For a number less than 1, the characteristic of its logarithm

is always negative and is equal to the number of zeros

immediately after the decimal point of the number plus one.

• When a number is less than 1, the characteristic is always written

as 3, 2, 1 (instead of -3, -2, -1) to avoid the mantissa becoming
negative
• The logarithms of numbers having the same sequence of significant
digits have the same mantissa.
23
version: 1.1
CHAPTER
Algebr ic expressions
4 nd
a
lgebr ib formul s
a
a
a
a
Animation 4.1: Algebraic Expressions and Algebraic Formulas
www.Quranmualim.com
4. Algebraic Expressions and Algebraic Formulas eLearn.Punjab 4. Algebraic Expressions and Algebraic Formulas eLearn.Punjab
Students Learning Outcomes t know the formulas

(a + b)3 = a3 + 3ab(a + b) + b3,
After studying this unit, the students will be able to: (a - b)3 = a3 - 3ab(a - b) - b3,
t Know that a rational expression behaves like a rational number. t find the value of a3 ± b3 when the values of a ± b and ab are given
t find the value of x3 ± when the value of x ± is given.
p( x)
t Define a rational expression as the quotient of two t know the formulas
q( x)
a3 ± b3 = (a ± b)(a2 ± ab + b2).
polynomials p(x) and q(x) where q(x) is not the zero polynomial.
Examine whether a given algebraic expression is a 1 1
t • find the product of x +
and x 2 + 2 - 1.
• polynomial or not,

x x
• rational expression or not. 1 1

• find the product of x - and x 2 + 2 + 1.

x x
p( x)
t Define as a rational expression in its lowest terms if p(x) and • find the continued product of
q( x)

(x + y) (x - y) (x2 + xy + y2 ) (x2 - xy + y2 ).
q(x) are polynomials with integral coefficients and having no t recognize the surds and their application.
common factor. t explain the surds of second order. Use basic operations on surds
t Examine whether a given rational algebraic expression is in lowest of second order to rationalize the denominators and evaluate it.
from or not. t explain rationalization (with precise meaning) of real numbers of
t Reduce a given rational expression to its lowest terms.
t Find the sum, difference and product of rational expressions. the types
1
,
1
and their combinations where x and y
t Divide a rational expression with another and express the result in a+b x x+ y
it lowest terms. are natural numbers and a and b integers.
t Find value of algebraic expression for some particular real number.
Know the formulas 4.1 Algebraic Expressions
(a + b)2 + (a – b)2 = 2(a2 + b2),
(a + b)2 – (a – b)2 = 4ab Algebra is a generalization of arithmetic. Recall that when
t Find the value of a2 + b2 and of ab when the values of a + b and operations of addition and subtraction are applied to algebraic terms,
a – b are known.
2
t Know the formulas we obtain an algebraic expression. For instance, 5x2 - 3x + and
x
(a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca.
3
t find the value of a2 + b2 + c2 when the values of a + b + c and 3xy + (x ≠ 0) are algebraic expressions.
x
ab + bc + ca are given.
t find the value of a + b + c when the values of a2 + b2 + c2 and Polynomials
ab + bc + ca are given. A polynomial in the variable x is an algebraic expression of the
t find the value of ab + bc + ca when the values of a2 + b2 + c2 and form P(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + an-2xn-2 + …+ a1x + a0, an ≠ 0 …… (i)

Version: 1.1 a + b + c are given. Version: 1.1

3
where n, the highest power of x, is a non-negative integer called the

degree of the polynomial and each coefficient an, is a real number. The In the rational expression
p( x)
, p(x) is called the numerator and q(x)
coefficient an of the highest power of x is called the leading coefficient q( x)
of the polynomial. 2x4y3 + x2y2 + 8x is a polynomial in two variables x is known as the denominator of the rational expression
p( x)
. The
and y and has degree 7. q( x)
From the study of similar properties of integers and polynomials rational expression
p( x)
need not be a polynomial.
w.r.t. addition and multiplication, we may say that polynomials behave Note:
q( x)
like integers. Every polynomial p(x) can be regarded as a rational expression,
Self Testing p( x)
since we can write p(x) as .Thus, every polynomial is a rational
1
Justify the following as polynomial or not a polynomial.

expression, but every rational expression need not be a polynomial.

(i) 3x2 + 8x + 5 (ii) x3 + 2 x 2 + 5 x - 3
3x 2 + 2 x + 8 Self Testing
(iii) x + x -4
2
(iv)
3x + 4 Identify the following as a rational expression or not a rational

expression.
4.1.1 Rational Expressions Behave like Rational Numbers 2x + 6 3x + 8 x2 + 4x + 5 x
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
3x - 4 x2 + x + 2 x2 + 3 x + 4 3x 2 + 1

a
Let a and b be two integers, thenis not necessarily an integer.

b
a
Therefore, number system is extended and is defined as a rational 4.1.3 Properties of Rational Expressions
b
number where a, b d Z and b ≠ 0.
The method for operations with rational expressions is similar
p( x)
Similarly, if p(x) and q(x) are two polynomials, the is not to operations with rational numbers.
q( x)
Let p(x), q(x), r(x), s(x) be any polynomials such that all values of
necessarily a polynomial, where q(x) ≠ 0. Therefore, similar to the idea the variable that make a rational expression undefined are excluded
of rational numbers, concept of rational expressions is developed. from the domain. Then following properties of rational expressions
hold under the supposition that they all are defined (i.e., denominator
4.1.2 Rational Expression (s) ≠ 0).
p( x) p( x) r ( x)
The quotient of two polynomials, p(x) and q(x), where q(x) (i) = if and only if p(x) s(x) = q(x) r(x) (Equality)
q( x) q( x) s ( x)
p( x)k p( x)
is a non-zero polynomial, is called a rational expression. (ii) = (Cancellation)
q( x)k q( x)
2x + 1

For example, , 3x + 8 ≠ 0 is a rational expression. p( x) r ( x) p( x) s ( x) + q( x) r ( x)

(iii) + = (Addition)
Version: 1.1 3x + 8 Version: 1.1

q( x) r ( x) q( x) s ( x)
5
Step I Factorize each of the two polynomials p(x) and q(x).

p( x) r ( x) p( x) s ( x) - q( x) r ( x) Step II Find H.C. F. of p(x) and q(x).
(iv) - = (Subtraction)

Step III Divide the numerator p(x) and the denominator q(x) by the

q( x) s ( x) q( x) s ( x)
p( x) r ( x) p( x) r ( x) H.C. F. of p(x) and q(x). The rational expression so obtained,
(v) . = (Multiplication)
is in its lowest terms.

q( x) s ( x) q( x) s ( x)
p( x) r ( x) p( x) s ( x) p( x) s ( x) In other words, an algebraic fraction can be reduced to its lowest

(vi) ÷= .= (Division)
form by first factorizing both the polynomials in the numerator and

q( x) s ( x) q( x) r ( x) q( x) r ( x)
p( x) p( x) the denominator and then cancelling the common factors between

(vii) Additive inverse of is -
them.

q( x) q( x)
p( x) q( x)
(viii) Multiplicative inverse or reciprocal of is , p ( x) ≠ 0,
Example

q( x) p( x)
q ( x) ≠ 0.
Reduce the following algebraic fractions to their lowest form.
4.1.4 Rational Expression in its Lowest form (i) (ii)
p( x)
The rational expression is said to be in its lowest form, if
q( x) Solution
p(x) and q(x) are polynomials with integral coefficients and have no
(i)
common factor.
For example, is in its lowest form.
…… (factorizing)
4.1.5 To examine whether a rational expression is in lowest
form or not …… (cancelling common factors)
p( x) which is in the lowest form

To examine the rational expression , find H.C.F of p(x) and
q( x) (ii) …… (monomial factors)
q(x). If H.C.F is 1, then the rational expression is in lowest form.
For example, is in its lowest form as H.C.F. of x - 1 and …… (factorizing)
x2 + 1 is 1.
…… (cancelling common factors)
4.1.6 Working Rule to reduce a rational expression to its which is in the lowest form.
lowest terms
p( x) 4.1.7 Sum, Difference and Product of Rational Expressions
Let the given rational expression be
q( x)
For finding sum and difference of algebraic expressions
7
containing rational expressions, we take the L.C.M. of the Solution

denominators and simplify as explained in the following examples
(monomial factors)
by using properties stated in 4.1.3.
(factorizing)
Example 1
1 1 2x 2 x2 x 1 (reduced to the lowest forms)

Simplify (i) - + 2 (ii) - 2 +
x - y x + y x - y2 x - 16 x - 4 x + 2

Solution 4.1.8 Dividing a Rational Expression with another Rational

Expression
1 1 2x 1 1 2x
(i) - + 2 = - +
x- y x+ y x - y x - y x + y ( x + y )( x - y )

2
In order to divide one rational expression with another, we first
x + y - ( x - y) + 2 x invert for changing division to multiplication and simplify the resulting
= (L.C.M. of denominators)

( x + y )( x - y )
product to the lowest terms.
x + y - x + y + 2x
=

( x + y )( x - y ) Example
2x + 2 y
= (simplifying) Simplify

( x + y )( x - y )
2( x + y) 2
= = (cancelling common factors)

( x + y )( x - y ) x - y Solution
2 x2 x 1
(ii) - 2 +
x - 16 x - 4 x + 2

2 x2 x 1
= - 2 + (difference of two squares) ...(changing division into multiplication)

( x + 4)( x - 4) x - 4 x + 2
2 2
2 x2 x 1
= - + …(factorizing)

( x + 4)( x + 2)( x - 2) ( x + 2)( x - 2) x + 2
2
2 x2 - x( x 2 + 4) + ( x 2 + 4)( x - 2) 2 x2 - x3 - 4 x + x3 + 4 x - 2 x2 - 8 x( x + 2)
= = = ...(reduced to lowest forms)

( x 2 + 4)( x + 2)( x - 2) ( x 2 + 4)( x + 2)( x - 2) 2( x - 2)

-8
= 2 (on simplification)
( x + 4)( x + 2)( x - 2)

4.1.9 Evaluation of Algebraic Expression for some particular
Example 2 Real Number Definition
Find the product (in simplified form) If specific numbers are substituted for the variables in an
algebraic expression, the resulting number is called the value of the
expression.
9
Example
64 x5 - 64 x 9 x 2 - ( x 2 - 4) 2
3x 2 y + 6 (vii) (viii)
if x = - 4 and y = 9 (8 x 2 + 8)(2 x + 2) 4 + 3x - x 2

Evaluate
5( x + y ) x3 y - 2 z
4. Evaluate (a) for
Solution

xz
We have, by putting x = - 4 and y = 9, (i) x = 3, y = -1, z = -2 (ii) x = -1, y = -9, z = 4
(b) for x = 4, y = -2, z = -1
3 x2 y + 6 3(-4) 2 9 + 6 3(16)(3) + 6 150

= = = = = 6 5. Perform the indicated operation and simplify.

5( x + y ) 5(-4 + 9) 5(5) 25
EXERCISE 4.1 15 4 1 + 2x 1 - 2x
(i) - (ii) -
2x - 3y 3y - 2x 1 - 2x 1 + 2x

1. Identify whether the following algebraic expressions are

x 2 - 25 x + 5

x y 2 xy
polynomials (Yes or No). (iii) - (iv) - - 2
x 2 - 36 x + 6 x - y x + y x - y2

1 x-2 x+2 1 1 2 4
(i) 3x 2 + -5 (ii) 3x3 - 4 x 2 - x x + 3 (v) - (vi) - - 2 - 4
x 2 + 6 x + 9 2 x 2 - 18 x -1 x +1 x +1 x -1

3x
(iii) x 2 - 3x + 2 (iv) +8 6. Perform the indicated operation and simplify.
2x - 1

5x + 2 4 x - 12 18 - 2 x 2
2. State whether each of the following expressions is a rational (i) ( x 2 - 49). (ii) ÷
x+7 x2 - 9 x2 + 6 x + 9

expression or not.
x -y
6 6
( x3 - y 3 )( x 2 - 2 xy + y 2 )
(iii) ÷ ( x4 + x2 y 2 + y 4 ) (iv)
x3 - 2 x 2 + 3 x -y ( x - y )( x 2 + xy + y 2 )

2 2
3 x
(i) (ii)
3 x +5 2 + 3x - x 2

x2 - 1 x + 5
(v) .
x2 + 6 x + 9 2 x +3 x2 + 2x + 1 1 - x

(iii) (iv)
x2 - 9 2 x -3

3. Reduce the following rational expressions to the lowest form. 4.2 Algebraic Formulae
4.2.1 Using the formulas
120 x 2 y 3 z 5 8a ( x + 1)
(i) (ii)
2( x 2 - 1)

30 x3 yz 2
(i) (a + b)2 + (a – b)2 = 2(a2 + b2) and (a + b)2 – (a – b)2 = 4ab

( x + y ) 2 - 4 xy ( x3 - y 3 )( x 2 - 2 xy + y 2 ) The process of finding the values of a2 + b2 and abis explained in

(iii) (iv) the following examples.
( x - y)2 ( x - y )( x 2 + xy + y 2 )

( x + 2)( x 2 - 1) x2 - 4 x + 4
(v) (vi)
( x + 1)( x 2 - 4) 2 x2 - 8

⇒ (7)2 - (3)2 = 4ab ....(substituting given values)


10 ⇒ 49 - 9 = 4ab 11
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Example ⇒ (a + b + c)2 = 43 + 2 % 3 (Putting a2 + b2 + c2 = 43 and

If a + b = 7and a – b = 3, then find the value of (a) a2 + b2 (b) ab ab + bc + ca = 3)

⇒ (a + b + c)2 = 49
Solution ⇒ a + b + c =± 49

We are given that a + b = 7 and a-b=3 Hence a + b + c = ± 7

(a) To find the value of (a2 + b2), we use the formula
(a + b)2 + (a - b)2 = 2(a2 + b2) Example 2
Substituting the values a + b = 7 and a - b = 3, we get If a + b + c = 6 and a2 + b2 + c2 = 24, then find the value of
(7)2 + (3)2 = 2(a2 + b2) ab + bc+ ca.
⇒ 49 + 9 = 2(a2 + b2)
⇒ 58 = 2(a2 + b2) ....(simplifying) Solution
⇒ 29 = a2 + b2 ....(dividing by 2) We have
(b) To find the value of ab, we make use of the formula (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca
(a + b)2 - (a - b)2 = 4ab ∴ (6)2 = 24 + 2(ab + bc + ca)
(7)2 - (3)2 = 4ab ⇒ 36 = 24 + 2(ab + bc + ca)
⇒ 49 - 9 = 4ab ⇒ 12 = 2(ab + bc + ca)
⇒ 40 = 4ab ....(simplifying) Hence ab + bc + ca = 6
⇒ 10 = ab ....(dividing by 4)
Hence a2 + b2 = 29 and ab = 10. Example 3
If a + b + c = 7 and ab + bc + ca = 9, then find the value of
a2 + b2 + c2.
(ii)
(a + b + c)2 = a 2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca
This formula, square of a trinomial, involves three expressions, Solution
namely; (a + b + c), (a2 + b2 + c2) and 2(ab + bc + ca). If the values We know that
of two of them are known, the value of the third expression can be (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca
calculated. The method is explained in the following examples. ⇒ (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2(ab + bc + ca)
⇒ (7)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2(9)
Example 1 ⇒ 49 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 18
If a2 + b2 + c2 = 43 and ab + bc + ca = 3, then find the value of ⇒ 31 = a2 + b2 + c2
a + b + c. Hence a2 + b2 + c2 = 31
Solution (a + b)3 = a3 + 3ab(a + b) + b3

(iii)
We know that (a - b)3 = a3 - 3ab(a - b) - b3
(a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca Example 1
⇒ (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2(ab + bc + ca) If 2x - 3y = 10 and xy = 2, then find the value of 8x3 - 27y3
13
Solution Solution
We are given that 2x - 3y = 10 We have
⇒ (2x - 3y)3 = (10)3
⇒ 8x3 - 27y3 - 3 % 2x % 3y(2x - 3y) = 1000
⇒
⇒ 8x3 - 27y3 -18xy(2x - 3y) = 1000
⇒ 8x3 - 27y3 - 18 % 2 % 10 = 1000
⇒ 8x3 - 27y3 - 360 = 1000 ⇒
Hence 8x3 - 27y3 = 1360
⇒
Example 2
1 1 ⇒
If x + =8 , then find the value of x3 + 3
x x
⇒
Solution
We have been given x +

1
=
8 ⇒
x
⇒ = (8)3 (iv) a3 ± b3 = (a ± b) (a2 m ab + b2)
 1 1
The procedure for finding the products of  x ±  and x 2 + 2 m 1
 x x
⇒ = 512 is also explained in following examples.
⇒ = 512 Example 1
Factorize 64x3 + 343y3
⇒ = 512
Solution
⇒ = 512 We have
64x3 + 343y3 = (4x)3 + (7y)3
Hence = 488 = (4x + 7y) [(4x)2 - (4x) (7y) + (7y)2]
= (4x + 7y) (16x2 - 28xy + 49y2)
Example 3 Example 2
Factorize 125x3 - 1331y3
1
If x - 4 , then find
=
x

15
Solution Example 5
We have Find the continued product of (x + y) (x-y) (x2 + xy + y2) (x2-xy + y2)
125x3 - 1331y3 = (5x)3 - (11y)3
= (5x - 11y) [(5x)2 + (5x) (11y) + (11y)2] Solution
= (5x - 11y) (25x2 + 55xy + 121y2) (x + y) (x - y) (x2 + xy + y2) (x2 - xy + y2)
Example 3 = (x + y) (x2 - xy + y2) (x - y) (x2 + xy + y2) (rearranging)
= (x3 + y3) (x3 - y3) = (x3)2 - (y3)2 = x6 - y6
2 3  4 9 
Find the product  x +  x 2 - 1 + 2 
3 2 x  9 4x  EXERCISE 4.2
Solution
1. (i) If a + b = 10 and a - b = 6, then find the value of (a2 + b2)
2 3  4 2 9 

 x +  x - 1 + 2  (ii) If a + b = 5, a - b =17 , then find the value of ab.

3 2 x  9 4x 
2. If a2 + b2 + c2 = 45 and a + b + c = -1, then find the value of
3   2   2  3   3  
2 2
2

=
 x +   x  -  x   +    ab + bc + ca.
3 2 x   3   3  2 x   2 x  
3. If m + n + p = 10 and mn + np + mp = 27, then find the value of
m2 + n2 + p2.
3 3
2   3 
=  x +  
 3   2x  4. If x2 + y2 + z2 = 78 and xy + yz + zx= 59, then find the value of
8 3 27 x + y + z.
= x + 3

27 8x
5. If x + y + z = 12 and x2 + y2 + z2 = 64, then find the value of xy + yz + zx.
6. If x + y = 7 and xy = 12, then find the value of x3 + y3.
Example 4 7. If 3x + 4y = 11 and xy = 12, then find the value of 27x3 + 64y3.
8. If x - y = 4 and xy = 21, then find the value of x3 - y3.
4 5  16 25  9. If 5x - 6y = 13 and xy = 6, then find the value of 125x3 - 216y3.
Find the product  x -  x 2 + + 1
5 4 x  25 
2
16 x
10. If then find the value of
Solution
14. Factorize (i) x3 - y3 - x + y (ii)

17
15. Find the products, using formulas. Solution

(i) (x2 + y2) (x4 - x2y2 + y4) (ii) (x3 - y3) (x6 + x3y3 + y6)
(iii) (x - y) (x + y) (x2 + y2) (x2 + xy + y2) (x2 - xy + y2) (x4 - x2y2 + y4)
(iv) (2x2 - 1) (2x2 + 1) (4x4 + 2x2 + 1) (4x4 - 2x2 + 1)
4.3 Surds and their Application

4.3.1 Definition
An irrational radical with rational radicand is called a surd.

Hence the radical is a surd if
(i) a is rational, (ii) the result is irrational.
e.g., 3, 2 / 5, 3 7, 4 10 are surds. (b) Multiplication and Division of Surds
But and are not surds because p and We can multiply and divide surds of the same order by making
are not rational. use of the following laws of surds
Note that for the surd , n is called surd index or the order of the
surd and the rational number ‘a’ is called the radicand. 3 7 is third
and the result obtained will be a surd of the same order.
order surd.
If surds to be multiplied or divided are not of the same order, they
Every surd is an irrational number but every irrational number is
must be reduced to the surds of the same order.

not a surd. e.g., the surd 3 5 is an irrational but the irrational number
is not a surd.
Example
Simplify and express the answer in the simplest form.
4.3.2 Operations on surds
(a) Addition and Subtraction of Surds
Similar surds (i.e., surds having same irrational factors) can be

added or subtracted into a single term is explained in the following

examples.
Solution
Example (i) 14 35 = 14 × 35 = 7 × 2 × 7 × 5= (7) 2 × 2 × 5

Simplify by combining similar terms. = (7) 2 × 10= (7) 2 × 10= 7 10

(i) 4 3 - 3 27 + 2 75. (ii) 128 - 3 250 + 3 432

6
3 12

(ii) We have .
33 2
19
For 3 3 2 the L.C.M. of orders 2 and 3 is 6. (v)

Thus =
3 (3)=
1/2
(3)=
3/6
=
33
6 6
27
and=
3
=
2 (2)1/3
=
(2) 2/6 6
=
(2) 2 6
4 4.4 Rationalization of Surds
6 6 6
12 12 12 12 1
Hence = = = =
6 6 (a) Definitions
33 2 6
27 6 4 6
108 108 9
(i) A surd which contains a single term is called a monomial surd.
Its simplest form is e.g., 2, 3 etc.
(ii) A surd which contains sum of two monomial surds or sum of a
2 2/6 1/3
1 1 1 1 monomial surd and a rational number is called a binomial surd.
6
= = = 3
3 3 3

3 e.g., 3 + 7 or 2 + 5 or 11 - 8 etc.
We can extend this to the definition of a trinomial surd.
EXERCISE 4.3 (iii) If the product of two surds is a rational number, then each surd
is called the rationalizing factor of the other.
1. Express each of the following surd in the simplest form. (iv) The process of multiplying a given surd by its rationalizing
factor to get a rational number as product is called rationalization
(i) (ii)
of the given surd.
(iii) (iv) (v) Two binomial surds of second order differing only in sign
connecting their terms are called conjugate surds. Thus
2. Simplify
( a + b ) and ( a - b ) are conjugate surds of each other.
(i) (ii) The conjugate of x + y is x - y .

The product of the conjugate surds a + b and a - b,
(iii) (iv) ( a + b )( a - b ) = ( a ) 2 - ( b ) 2 =-
a b,

is a rational quantity independent of any radical.

(v)

Similarly, the product of a + b m and its conjugate a - b m has

3. Simplify by combining similar terms. no radical. For example,
(i) (ii)
(3 + 5)(3 - 5) = (3) 2 - ( 5) 2 = 9 - 5 = 4, which is a rational number.
(b) Rationalizing a Denominator
(iii) (iv)
Keeping the above discussion in mind, we observe that, in
4. Simplify order to rationalize a denominator of the form a + b x (or a - b x ),
(i) (ii) we multiply both numerator and denominator by the conjugate factor
a - b x (or a + b x ). By doing this we eliminate the
(iii) (iv) radical and thus obtain a denominator free of any surd.
21
Example 3
1 1
(c) Rationalizing Real Numbers of the Types , 6 6 4 3
a+b x x+ y Simplify + -
2 3- 6 3+ 2 6- 2

1 1
For the expressions , and their combinations,

a+b x x+ y Solution
First we shall rationalize the denominators and then simplify.
where x, y are natural numbers and a, b are integers, rationalization

We have
is explained with the help of following examples.
Example 1
58
Rationalize the denominator
7-2 5

Solution
To rationalize the denominator, we multiply both the numerator

and denominator by the conjugate (7 + 2 5) of (7 - 2 5), i.e.,
58 58 7 + 2 5 58(7 + 2 5)
= × =
7 - 2 5 7 - 2 5 7 + 2 5 (7) 2 - (2 5) 2

58(7 + 2 5)
= ; (radical is eliminated in the denominator)

49 - 20
58(7 + 2 5)
= = 2(7 + 2 5) Example 4
29
Example 2 4+3 5
Find rational numbers x and y such that = x+ y 5
4-3 5

2
Rationalize the denominator Solution
5+ 2
Solution We have
Multiply both the numerator and denominator by the conjugate
5 - 2 of 5 + 2, to get
2 2 5- 2 2 5- 2
= × =
5+ 2 5+ 2 5- 2 5-2
2( 5 - 2) 2( 5 - 2)
= =

3 3

23
Hence, an comparing the two sides, we get

2. Find the conjugate of

61 24
x=
- , y=
- (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
29 29
Example 5 (v) (vi) (vii) (viii)

If x= 3 + 8, then evaluate
3. (i) (ii)

1 1
(i) x + and (ii) x 2 +

x
x2 (iii)
Solution 4. Simplify
Since therefore,
(i) (ii)
(iii)
5. (i) If find the value of
(ii) If find the value of
[Hint: a2 + b2 = (a + b)2 2ab and a3 + b3 = (a + b)3 3ab(a + b)]

− −
6. Determine the rational numbers a and b
REVIEW EXERCISE 4
EXERCISE 4.4
1. Rationalize the denominator of the following.

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(v) (vi) (vii) (viii) 2. Fill in the blanks.

(i) The degree of the polynomial x2y2 + 3xy + y3 is ……….
(ii) x2 4 = ……….
−

25
• Expression in the form q( x) , (q(x) ≠ 0) is called rational expression.

p( x)

• An irrational radical with rational radicand is called a surd.

(iii)

• In
, n is called surd index or surd order and rational number x
(iv) 2(a + b ) = (a + b)2 + (……….)2
2 2
is called radicand.
(v) • A surd which contains a single term is called monomial surd.

• A surd which contains sum or difference of two surds is called

binomial surd.
(vi) Order of surd is ………. • Conjugate surd of is
defined as
(vii)
3.If find (i) (ii)
4.If find (i) (ii)
5.Find the value of x3 + y3 and xy if x + y = 5 and x − y = 3.

6.If find
(i) (ii)
(iii) (iv)
7.If
(i) (ii)
(iii) (iv)
8. Simplifying
a2 + 2 + a2 - 2
(i) (ii)
a +2 - a -2
2 2
SUMMARY
• An algebraic expression is that in which constants or variables or

both are combined by basic operations.

• Polynomial means an expression with many terms.

• Degree of polynomial means highest power of variable.


27
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CHAPTER
5 Factorization
Animation 5.1: Factorization

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5. Factorization eLearn.Punjab 5. Factorization eLearn.Punjab
Students Learning Outcomes Introduction
After studying this unit, the students will be able to: Factorization plays an important role in mathematics as it helps
[ Recall factorization of expressions of the following types. to reduce the study of a complicated expression to the study of
• ka + kb + kc simpler expressions. In this unit, we will deal with different types of
• ac + ad + bc + bd factorization of polynomials.
• a2 + 2ab + b2
• a2 – b2 5.1 Factorization
• a2 + 2ab + b2 – c2
If a polynomial p(x) can be expressed as p(x) = g(x)h(x), then
[ Factorize the expressions of the following types. each of the polynomials g(x) and h(x) is called a factor of p(x). For
Type I: instance, in the distributive property
a4 + a2b2 + b4 or a4 + 4b4 ab + ac = a(b + c),
Type II: a and (b + c) are factors of (ab + ac).
x2 + px + q When a polynomial has been written as a product consisting
Type III: only of prime factors, then it is said to be factored completely.
ax2 + bx + c
Type IV: (a) Factorization of the Expression of the type ka + kb + kc
(ax2 + bx + c) (ax2 + bx + d) + k
(x + a) (x + b) (x + c) (x + d) + k Example 1
(x + a) (x + b) (x + c) (x + d) + kx2 Factorize 5a − 5b + 5c
Type V:
a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3 Solution
a3 − 3a2b + 3ab2 − b3 5a − 5b + 5c = 5(a − b + c)
Type VI:
a3 + b 3 Example 2
Factorize 5a − 5b − 15c
[ State and prove remainder theorem and explain through examples.
[ Find Remainder (without dividing) when a polynomial is divided by Solution
a linear polynomial. 5a − 5b − 15c = 5(a − b − 3c)
[ Define zeros of a polynomial.
[ State and prove Factor theorem. (b) Factorization of the Expression of the type ac + ad + bc + bd
[ Use Factor theorem to factorize a cubic polynomial. We can write ac + ad + bc + bd as
(ac + ad) + (bc + db)

3
= a(c + d) + b(c + d) Example 2

= (a + b)(c + d) Factorize 12x2 − 36x + 27
For explanation consider the following examples.
Solution
Example 1 12x2 − 36x + 27 = 3(4x2 − 12x + 9)
Factorize 3x − 3a + xy − ay = 3(2x − 3)2
= 3(2x − 3) (2x − 3)
Solution
Regrouping the terms of given polynomial (d) Factorization of the Expression of the type a2 – b2
3x + xy − 3a − ay = x(3 + y) − a(3 + y) (monomial factors) For explanation consider the following examples.
= (3 + y) (x − a) (3 + y) is common factor
Example 1
Example 2 Factorize (i) 4x2 − (2y − z)2 (ii) 6x4 − 96

Factorize pqr + qr2 − pr2 − r3

Solution
Solution (i) 4x2 − (2y − z)2 = (2x)2 − (2y − z)2
The given expression = r(pq + qr − pr − r2) (r is monomial common = [2x − (2y − z)] [2x + (2y − z)]
factor) = (2x − 2y + z) (2x + 2y − z)
= r[(pq + qr) − pr – r2] (grouping of terms) (ii) 6x4 − 96 = 6(x4 −16)
= r[q(p + r) − r(p + r)] (monomial factors) = 6[(x2)2 − (4)2]
= r(p + r) (q − r) (p + r) is common factor = 6(x2 − 4) (x2 + 4)
= 6[(x)2 − (2)2] (x2 + 4)
(c)
Factorization of the Expression of the type a2 ± 2ab + b2 = 6(x − 2) (x + 2) (x2 + 4)
We know that
(i) a2 + 2 ab + b2 = ( a + b)2 = ( a + b)( a + b)
(e) Factorization of the Expression of the type a2 + 2ab + b2 – c2
(ii) a2 − 2 ab + b2 = ( a − b)2 = ( a − b)( a − b) We know that
Now consider the following examples. a2 + 2ab + b2 − c2 = (a + b)2 − (c)2 = (a + b − c)(a + b + c)
Example 1 Example 1
Factorize 25x2 + 16 + 40x. Factorize (i) x2 + 6x + 9 − 4y2 (ii) 1 + 2ab − a2 − b2
Solution Solution
25x2 + 40x + 16 = (5x)2 + 2(5x) (4) + (4)2 (i) x2 + 6x + 9 − 4y2 = (x + 3)2 − (2y)2

= (5x + 4)2 = (x + 3 + 2y)(x + 3 − 2y)

= (5x + 4) (5x + 4)
5
(ii) 1 + 2ab − a2 − b2 = 1 − (a2 − 2ab + b2)

= (9x2 + 6xy + 4y2) (9x2 − 6xy + 4y2)

= (1)2 − (a − b)2
= [1 − (a − b)] [1 + (a − b)] Example 2
= (1 − a + b)(1+ a − b) Factorize 9x4 + 36y4
EXERCISE 5.1 Solution

9x4 + 36y4 = 9x4 + 36y4 + 36x2y2 − 36x2y2
Factorize = (3x2)2 + 2(3x2) (6y2) + (6y2)2 − (6xy)2
1. (i) 2abc 4abx + 2abd - (ii) 9xy 12x2y + 18y2
-
= (3x2 + 6y2)2 − (6xy)2
(iii) 3x2y − 3x + 9xy2 - (iv) 5ab2c3 10a2b3c 20a3bc2
- -
= (3x2 + 6y2 + 6xy)(3x2 + 6y2 − 6xy)
(v) 3x3y(x 3y) 7x2y2(x 3y) - - - (vi) 2xy3(x2 + 5) + 8xy2(x2 + 5)
= (3x2 + 6xy + 6y2) (3x2 −6xy + 6y2)
2. (i) 5ax 3ay 5bx + 3by - - (ii) 3xy + 2y 12x 8
- -
(iii) x3 + 3xy2 2x2y 6y3 - - (iv) (x2 y2)z + (y2 z2)x

- -
(b) Factorization of the Expression of the type x2 + px + q
a2 b2 For explanation consider the following examples.
3. (i) 144a2 + 24a + 1 (ii) − 2 +
b2 a2
(iii) (x + y)2 14z(x + y) + 49z2 (iv) 12x2 36x + 27 Example 1
Factorize (i) x2 − 7x + 12 (ii) x2 + 5x − 36
- -
4. (i) 3x2 75y2 - (ii) x(x 1) y(y 1)

- - -

(iii) 128am 242an

2 2
- (iv) 3x 243x3
-
Solution
5. (i) x2 − y2 − 6y − 9 (ii)
x2 − a2 + 2a − 1 (i) x2 − 7x + 12
(iii) 4x2 − y2 − 2y − 1 (iv) x2 − y2 − 4x − 2y + 3 From the factors of 12 the suitable pair of numbers is −3 and −4
(v) 25x2 − 10x + 1 − 36z2 (vi)
x2 − y2 − 4xz + 4z2 since
(−3) + (− 4) = –7 and (−3) (− 4) = 12
(a) Factorization of the Expression of types a4 + a2b2 + b4 or a4 + 4b4 Hence x2 − 7x + 12 = x2 − 3x − 4x + 12
Factorization of such types of expression is explained in the = x(x − 3) − 4(x − 3)
following examples. = (x − 3) (x − 4)
(ii) x2 + 5x − 36

Example 1 From the possible factors of 36, the suitable pair is 9 and −4
Factorize 81x4 + 36x2y2 + 16y4 because
9 + (−4) = 5 and 9 × (−4) = −36
Solution Hence x2 + 5x − 36 = x2 + 9x − 4x − 36
81x4 + 36x2y2 + 16y4 = x(x + 9) − 4(x + 9)
= (9x2)2 + 72x2y2 + (4y2)2 − 36x2y2 = (x + 9) (x − 4)
= (9x2 + 4y2)2 − (6xy)2
= (9x2 + 4y2 + 6xy)(9x2 + 4y2 − 6xy)

7
(c) Factorization of the Expression of the type ax2 + bx + c, a ≠ 0 Their sum = −35 − 6 = −41
Let us explain the procedure of factorization by the following and product = (−35) (−6) = 210
examples. Hence 10x2 − 41xy + 21y2
= 10x2 − 35xy − 6xy + 21y2
Example 1 = 5x(2x − 7y) − 3y(2x − 7y)
Factorize (i) 9x2 + 21x − 8 (ii) 2x2 − 8x − 42 (iii) 10x2 − 41xy + 21y2 = (2x − 7y) (5x − 3y)
Solution (d) Factorization of the following types of Expressions

(i) 9x2 + 21x − 8 (ax2 + bx + c) (ax2 + bx + d) + k
In this case, on comparing with ax2 + bx + c, ac = (9)(− 8) = −72 (x + a)(x + b)(x + c)(x + d) + k
From the possible factors of 72, the suitable pair of numbers (x + a) (x + b) (x + c) (x + d) + kx2
(with proper sign) is 24 and −3 whose We shall explain the method of factorizing these types of
sum = 24 + (−3) = 21, (the coefficient of x) expressions with the help of following examples.
and their product = (24) (−3) = −72 = ac
Hence 9x2 + 21x − 8 Example 1
= 9x2 + 24x − 3x − 8 Factorize (x2 − 4x − 5) (x2 − 4x − 12) − 144
= 3x(3x + 8) − (3x + 8)
= (3x + 8)(3x − 1) Solution
(x2 − 4x − 5)(x2 − 4x − 12) − 144
(ii) 2x2 − 8x − 42 = 2(x2 − 4x − 21) Let y = x2 − 4x. Then
Comparing x2 − 4x − 21 with ax2 + bx + c (y − 5)(y − 12) −144 = y2 − 17y − 84
we have ac = (+1) (− 21) = − 21 = y2 − 21y + 4y − 84
From the possible factors of 21, the suitable pair of numbers is −7 = y(y − 21) + 4(y − 21)
and +3 whose sum = −7 + 3 = − 4 and product = (−7) (3) = −21 = (y − 21) (y + 4)
Hence x2 − 4x − 21 = (x2 − 4x − 21) (x2− 4x + 4) (since y = x2 − 4x)
= x2 + 3x − 7x − 21 = (x2 − 7x + 3x − 21) (x − 2)2
= [x(x − 7) + 3(x − 7)] (x − 2)2
= x(x + 3) − 7(x + 3)
= (x − 7)(x + 3)(x − 2) (x − 2)
= (x + 3)(x − 7)
Example 2
Hence 2x2 − 8x − 42 = 2(x2 − 4x − 21) = 2(x + 3)(x − 7)
Factorize (x + 1) (x + 2) (x + 3) (x + 4) − 120
(iii) 10x2 − 41xy + 21y2
Solution
This type of question on factorization can also be done by the
We observe that 1 + 4 = 2 + 3.
above procedures of splitting the middle term.
It suggests that we rewrite the given expression as
Here ac = (10) (21) = 210
[(x + 1) (x + 4)] [(x + 2) (x + 3)] − 120
Two suitable factors of 210 are −35 and −6
9
(x2 + 5x + 4) (x2+ 5x + 6) − 120 Example 1

Let x2 + 5x = y, then Factorize x3 − 8y3 − 6x2y + 12xy2
we get (y + 4) (y + 6) − 120
= y2 + 10y + 24 − 120 Solution
= y2 + 10y − 96 x3 − 8y3 − 6x2y + 12xy2.
= y2 + 16y − 6y – 96 = (x)3 − (2y)3 − 3(x)2 (2y) + 3(x) (2y)2
= y(y + 16) − 6(y + 16) = (x)3 − 3(x)2 (2y) + 3(x) (2y)2 − (2y)3
= (y + 16)(y − 6) = (x − 2y)3
= (x2 + 5x + 16) (x2 + 5x − 6) since y = x2+ 5x = (x − 2y) (x − 2y) (x − 2y)
= (x2 + 5x + 16) (x + 6) (x − 1)
(f) Factorization of Expressions of the following types a3 ± b3
Example 3 We recall the formulas,
Factorize (x2 − 5x + 6) (x2+ 5x + 6) − 2x2 a3 + b3 = (a + b) (a2 – ab + b2)
a3 – b3 = (a – b) (a2 + ab + b2)
Solution For explanation consider the following examples.
(x2 − 5x + 6) (x2 + 5x + 6) − 2x2
= [x2 − 3x − 2x + 6][x2 + 3x + 2x + 6] − 2x2 Example 1
= [x(x − 3) − 2(x − 3)][x(x + 3) + 2(x + 3)] − 2x2 Factorize 27x3 + 64y3
= [(x − 3) (x − 2)][(x + 3) (x + 2)] − 2x2
= [(x − 2) (x + 2)][(x − 3) (x + 3)] − 2x2 Solution
= (x2 − 4) (x2 – 9) – 2x2 27x3 + 64y3 = (3x)3 + (4y)3
= x4 − 13x2 + 36 – 2x2 = (3x + 4y) [(3x)2 − (3x) (4y) + (4y)2]
= x4 − 15x2 + 36 = (3x + 4y) (9x2 − 12xy + 16y2)
= x4 – 12x2 − 3x2 + 36
= x2(x2 − 12) − 3(x2 − 12) Example 2
= (x2 − 12) (x2 − 3) Factorize 1 − 125x3
=
[( x) 2 − (2 3) 2 ][( x) 2 − ( 3) 2 ]
Solution
= ( x − 2 3)( x + 2 3)( x − 3)( x + 3) 1 − 125x3 = (1)3 − (5x)3
(e) Factorization of Expressions of the following Types = (1 − 5x) [(1)2 + (1) (5x) + (5x)2]
a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3 = (1 − 5x) (1 + 5x + 25x2)
a3 – 3a2b + 3ab2 – b3
For explanation consider the following examples.

11
EXERCISE 5.2 p(x) = (x − a) q(x) + R

This is an identity in x and so is true for all real numbers x. In
Factorize particular, it is true for x = a. Therefore,
p(a)= (a − a) q(a) +R = 0 + R = R
i.e., p(a)= the remainder. Hence the theorem.
1. (i) (ii) 3x4 + 12y4 (iii) a4 + 3a2b2 + 4b4
(iv) 4x4 + 81 (v) x4 + x2 + 25 (vi) x4 + 4x2 + 16

Note: Similarly, if the divisor is (ax − b), we have
2. (i) x2 + 14x + 48 (ii) x2 − 21x + 108 p(x) = (ax − b) q(x) + R
(iii) x2 − 11x − 42 (iv) x2 + x − 132 a
=
Substituting x so that
= ax − b 0, we obtain
3. (i) 4x2 + 12x + 5 (ii) 30x2 + 7x − 15 b
(iii) 24x2 − 65x + 21 (iv) 5x2 − 16x − 21
b b
(v) 4x2 − 17xy + 4y2 (vi) 3x2 − 38xy − 13y2 p   =0 . q   + R =0 − R = R
a a
(vii) 5x2 + 33xy − 14y2 (viii) Thus if the divisor is linear, the above theorem provides an
efficient way of finding the remainder without being involved in the
4. (i) (x2 + 5x + 4) (x2 + 5x + 6) − 3
process of long division.
(ii) (x2 − 4x) (x2 − 4x − 1) − 20
(iii) (x + 2) (x + 3) (x + 4) (x + 5) −15
5.2.2 To find Remainder (without dividing) when a polynomial
(iv) (x + 4) (x − 5) (x + 6) (x − 7) − 504
is divided by a Linear Polynomial
(v) (x + 1) (x + 2) (x + 3) (x + 6) − 3x2
5. (i) x3 + 48x − 12x2 − 64 (ii) 8x3 + 60x2 + 150x + 125
Example 1

(iii) x3 −18x2 + 108x − 216 (iv) 8x3 − 125y3 − 60x2y + 150xy2

Find the remainder when 9x2 – 6x + 2 is divided by
6. (i) 27 + 8x3 (ii) 125x3 − 216y3
(i) x − 3 (ii) x + 3 (iii) 3x + 1 (iv) x
(iii) 64x3 + 27y3 (iv) 8x3 + 125y3

Solution
5.2 Remainder Theorem and Factor Theorem Let p(x) = 9x2 − 6x + 2
5.2.1 Remainder Theorem (i) When p(x) is divided by x − 3, by Remainder Theorem, the remainder

is
If a polynomial p(x) is divided by a linear divisor (x − a), then R = p(3) = 9(3)2 − 6(3) + 2 = 65
the remainder is p(a). (ii) When p(x) is divided by x + 3 = x − (−3), the remainder is
R = p(−3) = 9(−3)2 – 6 (−3) + 2 = 101
Proof (iii) When p(x) is divided by 3x + 1, the remainder is
Let q(x) be the quotient obtained after dividing p(x) by (x − a). But
the divisor (x − a) is linear. So the remainder must be of degree zero
i.e., a non-zero constant, say R. Consequently, by division Algorithm (v) When p(x) is divided by x, the remainder is
we may write R = p(0) = 9(0)2 − 6(0) + 2 = 2
13
Example 2 (i) Now if p(a) = 0, then p(x) = (x − a) q(x)

Find the value of k if the expression x3 + kx2 + 3x − 4 leaves a i.e., (x − a) is a factor of p(x)
remainder of −2 when divided by x + 2. (ii) Conversely, if (x − a) is a factor of p(x), then the remainder upon
dividing p(x) by (x − a) must be zero i.e., p(a) = 0
Solution This completes the proof.
Let p(x) = x3 + kx2 + 3x – 4 Note: The Factor Theorem can also be stated as, “(x − a) is a factor of
By the Remainder Theorem, when p(x) is divided by x + 2 = x − (−2), p(x) if and only if x = a is a solution of the equation p(x) = 0”.
the remainder is The Factor Theorem helps us to find factors of polynomials
p(−2) = (−2)3 + k(− 2)2 + 3(− 2) − 4. because it determines whether a given linear polynomial (x − a) is a
= − 8 + 4k − 6 − 4 factor of p(x). All we need is to check whether p(a) = 0.
= 4k – 18
By the given condition, we have Example 1
p(−2) = − 2 ⇒ 4k − 18 = −2 ⇒ k = 4 Determine if (x − 2) is a factor of x3 − 4x2 + 3x + 2.
5.2.3 Zero of a Polynomial Solution

For convenience, let
Definition p(x) = x3 − 4x2 + 3x + 2
If a specific number x = a is substituted for the variable x in a Then the remainder for (x – 2) is
polynomial p(x) so that the value p(a) is zero, then x = a is called a zero p(2) = (2)3 − 4(2)2 + 3(2) + 2
of the polynomial p(x). = 8 − 16 + 6 + 2 = 0
A very useful consequence of the remainder theorem is what is Hence by Factor Theorem, (x − 2) is a factor of the polynomial p(x).
known as the factor theorem.
Example 2
5.2.4 Factor Theorem Find a polynomial p(x) of degree 3 that has 2, −1, and 3 as zeros
(i.e., roots).
The polynomial (x − a) is a factor of the polynomial p(x) if and
only if p(a) = 0. Solution
Since x = 2, −1, 3 are roots of p(x) = 0
Proof So by Factor Theorem (x − 2), (x + 1) and (x − 3) are the factors of
Let q(x) be the quotient and R the remainder when a polynomial p(x).
p(x) is divided by (x − a). Then by division Algorithm, Thus p(x) = a(x − 2) (x + 1) (x − 3)
p(x) = (x − a) q(x) + R where any non-zero value can be assigned to a.
By the Remainder Theorem, R = p(a). Taking a = 1, we get
Hence p(x) = (x − a) q(x) + p(a) p(x) = (x − 2) (x + 1) (x − 3)
= x3 − 4x2 + x + 6
as the required polynomial.
15
as explained below. This is a convenient method particularly for

factorization of a cubic polynomial. We state (without proof) a very
EXERCISE 5.3
useful Theorem.
1. Use the remainder theorem to find the remainder when

Rational Root Theorem

(i) 3x3 − 10x2 + 13x − 6 is divided by (x − 2)

Let a0xn + a1xn−1 + … + an−1x + an = 0, a0 ≠ 0
(ii) 4x − 4x + 3
3
is divided by (2x − 1)

be a polynomial equation of degree n with integral coefficients. If p/q

(iii) 6x + 2x − x + 2
4 3
is divided by (x + 2)
is a rational root (expressed in lowest terms) of the equation, then

(iv) (2x − 1) + 6(3 + 4x) −10

3 2
is divided by (2x + 1)
p is a factor of the constant term an and q is a factor of the leading
(v) x − 3x + 4x − 14
3 2
is divided by (x + 2)
coefficient a0.

2. (i) If (x + 2) is a factor of 3x − 4kx − 4k2, then find the value(s)

2
of k.
Example 1
(ii) If (x − 1) is a factor of x3 − kx2 + 11x − 6, then find the value
Factorize the polynomial x3 − 4x2 + x + 6, by using Factor Theorem.
of k.
3. Without actual long division determine whether
Solution
(i) (x − 2) and (x − 3) are factors of p(x) = x3 − 12x2 + 44x − 48.
We have P(x) = x3− 4x2 + x + 6.
(ii) (x − 2), (x + 3) and (x − 4) are factors of q(x) = x3 + 2x2 − 5x − 6.
Possible factors of the constant term p = 6 are ±1, ±2, ±3 and ±6
4. For what value of m is the polynomial p(x) = 4x3 − 7x2 + 6x − 3m
and of leading coefficient q = 1 are ±1. Thus the expected zeros (or
exactly divisible by x + 2? p
roots) of P(x) = 0 are q = ±1, ±2, ±3 and ±6. If x = a is a zero of P(x),
5. Determine the value of k if p(x) = kx3 + 4x2 + 3x – 4 and
then (x − a) will be a factor.
q(x) = x3 − 4x + k leaves the same remainder when divided by (x − 3).
We use the hit and trial method to find zeros of P(x). Let us try x = 1.
6. The remainder after dividing the polynomial p(x) = x3+ax2+7 by (x + 1)
Now P(1) = (1)3 − 4(1)2 + 1 + 6
is 2b. Calculate the value of a and b if this expression leaves a
=1−4+1+6=4≠0
remainder of (b + 5) on being divided by (x − 2).

Hence x = 1 is not a zero of P(x).

7. The polynomial x3 + lx2 + mx + 24 has a factor (x + 4) and it leaves a
Again P(−1) = (−1)3 – 4(−1)2 − 1 + 6
remainder of 36 when divided by (x – 2). Find the values of l and m.
= −1 − 4 − 1 + 6 = 0
8. The expression lx3 + mx2 – 4 leaves remainder of –3 and 12 when
Hence x = −1 is a zero of P(x) and therefore,
divided by (x − 1) and (x + 2) respectively. Calculate the values of l
x − (−1) = (x + 1) is a factor of P(x).
and m.
Now P(2) = (2)3 − 4(2)2 + 2 + 6
9. The expression ax3 – 9x2 + bx + 3a is exactly divisible by x2 – 5x + 6.
= 8 − 16 + 2 + 6 = 0 ⇒ x = 2 is a root.

Find the values of a and b.

Hence (x 2) is also a factor of P(x).
-
Similarly P(3) = (3)3 − 4(3)2 + 3 + 6

5.3 Factorization of a Cubic Polynomial = 27 − 36 + 3 + 6 = 0 ⇒ x = 3 is a zero of P(x).
Hence (x − 3) is the third factor of P(x).
We can use Factor Theorem to factorize a cubic polynomial
17
Thus the factorized form of (ix)

1 − 12pq + 36p2q2
P(x) = x3 – 4x2 + x + 6
is P(x) = (x + 1) (x – 2) (x – 3) SUMMARY
EXERCISE 5.4 t If a polynomial is expressed as a product of other polynomials,

then each polynomial in the product is called a factor of the
Factorize each of the following cubic polynomials by factor theorem. original polynomial.
1.
x3 − 2x2 − x + 2 2. x3 − x2 − 22x + 40 3.
x3 − 6x2 + 3x + 10
t The process of expressing an algebraic expression in terms of its
4.
x3 + x2 − 10x + 8 5. x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6
6. x3 + 5x2 − 2x − 24
factors is called factorization. We learned to factorize expressions
7.
3x3 − x2 − 12x +4 8. 2x3 + x2 − 2x − 1
of the following types:
• ka + kb + kc
REVIEW EXERCISE 5 • ac + ad + bc + bd
• a2 ± 2ab + b2
1. Multiple Choice Questions. Choose the correct answer. • a2 − b2
• (a2 ± 2ab + b2) − c2
• a4 + a2b2 + b4 or a4 + 4b4
• x2 + p x + q • ax2 + bx + c
• (ax2 + bx + c) (ax2 + bx + d) + k
2. Completion Items. Fill in the blanks. • (x + a) (x + b) (x + c) (x + d) + k
(i) x2 + 5x + 6 = ……… • (x + a)(x + b)(x + c)(x + d) + kx2
(ii) 4a2 −16 = ………

• a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3
(iii) 4a2 + 4ab + (………) is a complete square

• a3 − 3a2b + 3ab2 − b3
• a3 ± b3
2 2
x y
(iv) − 2 + =
......
y2 x2 t If a polynomial p(x) is divided by a linear divisor (x − a), then the
(v) (x + y)(x2 − xy + y2) = ……… remainder is p(a).
t If a specific number x = a is substituted for the variable x in a

(vi) Factored form of x4 − 16 is ………

polynomial p(x) so that the value p(a) is zero, then x = a is called

(vii) If x − 2 is factor of p(x) = x2 + 2kx + 8, then k = ………

a zero of the polynomial p(x).

3. Factorize the following.

(i) x2 + 8x + 16 − 4y2
(ii) 4x2 − 16y2
t The polynomial (x − a) is a factors of the polynomial p(x) if and
(iii) 9x2 + 27x + 8
(iv) 1 − 64z3
only if p(a) = 0. Factor theorem has been used to factorize cubic
polynomials.
(v) 8x 3 −
1
(vi) 2y2 + 5y − 3

––––––––––
27 y 3
(vii) x3 + x2 − 4x − 4 (viii) 25m2n2 + 10mn + 1


19
version: 1.1
CHAPTER
ALGEBRAIC
6 MANIPULATION
Animation 6.1: Algebraic Manipulation

www.Quranmualim.com
6. Algebraic Manipulation eLearn.Punjab 6. Algebraic Manipulation eLearn.Punjab
Students Learning Outcomes more expressions, then p(x) is called the Common Multiple of the
given expressions. The Least Common Multiple (L.C.M.) is the product
After studying this unit, the students will be able to: of common factors together with non-common factors of the given
• Find Highest Common Factor and Least Common Multiple of expressions.
algebraic expressions.
• Use factor or division method to determine Highest Common 6.1.2 (a) Finding H.C.F.
Factor and Least Common Multiple.
• Know the relationship between H.C.F. and L.C.M. We can find H. C. F. of given expressions by the following two

• Solve real life problems related to H.C.F. and L.C.M. methods.

• Use Highest Common Factor and Least Common Multiple to reduce (i) By Factorization (ii) By Division

fractional expressions involving + , – , # , ÷ .

Sometimes it is difficult to find factors of given expressions. In

• Find square root of algebraic expressions by factorization and that case, method of division can be used to find H. C. F. We consider
division. some examples to explain these two methods.
Introduction (i) H.C.F. by Factorization
In this unit we will first deal with finding H.C.F. and L.C.M. of

Example
algebraic expressions by factorization and long division. Then by Find the H. C. F. of the following polynomials.
using H.C.F. and L.C.M. we will simplify fractional expressions. Toward x2 – 4, x2 + 4x + 4, 2x2 + x – 6
the end of the unit finding square root of algebraic expression by
factorization and division will be discussed. Solution
By factorization,
6.1 Highest Common Factor (H.C.F.) and x2 – 4 = (x + 2) (x – 2)

Least Common Multiple (L.C.M.) of Algebraic x2 + 4x + 4 = (x + 2)2

Expressions 2x2 + x – 6 = 2x2 + 4x – 3x – 6 = 2x(x + 2) – 3(x + 2)
= (x + 2) (2x – 3)

6.1.1 (a) Highest Common Factor (H.C.F.) Hence, H. C. F. = x + 2
If two or more algebraic expressions are given, then their

(ii) H.C.F. by Division
common factor of highest power is called the H.C.F. of the expressions.
Example
(b) Least Common Multiple (L.C.M.) Use division method to find the H. C. F. of the polynomials
p(x) = x3 – 7x2 + 14x – 8 and q(x) = x3 – 7x + 6

If an algebraic expression p(x) is exactly divisible by two or

3
Solution Example
1 Find the L.C.M. of p(x) = 12(x3 – y3) and q(x) = 8(x3 – xy2)

x3 - 7x + 6 x3 - 7x2 + 14x - 8
+ x3 - 7x + 6

Solution
-
+ -
By prime factorization of the given expressions, we have
- 7x2 + 21x - 14 p(x) = 12(x3 – y3) = 22 # 3 # (x – y) (x2 + xy + y2)
and q(x) = 8(x3 – xy2) = 8x(x2 – y2) = 23x(x + y) (x – y)
Here the remainder can be factorized as

Hence L.C.M. of p(x) and q(x),

–7x2 + 21x – 14 = –7(x2 – 3x + 2)

23 # 3 # x(x + y) (x – y) (x2 + xy + y2) = 24x (x + y) (x3 – y3)

We ignore –7 because it is not common to both the given

polynomials and consider x2 – 3x + 2.

6.1.3 Relation between H.C.F. and L.C.M.
x+3
x2 - 3x + 2 x3 + 0x2 - 7x + 6
Example
+ x3 - 3x2 + 2x
By factorization, find (i) H.C.F. (ii) L.C.M. of p(x) = 12(x5 – x4) and
- + -
q(x) = 8(x4 – 3x3 + 3x2). Establish a relation between p(x), q(x) and H.C.F.
3x2 - 9x + 6 and L.C.M. of the expressions p(x) and q(x).
3x2 - 9x + 6
- + - Solution
0 Firstly, let us factorize completely the given expressions p(x) and
q(x) into irreducible factors. We have
Hence H. C. F. of p(x) and q(x) is x2 – 3x + 2

p(x) = 12(x5 – x4) = 12x4 (x – 1) = 22 # 3 # x4 (x – 1)

and
q(x) = 8(x4 – 3x3 + 2x2) = 8x2 (x2 – 3x + 2) = 23 x2 (x – 1) (x – 2)

Observe that H.C.F. of p(x) and q(x) = 22 x2 (x – 1) = 4x2 (x – 1)

(i) In finding H. C. F. by division, if required, any expression can be

L.C.M. of p(x) and q(x) = 23 # 3 # x4(x – 1)(x – 2)

multiplied by a suitable integer to avoid fraction.

(ii) In case we are given three polynomials, then as a first step we

Observe that
find H.C.F. of any two of them and then find the H.C.F. of this

p(x)q(x) = 12x4 (x – 1) – 8x2 (x – 1) (x – 2)
H.C.F. and the third polynomial.

= 96x6 (x – 1)2 (x – 2)
…… (i)

and (L.C.M.) (H.C.F.)

(b) L.C.M. by Factorization = [23 # 3 # x4 (x – 1) (x – 2)] [4x2 (x – 1)]

Working Rule to find L.C.M. of given Algebraic Expressions = [24x4 (x – 1) (x – 2)] [4x2 (x – 1)]

(i) Factorize the given expressions completely i.e., to simplest form.

= 96x6 (x – 1)2 (x – 2)
…… (ii)

(ii) Then the L.C.M. is obtained by taking the product of each factor

From (i) and (ii) it is clear that
appearing in any of the given expressions, raised to the highest

L.C.M. # H.C.F. = p(x) #q(x)
power with which that factor appears.
Version: 1.1

Version: 1.1
5
Hence, if p(x), q(x) and one of H.C.F. or L.C.M. are known, we can find Example 2
the unknown by the formulae, Find the L.C.M. of

p(x) = 6x3 – 7x2 – 27x + 8 and q(x) = 6x3 + 17x2 + 9x – 4

p(x) x q(x) p(x) x q(x)

I. L.C.M = or H.C.F =
H.C.F L.C.M
Solution
II. If L.C.M., H.C.F. and one of p(x) or q(x) are known, then We have, by long division,

L.C.M x H.C.F.
p(x) = ,
q(x)

L.C.M x H.C.F.
q(x) =
p(x)
Note: L.C.M. and H.C.F. are unique except for a factor of (–1).
But the remainder 24x2 + 36x – 12
Example 1 = 12(2x2 + 3x – 1)

Find H.C.F. of the polynomials,

Thus, ignoring 12, we have
p(x) = 20(2x3 + 3x2 – 2x)

q(x) = 9(5x4 + 40x)

Then using the above formula (I) find the L.C.M. of p(x) and q(x).

Solution
We have
p(x) = 20(2x3 + 3x2 –2x) = 20x (2x2 + 3x – 2)

= 20x(2x2 + 4x – x – 2) = 20x[2x(x + 2) – (x + 2)]

= 20x (x + 2) (2x – 1) = 22 # 5 # x (x + 2) (2x – 1)

q(x) = 9(5x4 + 40x) = 45x(x3 + 8) Hence H.C.F. of p(x) and q(x) is = 2x2 + 3x – 1
= 45x (x + 2) (x2 – 2x + 4) = 5 # 32 # x (x + 2) (x2 – 2x + 4)

By using the formula, we have
Thus H.C.F. of p(x) and q(x) is
p(x) x q(x)

= 5x (x + 2) L.C.M =
p(x) % q(x) H.C.F

Now, using the formula L.C.M =

H.C.F (6x3 - 7x2 - 27x + 8)(6x3 + 17x2 + 9x - 4)

we obtain 2 =

2 % 5 % x(x + 2)(2x - 1) % 5 %32 % x(x + 2)(x2 - 2x + 4) 2x2 + 3x -1

L.C.M =

5x(x + 2) 6x3 - 7x2 - 27x + 8

= x (6x3 + 17x2 + 9x - 4)

2x + 3x -1
2

= 4 % 5 % 9 % x (x + 2) (2x – 1) (x2 – 2x + 4)

= 180x (x + 2) (2x – 1) (x2 – 2x + 4) = (3x -8)(6x3 + 17x2 + 9x - 4)

7
6.1.4 Application of H.C.F. and L.C.M. 5. Find the L.C.M. of the following expressions by factorization.

(i) x2 – 25x + 100 and x2 – x – 20

Example
(ii) x2 + 4x + 4, x2 – 4, 2x2 + x – 6
(iii) 2(x4 – y4), 3(x3 + 2x2y – xy2 – 2y3)
The sum of two numbers is 120 and their H.C.F. is 12. Find the
(iv) 4(x4 – 1), 6(x3 – x2 – x + 1)

numbers.
6. For what value of k is (x + 4) the H.C.F. of x2 + x – (2k + 2) and

2x2 + kx – 12 ?
Solution
7. If (x+ 3) (x – 2) is the H.C.F. of p(x) = (x + 3) (2x2 – 3x + k) and
Let the numbers be 12x and 12y, where x, y are numbers prime

q(x) = (x – 2) (3x2 + 7x – 1), find k and l.

to each other.
8. The L.C.M. and H.C.F. of two polynomials p(x) and q(x) are 2(x4 – 1)
Then 12x + 12y = 120

and (x + 1) (x2 + 1) respectively.If p(x) = x3 + x2 + x + 1, find q(x).

i.e., x + y = 10
9. Let p(x) = 10(x2 – 9) (x2 – 3x + 2) and q(x) = 10x(x + 3) (x –1)2. If the

Thus we have to find two numbers whose sum is 10. The possible

H.C.F. of p(x), q(x) is 10(x + 3) (x – 1), find their L.C.M.

such pairs of numbers are (1, 9), (2, 8), (3, 7), (4, 6), (5, 5)

10. Let the product of L.C.M and H.C.F of two polynomials be

The pairs of numbers which are prime to each other are (1, 9) and

(x + 3)2 (x – 2) (x + 5). If one polynomial is (x + 3) (x – 2) and the

(3, 7)
second polynomial is x2 + kx + 15, find the value of k.
Thus the required numbers are

11. Waqas wishes to distribute 128 bananas and also 176 apples
1 # 12, 9 # 12; 3 # 12, 7 # 12

equally among a certain number of children. Find the highest

i.e., 12, 108 and 36, 84.

number of children who can get the fruit in this way.

EXERCISE 6.1
6.2 Basic Operations on Algebraic Fractions
1. Find the H.C.F. of the following expressions.

(i)

39x7y3z and 91x5y6z7 (ii) 102xy2z, 85x2yz and 187xyz2

We shall now carryout the operations of addition, difference,

2. Find the H.C.F. of the following expressions by factorization.

product and division on algebraic fractions by giving some examples.
(i) x2 + 5x + 6, x2 – 4x – 12 We assume that all fractions are defined.
(ii) x3 – 27, x2 + 6x – 27, 2x2 – 18
(iii) x3 – 2x2 + x, x2 + 2x – 3, x2 + 3x – 4 Example 1
(iv) 18(x3 – 9x2 + 8x), 24(x2 – 3x + 2) Simplify

(v) 36(3x4 + 5x3 – 2x2), 54(27x4 – x)

3. Find the H.C.F. of the following by division method.

Solution
(i) x3 + 3x2 – 16x + 12, x3 + x2 – 10x + 8
(ii) x4 + x3 – 2x2 + x – 3, 5x3 + 3x2 – 17x + 6
(iii) 2x5 – 4x4 – 6x, x5 + x4 – 3x3 – 3x2
4. Find the L.C.M. of the following expressions.

(i) 39x7y3z and 91x5y6z7 (ii) 102xy2z, 85x2yz and 187xyz2


9
Solution
We have (x + x + 1) x3 - 1
2
'
(x2 - 9) (x2 - 4x + 3)
= (x + x + 1) x (x2- 4x + 3)
2
....... (inverting)
(x2 - 9)
(x3 - 1)

= (x2 + x + 1)(x2 - x - 3x + 3) ... (splitting the middle term)
(x2 - 9) (x3 - 1)

(x2 + x + 1)(x - 3)(x - 1) 1

= = x +3 , x ≠ - 3

(x + 3)(x - 3)(x - 1)(x2 + x + 1)

EXERCISE 6.2
Example 2 x3 - 8 x2 + 6x + 8 Simplify each of the following as a rational expression.
Express the product

x2 - 4 # x2 - 2x +1 as an algebraic

expression reduced to lowest forms, x ≠ 2, –2, 1
1.
Solution
By factorizing completely, we have 2.

x3 - 8 x2 + 6x + 8 3.
x
x2 - 4
x2 - 2x +1

4.
= (x - 2)(x + 2x + 4) x (x + 2)(x + 4) ....... (i)
2
(x - 2)(x + 2) x (x - 1)2

5.
Now the factors of numerator are (x – 2), (x2 + 2x + 4), (x + 2) and

(x + 4) and the factors of denominator are

(x – 2), (x + 2) and (x – 1)2.
6.
Therefore, their H.C.F. is (x – 2) # (x + 2).

By cancelling H.C.F. i.e., (x – 2) (x + 2) from (I), we get the simplified

7.
form of given product as the fraction (x + 2x + 4)(x + 4)

(x - 1)2
8. What rational expression should be subtracted from

Example 3 2
(x + x + 1) x3 - 1
Divide by and simplify by reducing to
(x2 - 9) (x2 - 4x + 3)

lowest forms.


11
Perform the indicated operations and simplify to the lowest form. Hence
= ± (2x – 3)
9.
Example 2
10. Find the square root of
Solution
11. We have
12. (adding and subtracting 2)
13.
since a2 + 2ab + b2 = (a + b)2

6.3 Square Root of Algebraic Expression

Hence the required square root is
Square Root
(ii) By Division
As with numbers define the square root of given expression p(x)
When it is difficult to convert the given expression into a perfect

as another expression q(x) such that q(x) . q(x) = p(x).

square by factorization, we use the method of actual division to find

As 5 # 5 = 25, so square root of 25 is 5.

its square root. The method is similar to the division method of finding

It means we can find square root of the expression p(x) if it can

square root of numbers.

be expressed as a perfect square.

In this section we shall find square root of an algebraic expression
Note that

(i) by factorization (ii) by division

We first write the given expression in descending order of powers

of x.

(i) By Factorization
First we find the square root by factorization.
Example 1
Example 1
Find the square root of 4x4 + 12x3 + x2 – 12x + 4
Use factorization to find the square root of the expression

4x2 – 12x + 9
Solution

Solution
We note that the given expression is already in descending order.
We have, 4x2 – 12x + 9

Now the square root of the first term i.e., = 2x2. So the first term

= 4x2 – 6x – 6x + 9 = 2x(2x – 3) – 3(2x – 3)

of the divisor and quotient will be 2x2 in the first step. At each

= (2x – 3) (2x – 3) = (2x – 3)2

successive step, the remaining terms will be brought down.


13
Hence the square root of given expression is
Example 3
To make the expression x4 – 10x3 + 33x2 – 42x + 20 a perfect
square,
(i) what should be added to it?
(ii) what should be subtract from it?
(iii) what should be the values of x?
Thus square root of given expression is ± (2x2 + 3x – 2)
Solution
Example 2
Find the square root of the expression
Solution
We note that the given expression is in descending powers of x.
Now So proceeding as usual, we have
For making the given expression a perfect square the remainder

must be zero.
Hence
(i) we should add (2x – 4) to the given expression
(ii) we should subtract (–2x + 4) from the given expression
(iii) we should take –2x + 4 = 0 to find the value of x. This gives the
required value of x i.e., x = 2.

15
5. To make the expression 9x4 – 12x3 + 22x2 – 13x + 12, a perfect square

EXERCISE 6.3 (i) what should be added to it?

(ii) what should be subtracted from it?

1. Use factorization to find the square root of the following expressions.

(iii) what should be the value of x?

(i) 4x2 – 12xy + 9y2

REVIEW EXERCISE 6
(ii)
1. Choose the correct answer.
(iii)

(iv) 4(a + b)2 – 12(a2 – b2) + 9(a – b)2
(v) 2. Find the H.C.F. of the following by factorization.

8x4 – 128, 12x3 – 96

(vi) 3. Find the H.C.F. of the following by division method.

y3 + 3y2 – 3y – 9, y3 + 3y2 – 8y – 24

(vii) 4. Find the L.C.M. of the following by factorization.

12x2 – 75, 6x2 – 13x – 5, 4x2 – 20x + 25
(viii) (x + 3x + 2) (x + 4x + 3) (x + 5x + 6)
2 2 2
5. If H.C.F. of x4 + 3x3 + 5x2 + 26x + 56 and x4 + 2x3 – 4x2 – x + 28 is
(ix) (x2 + 8x + 7) (2x2 – x – 3) (2x2 + 11x – 21) x2 + 5x + 7, find their L.C.M.
2. Use division method to find the square root of the following 6. Simplify
expressions.

(i) 4x2 + 12xy + 9y2 + 16x + 24y + 16 (i)

(ii) x4 – 10x3 + 37x2 – 60x + 36
(iii) 9x4 – 6x3 + 7x2 – 2x + 1 (ii)
(iv) 4 + 25x2 – 12x – 24x3 + 16x4
7. Find square root by using factorization
(v)
3. Find the value of k for which the following expressions will become

a perfect square.

8. Find square root by using division method.

(i) 4x4 – 12x3 + 37x2 – 42x + k (ii) x4 – 4x3 + 10x2 – kx + 9

4. Find the values of l and m for which the following expressions will

become perfect squares.

(i) x4 + 4x3 + 16x2 + lx + m

(ii) 49x4 – 70x3 + 109x2 + lx – m

17
6. Algebraic Manipulation eLearn.Punjab
SUMMARY
• We learned to find the H.C.F. and L.C.M. of algebraic expressions

by the methods of factorization and division.
• We established a relation between H.C.F. and L.C.M. of two
polynomials p(x) and q(x) given by the formula
L.C.M. # H.C.F. = p(x) # q(x)
and used it to determine L.C.M. or H.C.F. etc.

• Any unknown expression may be found if three of them are known

by using the relation
L.C.M # H.C.F = p(x) # q(x)
• H.C.F. and L.C.M. are used to simplify fractional expressions
involving basic operations of +, – , # , ÷.
• Determination of square root of algebraic expression by factorization
and division methods has been defined and explained.
Version: 1.1
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18
version: 1.1
CHAPTER
LINEAR EQUATIONS
7 AND INEQUALITIES
Animation 7.1: Linear Equations and Inequalities

www.Quranmualim.com
7. Linear Equations and Inequalities eLearn.Punjab 7. Linear Equations and Inequalities eLearn.Punjab
Students Learning Outcomes 7.1.2 Solving a Linear Equation in One Variable
After studying this unit, the students will be able to: The process of solving an equation involves finding a sequence

• Recall linear equation in one variable. of equivalent equations until the variable x is isolated on one side of
• Solve linear equation with rational coefficients. the equation to give the solution.
• Reduce equations, involving radicals, to simple linear form and find
their solutions. Technique for Solving
• Define absolute value. The procedure for solving linear equations in one variable is
• Solve the equation, involving absolute value, in one variable. summarized in the following box.
• Define inequalities ( >, <) and ( > , <) • If fractions are present, we multiply each side by the L.C.M. of the
• Recognize properties of inequalities (i.e., trichotomy, transitive, denominators to eliminate them.
additive and multiplicative). • To remove parentheses we use the distributive property.
• Solve linear inequalities with rational coefficients. • Combine alike terms, if any, on both sides.
• Use the addition property of equality (add or subtract) to get all
Introduction the variables on left side and constants on the other side.
• Use the multiplicative property of equality to isolate the variable.
In this unit we will extend the study of previously learned skills to

• Verify the answer by replacing the variable in the original equation.

the solution of equations with rational coefficients of Unit 2 and the
equations involving radicals and absolute value. Finally, after defining Example 1
inequalities, and recalling their trichotomy, transitive, additive and Solve the equation

multiplicative properties we will use them to solve linear inequalities

with rational coefficients. Solution
Multiplying each side of the given equation by 6, the L.C.M. of
7.1 Linear Equations denominators 2, 3 and 6 to eliminate fractions, we get
9x - 2(x - 2) = 25

7.1.1 Linear Equation ⇒

9x - 2x + 4 = 25

⇒
7x = 21

A linear equation in one unknown variable x is an equation of ⇒

x=3

the form
ax + b = 0, where a, b d R and a ≠ 0 Check
A solution to a linear equation is any replacement or substitution

Substituting x = 3 in original equation,

for the variable x that makes the statement true. Two linear equations
are said to be equivalent if they have exactly the same solution.

3
(x - 1) (3x - 1) - 6x = 3x(x - 1)
Which is true ⇒ 3x2 - 4x + 1 = 3x2 - 3x

⇒ -10x + 1 = -3x
Since x = 3 makes the original statement true, therefore the

⇒ -7x = -1
1
solution is correct. ⇒ x= 7
Note: Some fractional equations may have no solution.
Check
1
Example 2 On substituting x = 7 the original equation is verified a true

Solve

statement. That means the restriction x ≠ 1 has no effect on the
1
solution because 7 ≠ 1.
1

Solution Hence our solution x = 7 is correct.
To clear fractions we multiply both sides by the L.C.M. = y – 1 and

get 7.1.3 Equations Involving Radicals but Reducible to Linear
3 – 2(y – 1) = 3y

Form
⇒ 3 – 2y + 2 = 3y

⇒ –5y = –5

Redical Equation
⇒ y=1

When the variable in an equation occurs under a radical, the
equation is called a radical equation.
Check The procedure to solve a radical equation is to eliminate the

Substituting y = 1 in the given equation, we have

radical by raising each side to a power equal to the index of the radical.
When raising each side of the equation to a certain power may

produce a nonequivalent equation that has more solutions than the

original equation. These additional solutions are called extraneous
solutions. We must check our answer(s) for such solutions when
working with radical equations.
But is undefined. So y = 1 cannot be a solution.

Thus the given equation has no solution. Note: An important point to be noted is that raising each side to an
odd power will always give an equivalent equation; whereas raising
Example 3 each side to an even power might not do so.
Solve
Example 1
Solution Solve the equations

To clear fractions we multiply each side by 3(x – 1) with the (a)

(b)
assumption that
x – 1 ≠ 0 i.e., x ≠1, and get
5
Solution Solution
(a) To isolate the radical, we can rewrite the given equation as When two terms of a radical equation contain variables in the
radicand, we express the equation such that only one of these terms
is on each side. So we rewrite the equation in this form to get
⇒ 2x - 3 = 49, ........ (squaring each side)

⇒ 2x = 52 ⇒ x = 26

5x - 7 = x + 10, ...... (squaring each side)

Check 4x = 17 ⇒
Let us substitute x = 26 in the original equation. Then

Check
Substituting x =
in original equation.
Hence the solution set is {26}.

(b) We have
..... (given)
⇒ 3x + 5 = x - 1, ..... (taking cube of each side)

⇒ 2x = -6 ⇒ x = -3 i.e., x =
makes the given equation a true statement.
{}

Check Thus solution set = .
We substitute x = –3 in the original equation. Then

Example 3
Solve

Thus x = –3 satisfies the original equation.

Here is a real number because we raised each side of the Solution
equation to an odd power.

Squaring both sides we get Squaring both sides we get
Thus the solution set = {–3}

x + 7 + x + 2 + 2 (x + 7)(x + 2) = 6x + 13
Example 2

⇒ 2 x2 + 9x + 14 = 4x + 4
Solve and check:

⇒ x2 + 9x + 14 = 2x + 2

7
Squaring again
7.2 Equation Involving Absolute Value

x2 + 9x + 14 = 4x2 + 8x + 4

⇒ 3x2 – x – 10 = 0
Another type of linear equation is the one that contains

⇒ 3x2 – 6x + 5x – 10 = 0

absolute value. To solve equations involving absolute value we first

⇒ 3x(x – 2) + 5(x – 2) = 0
give the following definition.
⇒ (x – 2) (3x + 5) = 0
⇒ x = 2, – 53
7.2.1 Absolute Value
On checking, we see that x = 2 satisfies the equation, but x = – 5
5 3
does not satisfy the equation. So solution set is {2} and x = – 3 is an
The absolute value of a real number ‘a’ denoted by | a |, is

extraneous root.

defined a
a, if a > 0
EXERCISE 7.1 |a|=
–a, if a < 0

1. Solve the following equations. e.g., | 6 | = 6 , | 0 | = 0 and

| –6 | = –(–6) = 6.
(i) (ii) Some properties of Absolute Value

If a, b ∈ R, then
(iii) (iv) (i)
|a|>0 (ii) | –a | = | a |
a |a|
(iii) | ab | = | a | . | b | (iv)
b
= |b|
,b≠0
(v) (vi)
7.2.2 Solving Linear Equations Involving Absolute Value
(vii) (viii)
Keeping in mind the definition of absolute value, we can
(ix) (x) immediately say that
| x |= 3 is equivalent to x = 3 or x = –3,
2. Solve each equation and check for extraneous solution, if because x = +3 or x = –3 make | x | = 3 a true statement.
any. For solving an equation involving absolute value, we express the given
(i) 3x + 4 =
2
(ii) 3
2x - 4 - 2 =0 equation as an equivalent compound sentence and solve each part
(iii) (iv) separately.
x-3 -7 =0 2 t+4 =
5
(v) 3
2x + 3 = 3
x-2 (vi) 3
2 - t= 3
2t - 28 Example 1
x +1 5 Solve and check, | 2x + 3 | = 11
(vii) (viii) = 2, x ≠ -

2t + 6 - 2t - 5 =0 2x + 5 2
Solution
By definition, depending on whether (2x + 3) is positive or


9
negative, the given equation is equivalent to Sometimes it may happen that the solution(s) obtained do not satisfy
+(2x + 3) = 11 or –(2x + 3) = 11

the original equation. Such solution(s) (called extraneous) must be

In practice, these two equations are usually written as

rejected. Therefore, it is always advisable to check the solutions in the

2x + 3= + 11 or
2x + 3 = –11
original equation.
2x = 8
or 2x = –14

x= 4 or x = –7
Example 3
Solve and check |3x + 10 | = 5x + 6

Check
Substituting x = 4, in the original equation, we get Solution
| 2(4) + 3| = 11

The given equation is equivalent to

i.e.,
11 = 11, true

± (3x + 10) = 5x + 6
New substituting x = –7,
we have
i.e.,

3x + 10 = 5x + 6 or 3x + 10 = –(5x+ 6)
|2(–7) + 3| = 11

–2x = –4 or

8x = –16
| –11 | = 11

x =2 or x = –2
11 = 11,
true
On checking in the original equation we see that x = –2 does not

Hence x = 4, – 7 are the solutions to the given equation.

satisfy it. Hence the only solution is x = 2.
or Solution set = {–7, 4}

Note: For an equation like 3|x – 1| – 6 = 8, do not forget to EXERCISE 7.2

isolate the absolute value expression on one side of the equation
before writing the equivalent equations. In the equation under 1. Identify the following statements as True or False.
consideration we must first write it as (i) | x | = 0 has only one solution.
……

|x – 1| = 14/3 (ii) All absolute value equations have two solutions.

……
(iii) The equation | x | = 2 is equivalent to x = 2 or x = –2. ……

Example 2 (iv) The equation | x – 4 | = –4 has no solution.

……
Solve |8x – 3| = |4x + 51

(v) The equation | 2x – 3 | = 5 is equivalent to 2x – 3 = 5 or

2x + 3 = 5 . ……

Solution 2. Solve for x

Since two numbers having the same absolute value are either 1
(i) |3x - 5| = 4 (ii) |3x + 2| - 4 = 11

equal or differ in sign, therefore, the given equation is equivalent to 2

8x – 3 = 4x + 5
or 8x – 3 = –(4x + 5)

(iii) |2x + 5| = 11 (iv) |3 + 2x| = |6x – 7|

4x = 8 or 12x = –2 1
(v) |x + 2| - 3 = 5 - |x + 2| (vi) |x + 3| + 21 = 9

x= 2 or x = –1/6

2
1

On checking we find that x = 2, x = – 6 both satisfy the original 3x - 5 1 2 x + 5 = 6

(vii) - = (viii)
equation. 2 3 3

2- x
Hence the solution set {– 1 , 2}.
6


11
7.3 Linear Inequalities 7.3.2 Properties of Inequalitie
In Unit 2 ,we discussed an important comparing property of

The properties of inequalities which we are going to use in

ordering real numbers. This order relation helps us to compare two solving linear inequalities in one variable are as under.
real numbers ‘a’ and ‘b’ when a ≠ b. This comparability is of primary
importance in many applications. We may compare prices, heights, 1 Law of Trichotomy
weights, temperatures, distances, costs of manufacturing, distances, For any a, b ∈ R, one and only one of the following statements

time etc. The inequality symbols < and > were introduced by an English is true.
mathematician Thomas Harriot (1560 — 1621). a b

An important special case of this property is the case for

7.3.1 Defining Inequalities b = 0; namely,

a < 0 or a = 0 or a > 0 for any a ∈ R.
Let a, b be real numbers. Then a is greater than b if the
difference a – b is positive and we denote this order relation by the
2 Transitive Property
inequality a> b. An equivalent statement is that in which b is less than Let a, b, c ∈ R.
a, symbolised by b< a Similarly, if a – b is negative, then a is less than (i) If a > b and b > c, then a > c
(ii) If a <b and b < c, then a < c
b and expressed in symbols as a < b.
Sometimes we know that one number is either less than another
3 Additive Closure Property For a,b,c ∈ R,
number or equal to it. But we do not know which one is the case. In
(i) If a > b, then a + c > b + c
such a situation we use the symbol “<” which is read as “less than or

If a < b, then a + c ” is used to mean “greater than or

(ii) If a > 0 and b > 0, then a + b > 0

equal to”. The symbols < , >, and > are also called inequality signs. The
If a < 0 andb < 0, then a + b < 0
inequalities x > y and x < y are known as strict (or strong) whereas the

inequalities where as x < y and y < x are called non-strict (or weak).
4 Multiplicative Property
If we combine a 0 and b > 0, then ab > 0, whereas a < 0 and b < 0 ⇒ ab > 0
and read as “a is less than b less than c” Similarly, “a b and c > 0, then ac > bc

“b is between a and c, inclusive.”

or if a 0, then ac < bc

A linear inequality in one variable x is an inequality in which the

(iii) If a > b and c < 0, then ac < bc

variable x occurs only to the first power and has the standard form
or if a bc
ax + b < 0, a ≠ 0

The above property (iii) states that the sign of inequality is reversed
where a and b are real numbers. We may replace the symbol < by >,

(iv) If a > b and c > d, then ac > bd

< or > also.


13
Solution
7.4. Solving Linear Inequalities The given inequality is a double inequality and represents two
separate inequalities
The method of solving an algebraic inequality in one variable is

explained with the help of following examples.
Example 1
Solve 9 – 7x > 19 – 2x, where x ∈R.

or – 6 < 1 – 2x < 3

or – 7 < –2x < 2

7

Solution or 2 > x > -1

9 – 7x > 19 – 2x

i.e., – 1< x < 3.5

9 – 5x > 19 …… (Adding 2x to each side)

So the solution set is {x | – 1 < x < 3.5}.

–5x > 10
…… (Adding –9 to each side)
x < – 2
…… (Multiplying each side by ) Example 4
Hence the solution set = {x | x < – 2}

Solve the inequality 4x – 1 < 3 < 7 + 2x, where x ∈ R.
Example 2 Solution
Solve where x ∈ R. The given inequality holds if and only if both the separate

inequalities 4x – 1 < 3 and 3 < 7 + 2x hold. We solve each of these

inequalities separately.
Solution The first inequality 4x – 1 < 3

gives
4x < 4 i.e., x < 1
…… (i)
and the second inequality 3 < 7 +2x yields –4 < 2x
To clear fractions we multiply each side by 6, the L.C.M. of 2 and 3 i.e., –2 < x which implies x> –2
…… (ii)
and get Combining (i) and (ii), we have –2 <x < 1

Thus the solution set = {x | -2 ≤ x ≤ 1}.

or 3x – 4 < 6x + 2

EXERCISE 7.3
or 3x < 6x + 6

or –3x < 6

1. Solve the following inequalities

or x > –2 (i) 3x + 1 < 5x – 4 (ii) 4x –10.3 < 21x –1.8

Hence the solution set = {x | x > –2}.

(iii) (iv)

Example 3
(v) (vi) 3(2x + 1) – 2(2x + 5) < 5 (3x – 2)
Solve the double inequality where x ∈ R.


15
3. Answer the following short questions.

(i) Define a linear inequality in one variable.

(vii) 3(x – 1) – (x – 2) > – 2(x + 4) (viii) (ii) State the trichotomy and transitive properties of inequalities.

(iii) The formula relating degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius is

2. Solve the following inequalities

9
F = C + 32. For what value of C is F < 0?

5
(i) – 4 < 3x + 5 < 8 (ii) (iv) Seven times the sum of an integer and 12 is at least 50 and at

most 60. Write and solve the inequality that expresses this
relationship.
(iii) (iv)
4. Solve each of the following and check for extraneous solution
if any
(v) 3x – 10 < 5 < x + 3 (vi)
(i) (ii)
(vii) 1 – 2x < 5 – x < 25 – 6x (viii) 3x – 2 < 2x + 1 < 4x + 17
5. Solve for x
REVIEW EXERCISE 7 (i) |3x + 14| - 2 = 5x (ii)

6. Solve the following inequality

(i) (ii)
2. Identify the following statements as True or False

SUMMARY
(i) The equation 3x – 5 = 7 – x is a linear equation. ……

(ii) The equation x – 0.3x = 0.7x is an identity. ……

• Linear Equation in one variable x is ax + b = 0 where a, b ∈ R, a ≠ 0.

(iii) The equation –2x + 3 = 8 is equivalent to –2x = 11. ……

• Solution to the equation is that value of x which makes it a true

(iv) To eliminate fractions, we multiply each side of an equation

statement.

by the L.C.M.of denominators.……

• An inconsistent equation is that whose solution set is φ.
(v) 4(x + 3) = x + 3 is a conditional equation. ……
• Additive property of equality:

(vi) The equation 2(3x + 5) = 6x + 12 is an inconsistent

If a = b, then a + c = b + c

equation.....

and a – c = b – c. ∀ a, b, c ∈ R

(vii) To solve
2
x = 12 we should multiply each side by
2
........ • Multiplicative property of equality: If a = b, then ac = bc
• Cancellation property:

3 3
(viii) Equations having exactly the same solution are called If a + c = b + c, then a = b
If ac = bc, c ≠ 0 then a = b, ∀ a, b, c ∈ R

equivalent equations. ……
(ix) A solution that does not satisfy the original equation is called • To solve an equation we find a sequence of equivalent equations to
isolate the variable x on one side of the equality to get solution.

Version: 1.1 extraneous solution. …… Version: 1.1

17
7. Linear Equations and Inequalities eLearn.Punjab
• A radical equation is that in which the variable occurs under the

radical. It must be checked for any extraneous solution(s)
• Absolute value of a real number a is defined as
|a| =

a,
-a, {
if a > 0
if a < 0
• Properties of Absolute value:

if a, b d R, then

(i)
|a| > 0

(ii)
|-a| = |a|

(iii) |ab| = |a|. |b|

a a
(iv) =
b ≠ 0
b b

(v) |x| = a is equivalent to x = a or x = -a

• Inequality symbols are < , > , < , >
• A linear inequality in one variable x is ax + b < 0, a ≠ 0
• Properties of Inequality:
(a) Law of Trichotomy

If a, b ∈ R then a b
(b) Transitive laws

If a > b and b > c, then a > c

(c) Multiplication and division:

a b
(i) If a > b and c > 0, then ac > bc and >
c c
a b
(ii) If a > b and c < 0, then ac < bc and <
c c
Version: 1.1
www.Quranmualim.com
18
version: 1.1
CHAPTER
LINEAR GRAPHS
8 &
THEIR APPLICATION
Animation 8.1: Linear Graphs

www.Quranmualim.com
8. Linear Graphs & their Application eLearn.Punjab 8. Linear Graphs & their Application eLearn.Punjab

8.1 Cartesian Plane and Linear Graphs
8.1.1 An Ordered Pair of Real Numbers
• Identify pair of real numbers as an ordered pair.
• Recognize an ordered pair through different examples.
An ordered pair of real numbers x and y is a pair (x, y) in which
• Describe rectangular or Cartesian plane consisting of two number

elements are written in specific order.

lines interesting at right angles at the point O.
i.e., (i) (x, y) is an ordered pair in which first element is x and
• Identify origin (O) and coordinate axes (horizontal and vertical axes
second is y. such that (x, y) ≠ (y, x) where, x ≠ y.
or x-axis and y-axis) in the rectangular plane.

(ii) (2, 3) and (3, 2) are two different ordered pairs.

• Locate an ordered pair (a, b) as a point in the rectangular plane and
(iii) (x, y) = (m, n) only if x = m and y = n.
recognize.

• a as the x-coordinate (or abscissa),

8.1.2 Recognizing an Ordered Pair
• b as the y-coordinate (or ordinate).

• Draw different geometrical shapes (e.g., line segment, triangle and
In the class room the seats of a student is the example of an
rectangle etc.) by joining a set of given points.

ordered pair. For example, the seat of the student A is at the 5th place
• Construct a table for pairs of values satisfying a linear equation in
in the 3rd row, so it corresponds to the ordered pair (3, 5). Here 3
two variables.
shows the number of the row and 5 shows its seat number in this
• Plot the pairs of points to obtain the graph of a given expression.
row.
• Choose an appropriate scale to draw a graph.
Similarly an ordered pair (4, 3) represents a seat located to a
• Draw a graph of
student A in the examination hall is at the 4th row and 3rd column i.e.
• an equation of the form y = c,
3rd place in the 4th row.

• an equation of the form x = a,

• an equation of the form y = mx,

8.1.3 Cartesian Plane

• an equation of the form y = mx + c.

• Draw a graph from a given table of (discrete) values.

The cartesian plane establishes one-to-one correspondence
• Solve appropriate real life problems.

between the set of ordered pairs R x R = {(x, y) | x, y d R} and the

• Interpret conversion graph as a linear graph relating to two

points of the Cartesian plane.

quantities which are in direct proportion.
In plane two mutually perpendicular straight lines are drawn.
• Read a given graph to know one quantity corresponding to another.
The lines are called the coordinate axes. The point O, where the two
• Read the graph for conversions of the form.
lines meet is called origin. This plane is called the coordinate plane or
• miles and kilometers, acres and hectares,
the Cartesian plane.

• degrees Celsius and degrees Fahrenheit,

• Pakistani currency and another currency, etc.
• Solve simultaneous linear equations in two variables using graphical
method.


3
8.1.4 Identification of Origin and

Coordiante Axes
The horizontal line XOX/ is called

the x-axis and the vertical line YOY/ is

called the y-axis. The point O where
the x-axis and y-axis meet is called the
origin and it is denoted by O(0, 0).
We have noted that each point in

the plane either lies on the axes of the coordinate plane or in any one
of quadrants of the plane namely XOY, YOX/, X/OY/ and Y/OX called
the first, sceond, thirdand the fourth quadrants of the planesubdivided
by the coordinate axes of the plane. They are denoted by Q-I, Q-II, Q-III
In the reference system, the real number a is measured along
and Q-IV respectively.

x-axis, OA = a units away from the origin along OX (if a > 0) and the
The signs of the coordinates of the points (x, y) are shown below;
real number b along y-axis, OB = b units away from the origin along

OY (if b > 0). From B on OY, draw the line parallel to x-axis and from A
on OX draw line parallel to y-axis. Both the lines meet at the point P.
Then the point P corresponds to the ordered pair (a, b).
In the graph shown above 2 is the x-coordinate and 3 is the
y-coordinate of the point P which is denoted by P(2, 3).
In this way coordinates of each point in the plane are obtained.
The x-coordinate of the point is called abscissa of the point
P(x, y) and the y-coordinate is called its ordinate.
1. Each point P of the plane can be identified by the coordinates of
the pair (x, y) and is represented by P(x, y).
2. All the points of the plane have y-coordinate, y = 0 if they lie on the
e.g., 1. The point (-3, -1) lies in Q-III. 2. The point (2, -3) lies in Q-IV.
x-axis. i.e., P(-2, 0) lies on the axis.

3. The point (2, 5) lies in Q-I. 4. The point (2, 0) lies on x-axis.
3. All the points of the plane have x-coordinate x = 0 if they lie on the

y-axis, i.e., Q(0, 3) lies on the y-axis.

8.1.5 Location of the Point P(a, b) in the Plane Corresponding

to the Ordered Pair (a,b)

8.1.6 Drawing different Geometrical Shapes of Cartesian
Plane
Let (a, b) be an ordered pair of R x R.
We define first the idea of collinear points before going to form

Version: 1.1 geometrical shapes. Version: 1.1

5
(a) Line-Segment
Example 2:
Example 1: For points O(0, 0), P(3, 0) and

Let P(2, 2) and Q(6, 6) are two points.

R(3, 3), the triangle OPR is constructed

1. Plot points P and Q.
’
as shown by the side.
2. Join the points P and Q, we get the line
segment PQ. It is represented by PQ.
Example 2:
(c) Rectangle
Plot points P(2, 2) and Q(6, 2). By

joining them, we get a line segment PQ

Example:
parallel to x-axis.
Plot the points P(2, 0), Q(2, 3),

Where ordinate of both points is equal.

S(-2, 0) and R(-2, 3). Joining the points P,

Q, R and S, we get a rectangle PQRS.
Along y-axis,

2 (length of square) = 1
Example 3:

Plot points B(3, 2) and Q(3, 7). By joining

8.1.7 Construction of a Table for Pairs of Values Satisfying

them, we get a line segment PQ parallel to

a Linear Equation in Two Variables.
y-axis.
In this graph abcissas of both the points
Let 2x + y = 1 (i)

are equal.

be a linear equation in two variables x and y.

The ordered pair (x, y) satisfies the equation and by varying x,
(b) Triangle corresponding y is obtained.
We express (i) in the forms
Example 1: y = -2x + 1
(ii)

Plot the points P(3, 2), Q(6, 7) and The pairs (x, y) which satisfy (ii) are tabulated below.

R(9, 3). By joining them, we get a triangle

PQR. y x (x, y)
-1 3 (-1, 3) at x = -1, y = (-2) (-1) + 1 = 2 + 1 = 3
0 1 (0, 1) at x = 0, y = (-2)(0) + 1 = 0 + 1 = 1

1 -1 (1, -1) at x = 1, y = (-2)(1) + 1 = -2 + 1 = -1

3 -5 (3, -5) at x = 3, y = -2(3) + 1 = -5

Similarly all the points can be computed, the ordered pairs of

which do satisfy the equation (i).

7
8.1.8 Plotting the points to get the graph points in the plane, which form the graph of the equation (by joining
Now we plot the points obtained in the table. Joining these

the plotted points).
points we get the graph of the equation. The graph of y = -2x + 1 is (a) The equation y = c is formed in the plane by the set,
shown on the next page. S = {(x, c): x lies on the x-axis} sub set RxR.
The procedure is explained with the help of following examples.
Consider the equation y = 2 The set S is tabulated as;

The set S is tabulated as;

x ……… -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 ……..
y 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
The points of S are plotted in the plane.
8.1.9 Scale of Graph

Similarly graph of y = -4 is shown as:

To draw the graph of an equation we choose a scale e.g. 1 small

square represents 2 meters or 1 small square length represents 10 or

5 meters. It is selected by keeping in mind the size of the paper. Some
times the same scale is used for both x and y coordinates and some
times we use different scales for x and y-coordinate depending on the
values of the coordinates.
8.1.10 Drawing Graphs of the following Equations
(a) y = c, where c is constant.

(b) x = a, where a is constant.

(c) y = mx, where m is constant.
So, the graph of the equation of the type y = c is obtained as:

(d) y = mx + c, where m and c both are constants.

(i) the straight line

By drawing the graph of an equation is meant to plot those

(ii) the line is parallel to x-axis
9
Similarly graph for equation x = -2 is shown as:

(iii) the line is above the x-axis at a distance c units if c > 0
(iv) the line (shown as y = -4) is below the x-axis at the distance c
units as c < 0
(v) the line is that of x-axis at the distance c units if c = 0

(b) The equation, x = a is drawn in the plane by the points of the set
S = {(a, y): y d R}

The points of S are tabulated as follows:
x a a a a a a a a …
y … -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 …

The points of S are plotted in the plane as, ….. (a, -2), (a, -1), (a, 0), So, the graph of the equation of the type x = a is obtained as:
(a, 1), (a, 2), .... etc. (i) the straight line
The point (a, 0) on the graph of the equation x = a lies on the x-axis

(ii) the line parallel to the y-axis
while (a, y) is above the x-axis if y > 0 and below the x-axis if y < 0. By (iii) the line is on the right side of y-axis at distance “a” units if a > 0.
joining the points, we get the line. (iv) the line x = -2 is on the left side of y-axis at the distance a units
The procedure is explained with the help of following examples. as a < 0.
Consider the equation x = 2

(v) the line is y-axis if a = 0.
Table for the points of equation is as under
(c) The equation y = mx, (for a fixed mdR) is formed by the points of

x 2 2 2 2 2 2 …2… the set W = {(x, mx) : xdR}

y … -2 -1 0 1 2 … i.e. W = {....., (-2, -2m), (-1, -m), (0, 0), (1, m), (2, 2m), .... }.

The points corresponding to the ordered pairs of the set W are

Thus, graph of the equation x = 2 is shown as: tabulated below:
x ……… -2 -1 0 1 2 ……..
y ..……. -2m -m 0 m 2m ……..
The procedure is explained with the help of following examples.

Consider the equation y = x, where m = 1

Table of points for equation is as under:
x … -2 -1 0 1 2 …
y … -2 -1 0 1 2 …
11
The points are plotted in the plane as follows: These points are plotted in plane as below:
By joining the plotted points the graph of the equation of the type
y = mx is, We see that
(i) the straight line (i) y = mx + c represents the graph of a line.
(ii) it passes through the origin O(0, 0) (ii) It does not pass through the origin O(0, 0).

(iii) m is the slope of the line (iii) It has intercept c units along the y-axis away from the

(iv) the graph of line splits the plane into two equal parts. If m = 1, origin.
then the line becomes the graph of the equation y = x. (iv) m is the slope of the line whose equation is y = mx + c.
(v) If m = -1 then line is the graph of the equation y = -x.
(vi) the line meets both the axes at the origin and no other poin In particular if
(d) Now we move to a generalized form of the equation, i.e., (i) c = 0, then y = mx passes through the origin.

y = mx + c,
where
m, c ≠ 0.
(ii) m = 0, then the line y = c is parallel to x-axis.

The points corresponding to the ordered pairs of the

S = {(x, mx + c): m, c (≠ 0)dR} are tabulated below

8.1.11 Drawing Graph from a given Table of Discrete Values
x 0 1 2 3 ..... x ..... If the points are discrete the graph

y c m+c 2m + c 3m + c ..... mx + c ..... is just the set of points. The points are
not joined.
The procedure is explained with the help of following examples. For example, the following table of

Consider the equation discrete values is plotted as:

y = x + 1, where m = 1, c = 1

x 3 3 -3 -3
We get the table y 3 -3 3 -3
So, the dotted square shows the
x …0 1 2 3 ... ... ... graph of discrete values.
y …1 2 3 4 ... ... ...

13
8.1.12 Solving Real Life Problems (x) 3y = 5x (xi) 2x - y = 0 (xii) 2x - y = 2

(xiii) x - 3y + 1 = 0 (xiv) 3x-2y + 1 = 0
We often use the graph to solve the

real life problems. With the help of graph, 3. Are the following lines (i) parallel to x-axis (ii) parallel to y-axis?
we can determine the relation or trend (i) 2x - 1 = 3 (ii) x + 2 = -1 (iii) 2y + 3 = 2
between the both quantities. (iv) x+y=0 (v) 2x - 2y = 0
We learn the procedure of drawing
graph of real life problems with the help of 4. Find the value of m and c of the following lines by expressing
following examples. them in the form y = mx + c.
(a) 2x + 3y - 1 = 0 (b) x - 2y = -2 (c) 3x + y - 1 = 0
Example: (d) 2x- y = 7 (e) 3 - 2x + y = 0 (f) 2x = y + 3
Equation y = x + 16 shows the

relationship between the age of two person
5. Verify whether the following point lies on the line 2x - y + 1 = 0
i.e. if the age of one person is x, then the age of other person is y. or not.
Draw the graph. (i) (2, 3) (ii) (0, 0)
(iii) (-1, 1)
(v)
Solution (iv) (2, 5) (5, 3)
We know that
y = x + 16

Table of points for equation is given as:

8.2 Conversion Graphs

x 0 4 8 12 16 … 8.2.1 To Interpret Conversion Graph
y 16 20 24 28 32 …
In this section we shall consider conversion graph as a linear
By plotting the points we get the graph of a straight line as shown

graph relating to two quantities which are in direct proportion.

in the figure. Let y = f(x) be an equation in two variables x and y.
We demonstrate the ordered pairs which lie on the graph of the
EXERCISE 8.1 equation y = 3x + 3 are tabulated below:
1. Determine the quadrant of the coordinate plane in which the x …0 -1 -2 …

following points lie: P(-4, 3), Q(-5, -2), R(2, 2) and S(2, -6).

y …3 0 -3 …
2. Draw the graph of each of the following (x, y) … (0, 3) (-1, 0) (-2, -3) …
(i) x = 2
(ii) x = -3 (iii) y = -1
(iv) y=3 (v) y=0 (vi) x = 0
By plotting the points in the plane corresponding to the ordered
1

(vii) y = 3x (viii) -y = 2x (ix) 2

= x pairs (0, 3), (-1, 0) and (-2, -3) etc, we form the graph of the equation
Version: 1.1 y = 3x + 3. Version: 1.1
15
The conversion graph of x with respect to y is displayed as below:
8.2.3 Reading the Graphs of Conversion

8.2.2 Reading a Given Graph
(a) Example: (Kilometre (Km) and Mile (M) Graphs)
From the graph of y = 3x + 3 as shown above.

To draw the graph between kilometre (Km) and Miles (M), we use

(i) for a given value of x we can read the corresponding value of y the following relation:
with the help of equation y = 3x + 3, and One kilometre = 0.62 miles, (approximately)

(ii) for a given value of y we can read the corresponding value and one mile = 1.6 km
(approximately)

of x, by converting equation y = 3x + 3 to equation x = 1 y - 1 (i) The relation of mile against kilometre is given by the linear
3

and draw the corresponding conversion graph. equation,

y = 0.62 x,
In the conversion graph we express x in terms of y as explained If y is a mile and x, a kilometre, then we tabulate the ordered pairs

below. (x, y) as below;

y = 3x + 3
⇒ y - 3 = 3x + 3 - 3 x 0 1 2 3 4…
⇒ y - 3 = 3x or 3x = y - 3

y 0 0.62 1.24 1.86 2.48 …

⇒ x = 1 y - 1, where x is expressed in terms of y.
3

The ordered pairs (x, y) corresponding to y = 0.62x are represented

We tabulate the values of the dependent variable x at the values

in the Cartesian plane. By joining them we get the desired following

of y. graph of miles against kilometers.
y …3 0 6…
x …0 -1 1…
(y, x) … (3, 0) (0, -1) (6, 1) …

17
By joining the points we actually find the conversion graph of

kilometres against miles.

For each quantity of kilometre x along x-axis there corresponds mile
along y-axis.
(b) Conversion Graph of Hectares and Acres
(ii) The conversion graph of kilometre against mile is given by (i) The relation between Hectare and Acre is defined as:
640
y = 1.6x
(approximately) Hectare = 259 Acres

If y represents kilometres and x a mile, then the values x and y = 2.5 Acres (approximately)

are tabulated as: In case when hectare = x and acre = y, then relation between them

is given by the equation, y = 2.5x
x 0 1 2 3 4… If x is represented as hectare along the horizontal axis and y as

y 0 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4 … Acre along y-axis, the values are tabulated below:
x 0 1 2 3 4…
We plot the points in the xy-plane corresponding to the ordered y 0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10 …
pairs. (0, 0), (1, 1.6), (2, 3.2), (3, 4.8) and (4, 6.4) as shown in figure.

The ordered pairs (0,0), (1, 2.5), (2,5) etc., are plotted as points in

the xy-plane as below and by joining the points the required graph is
obtained:

19
9
F= C + 32
5

The values of F at C = 0 is obtained as

9
F = 5 x 0 + 32 = 0 + 32 = 32

Similarly,
9
F = 5 x 10 + 32 = 18 + 32 = 50,

9
F = 5 x 20 + 32 = 36 + 32 = 68,

F = 9 x 100 + 32 = 180 + 32 = 212
5

1
(ii) Now the conversion graph is Acre = Hectare is simplified as,
2.5

10
Acre = 25 Hectare
We tabulate the values of C and F.
= 0.4 Hectare (approximately)
If Acre is measured along x-axis and hectare along y-axis then

C 0° 10° 20° 50° 100° …
y = 0.4x F 32° 50° 68° 122° 212° …
The ordered pairs are tabulated in the following table,
The conversion graph of F with respect to C is shown in figure.
x 0 1 2 3…
y 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 …
The corresponding ordered pairs (0, 0), (1, 0.4), (2, 0.8) etc., are

plotted in the xy-plane, join of which will form the graph of (b)-ii as a
conversion graph of (a)-i:

100 = length of square
Note from the graph that the value of C corresponding to
(i) F = 86° is C = 30° and (ii) F = 104° is C = 40°.
(ii) Now we express C in terms of F for the conversion graph of

C with respect to F as below:

C = 5 (F - 32)
9

(c) Conversion Graph of Degrees Celsius and Degrees Fahrenheit The values for F = 68° and F = 176° are
(i) The relation between degree Celsius (C) and degree Fahrenheit (F)

Version: 1.1 is given by Version: 1.1

21
5 1
C= (68 - 32) = x 36 = 200 Conversion graph x = 66 y of y = 66x can be shown by interchanging
9

and x-axis to y-axis and vice versa.

5 5
C = 9
(176 - 32) =

9
(144) = 5 x 16 = 800

EXERCISE 8.2
Find out at what temperature will the two readings be same?
i.e., F = 9 C + 32 1. Draw the conversion graph between litres and gallons using the
5

relation 9 litres = 2 gallons (approximately), and taking litres along

( ) C = - 32 ⇒ C = - 32 x 5 = - 40

9 4
⇒ - 1 C = - 32 ⇒
5 5 horizontal axis and gallons along vertical axis. From the graph,
4

To verify at C = −40, we have read

9
F = 5 x (-40) + 32 = 9(-8) + 32 = -72 +32 = -400

(i) the number of gallons in 18 litres

(d) Conversion Graph of US and Pakistani Currency (ii) the number of litres in 8 gallons.

2. On 15.03.2008 the exchange rate of Pakistani currency and Saudi

The Daily News, on a particular day informed the conversion rate

Riyal was as under:

of Pakistani currency to the US$ currency as,

1 S. Riyal = 16.70 Rupees

1 US$ = 66.46 Rupees If Pakistani currency y is an expression of S. Riyal x, expressed
If the Pakistani currency y is an expression of US$ x, expressed under the rule y = 16.70x, then draw the conversion graph between
under the rule these two currencies by taking S. Riyal along x-axis.
y = 66.46x = 66x (approximately) 3. Sketch the graph of each of the following lines.

then draw the conversion graph.

We tabulate the values as below.

(a) x − 3y + 2 = 0 (b) 3x − 2y − 1 = 0 (c) 2y − x + 2 = 0
x 1 2 3 4… (d) y − 2x = 0 (e) 3y − 1 = 0 (f) y + 3x = 0
y 66 132 198 264 … (g) 2x + 6 = 0
Plotting the points corresponding to the ordered pairs (x, y)

4. Draw the graph for following relations.

from the above table and joining them provides the currency linear (i) One mile = 1.6 km (ii) One Acre = 0.4 Hectare
9 1

graph of rupees against dollars as shown in the figure. (iii) F = 5 C + 32

(iv) One Rupee = 86 $

8.3 Graphical Solution of Linear Equations in

two Variables
We solve here simultaneous linear equations in two variables by
graphical method.
Let the system of equations be,
2x − y = 3, …… (i)

x + 3y = 3. …… (ii)


23
Table of Values x 3
y=- + y= x - 2

y = 2x − 3 y=− 1 x+1

3
2 2
x …0 3… x …0 2…
x … 0 1.5 … x …0 3 … y … 1.5 0 … y … −2 0 …
y … −3 0 … y …1 0 …
The points P(0, 1⋅5) and Q(3, 0) of equation (i) are plotted in the

By plotting the points, we get the following graph. plane and the corresponding line l: x + 2y = 3 is traced by joining P
and Q.
Similarly, the line l/: x − y = 2 of (ii) is obtained by plotting the

points P′(0, −2) and Q′(2, 0) in the plane and joining them to trace the
line l/ as below:
The solution of the system is the point R where the lines l and l

meet at, i.e., R(1⋅7, 0⋅4) such that x = 1.7 and y = 0⋅4.

The common point S(2.3, 0.3) on both the lines l and l/ is the

Example required solution of the system.

Solve graphically, the following linear system of two equations
in two variables x and y; EXERCISE 8.3
x + 2y = 3, ……(i)
x − y = 2. ……(ii)
Solve the following pair of equations in x and y graphically.
Solution 1. x + y = 0 and 2x − y + 3 = 0 2. x − y + 1 = 0 and x − 2y = −1

The equations (i) and (ii) are represented graphically with the 3. 2x + y = 0 and x + 2y = 2 4. x + y − 1 = 0 and x − y + 1 = 0

help of their points of intersection with the coordinate axes of the 5. 2x + y − 1 = 0 and x = −y
same co-ordinate plane.
The points of intersections of the lines representing equation (i)

and (ii) are given in the following table:

25
REVIEW EXERCISE 8
SUMMARY
• An ordered pair is a pair of elements in which elements are written
in specific order.
• The plane framed by two straight lines perpendicular to each other
is called cartesian plane and the lines are called coordinate axes.
2. Identify the following statements as True or False. • The point of intersection of two coordinate axes is called origin.
(i) The point O(0, 0) is in quadrant II. …… • There is a one-to-one correspondence between ordered pair and a
(ii) The point P(2, 0) lies on x-axis. …… point in Cartesian plane and vice versa.
(iii) The graph of x = −2 is a vertical line. …… • Cartesian plane is also known as coordinate plane.
(iv) 3 − y = 0 is a horizontal line. …… • Cartesian plane is divided into four quadrants.
(v) The point Q( 1, 2) is in quadrant III. ……
−
• The x-coordinate of a point is called abcissa and y-coordinate is
(vi) The point R( 1, −2) is in quadrant IV. ……
−
called ordinate.
(vii) y = x is a line on which origin lies. …… • The set of points which lie on the same line are called collinear
(viii) The point P(1, 1) lies on the line x + y = 0. …… points.
(ix) The point S(1, −3) lies in quadrant III. …… 
(x) The point R(0, 1) lies on the x-axis. …
3. Draw the following points on the graph paper.
( 3, −3), ( 6, 4), (4, −5), (5, 3)
− −
4. Draw the graph of the following

(i) x = −6 (ii) y = 7
5 9
(iii) x= (iv) y= -

2 2
(v) y = 4x (vi) y = −2x + 1

5. Draw the following graph.
(i) y = 0.62x (ii) y = 2.5x
6. Solve the following equations graphically.
1
(i) x − y = 1, x+ y=
2
(ii) x = 3y,
2x − 3y = −6
1
(iii) (x + y) = 2, ( x - y) =
-1
2
27
version: 1.1
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION TO
9 COORDINATE GEOMETRY

www.Quranmualim.com
9. Introduction to Coordinate Geometry eLearn.Punjab 9. Introduction to Coordinate Geometry eLearn.Punjab
Students Learning Outcomes axes intersecting at origin. We have also seen that there is one to one
correspondence between the points of the plane and the ordered
After studying this unit, the students will be able to: pairs in R % R.
• Define coordinate geometry.
• Derive distance formula to calculate distance between two points 9.1.2 Finding Distance between two points
given in Cartesian plane.
• Use distance formula to find distance between two given points. Let P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) be

Y
Q(x2, y2)
• Define collinear points. Distinguish between collinear and two points in the coordinate d |y2 _ y1 |
(x1, y1)
non-collinear points. plane where d is the length of the P N(x2, y1)
|x2 _ x1 |
• Use distance formula to show that given three (or more) points are line segment PQ. i.e. ,|PQ| = d.
collinear. The line segments MQ and LP y1 y2
• Use distance formula to show that the given three non-collinear parallel to y-axis meet x-axis at
|x2 _ x1 |
points form points M and L, respectively with X’ O L(x1,0) M(x2,0) X
• an equilateral triangle, coordinates M(x2, 0) and L(x1, 0).

x1
x2
• an isosceles triangle, The line-segment PN is parallel

Y’
• a right angled triangle, to x-axis.

• a scalene triangle. In the right triangle PNQ,

• Use distance formula to show that given four non-collinear points |NQ| = |y2 – y1| and |PN| = |x2 – x1| .

form Using Pythagoras Theorem

• a square,
• a rectangle, (PQ
= ) 2 (PN) 2 + (QN) 2
• a parallelogram. ⇒ d 2 = x2 - x1 + y2 - y1
2 2
• Recognize the formula to find the midpoint of the line joining two
⇒ d 2 =
± x2 - x1 + y2 - y1
2 2
given points.
• Apply distance and mid point formulae to solve/verify different
Thus d = x2 - x1 + y2 - y1 , since d > 0 always.
2 2
standard results related to geometry.
9.1 Distance Formula 9.1.3 Use of Distance Formula
9.1.1 Coordinate Geomety The use of distance formula is explained in the following

examples.
The study of geometrical shapes in a plane is called plane

geometry. Coordinate geometry is the study of geometrical shapes Example 1

in the Cartesian plane (coordinate plane). We know that a plane is Using the distance formula, find the distance between the
divided into four quadrants by two perpendicular lines called the points.
3
(i) P(1, 2) and Q(0, 3) (ii) S(–1, 3) and R(3, –2)

9.2 Collinear Points

(iii) U(0, 2) and V(–3, 0) (iv) P′(1, 1) and Q′(2, 2)
9.2.1 Collinear or Non-collinear Points in the Plane

Solution
(i) |PQ| = (0 - 1)2 + (3 -2)2
Two or more than two points which lie on the same straight

line are called collinear points with respect to that line; otherwise they

= (-1)2 + (1)2 = 1 + 1 =

2
are called non-collinear.

Let m be a line, then all the points on line m are collinear.
(ii) |SR| = (3 - (-1))2 + (-2 -3)2

In the given figure, the points P and Q are collinear with respect

to the line m and the points P and R are not collinear with respect to it.

= (3 + 1)2 + (-5)2 = 16 + 25 = 41

R

(iii) |UV| =
(-3 - 0)2 + (0 -2)2 m

P Q
=

(-3)2 + (-2)2 = 9+4 = 13
9.2.2 Use of Distance Formula to show the Collinearity of

Three or more Points in the Plane
(iv) |P’Q’| = (2 - 1)2 + (2 - 1)2

Let P, Q and R be three points in the plane. They are called
= 1+1 = 2
collinear if PQ + QR =
PR , otherwise will be non colliner.

EXERCISE 9.1
Example
1. Find the distance between the following pairs of points. Using distance formula show that the points
(i) P( 2, −1), Q(0, 3) and R(1, 5) are collinear.

(a) A(9, 2), B(7, 2) (b) A(2, −6), B(3, −6) (ii) The above points P, Q, R and S(1, −1) are not collinear.

(c) A( 8, 1), B(6, 1)

− (d)
(e) A(3, −11), B(3, −4) (f) A(0, 0), B(0, −5) Solution
(i) By using the distance formula, we find

2. Let P be the point on x-axis with x-coordiante a and Q be the point

on y-axis with y-coordinate b as given below. Find the distance

between P and Q.
(i) a = 9, b = 7 (ii) a = 2, b = 3 (iii) a = −8, b = 6 and

(iv) a = −2, b = −3 (v) (vi) a = −9, b = −4
Since
5
therefore, the points P, Q and R are collinear
(ii)
Since
and |PQ| + |QS| ≠ |PS|,

and

therefore the points P, Q and S are not collinear and hence, the

points P, Q, R and S are also not collinear.

A closed figure in a plane obtained by joining three non-collinear

points is called a triangle.

In the triangle ABC the
i.e., |OP| = |QO| = |PQ| = a real number and the points O(0, 0),

non-collinear points A, B and C are

the three vertices of the triangle

Q are not collinear. Hence the triangle OPQ is
ABC. The line segments AB, BC and

CA are called sides of the triangle.

equilateral.
9.2.3 Use of Distance Formula to Different Shapes of a

Triangle
We expand the idea of a triangle to its different kinds depending

on the length of the three sides of the triangle as:
(i) Equilateral triangle (iii) Isosceles triangle

(ii) Right angled triangle (iv) Scalene triangle

We discuss the triangles (i) to (iv) in order.

(ii) An Isosceles Triangle

(i) Equilateral Triangle
An isosceles triangle PQR is a triangle which has two of its sides
If the lengths of all the three sides of a triangle are same, then the
with equal length while the third side has a different length.

triangle is called an equilateral triangle.
Example
Example
The triangle OPQ is an equilateral triangle since the points O(0, 0),
The triangle PQR is an isosceles triangle as for the non-collinear

points P( 1, 0), Q(1, 0) and R (0, 1) shown in the following figure,
and are not collinear, where
−

7
Here 1.5 square block

= 1 unit length
PQ= (1 - (-1)) 2 + (0 - 0) 2= (1 + 1) 2 + 0= 4= 2
QR = Now OQ + OP = (2) 2 + (3) 2 = 13 and PQ = 13
2 2 2
(0 - 1) 2 + (1 - 0) 2 = (-1) 2 + 12 = 1+1 = 2

Since OQ
= + OP PQ , therefore
= ∠POQ 90
2 2 2
PR = (0 - (-1)) + (1 - 0) =
2 2
1 + 1= 2
Hence the given non-collinear points form a right triangle.

(iv) Scalene Triangle

Since QR= PR= 2 and PQ= 2 ≠ 2 so the non-collinear

A triangle is called a scalene triangle if measures of all the three

points P, Q, R form an isosceles triangle PQR. sides are different.
Example
(iii) Right Angled Triangle Show that the points P(1, 2), Q( 2, 1) and R(2, 1) in the plane form
−
A triangle in which one of the angles has measure equal to 900 a scalene triangle.
is called a right angle triangle. Solution
Example
Let O(0, 0), P( 3, 0) and Q(0, 2) be three non-collinear points.
−
Verify that triangle OPQ is right-angled. and

Visual proof of pythagoras’ therom
OQ
= (0 - 0) + (2 - 0) = 2 = 2
2 2 2
In right angle triangle ABC

2 |AB|2 = |BC|2 + |CA|2
OP = (-3) + 0 = 9 = 3
2
PQ = (-3) 2 + (-2) 2 = 9+ 4= 13
Pythagoras’
Birth c. 580 BC - 572 BC

Death c.500 BC - 490 BC

9
Hence |PQ| = |QR| = 4 and |PR| =

The points P, Q and R are non-collinear since, PQ + QR > PR
Thus the given points form a scalene triangle.
9.2.4 Use of distance formula to show that four non-

collinear points form a square, a rectangle and a
parallelogram
We recognize these three figures as below
Hence AB = BC = CD = DA = 4.
Also|AC|= (- 2 - 2)2 + (- 2 - 2)2 = (- 4)2 + (- 4)2 = 16 + 16 =
32

90o
90o = 4 2

Now |AB|2 + |BC|2 = |AC|2, therefore ∠ ABC = 900

Hence the given four non collinear points form a square.
(a) Using Distance Formula to show that given four Non-Collinear (b) Using Distance Formula to show that given four Non-Collinear
Points form a Square Points form a Rectangle
A square is a closed figure in the plane formed by four A figure formed in the plane by four non-collinear points is called
non-collinear points such that lengths of all sides are equal and a rectangle if,
measure of each angle is 900. (i) its opposite sides are equal in length;

(ii) the angle at each vertex is of measure 90o.

Example
If A(2, 2), B(2, −2), C( 2, −2) and D ( 2, 2) be four non-collinear
− −
Example
points in the plane, then verify that they form a square ABCD. Show that the points A( 2, 0), B( 2, 3), C(2, 3) and D(2, 0) form a
− −
rectangle.
Solution
Solution
Using distance formula,

|AB| =
|DC| =

11
|AD| =

|BC| =
Since |AB| = |DC| = 3

and
|AD| = |BC| = 4,

therefore, opposite sides are equal.
Also |AC| = By distance formula,

Now AD 2 + DC 2 = (4) 2 + (3) 2 = 25, and = AC 2 = (5) 2 = 25
AB= (2 + 2) 2 + (1 - 1) 2= 42 + 0= 16= 4
Since AD + DC =
AC ,
2 2 2
CD= (3 + 1) 2 + (3 - 3) 2 = 42 + 0= 16= 4
therefore m∠ADC = 90 
AD = (-1 + 2) 2 + (3 - 1) 2 = 12 + 22 = 1+ 4 = 5
Hence the given points form a rectangle.
BC = (3 - 2) 2 + (3 - 1) 2 = 12 + 22 = 5
(c) Use of Distance Formula to show that given four Non-Collinear Since AB
= CD
= 4 and AD
= BC
= 5
Points Form a Parallelogram
Hence the given points form a parallelogram.
Definition
A figure formed by four non-collinear points in the plane is called EXERCISE 9.2
a parallelogram if
(i) its opposite sides are of equal length 1. Show whether the points with vertices (5, –2), (5, 4) and (–4, 1) are
(ii) its opposite sides are parallel vertices of an equilateral triangle or an isosceles triangle?
2. Show whether or not the points with vertices (–1, 1), (5, 4), (2, –2)
Example and (–4, 1) form a square?
Show that the points A(–2, 1), B(2, 1), C(3, 3) and D(–1, 3) form a 3. Show whether or not the points with coordinates (1, 3), (4, 2) and
parallelogram.
13
(–2, 6) are vertices of a right triangle? Recognition of the Mid-Point Formula for any two Points in the
4. Use the distance formula to prove whether or not the points (1, 1),
Plane
(–2, –8) and (4, 10) lie on a straight line? Let P1(x1, y1) and P2(x2, y2) be any two points in the plane and
5. Find k, given that the point (2, k) is equidistant from (3, 7) and (9, 1).
R(x, y) be a mid-point of points P1 and P2 on the line-segment P1P2 as
6. Use distance formula to verify that the points A(0, 7), B(3, –5),
shown in the figure below.
C(–2, 15) are collinear.

7. Verify whether or not the points O(0, 0), A( 3 , 1), B( 3 , –1) are

vertices of an equilateral triangle.

8. Show that the points A(–6, –5), B(5, –5), C(5, –8) and D(–6, –8) are

vertices of a rectangle. Find the lengths of its diagonals. Are they

equal?
9. Show that the points M(–1, 4), N(–5, 3), P(1 –3) and Q(5, –2) are the

vertices of a parallelogram.
10. Find the length of the diameter of the circle having centre at

C(–3, 6) and passing through P(1, 3).
9.3 Mid-Point Formula
9.3.1 Recognition of the Mid-Point If line-segment MN, parallel to x-axis, has its mid-point R(x, y),
then, x2 – x = x – x1
x + x2
Let P(–2, 0) and Q(2, 0) be
⇒ 2x = x1 + x2 ⇒ x= 1
2

two points on the x-axis. Then Similarly, y = y1 + y2

the origin O(0, 0) is the mid point 2
( )
of P and Q, since |OP| = 2 =
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
|OQ| and the points P, O and Q Thus the point R(x, y) = , is the mid-point of the
2 2

are collinear. points P1(x1, y1) and P2(x2, y2).

Similarly the origin is the mid-

point of the points P1(0, 3) and 9.3.2 Verification of the Mid-PointFormula
Q1(0, –3) since |OP1| = 3 = |OQ1|
and the points P1, O and Q1 are

collinear.

15
Example 2
Let P(2, 3) and Q(x, y) be two points in the plane such that R(1, –1)
is the mid-point of the points P and Q. Find x and y.
Solution
Since R(1, –1) is the mid point of P(2, 3) and Q(x, y) then
x+2 y+3
1 = and -1 =
2 2

⇒ 2 = x+2
⇒
-2 = y + 3

⇒ x = 0
⇒ y = -5

Example 3
Let ABC be a triangle as shown below. If M1, M2 and M3 are the
1 middle points of the line-segments AB, BC and CA respectively, find the
⇒ |P2R| = |P1R| = |P1P2|
2

coordinates of M1, M2 and M3. Also determine the type of the triangle
Thus it verifies that R
x 1 + x2
2 ,
(
y1 + y2
2 is the mid-point of the
) M1M2M3.
line segment P1RP2 which lies on the line segment since,
( )
|P1R| + |P2R| = |P1P2| Solution

-3 + 5 2+8
Mid - point of AB = M1 , = M1 (1, 5)
2 2

( )

If P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) are two points in the plane, 5+5 8+2
then the mid-point R(x, y) of the line segment PQ is Mid - point of BC = M2 , = M2 (5, 5)
2 2

( )
x1 + x2 y1 + y 2
R(x, y) = R 2 , 2

Example 1
Find the mid-point of the line segment joining A(2, 5) and B(–1, 1).
Solution
If R(x, y) is the desired mid-point then,

2-1 1 5+1 6
x = = and y= = =3
2 2 2 2

Hence R(x, y) = R 2 ,3

1
( )


17
and Mid - point of AC = M3

5-3
2 ,
2+2
2 ( ) = M3 (1, 2)
Hence
The triangle M1M2M3 has sides with length,
|M1M2| = (5 - 1)2 + (5 - 5)2 = 42 + 0 = 4 ....(i) Let P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) be any two points and their midpoint be

|M2M3| = (1 - 5)2 + (2 - 5)2 = (- 4)2 + (- 3)2 M (x 1
+ x2
2
,
y1 + y 2
2
). Then M
= 16 + 9 = 25
= 5
....(ii)
(i) is at equal distance from P and Q

i.e., PM = MQ
and |M1M3| = (1 - 1)2 + (2 - 5)2 = 02 + (-3)2 = 3
....(iii)
(ii) is an interior point of the line segment PQ.

All the lengths of the three sides are different. Hence the triangle (iii) every point R in the plane at equal distance from P and Q is not
M1M2M3 is a Scalene triangle their mid-point. For example, the point R(0, 1) is at equal distance
from P(–3, 0) and Q(3, 0) but is not their mid-point
Example 4
Let O(0, 0), A(3, 0) and B(3, 5) be three points in the plane. If M1 is i.e. |RQ| = (0 - 3)2 + (1 - 0)2 =
(- 3)2 + (1)2 = 9+1= 10

1
the mid point of AB and M2 of OB, then show that M1M2 = OA . |RP| = (0 + 3)2 + (1 - 0)2 = 32 + 12 = 10
2
Solution and mid-point of P(–3, 0) and Q(3, 0) is (x, y)

By the distance formula the distance
-3 + 3 0+0
Where x = = 0 and y = = 0.
2 2

|OA| = (3 - 0)2 + (0 - 0)2 = 32 = 3

The point (0, 1) ≠ (0, 0)

The mid-point of AB is (iv) There is a unique midpoint of any two points in the plane.
( ) ( )

3+3 5 5

M1 = M1 , = 3, EXERCISE 9.3
2 2 2

( ) ( )

3+0 5+0 3 5
Now the mid - point of OB is M2 = M2 , = , 1. Find the mid-point of the line segment joining each of the following
2 2 2 2

pairs of points
(a) A(9, 2), B(7, 2)
(b) A(2, –6), B(3, –6)
(c) A(–8, 1), B(6, 1)
(d) A(–4, 9), B(–4, –3),
(e) A(3, –11), B(3, –4)
(f) A(0, 0), B(0, –5)
2. The end point P of a line segment PQ is (–3, 6) and its mid-point is
(5, 8). Find the coordinates of the end point Q.
3. Prove that mid-point of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is
equidistant from its three vertices P(–2, 5), Q(1, 3) and R(–1, 0).
19
5. Define the following:

4. If O(0, 0), A(3, 0) and B(3, 5) are three points in the plane, find M1 and

M2 as mid-points of the line segments AB and OB respectively. Find

(i) Co-ordinate Geometry (ii) Collinear Points
M1M2 .
(iii) Non-collinear (iv) Equilateral Triangle
5. Show that the diagonals of the parallelogram having vertices A(1, 2), (v) Scalene Triangle (vi) Isosceles Triangle
B(4, 2), C(–1, –3) and D(–4, –3) bisect each other. (vii) Right Triangle (viii) Square
[Hint: The mid-points of the diagonals coincide]

6. The vertices of a triangle are P(4, 6), Q(–2, –4) and R(–8, 2). Show SUMMARY
that the length of the line segment joining the mid-points of the line
1
segments PR, QR is 2 PQ.
• If P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) are two points and d is the distance between
them, then
REVIEW EXERCISE 9 d = |x1 - x2|2 + |y1 - y2|2

• The concept of non-collinearity supports formation of the three-

1. Choose the correct answer. sided and four-sided shapes of the geometrical figures.
• The points P, Q and R are collinear if |PQ| + |QR| = |PR|
• The three points P, Q and R form a triangle if and only if they are
non-collinear i.e., |PQ| + |QR| > |PR|
2. Answer the following, which is true and which is false. • If |PQ| + |QR| < |PR|, then no unique triangle can be formed by
the points P, Q and R.
(i) A line has two end points. • Different forms of a triangle i.e., equilateral, isosceles, right angled
(ii) A line segment has one end point.
and scalene are discussed in this unit.
(iii) A triangle is formed by three collinear points.
• Similarly, the four-sided figures, square, rectangle and parallelogram
(iv) Each side of a triangle has two collinear vertices.
are also discussed.
(v) The end points of each side of a rectangle are collinear.
(vi) All the points that lie on the x-axis are collinear.
(vii) Origin is the only point collinear with the points of both the
axes separately.
3. Find the distance between the following pairs of points.
(i) (6, 3), (3, –3) (ii)

(7, 5), (1, –1) (iii) (0, 0), (–4, –3)
4. Find the mid-point between following pairs of points.
(i) (6, 6), (4, –2) (ii)

(-5, -7), (-7, –5) (iii) (8, 0), (0, –12)

21
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CHAPTER
10 CONGRUENT TRIANGLES

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10. Congruent Triangles eLearn.Punjab 10. Congruent Triangles eLearn.Punjab
Students Learning Outcomes AB ←→ DE (AB corresponds to DE)

After studying this unit, the students will be able to: BC ←→ EF (BC corresponds to EF)
• Prove that in any correspondence of two triangles, if one side and CA ←→ FD (CA corresponds to FD)
any two angles of one triangle are congruent to the corresponding
side and angles of the other, then the triangles are congruent. Congruency of Triangles
• Prove that if two angles of a triangle are congruent, then the sides Two triangles are said to be congruent written symbolically as,
opposite to them are also congruent. ≅, if there exists a correspondence between them such that all the
• Prove that in a correspondence of two triangles, if three sides of corresponding sides and angles are congruent i.e.,
one triangle are congruent to the corresponding three sides of the
other, the two triangles are congruent. AB ≅ DE ∠A ≅ ∠D

• Prove that if in the correspondence of two right-angled triangles, the

hypotenuse and one side of one are congruent to the hypotenuses If BC ≅ EF and ∠B ≅ ∠E

and the corresponding side of the other, then the triangles are
congruent. CA ≅ FD
∠C ≅ ∠F

then ∆ABC ≅ ∆DEF
10.1. Congruent Triangles

Introduction
In this unit before proving the theorems, we will explain
what is meant by 1 − 1 correspondence (the symbol used for 1 − 1 Note:
correspondence is ←→ and congruency of triangles. We shall also (i) These triangles are congruent w.r.t. the above mentioned
state S.A.S. postulate. choice of the (1 − 1) correspondence.
(ii) ∆ABC ≅ ∆ABC

(iii) ∆ABC ≅ ∆DEF

∆DEF ≅ ∆ABC

(iv) If ∆ABC ≅ ∆DEF and ∆ABC ≅ ∆PQR, then ∆DEF ≅ ∆PQR.

In any correspondence of two triangles, if two sides and their

included angle of one triangle are congruent to the corresponding
Let there be two triangles ABC and DEF. Out of the total six two sides and their included angle of the other, then the triangles
(1 − 1) correspondences that can be established between ∆ABC and are congruent.
∆DEF, one of the choices is explained below. In ∆ABC ←→ ∆DEF, shown in the following figure,

In the correspondence ∆ABC ←→ ∆DEF it means AB ≅ DE

∠A ←→ ∠D
(∠A corresponds to ∠D)
∠B ←→ ∠E (∠B corresponds to ∠E) If ∠A ≅ ∠D

∠C ←→ ∠F
(∠C corresponds to ∠F)
AC ≅ DF

3
then ∆ABC ≅ ∆DEF

(S. A. S. Postulate)

But, ∠C ≅ ∠DFE
Given
∴ ∠DFE ≅ ∠MFE Both congruent to ∠C
Theorem 10.1.1 This is possible only if D and
In any correspondence of two triangles, if one side and any M are the same points, and
two angles of one triangle are congruent to the corresponding ME ≅ DE
side and angles of the other, then the triangles are congruent. So, AB ≅ DE
....... (iv)
AB ≅ ME (construction) and
(A.S.A. ≅ A.S.A.) Thus from (ii), (iii) and (iv), we ME ≅ DE (proved)
have
∆ABC ≅ ∆DEF
S.A.S. postulate
Corollary
In any correspondence of two triangles, if one side and any
two angles of one triangle are congruent to the corresponding
side and angles of the other, then the triangles are congruent.
Given (S.A.A. ≅ S.A.A.)
In ∆ABC ←→ ∆DEF
∠B ≅ ∠E, BC ≅ EF,
∠C ≅ ∠F.

Given
To Prove BC ≅ EF,
∠A ≅ ∠D,
∠B ≅ ∠E

∆ABC ≅ ∆DEF
Construction
Suppose AB ≅ DE, take a point M on DE such that AB ≅ ME. Join M
to F
Proof
Statements Reasons
In ∆ABC fg ∆MEF

AB ≅ ME
...... (i)
Construction
BC ≅ EF
...... (ii)
Given To Prove
∠B ≅ ∠E
...... (iii)
Given ∆ABC ≅ ∆DEF
∴ ∆ABC ≅ ∆MEF S.A.S. postulate
So, ∠C ≅ ∠MFE
(Corresponding angles
of congruent triangles)

5
Proof
Statements Reasons EXERCISE 10.1

∠B ≅ ∠E
Given 1. In the given figure,

BC ≅ EF Given AB ≅ CB, ∠1 ≅ ∠2.

∠C ≅ ∠F
∠A ≅ ∠D, ∠B ≅ ∠E, (Given)

Prove that

∴ ∆ABC ≅ ∆DEF A.S.A. ≅ A.S.A.
∆ABD ≅ ∆CBE.

Example 2. From a point on the bisector of an angle, perpendiculars are drawn

If ∆ABC and ∆DCB are on the opposite to the arms of the angle. Prove that these perpendiculars are equal

sides of common base BC such that in measure.

AL ^ BC, DM ^ BC and

3. In a triangle ABC, the bisectors of ∠B and ∠C meet in a point I.

AL ≅ DM, then BC bisects AD.

Prove that I is equidistant from the three sides of ∆ABC.
Given Theorem 10.1.2

∆ABC and ∆DCB are on the opposite If two angles of a triangle are congruent, then the sides
sides of BC such that AL ^ BC, DM ^ BC, AL ≅ DM, and AD is cut by
opposite to them are also congruent.
BC at N.
Given
To Prove In ∆ABC, ∠B ≅ ∠C

AN ≅ DN
To Prove
Proof AB ≅ AC

Statements Reasons Construction

In ∆ALN ←→ ∆DMN

Draw the bisector of ∠A, meeting BC at the point D.

AL ≅ DM
Given Proof
∠ALN ≅ ∠DMN Each angle is right angle Statements Reasons
∆ANL ≅ ∠DNM Vertical angels In ∆ABD fg ∆ACD

∴ ∆ALN ≅ ∆DMN S.A.A. ≅ S.A.A. AD ≅ AD

Common

Hence AN ≅ DN Corresponding sides of ≅ ∆s. ∠B ≅ ∠C Given

∠BAD ≅ ∠CAD Construction
∴ ∆ABD ≅ ∆ACD S.A.A. ≅ S.A.A.

Hence AB ≅ AC (Corresponding sides of congruent

Version: 1.1 triangles) Version: 1.1
7
Example 1 Construction
If one angle of a right triangle d is of 30o, the hypotenuse is twice Produce AD to E, and take ED ≅ AD
as long as the side opposite to the angle. Joint C to E.

Given Proof
In ∆ABC, m∠B = 900 and Statements Reasons
m∠C = 300

In ∆ADB ←→ ∆EDC

AD ≅ ED
Construction
To Prove ∠ADB = ∠EDC Vertical angles
mAC = 2mAB

BD ≅ CD
Given
Construction ∴ ∆ADB ≅ ∆EDC S.A.S. Postulate
At B, construct ∠CBD of 30°. Let BD cut AC at the point D. ∴ AB ≅ EC ........ I Corresponding sides of ≅ ∆s
and ∠BAD ≅ ∠E
Corresponding angles of ≅ ∆s

Proof But ∠BAD ≅ ∠CAD

Given
Statements Reasons ∴ ∠E ≅ ∠CAD Each ≅ ∠BAD
In ∆ABD, m∠A = 600
m∠ABC = 90°, m∠C = 30° In ∆ACE, AC ≅ EC
........II ∠E ≅ ∠CAD (proved)
m∠ABD = m∠ABC - m∠CBD Hence AB ≅ AC From I and II
= 600
m∠ABC = 90°, m∠CBD = 30°
∴ m∠ADB = 600 Sum of measures of ∠s of a ∆ is 180° EXERCISE 10.2
∴ ∆ABD is equilateral Each of its angles is equal to 60°
∴ AB ≅ BD ≅ AD Sides of equilateral ∆ 1. Prove that any two medians of an equilateral triangle are equal in
In ∆BCD, BD ≅ CD ∠C = ∠CBD (each of 30), measure.
Thus mAC = mAD + mCD

= mAB + mAB

= 2(mAB)

} AD ≅ AB and CD ≅ BD ≅ AB
2. Prove that a point, which is equidistant from the end points of a
line segment, is on the right bisector of the line segment.
Example 2 Theorem 10.1.3

If the bisector of an angle of a triangle bisects

In a correspondence of two triangles, if three sides of one
the side opposite to it, the triangle is isosceles. triangle are congruent to the corresponding three sides of the
Given other, then the two triangles are congruent (S.S.S ≅ S.S.S).
In ∆ABC, AD bisects ∠A and BD ≅ CD
m∠C = 300

To Prove
AB ≅ AC


9
Given Corollary
In ∆ABC fg ∆DEF If two isosceles triangles are formed on the same side of
AB ≅ DE, BC ≅ EF and CA ≅ FD their common base, the line through their vertices would be the
right bisector of their common base.
To Prove
∆ABC ≅ ∆DEF

Given
∆ABC and ∆DBC are formed on the same side
Construction of BC such that

Suppose that in∆DEF the side EF is not smaller than any of the

AB ≅ AC, DB ≅ DC, AD meets BC at E.

remaining two sides. On EF costruct a ∆MEF in which, ∠FEM ≅ ∠B and

ME ≅ AB. Join D and M. As shown in the above figures we label some To Prove
of the angles as 1, 2, 3 and 4. BE ≅ CE, AE ^ BC

Proof
Statements Reasons Proof
In ∆ABC fg ∆MEF
Statements Reasons
BC ≅ EF
Given In ∆ADB←→ ∆ADC

∠B = ∠FEM Construction AB ≅ AC
Given
AB ≅ ME
Construction DB ≅ DC
Given
∴ ∆ABC ≅ ∆MEF S.A.S postulate AD ≅ AD
Common
and CA ≅ FM ........ (i) (corresponding sides of congruent

∴ ∆ADB ≅ ∆ADC S.S.S ≅ S.S.S.
triangles) ∴ ∠1 ≅ ∠2 Corresponding angles of ≅ ∆s
Also CA ≅ FD
........ (ii) Given

In ∆ABE ←→ ∆ACE

∴ FM ≅ FD {From (i) and (ii)} Also AB ≅ AC

Given
In ∆FDM

∴ ∠1 ≅ ∠2 Proved
∠2 ≅ ∠4 ........ (iii) FM ≅ FD (proved)

AE ≅ AE
Common
Similarly ∠1 ≅ ∠3 ........ (iv)

∴ ∆ABE ≅ ∆ACE
S.A.S. postulate
∴ m ∠2 + m∠1 = m∠4 + m∠3 {from (iii) and (iv)} ∴ BE ≅ CE Corresponding sides of ≅ ∆s
∴ m ∠EDF = m ∠EMF ∠3 ≅ ∠4 ........ I Corresponding sides of ≅ ∆s
Now, in ∆ADB fg ∆EDC m ∠3 + m ∠4 = 1800
........ II Supplementary angles Postulate

FD ≅ FM
Proved ∴ m ∠3 = m ∠4 = 900
From I and II
andm ∠EDF ≅ m ∠EMF Proved Hence AE ^ BC
DE ≅ ME
Each one ≅ AB
∴ ∆DEF ≅ ∆MEF S.A.S. postulate Corollary:
Also ∆ABC ≅ ∆MEF
Proved An equilateral triangle is an equiangular triangle.
Hence ∆ABC ≅ ∆DEF Each ∆ ≅ ∆MEF (Proved)


11
EXERCISE 10.3 Proof

Statements Reasons
m∠DEF + m∠DEM = 180° ......(i) (Supplementary angles)

1. In the figure, AB ≅ DC, AD ≅ BC. Now m∠DEF = 90°

.....(ii) Given
Prove that ∠A ≅ ∠C, ∠ABC ≅ ∠ADC.

∴ m∠DEM = 90° {from (i) and (ii)}
In ∆ABC fg ∆DEM

BC ≅ EM
(construction)
2. In the figure, LN ≅ MP, MN ≅ LP. ∠ABC ≅ ∠DEM
(each ∠equal to 90o)

Prove that ∠N ≅ ∠P, ∠NML ≅ ∠PLM.

AB ≅ DE
(given)
∴ ∆ABC ≅ ∆DEM S.A.S. postulate
and ∠C ≅ ∠M (Corresponding angles of
3. Prove that the median bisecting the base of an isosceles triangle

congruent triangles)
bisects the vertex angle and it is prependicular to the base.

CA ≅ MD (Corresponding sides of
Theorem 10.1.4
But CA ≅ FD (given)
If in the correspondence of the two right-angled triangles,

∴ MD ≅ FD each is congruent to CA
the hypotenuse and one side of one triangle are congruent to

In ∆DMF
the hypotenuse and the corresponding side of the other, then

∠F ≅ ∠M MD ≅ FD (proved)
the triangles are congruent. (H.S ≅ H.S).

But ∠C ≅ ∠M
(proved)
∠C ≅ ∠F
(each is congruent to ∠M)
In ∆ABC fg ∆DEF

AB ≅ DE
(given)

∠ABC ≅ ∠DEF
(given)
∠C ≅ ∠F (proved)
Given Hence ∆ABC ≅ ∆DEF (S.A.A. ≅ S.A.A)

∠B ≅ ∠E (right angles)

Example
CA ≅ FD , AB ≅ DE
If perpendiculars from two vertices of a triangle to the opposite
To Prove sides are congruent, then the triangle is isosceles.
∆ABC ≅ ∆DEF

Given
In ∆ABC, BD ^ AC, CE ^ AB

Construction Such that

BD ≅ CE
Produce FE to a point M such that EM ≅ BC and join the points D

and M. To Prove
AB ≅ AC
13
Proof REVIEW EXERCISE 10

Statements Reasons
In ∆BCD ←→ ∆CBE

1. Which of the following are true and which are false?

(i) A ray has two end points.

……
∠BCD ≅ ∠BEC BD ^ AC, CE ^ AB (given) (ii) In a triangle, there can be only one right angle. ……

⇒ each angle = 900

(iii) Three points are said to be collinear, if they lie on same line. ...

BC ≅ BC Common hypotenuse (iv) Two parallel lines intersect at a point.

……
BD ≅ CE Given (v) Two lines can intersect only at one point. ……

∴ ∆BCD ≅ ∆CBE H.S. ≅ H.S. (vi) A triangle of congruent sides has non-congruent angles. ……

∴ ∠BCD ≅ ∠CBE Corresponding angles ∆s 2. If ∆ABC ≅ ∆LMN, then

Thus ∠BCD ≅ ∠CBE
(i) m∠M ≅ .............

Hence AB ≅ AC In ∆ABC, ∠BCA ≅ ∠CBA (ii) m∠N ≅ ..............

(iii) m∠A ≅ ..............

EXERCISE 10.4
3. If ∆ABC ≅ ∆LMN, then find the unknown x.

1. In ∆PAB of figure, PQ ^ AB and PA ≅ PB,
proved that AQ ≅ BQ and ∠APQ ≅ ∠BPQ.
2. In the figure, m∠C = m∠D = 900 and

BC ≅ AD. Prove that AC ≅ BD, and

∠BAC ≅ ∠ABD.
3. In the figure, m∠B = m∠D = 900 and AD ≅ BC. 4. Find the value of unknowns for the

Prove that ABCD is a rectangle. given congruent triangles.


15
10. Congruent Triangles eLearn.Punjab
5. If PQR ≅ ABC, then find the unknowns.

SUMMARY
In this unit we stated and proved the following theorems:

• In any correspondence of two triangles, if one side and any two
angles of one triangle are congruent to the corresponding side and
angles of the other, the two triangles are congruent. (A.S.A ≅ A.S.A.)
• If two angles of a triangle are congruent, then the sides opposite to
them are also congruent.
• In a correspondence of two triangles, if three sides of one triangle
are congruent to the corresponding three sides of the other, then
the two triangles are congruent (S.S.S ≅ S.S.S).
• If in the correspondence of the two right-angled triangles, the
hypotenuse and one side of one triangle are congruent to the
hypotenuse and the corresponding side of the other, then the
triangles are congruent. (H.S ≅ H.S).
• Two triangles are said to be congruent, if there exists a
correspondence between them such that all the corresponding
sides and angles are congruent.
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version: 1.1
CHAPTER
11 PARALLELOGRAMS
AND TRIANGLES
Animation 11.1: Triangle to Square

Source & Credit: takayaiwamoto
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11. Parallelograms and Triangles eLearn.Punjab 11. Parallelograms and Triangles eLearn.Punjab
Students Learning Outcomes To Prove

(i) AB ≅ DC, AD ≅ BC

After studying this unit, the students will be able to: (ii) ∠ADC ≅ ∠ABC, ∠BAD ≅ ∠BCD

• prove that in a parallelogram (iii) OA ≅ OC, OB ≅ OD

• the opposite sides are congruent,

• the opposite angles are congruent, Construction
• the diagonals bisect each other. In the figure as shown, we label the angles as ∠1, ∠2, ∠3, ∠4,
• prove that if two opposite sides of a quadrilateral are congruent ∠5, and ∠6
and parallel, it is a parallelogram.
• prove that the line segment, joining the midpoints of two sides of Proof
a triangle, is parallel to the third side and is equal to one half of its Statements Reasons
length. In ∆ABD ←→ ∆CDB

• prove that the medians of a triangle are concurrent and their point ∠4 ≅ ∠1
alternate angles
of concurrency is the point of trisection of each median. BD ≅ BD
Common
• prove that if three or more parallel lines make congruent segments ∠2 ≅ ∠3
alternate angles
on a transversal, they also intercept congruent segments on any ∴ ∆ABD ≅ ∆CDB A.S.A. ≅ A.S.A.
other line that cuts them. So, AB ≅ DC, AD ≅ BC
(corresponding sides of congruent
triangles)
Introduction and ∠A ≅ ∠C (corresponding angles of congruent
Before proceeding to prove the theorems in this unit the students triangles)
are advised to recall definitions of polygons like parallelogram, (ii) Since
rectangle, square, rhombus, trapezium etc. and in particular triangles ∠1 ≅ ∠4
...... (a)
Proved
and their congruency. and ∠2 ≅ ∠3 ...... (b)
Proved
∴ m∠1 + m∠2 = m∠4 +m∠3 from (a) and (b)
or m∠ADC ≅ m∠ABC Proved in (i)
Theorem 11.1.1
∠ADC ≅ ∠ABC
In a parallelogram

and
(i) Opposite sides are congruent.
∠BAD ≅ ∠BCD

(ii) Opposite angles are congruent.

(iii) In ∆BOC ←→ ∆DOA

(iii) The diagonals bisect each other.

BC ≅ AD Proved in (i)

∠5 ≅ ∠6 vertical angles

Given
∠3 ≅ ∠2 Proved
In a quadrilateral ABCD, AB || DC, BC || AD and the diagonals AC, BD
∴ ∆BOC ≅ ∆DOA (A.A.S. ≅ A. A. S.)
meet each other at point O.
Hence OC ≅ OA, OB ≅ OD (corresponding sides of congruent

triangles)
3
Corollary EXERCISE 11.1

Each diagonal of a parallelogram bisects it into two congruent

triangles. 1. One angle of a parallelogram is 1300. Find the measures of its

remaining angles.
Example 2. One exterior angle formed on producing one side of a parallelogram
The bisectors of two angles on the same side of a parallelogram is 400 . Find the measures of its interior angles.
cut each other at right angles.
Theorem 11.1.2
Given If two opposite sides of a
A parallelogram ABCD, in which quadrilateral are congruent and
AB || DC, AD || BC. parallel, it is a parallelogram.
The bisectors of ∠A and ∠B cut

each other at E.
Given
In a quadrilateral ABCD,
To Prove
AB ≅ DC and ABDC
m∠E = 900
To Prove
Construction
ABCD is a parallelogram.
Name the angles ∠1 and ∠2 as shown in the figure.

Construction
Proof
Statements Reasons Join the point B to D and in the figure, name the angles as indicated:
m∠1 + m∠2 ∠1, ∠2, ∠3, and ∠4

{
1 Proof
m∠1 = m ∠BAD,
1 2 Statements Reasons

= (m∠BAD + m∠ABC)
2 1 In ∆ABD ←→ ∆CDB

m∠2 = m ∠ABC
1 AB ≅ DC, given
{
= (1800)

2 ∠2 ≅ ∠1 alternate angles

Int. angles on the same side of AB

which cuts || segments AD and BD ≅ BD Common
=900

∴ ∆ABD ≅ ∆CDB S.A.S. postulate

BC are supplementary.
Now ∠4 ≅ ∠3 .......(i)
(corresponding angles of
m∠1 + m∠2 = 900 (Proved) congruent triangles)
Hence in ∆ABE, m∠E = 900

∴ AD || BC .......(ii) from (i)

and AD = BC .......(iii)
corresponding sides of congruent
rs

5
Proof
Also AB || DC .......(iv) given Statements Reasons
Hence ABCD is a parallelogram from (ii) - (iv) In ∆BLN ←→ ∆ALM

BL ≅ AL
Given
EXERCISE 11.2 ∠1 ≅ ∠2 vertical angles
NL ≅ ML
Construction
1. Prove that a quadrilateral is a parallelogram if its ∴ ∆BLN ≅ ∆ALM S.A.S. postulate
(a) opposite angles are congruent. (b) diagonals bisect each other.

∴ ∠A ≅ ∠3
.......(i) (corresponding angles of congruent
2. Prove that a quadrilateral is a parallelogram if its opposite sides triangles)
are congruent. and NB ≅ AM .......(ii) (corresponding sides of congruent
triangles)
Theorem 11.1.3 But NB || AM
From (i), alternate ∠s
Thus NB || MC
.......(iii)
(M is a point of AC)
The line segment, joining the mid-points of two sides of a

MC ≅ AM
.......(iv)
Given
triangle, is parallel to the third side and is equal to one half of its NB ≅ MC
.......(v)
{from (ii) and (iv)}
∴ BCMN is a parallelogram from (iii) and (v)
length.
∴ BC || LM or BC || NL (opposite sides of a parallelogram

BCMN)
BC ≅ NM .......(vi) (opposite sides of a parallelogram)

1
mLM =m NM .......(vii) Construction
2

1
Hence mLM = mBC {from (vi) and (vii)}
Given 2

In ∆ABC, The mid-points of AB and AC are L and M respectively.

Note that instead of producing ML to N, we can take N on LM produced.

To Prove
1 Example
LM || BC and mLM = mBC
2 The line segments, joining the mid-points of the sides of a

quadrilateral, taken in order, form a parallelogram.

Construction
Given
Join M to L and produce ML to N such that ML ≅ LN.
A quadrilateral ABCD, in which P is the

Join N to B and in the figure, name the angles as ∠1,∠2 and ∠3

mid-point of AB, Q is the mid-point of BC, R
as shown.
is the mid-point of CD, S is the mid-point of
DA.
P is joined to Q, Q is joined to R.
Version: 1.1 R is joined to S and S is joined to P. Version: 1.1
7
To Prove concurrency is the point of trisection of each median.

PQRS is a parallelogram.

Given
Construction rABC
Join A to C.
To Prove
Proof The medians of therABC are
Statements Reasons concurrent and the point of concurrency
In ∆DAC, is the point of trisection of each median.
SR AC S is the midpoint of DA
1
mSR = m AC R is the midpoint of CD Construction
2

Draw two medians BE and CF of the rABC which intersect each

In ∆BAC, other at G. Join A to G and produce it to point H such that AG ≅ GH.
PQ AC P is the midpoint of AB Join H to the points B and C.

1

mPQ = m AC Q is the mid-point of BC AH intersects BC at the point D.

2

SR PQ Each AC Proof
Statements Reasons
1
mSR = mPQ Each = m AC In rACH,
2

GE || HC G and E are mid-points of sides

Thus PQRS is a parallelogram SR PQ, mSR = mPQ (proved) AH and AC respectively
or BE || HC
........(i) G is a point of BE

EXERCISE 11.3 Similarly, CF || HB ........(ii)

∴ BHCG is a parallelogram from (i) and (ii)

1. Prove that the line-segments joining the mid-points of the opposite
sides of a quadrilateral bisect each other. and mGD = mGH
........(iii)

(diagonals BC and GH of a
2. Prove that the line-segments joining the midpoints of the opposite parallelogram BHCG intersect
each other at point D)
sides of a rectangle are the right-bisectors of each other.
[Hint: Diagonals of a rectangle are congruent.]

BD ≅ CD
3. Prove that the line-segment passing through the midpoint of one AD is a meadian of rABC
side and parallel to another side of a triangle also bisects the third Meadians AD, BE and CF pass (G is the intersecting point of BE
side. through the point G and CF and AD pass through it.)
Theorem 11.1.4 Now GH ≅ AG ........(iv) construction

The medians of a triangle are concurrent and their point of
9
from (iii) and (iv) To Prove

1 RS ≅ ST
∴ mGD = mAG

2
and G is the point of trisection of AD
Construction
........(v)
From R, draw RU LX, which meets CD at U. From S, draw SV LX

Similarly it can be proved that G

which meets EF at V. As shown in the figure let the angles be labelled
is also the point of trisection of CF
as
and BE
∠1, ∠2, ∠3 and ∠4
EXERCISE 11.4
Proof
Statements Reasons
1. The distances of the points of concurrency of the median of a
MNUR is a parallelogram RU LX (construction)
triangle from its vertices are respectively 1.2 cm, 1.4 cm and 1.6
AB CD (given)
cm. Find the lengths of its medians.
∴ MN ≅ RU (i) (opposite sides of a parallelogram)
2. Prove that the point of concurrency of the medians of a triangle

Similarly,
and the triangle which is made by joining the mid-point of its sides
NP ≅ SV (ii)
is the same.

But MN ≅ NP
(iii) Given
∴ RU ≅ SV {from (i), (ii) and (iii)}
Theorem 11.1.5 ←→
Also RU SV each LX (construction)
If three or more parallel lines make congruent segments

∴ ∠1 ≅ ∠2 Corresponding angles
on a transversal, they also intercept congruent segments on any

and ∠3 ≅ ∠4 Corresponding angles

other line that cuts them.

In ∆RUS ←→ ∆SVT,

RU ≅ SV Proved
∠1 ≅ ∠2

Proved
∠3 ≅ ∠4

Proved

∴ ∆RUS ≅ ∆SVT
S.A.A. ≅ S.A.A.
Hence RS ≅ ST (corresponding sides of congruent
triangles)
Note: This theorem helps us in dividing line segment into parts of

equal lengths. It is also used in the division of a line segment into

proportional parts.
Given ←→ ←→ ←→
AB CD EF ←→ ←→ ←→
Corollaries
The transversal LX intersects AB, CD and EF at the points M, N
(i) A line, through the mid-point of one side, parallel to another

←→
and P respectively, such that MN ≅ NP. The transversal QY intersects
side of a triangle, bisects the third side.
them at points R, S and T respectively.
11
Given 2. Take a line segment of length 5.5 cm and divide

In ∆ABC, D is the mid-point of AB.

it into five congruent parts.
DE BC which cuts AC at E.
[Hint: Draw an acute angle∠BAX on AX take
AP ≅ PQ ≅ QR ≅ RS ≅ ST.
To Prove Join T to B. Draw lines parallel to TB from the
AE ≅ EC
points P, Q, R and S.]

Construction REVIEW EXERCISE 11

←→
Through A, draw LM BC.
1. Fill in the blanks.
Proof (i) In a parallelogram opposite sides are ………….
Statements Reasons (ii) In a parallelogram opposite angles are ………….
{
←→ ←→
Intercepts cut by LM, DE, BC on Intercepts cut by parallels LM, DE,

(iii) Diagonals of a parallelogram ………… each other at a

AC are congruent. BC on AB are congruent (given) point.
(iv) Medians of a triangle are ………….
i.e., AE ≅ EC. (v) Diagonal of a parallelogram divides the parallelogram
into two ………… triangles
2. In parallelogram ABCD
(ii) The parallel line from the mid-point of one non-parallel side of a
trapezium to the parallel sides bisects the other non-parallel
(i) mAB.......mDC (ii) mBC........mAD
side.
(iii) m∠1 ≅ .......... (iv) m∠2 ≅ ............
(iii) If one side of a triangle is divided into congruent segments, the
line drawn from the point of division parallel to the other side
will make congruent segments on third side.
3. Find the unknowns in the given figure.
EXERCISE 11.5
1. In the given figure

4. If the given figure ABCD is a

←→ ←→ ←→ ←→ ←→
AX BY CZ DU EV

parallelogram, then find x, m.

and AB ≅ BC ≅ CD ≅ DE
If mMN = 1cm, then find the length of LN
and LQ.

13
11. Parallelograms and Triangles eLearn.Punjab
5. The given figure LMNP is a parallelogram.

Find the value of m, n.

6. In the question 5, sum of the opposite angles of the parallelogram

is 1100, find the remaining angles.
SUMMARY
In this unit we discussed the following theorems and used them to

solve some exercises. They are supplemented by unsolved exercises
to enhance applicative skills of the students.
• In a parallelogram
(i) Opposite sides are congruent.
(ii) Opposite angles are congruent.
(iii) The diagonals bisect each other.
• If two opposite sides of a quadrilateral are congruent and parallel,
it is a parallelogram.
• The line segment, joining the mid-points of two sides of a triangle, is
parallel to the third side and is equal to one half of its length.
• The medians of a triangle are concurrent and their point of
concurrency is the point of trisection of each median.
• If three or more parallel lines make congruent segments on a
transversal, they also intercept congruent segments on any other
line that cuts them.

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CHAPTER
12 LINE BISECTORS AND

ANGLE BISECTORS
Animation 12.1: Angle- Bisectors

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Students Learning Outcomes To Prove

PA ≅ PB


• Prove that any point on the right bisector of a line segment is Construction
equidistant from its end points. Join P to the points A and B.
• Prove that any point equidistant from the end points of a line
segment is on the right bisector of it. Proof
• Prove that the right bisectors of the sides of a triangle are Statements Reasons
concurrent. In ∆ACP ←→ ∆BCP

• Prove that any point on the bisector of an angle is equidistant AC ≅ BC given

from its arms. ∠ACP ≅ ∠BCP given PC ^ AB, so that each ∠ at
• Prove that any point inside an angle, equidistant from its arms, is C = 900
on the bisector of it. PC ≅ PC Common
• Prove that the bisectors of the angles of a triangle are concurrent. ∆ACP ≅ ∆BCP S.A.S. postulate
Hence PA ≅ PB
(corresponding sides of congruent
Introduction triangles)
In this unit, we will prove theorems and their converses, if

any, about right bisector of a line segment and bisector of an angle. Theorem 12.1.2
But before that it will be useful to recall the following definitions: {Converse of Theorem 12.1.1}

Any point equidistant from the end points of a line segment

Right Bisector of a Line Segment is on the right bisector of it.
A line is called a right bisector of a line segment if it is perpendicular
to the line segment and passes through its midpoint. Given
AB is a line segment. Point P is such that PA ≅ PB.

Bisector of an Angle
A ray BP is called the bisector of ∠ABC, if P is a point in the

To Prove
interior of the angle and m∠ABP = m∠PBC. The point P is on the right bisector of AB.

Construction
Theorem 12.1.1 Joint P to C, the mid-point of AB.

Any point on the right bisector of a line

segment is equidistant from its end points. Proof
Statements Reasons
Given In ∆ACP ←→ ∆BCP

A line LM intersects the line segment AB at PA ≅ PB given

←→ ←→

the point C. Such that LM ^ AB and AC ≅ BC. P is a point on LM. PC ≅ PC

Common
3
AC ≅ BC Construction Construction
∴ ∆ACP ≅ ∆BCP S.S.S. ≅ S.S.S.

Draw the right bisectors of AB and BC which meet each other
∠ACP ≅ ∠BCP ......(i) (corresponding angles of

at the point O. Join O to A, B and C.
But m∠ACP + m∠BCP = 180° ….. (ii) Supplementary angles

Proof
∴ m∠ACP = m∠BCP = 90° from (i) and (ii) Statements Reasons
i.e., PC ^ AB …… (iii) mACP = 90° (proved) In OA ≅ OB
…… (i) (Each point on right bisector of a
segment is equidistant from its

Also CA ≅ CB …… (iv) construction

end points)

∴ PC is a right bisector of AB. from (iii) and (iv)

i.e., the point P is on the right bisector OB ≅ OC …… (ii)
as in (i)
OA ≅ OC …… (iii) from (i) and (ii)

of AB.
∴Point O is on the right bisector of

CA. …… (iv) (O is equidistant from A and C)
EXERCISE 12.1

But point O is on the right bisector

of AB and of BC …… (v) construction
1. Prove that the centre of a circle is on the right bisectors of each of

Hence the right bisectors of {from (iv) and (v)}

its chords. the three sides of a triangle are
2. Where will be the centre of a circle passing through three non- concurrent at O.
collinear points? And why?

Observe that
3. Three villages P, Q and R are not on the same line. The people of
(a) The right bisectors of the sides of an acute triangle
these villages want to make a Children Park at such a place which
intersect each other inside the triangle.
is equidistant from these three villages. After fixing the place of
(b) The right bisectors of the sides of a right triangle
Children Park, prove that the Park is equidistant from the three
intersect each other on the hypotenuse.
villages.

(c) The right bisectors of the sides of an obtuse triangle

intersect each other outside the triangle.
Theorem 12.1.3

The right bisectors of the sides of a triangle are concurrent.

Theorem 12.1.4

Any point on the bisector of an angle is equidistant from its

Given

arms.
∆ABC
Given

g
A point P is on OM, the bisector of ∠AOB.
To Prove

The right bisectors of AB, BC and CA are

To Prove

concurrent. g
PQ ≅ PR i.e., P is equidistant from OA and OB.


5
Construction EXERCSISE 12.2

Draw PR ^ OA

g
g and PQ ^ OB
1. In a quadrilateral ABCD, AB ≅ BC and the right bisectors of AD, CD
Proof meet each other at point N. Prove that BN is a bisector of ∠ABC.
Statements Reasons 2. The bisectors of ∠A, ∠B and ∠C of a quadrilateral ABCP meet each
In ∆POQ ←→ ∆POR
other at point O. Prove that the bisector of ∠P will also pass through
OP ≅ OP common
the point O.
∠PQO ≅ ∠PRO construction
3. Prove that the right bisectors of congruent sides of an isoscles triangle
∠POQ ≅ ∠POR given
and its altitude are concurrent.

∴ ∆POQ ≅ ∆POR S.A.A. ≅ S.A.A.

4. Prove that the altitudes of a triangle are concurrent.

Hence PQ ≅ PR (corresponding sides of congruent

triangles)
Theorem 12.1.6
The bisectors of the angles of a triangle are concurrent.
Theorem 12.1.5 (Converse of Theorem 12.1.4)

Any point inside an angle, equidistant from its arms, is

Given
on the bisector of it. ∆ABC

Given To Prove
Any point P lies inside ∠AOB such that The bisectors of ∠A, ∠B and ∠C are
g g

PQ ≅ PR, where PQ ^ OB and PR ^ OA.

concurrent.
To Prove Construction
Point P is on the bisector of ∠AOB.

Draw the bisectors of ∠B and ∠C which intersect at point I. From I,

Construction draw IF ^ AB, ID ^ BC and IE ^ CA.
Join P to O.

Proof
Proof Statements Reasons
Statements Reasons ID ≅ IF (Any point on bisector of an angle
In ∆POQ ←→ ∆POR

is equidistant from its arms)

∠PQO ≅ ∠PRO
given (right angles) Similarly,
PO ≅ PO
common ID ≅ IE
PQ ≅ PR given

∴ IE ≅ IF Each ID, proved.

H.S. ≅ H.S.

∴ ∆POQ ≅ ∆POR
So, the point I is on the bisector of

Hence ∠POQ ≅ ∠POR (corresponding angels of ∠A …… (i)

i.e., P is on the bisector of ∠AOB.

7
fg
Also the point I is on the bisectors 2. If CD is a right bisector of line segment AB,

of ∠ABC and ∠BCA …… (ii) Construction

then
Thus the bisectors of ∠A, ∠B and (i) mOA = ………

∠C are concurrent at I. {from (i) and (ii)} (ii) mAQ = ………

Note. In practical geometry also, by constructing angle bisectors of a 3. Define the following

triangle, we shall verify that they are concurrent. (i) Bisector of a line segment

(ii) Bisector of an angle

EXERCISE 12.3
4. The given triangle ABC is equilateral triangle and
1. Prove that the bisectors of the angles of base of an isoscles AD is bisector of angle A, then find the values of
triangle intersect each other on its altitude. unknowns xo, yo and zo.
2. Prove that the bisectors of two exterior and third interior angle of
a triangle are concurrent.
5. In the given congruent triangles LMO and LNO,
REVIEW EXERCISE 12

find the unknowns x and m.

(i) Bisection means to divide into two equal parts. ……

(ii) Right bisection of line segment means to draw perpendicular

6. CD is right bisector of the line segment AB.
which passes through the mid point. …… (i) If mAB = 6cm, then find the mAL and mLB.

(iii) Any point on the right bisector of a line segment is not

(ii) If mBD = 4cm, then find mAD.

equidistant from its end points. ……

(iv) Any point equidistant from the end points of a line segment is

on the right bisector of it. …… SUMMARY

(v) The right bisectors of the sides of a triangle are not

concurrent. …… In this unit we stated and proved the following theorems:

(vi) The bisectors of the angles of a triangle are concurrent. ……

(vii) Any point on the bisector of an angle is not equidistant from

• Any point on the right bisector of a line segment is equidistant
its arms. …… from its end points.
(viii) Any point inside an angle, equidistant from its arms, is on the

• Any point equidistant from the end points of a line segment is on
bisector of it. ……

the right bisector of it.
• The right bisectors of the sides of a triangle are concurrent.
• Any point on the bisector of an angle is equidistant from its arms.
• Any point inside an angle, equidistant from its arms, is on the
bisector of it.
9
12. Line Bisectors and Angle Bisectors eLearn.Punjab
• The bisectors of the angles of a triangle are concurrent.

• Right bisection of a line segment means to draw a perpendicular
at the mid point of line segment.
• Bisection of an angle means to draw a ray to divide the given
angle into two equal parts.
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CHAPTER
13 Side and ngle
s
A
s
of a Triangle
Animation 13.1: Sides and Angles of a Triangle

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Students Learning Outcomes Proof

Statements Reasons
After studying this unit, the students will be able to: In ∆ABD

• prove that if two sides of a triangle are unequal in length, the longer m∠1 = m∠2 …… (i) Angles opposite to congruent sides,
side has an angle of greater measure opposite to it. (construction)
• prove that if two angles of a triangle are unequal in measure, the In ∆BCD, m∠ACB < m∠2
side opposite to the greater angle is longer than the side opposite
i.e. m∠2 > m∠ACB …… (ii) (An exterior angle of a triangle is

to the smaller angle. greater than a non-adjacent interior

• prove that the sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is angle)
greater than the length of the third side. ∴ m∠1 > m∠ACB …… (iii) By (i) and (ii)

• prove that from a point, out-side a line, the perpendicular But

is the shortest distance from the point on the line. m∠ABC = m∠1 + m∠DBC Postulate of addition of angles.
∴ m∠ABC > m∠1 …… (iv)
Introduction ... m∠ABC > m∠1 >m∠ACB By (iii) and (iv)

Recall that if two sides of a triangle are equal, then the angles

Hence m∠ABC > m∠ACB (Transitive property of inequality of
apposite to them are also equal and vice-versa. But in this unit we real numbers)
shall study some interesting inequality relations among sides and
angles of a triangle. Example 1
Prove that in a scalene triangle, the angle opposite to the

Theorem 13.1.1 largest side is of measure greater than 60°. (i.e., two-third of a
If two sides of a triangle are unequal in length, the longer right-angle)
side has an angle of greater measure opposite to it.
Given
Given In ABC, mAC > mAB mAC, mAB > mBC.

In ∆ABC, mAC > mAB

To Prove
To Prove m∠B > 60°.

m∠ABC > m∠ACB

Proof
Statements Reasons
Construction In ∆ABC

On AC take a point D such that AD ≅ AB. Join B to D so that ∆ADB m∠B > m∠C
mAC > mAB (given)
is an isosceles triangle. Label ∠1 and ∠2 as shown in the given figure. m∠B > m∠A
mAC > mBC (given)
But m∠A + m∠B + m∠C = 180°
∠A, ∠B, ∠C are the angles of ∆ ABC
∴ m∠B + m∠B + m∠B > 180° m∠B > m∠C, m∠B > m∠A (proved)
Hence m∠B > 60° 180°/3 = 60°
3
Example 2 Proof
In a quadrilateral ABCD, AB is the longest side and CD is the Statements Reasons
shortest side. Prove that m∠BCD > m∠BAD. If , mBC > mAC, then

either (i) mBC = mAC

(Trichotomy property of real numbers)
Given or (ii) mBC < mAC

In quad. ABCD, AB is the longest side and

From (i) if mBC = mAC, then
CD is the shortest side. m∠A = m∠B
(Angles opposite to congruent sides are
congruent)
To Prove which is not possible. Contrary to the given.
m∠BCD > m∠BAD

From (ii) if mBC < mAC, then
m∠A < m∠B
(The angle opposite to longer side is
Construction greater than angle opposite to smaller
Joint A to C. side)
Name the angles ∠1, ∠2, ∠3 and ∠4 as shown in the figure. This is also not possible. Contrary to the given.
∴ mBC ≠ mAC
Proof and mBC < mAC

Statements Reasons Thus mBC > mAC Trichotomy property of real numbers.
In ∆ABC, m∠4 >∠2
…… I mAB > mBC (given)

In ∆ACD, m∠3 > m∠1

….. II mAD > mCD (given)

Corollaries
... m∠4 + m∠3 > m∠2 + m∠1 From I and II (i) The hypotenuse of a right angled triangle is longer than each of
Hence m∠BCD > m∠BAD ... m∠4 + m∠3 = m∠BCD the other two sides.

m∠2 + m∠1 = m∠BAD

(ii) In an obtuse angled triangle, the side opposite to the obtuse

angle is longer than each of the other two sides.
Theorem 13.1.2
(Converse of Theorem 13.1.1) Example
If two angles of a triangle are unequal in measure, the side g
ABC is an isosceles triangle with base BC. On BC a point D is
opposite to the greater angle is longer than the side opposite to taken away from C. A line segment through D cuts AC at L and AB
the smaller angle. at M. Prove that mAL > mAM.
Given Given
In ∆ABC, m∠A > m∠B In ∆ABC, AB ≅ AC
g

D is a point on BC away from C.

To Prove A line segment through D cuts AC

mBC > mAC

at L and AB at M.

5
To Prove Proof
mAL > mAM

Statements Reasons
In ∆ABD,
Proof ∠1 ≅ ∠2
....(i)
AD ≅ AB (construction)
Statements Reasons m∠DBC > m∠1
....(ii)
m∠DBC = m∠1 + m∠ABC
In ∆ABC ∴ m∠DBC > m∠2
....(iii)
From (i) and (ii)
∠B ≅ ∠2 .......I
AB ≅ AC (given) In ∆DBC
In ∆MBD mCD > mBC
By (iii)
m∠1 > m∠B .......II

(∠1 is an ext. ∠ and ∠B is its i.e., mAD + mAC > mBC mCD = mAD + mAC
internal opposite ∠)
Hence mAB + mAC > mBC mAD = mAB (construction)
∴ m∠1 > m∠2 .......III From I and II
Similarly,

In ∆LCD,
mAB + mBC > mAC
m∠2 > m∠3 .......Iv (∠2 is an ext. ∠ and ∠3 is its

and

internal opposite ∠)
mBC + mCA > mAB

∴ m∠1 > m∠3 .......v

From III and Iv
But ∠3 ≅ ∠4
.......vI

Vertical angles Example 1
∴ m∠1 > m∠4 From v and vI Which of the following sets of lengths can be the lengths of
Hence mAL > mAM In ∆ALM, m∠1 > m∠4 (proved) the sides of a triangle?
(a) 2 cm, 3 cm, 5 cm (b) 3 cm, 4 cm, 5 cm, (c) 2 cm, 4 cm, 7 cm,

Theorem 13.1.3
The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is (a) ...
2+3=5

greater than the length of the third side. ∴ This set of lengths cannot be those of the sides of a triangle.

(b) ... 3 + 4 > 5, 3 + 5 > 4, 4 + 5 > 3

Given ∴ This set can form a triangle

∆ABC

(c) ... 2 + 4 < 7

∴ This set of lengths cannot be the sides of a triangle.

To Prove
(i) mAB + mAC > mBC

Example 2
(ii) mAB + mBC > mAC

Prove that the sum of the measures of two sides of a triangle
(iii) mBC + mCA > mAB

is greater than twice the measure of the median which bisects the
third side.
Construction

g
Take a point D on CA such that AD ≅ AB. Join B to D and Given
name the angles. ∠1, ∠2 as shown in the given figure.

In ∆ABC,
median AD bisects side BC at D.


7
Proof:
To Prove Statements Reasons
mAB + mAC > 2mAD. mAB + mBC > mAC ABC is a triangle
(mAB + mBC - mAB)
Subtracting mAB from both sides
Construction >(mAC - mAB)

g ... mBC>(mAC - mAB)

On AD take a point E, such that DE ≅ AD. Join C to E. Name the
angles ∠1, ∠2 as shown in the figure. or mAC - mAB < mBC …… I

a>b⇒b<a
Similarly
Proof mBC - mAB < mAC

Statements Reasons mBC - mAC < mAB

Reason similar to I
In ∆ABD ←→ ∆ECD
BD ≅ CD Given
EXERCISE 13.1

∠1 ≅ ∠2 Vertical angles
AD ≅ ED Construction
1. Two sides of a triangle measure 10 cm and 15 cm. Which of the

∆ABD ≅ ∆ECD S.A.S. Postulate

following measure is possible for the third side?
AB ≅ EC …… I Corresponding sides of ≅ ∆s
(a) 5 cm (b) 20 cm (c) 25 cm (d) 30 cm

mAC + mEC > mAE …… II ACE is a triangle

2. O is an interior point of the ∆ABC. Show that

mAC + mAB > mAE From I and II 1

mOA + mOB + mOC > 2 (mAB + mBC + mCA)
Hence mAC + mAB > 2mAD mAE = 2mAD (construction)

3. In the ∆ ABC, m∠B = 70° and m∠C = 45°. Which of the sides of the

triangle is longest and which is the shortest?

Example 3 4. Prove that in a right-angled triangle, the hypotenuse is longer than
Prove that the difference of measures of two sides of a

each of the other two sides.

triangle is less than the measure of the third side.

5. In the triangular figure, mAB > mAC. BD

and CD are the bisectors of B and C

Given

respectively. Prove that mBD > mDC.

∆ABC

Theorem 13.1.4
To Prove From a point, outside a line, the perpendicular is the shortest
mAC - mAB < mBC

distance from the point to the line.

mBC - mAB < mAC

mBC - mAC > mAB

Given
A line AB and a point C (not lying on
↔ ↔ ↔

AB) and a point D on AB such that CD ^ AB.

9
To Prove (a) mPL (b) mPM (c) mNP (d) mPO

↔

mCD is the shortest distance form the point C to AB. 2. In the figure, P is any point lying away from the
line AB. Then mPL will be the shortest distance if

Construction (a) m∠PLA = 80° (b) m∠PLB = 100°

↔

Take a point E on AB . Join C and E to form a ∆CDE. (c) m∠PLA = 90°

Proof 3. In the figure, PL is prependicular

Statements Reasons to the line AB and mLN > mLM.
In ∆CDE Prove that mPN > mPM.
m∠CDB > m∠CED (An exterior angle of a triangle is
greater than non adjacent interior REVIEW EXERCISE 13
angle).
But m∠CDB = m∠CDE Supplement of right angle. 1. Which of the following are true and which are false?
∴ m∠CDE > m∠CED (i) The angle opposite to the longer side is greater. ……

or m∠CED < m∠CDE a > b ⇒ b< a (ii) In a right-angled triangle greater angle is of 60°. ……

or mCD < mCE Side opposite to greater angle is (iii) In an isosceles right-angled triangle, angles other than right

greater. angle are each of 45°. ……

↔
But E is any point on AB (iv) A triangle having two congruent sides is called equilateral

Hence mCD is the shortest triangle. ……

↔

distance from C to AB. (v) A perpendicular from a point to line is shortest distance. …

(vi) Perpendicular to line form an angle of 90°. ……

Note: (vii) A point out side the line is collinear. ……

(i) The distance between a line and a point not on it, is the length (viii) Sum of two sides of triangle is greater than the third. ……

of the perpendicular line segment from the point to the line.

(ix) The distance between a line and a point on it is zero. ……

(ii) The distance between a line and a point lying on it is zero. (x) Triangle can be formed of lengths 2 cm, 3 cm and 5 cm. …

2. What will be angle for shortest distance from an outside point to

EXERCISE 13.2 the line?
3. If 13 cm, 12 cm, and 5 cm are the lengths of a triangle, then verify
1. In the figure, P is any point and AB is a line. Which of the following that difference of measures of any two sides of a triangle is less
is the shortest distance between the point P and the line AB?
than the measure of the third side.
4. If 10 cm, 6 cm and 8 cm are the lengths of a triangle, then verify
that sum of measures of two sides of a triangle is greater than the
third side.
5. 3 cm, 4 cm and 7 cm are not the lengths of the triangle. Give the
reason.
11
13. Sides and Angles of a Triangle eLearn.Punjab
6. If 3 cm and 4 cm are lengths of two sides of a right angle triangle,

then what should be the third length of the triangle.
SUMMARY
In this unit we stated and proved the following theorems:

• If two sides of a triangle are unequal in length, the longer side has
an angle of greater measure opposite to it.
• If two angles of a triangle are unequal in measure, the side opposite
to the greater angle is longer than the side opposite to the smaller
angle.
• The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is greater
than the length of the third side.
• From a point, outside a line, the perpendicular is the shortest
distance from the point to the line.

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CHAPTER
14 RATIO AND PROPORTION
Animation 14.1: Ratio and Proportion

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14. Ratio and Proportion eLearn.Punjab 14. Ratio and Proportion eLearn.Punjab
Students Learning Outcomes In ∆ABC ←→ ∆DEF
mAB mBC mCA

After studying this unit, the students will be able to: ∠A ≅ ∠D, ∠B ≅ ∠E, ∠C ≅ ∠F, and = =
mDE mEF mFD

• prove that a line parallel to one side of a triangle, intersecting the

other two sides, divides them proportionally.
• prove that if a line segment intersects the two sides of a triangle
in the same ratio, then it is parallel to the third side.
• prove that the internal bisector of an angle of a triangle divides
the side opposite to it in the ratio of the lengths of the sides
containing the angle.
• prove that if two triangles are similar, the measures of their then ∆ABC and ∆DEF are called similar triangles which is symbolically
corresponding sides are proportional written as
∆ABC ~∆DEF

Introduction It means that corresponding angles of similar triangles are equal

In this unit we will prove some theorems and corollaries

and measures of their corresponding sides are proportional.
involving ratio and proportions of sides of triangle and similarity of ∆PQR ≅ ∆LMN means that in
triangles. A knowledge of ratio and proportion is necessary requirement ∆PQR ←→ ∆LMN
of many occupations like food service occupation, medications in ∠P ≅ ∠L, ∠Q ≅ ∠M,

health, preparing maps for land survey and construction works, profit ∠R ≅ ∠N, PQ ≅ LM,

to cost ratios etc. QR ≅ MN, RP ≅ NL

a
Recall that we defined ratio a : b = as the comparison of mPQ mQR
b mRP

two alike quantities a and b, called the elements (terms) of a ratio. Now as = = =1
mLM mMN mNL

(Elements must be expressed in the same units). Equality of two ratios

was defined as proportion.
That is, if a : b = c : d, then a, b, c and d are said to be in ∴ ∆PQR ~∆LMN
proportion.
In other words, two congruent triangles are similar also. But two
similar triangles are not necessarily congruent, as congruence of their
Similar Triangles
corresponding sides is not necessary.
Equally important are the similar shapes. In particular the similar

triangles that have many practical applications. For example, we know

that a photographer can develop prints of different sizes from the
Theorem 14.1.1
A line parallel to one side of a
same negative. In spite of the difference in sizes, these pictures look

triangle and intersecting the other

like each other. One photograph is simply an enlargement of another.
two sides divides them proportionally.
They are said to be similar in shape. Geometrical figures can also be
similar. e.g., If
3
Given Observe that

In ∆ABC, the line l is intersecting the sides AC and AB at points E

From the above theorem we also have
and D respectively such that ED || CB.
mBD mCE mAD mAE
= and =
mAB mAC mAB mAC

To Prove
mAD : mDB = mAE : mEC

Corollaries
mAD mAE mAB mAC

Construction (a) If = , then DE || BC (b) If = ,then DE || BC
mAB mAC mDB mEC

Join B to E and C to D. From D draw DM ^ AC and from E draw

EL ^ AB. Points to be noted
(i) Two points determine a line and three non-collinear points
Proof determine a plane.
Statements Reasons (ii) A line segment has exactly one midpoint.
(iii) If two intersecting lines form equal adjacent angles, the lines are
In triangles BED and AED, EL is the
perpendicular.
common perpendicular.

1 1
∴ Area of ∆BED =× mBD × mEL .... (i) Area of a ∆ = (base)(height) Theorem 14.1.2
2
2 (Converse of Theorem 14.1.1)
1 If a line segment intersects the two sides of a triangle in
and Area of ∆AED =× mAD × mEL .... (ii)
2 the same ratio, then it is parallel to the third side.

Area of ∆BED mBD
Thus = .... (iii) Dividing (i) by (ii)
Area of ∆AED mAD Given
Similarly In ∆ABC, ED intersects AB and AC such

that mAD : mDB = mAE : mEC

Area of ∆CDE mEC
= .... (iv)
Area of ∆ADE mAE To Prove
(Areas of triangles with ED || CB
But ∆BED ≅ ∆CDE

common base and same

Construction
altitudes are equal). Given
If ED || CB, then draw BF || DE to meet AC produced at F.
that ED  mCB , so altitudes
... From (iii) and (iv), we have are equal.
Proof

mDB mEC mAD mAE Statements Reasons

= = or Taking reciprocal of both
mAD mAE mDB mEC
sides. In ∆ABF
Hence mAD : mDB = mAE : mEC

5
DE || BF Construction
3. In an equilateral triangle ABC shown in the figure,
mAD mAE

.. . = .......(i) (A line parallel to one side of a mAE : mAC = mAD : mAB

mDB mEF

triangle divides the other two sides Find all the three angles of ∆ADE and name it also.

proportionally Theorem 14.1.1) 4. Prove that the line segment drawn through the mid-point of one
mAD mAE

But = .......(ii) Given side of a triangle and parallel to another side bisects the third side.
mDB mEC

5. Prove that the line segment joining the mid-points of any two sides
mAE mAE

.. . = From (i) and (ii) of a triangle is parallel to the third side.

mEF mEC

or mEF = mEC,

Theorem 14.1.3
which is possible only if point F The internal bisector of an angle of a triangle divides the side

is coincident with C. (Property of real numbers.) opposite to it in the ratio of the lengths of the sides containing the
... Our supposition is wrong

angle.
Hence ED||CB
EXERCISE 14.1
1. In ∆ABC, DE || BC.
(i) If mAD = 1.5cm, mBD = 3cm, mAE = 1.3cm,

then find mCE.

(ii) If mAD = 2.4cm, mAE = 3.2cm, mEC = 4.8cm,

find mAB. Given

In ∆ABC internal angle bisector of ∠A meets CB at the point D.
mAD 3

(iii) If = 5 and mAC = 4.8cm, find mAE.

mDB

To Prove
(iv) If mAD = 2.4cm, mAE = 3.2cm, mDE = 2cm, mBC = 5cm, find

mBD : mDC = mAB : mAC
mAB, mDB, mAC, mCE.
(v) If AD = 4x - 3, AE = 8x - 7, BD = 3x - 1, and CE = 5x - 3, find the

Construction
value of x. Draw a line segment BE || DA to meet CA produced at E.

2. If ∆ABC is an isosceles triangle, ∠A is vertex angle and

DE intersects the sides AB and AC as shown in the Proof

figure so that Statements Reasons
mAD : mDB = mAE : mEC. a AD || EB and EC intersects them, Construction
... m∠1 = m∠2

Prove that ∆ADE is also an isosceles triangle. ......(i) Corresponding angles

Again AD || EB
7
and AB intersects them. Construction

... m∠3 = m∠4
........(ii) Alternate angles

(i) Suppose that mAB > mDE

But m∠1 = m∠3

Given (ii) mAB < mDE

... m∠2 = m∠4

From (i) and (ii) On AB take a point L such that mAL = mDE.

and AB ≅ AE or AE ≅ AB In a ∆, the sides opposite to On AC take a point M such that mAM = mDF. Join L and M by

congruent angles are also the line segment LM.

congruent.
Now AD || EB Construction Proof
Statements Reasons
mBD mEA (i) In ∆ALM fg ∆DEF
... mDC = mAC by Theorem 14.1.1
Given

∠A ≅ ∠D

mBD mAE AL ≅ DE Construction

or = mEA = mAB (proved)
mDC mAC AM ≅ DF Construction

Thus mBD : mDC = mAB : AC Thus ∆ALM ≅ ∆DEF

S.A.S. Postulate
and ∠L ≅ ∠E, ∠M ≅ ∠F
(Corresponding angles of congruent
triangles)
Theorem 14.1.4
Now ∠E ≅ ∠B and ∠F ≅ ∠C Given
If two triangles are similar, then the measures of their

... ∠L ≅ ∠B, ∠M ≅ ∠C Transitivity of congruence

corresponding sides are proportional.

Thus LM || BC Corresponding angles are equal.
mAL mAM
Hence = by Theorem 14.1.1
mAB mAC

mDE mDF
or =
....(i) mAL = mDE and mAM = mDF
mAB mAC

(construction)
Similarly by intercepting
segments on BA and BC, we
Given
can prove that
∆ABC ~ ∆DEF

i.e., ∠A ≅ ∠D, ∠B ≅ ∠E and ∠C ≅ ∠F mDE mEF

= .....(ii)

mAB mBC

To Prove mDE mDF mEF

Thus = = by (i) and (ii)
mAB mAC mBC

mAB mAC mBC

= = mAB mAC mBC
mDE mDF mEF or = = by taking reciprocals
mDE mDF mEF

(ii) If mAB < mDE, it can

9
similarly be proved by taking

REVIEW EXERCISE 14
intercepts on the sides of ∆DEF.
If mAB = mDE,


then ∆ABC fg ∆DEF

(i) Congruent triangles are of same size and shape. ……
∠A ≅ ∠D Given (ii) Similar triangles are of same shape but different sizes. ..…
∠B ≅ ∠E Given (iii) Symbol used for congruent is ‘~’. ……
and AB ≅ DE

(iv) Symbol used for similarity is ‘ ’. …… @
so ∆ABC ≅ ∆DEF
A.S.A. ≅ A.S.A. (v) Congruent triangles are similar. ……
(vi) Similar triangles are congruent. ……
mAB mAC mBC (vii) A line segment has only one mid point. ……
Thus = = =1 AC ≅ DF, BC ≅ EF
mDE mDF mEF

(viii) One and only one line can be drawn through two

Hence the result is true for all cases. points. ......
(ix) Proportion is non-equality of two ratios. ……

EXERCISE 14.2 (x) Ratio has no unit. ……
2. Define the following:
(i) Ratio (ii) Proportion
g

1. In ∆ABC as shown in the figure, CD bisects ∠C

(iii) Congruent Triangles (iv) Similar Triangles
and meets AB at D. mBD is equal to

3. In ∆LMN shown in the figure, MN || PQ

(a) 5 (b) 16 (c) 10 (d) 18

(i) If mLM = 5cm, mLP = 2.5cm, mLQ = 2.3cm,

then find mLN.

(ii) If mLM = 6cm, mLQ = 2.5cm, mQN = 5cm,

then find mLP.
g
2. In ∆ABC shown in the figure, CD

bisects ∠C. If mAC = 3, mCB = 6 and

4. In the shown figure, let mPA = 8x - 7, mPB = 4x - 3,

mAB = 7, then find mAD and mDB.

mAQ = 5x - 3, mBR = 3x - 1. Find the value of x if
AB || QR.
3. Show that in any correspondence of two triangles, if two angles of

5. In ∆LMN shown in the figure, LA bisects ∠L.

g
one triangle are congruent to the corresponding angles of the
other, then the triangles are similar. If mLN = 4, mLM = 6, mMN = 8, then find
mAX mCX mMA and mAN.
4. If line segments AB and CD are intersecting at point X and =
mXB mXD

then show that ∆AXC and ∆BXD are similar.

6. In isosceles ∆PQR shown in the figure, find the
value of x and y.

11
14. Ratio and Proportion eLearn.Punjab
SUMMARY
In this unit we stated and proved the following theorems and gave
some necessary definitions:
• A line parallel to one side of a triangle and intersecting the other
two sides divides them proportionally.
• If a line segment intersects the two sides of a triangle in the same
ratio, then it is parallel to the third side.
• The internal bisector of an angle of a triangle divides the side
opposite to it in the ratio of the lengths of the sides containing
the angle.
• If two triangles are similar, then the measures of their
a
• The ratio between two alike quantities is defined as a : b = b ,

where a and b are the elements of the ratio.

• Proportion is defined as the equality of two ratios i.e., a : b = c : d.

• Two triangles are said to be similar if they are equiangular and
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CHAPTER
15 PYTHAGORAS’ THEOREM
Animation 15.1: Pythagoras-2a

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Students Learning Outcomes Construction

Draw CD perpendicular from C on AB.

After studying this unit, the students will be able to: Let mCD = h, mAD = x and mBD = y. Line segment CD splits ∆ABC

• prove that in a right-angled triangle, the square of the length of into two ∆s ADC and BDC which are separately shown in the figures
hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the (ii) -a and (ii) -b respectively.

other two sides. (Pythagoras’ theorem).

• prove that if the square of one side of a triangle is equal to the sum Proof (Using similar ∆s)
of the squares of the other two sides, then the triangle is a right Statements Reasons
angled triangle (converse to Pythagoras’ theorem). In ∆ADC fg ∆ACB
Refer to figure (ii) -a and (i)
∠A ≅ ∠A

Introduction ∠ADC ≅ ∠ACB Construction – given, each angle = 900

Pythagoras, a Greek philosopher and mathematician

∠C ≅ ∠B ∠C and ∠B, complements of ∠A
discovered the simple but important relationship between the sides ∴ ∆ADC ~ ∆ACB Congruency of three angles
of a right-angled triangle. He formulated this relationship in the form x = b (Measures of corresponding sides of
∴
of a theorem called Pythagoras’ Theorem after his name. There are b c similar triangles are proportional)
b2
.....(I)
various methods of proving this theorem. We shall prove it by using or x =
c
similar triangles. We shall state and prove its converse also and then
apply them to solve different problems. Again in ∆BDC fg∆BCA Refer to figure (ii)-b and (i)
∠B ≅ ∠B
Common - self congruent
Pythagoras Theorem 15.1.1 ∠BDC ≅ ∠BCA Construction – given, each angle = 900
In a right angled triangle, the square of the length of

∠C ≅ ∠A ∠C and ∠A, complements of ∠B
hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of ∴ ∆BDC ~ ∆BCA Congruency of three angles
the other two sides. y a
∴ = (Corresponding sides of similar
a c
triangles are proportional)
∴ y = a
2
.....(II)
c
But y+x=c Supposition.
a2 b2
∴ c + c =c By (I) and (II)
Given or a2 + b2 = c2 Multiplying both sides by c.
i.e., c2 = a2 + b2
∆ACB is a right angled triangle in which mC = 900 and mBC = a,

mAC = b and mAB = c.

Corollary
To Prove In a right angled ∆ABC, right angle at A,
Version: 1.1 c2 = a2 + b2 Version: 1.1
2 3

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(i) AB2 = BC2 - CA2 Now in

(ii) AC2 = BC2 - AB2 ∆DCB fg∆ACB

CA ≅ CA
Construction
Remark BC ≅ BC
Common
Pythagoras’ Theorem has many proofs. The one we have given DB ≅ AB
Each side = c.
is based on the proportionality of the sides of two similar triangles. ∴ ∆DCB ≅ ∆ACB S.S.S.b S.S.S.
For convenience ∆s ADC and CDB have been shown separately. ∴ ∠DCB ≅ ∠ACB (Corresponding angles of congruent
Otherwise, the theorem is usually proved using figure (i) only. triangles)
But mDCB = 900
Construction
Theorem 15.1.2 [Converse of Pythagoras’ Theorem 15.1.1] ∴ ∠ACB = 900
If the square of one side of a triangle is equal to the sum Hence the ∆ACD is a right-
of the squares of the other two sides, then the triangle is a right angled triangle.
angled triangle.
Corollaries
Let c be the longest of the sides a, b and c of a triangle.
* If a2 + b2 = c2, then the triangle is right.
* If a2 + b2 > c2, then the triangle is acute.
* If a2 + b2 < c2, then the triangle is obtuse.
Given
In a ∆ABC, mAB = c, mBC = a and mAC = b such that a2 + b2 = c2.

EXERCISE 15
To Prove 1. Verify that the ∆s having the following measures of sides are right
∆ACB is a right angled triangle.

- angled.
(i) a = 5 cm,
b = 12 cm, c = 13 cm

Construction (ii) a = 1.5 cm, b = 2 cm,

c = 2.5 cm
Draw CD perpendicular to BC such that CD ≅ CA. Join the points (iii) a = 9 cm, b = 12 cm, c = 15 cm

B and D. (iv) a = 16 cm, b = 30 cm,

c = 34 cm

2. Verify that a2 + b2, a2 - b2 and 2ab are the measures of the sides of
Proof a right angled triangle where a and b are any two real numbers
Statements Reasons (a > b).
∆DCB is a right-angled triangle. Construction 3. The three sides of a triangle are of measure 8, x and 17
∴ (mBD)2 = a2 + b2 Pythagoras theorem respectively. For what value of x will it become base of a right
But a2 + b2 = c2
Given angled triangle?
∴ (mBD)2 = c2 4. In a isosceles ∆, the base mBC = 28cm, and mAB = mAC = 50cm.
or mBD = c
Taking square root of both sides. If mAD ^ mBC, then find

5
(i) length of AD (ii) area of ∆ABC

(vi) If hypotenuse of an isosceles right triangle is cm, then
5. In a quadrilateral ABCD, the diagonals AC and BD are perpendicular each of other side is of length 2 cm. ……
to each other. Prove that mAB2 + mCD2 = mAD2 + mBC2. 2. Find the unknown value in each of the following figures.
6. (i) In the ∆ABC as shown in the figure, m∠ACB
(i) (ii)
(iii) (iv)

= 900 and CD ^ AE Find the lengths a, h and

b if mBD = 5 units and mAD = 7 units.

(ii) Find the value of x in the shown figure.

SUMMARY
7. A plane is at a height of 300 m and is
500 m away from the airport as shown In this unit we learned to state and prove Pythagoras’ Theorem and
in the figure. How much distance will its converse with corollaries.
it travel to land at the airport? • In a right angled triangle, the square of the length of hypotenuse
8. A ladder 17 m long rests against a vertical wall. The foot of the
is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the other two
ladder is 8 m away from the base of the wall. How high up the sides.
wall will the ladder reach? • If the square of one side of a triangle is equal to the sum of the
9. A student travels to his school by the route
squares of the other two sides then the triangle is a right angled
as shown in the figure. Find mAD, the triangle.
direct distance from his house to school. Moreover, these theorems were applied to solve some questions of
practical use.
REVIEW EXERCISE 15

(i) In a right angled triangle greater angle is of 900. ……
(ii) In a right angled triangle right angle is of 600. ……
(iii) In a right triangle hypotenuse is a side opposite to right
angle. ……
(iv) If a, b, c are sides of right angled triangle with c as
longer side, then c2 = a2 + b2 ……
(v) If 3 cm and 4 cm are two sides of a right angled
triangle, then hypotenuse is 5 cm. ……
7
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CHAPTER
16 THEOREMS RELATED
WITH AREA
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16. Theorems Related with Area eLearn.Punjab 16. Theorems Related with Area eLearn.Punjab
Students Learning Outcomes Rectangular Region

The interior of a rectangle is the part

After studying this unit, the students will be able to: of the plane enclosed by the rectangle.
• Prove that parallelograms on the same base and lying between the A rectangular region is the union of a
same parallel lines (or of the same altitude) are equal in area. rectangle and its interior.
• Prove that parallelograms on equal bases and having the same A rectangular region can be divided into two or more than two
altitude are equal in area. triangular regions in many ways.
• Prove that triangles on the same base and of the same altitude are Recall that if the length and width of a rectangle are a units and

equal in area. b units respectively, then the area of the rectangle is equal to a x b
• Prove that triangles on equal bases and of the same altitude are square units.
equal in area. If a is the side of a square, its area = a2 square units.
Introduction Between the same Parallels

In this unit we will state and prove some important theorems

Two parallelograms are said to be between

related with area of parallelograms and triangles along with corollaries. the same parallels, when their bases are in the
We shall apply them to solve appropriate problems and to prove some same straight line and their sides opposite to
useful results. these bases are also in a straight line; as the parallelograms ABCD,
EFGH in the given figure.
Some Preliminaries Two triangles are said to be between the same
Area of a Figure parallels, when their bases are in the same straight
The region enclosed by the bounding lines of a closed figure line and the line joining their vertices is parallel to
is called the area of the figure. their bases; as the ∆s ABC, DEF in the given figure.
The area of a closed region is expressed in square units (say,

A triangle and a parallelogram are said to
sq. m or m2) i.e. a positive real number. be between the same parallels, when their
bases are in the same straight line, and the
Triangular Region side of the parallelogram opposite the base,
The interior of a triangle is the part of the

produced if necessary, passes through the vertex of the triangle as
plane enclosed by the triangle. are the ∆ABC and the parallelogram DEFG in the given figure.
A triangular region is the union of a triangle

and its interior i.e., the three line segments Definition

forming the triangle and its interior. If one side of a parallelogram is taken as its base, the perpendicular

By area of a triangle, we mean the area of its triangular region. distance between that side and the side parallel to it, is called the
Altitude or Height of the parallelogram.
Congruent Area Axiom
If ∆ABC ≅ ∆PQR, then area of (region ∆ABC) = area of (region

Version: 1.1 ∆PQR) Version: 1.1

3
Definition To Prove
If one side of a triangle is taken as its base, the perpendicular to

area of parallelogram ABCD = area of parallelogram ABEF

that side, from the opposite vertex is called the Altitude or Height of
the triangle. Proof
Statements Reasons
Useful Result area of (parallelogram ABCD)
Triangles or parallelograms placed between

= area of (quad. ABED) + area of (∆CBE) ... (1) [Area addition axiom]
the same or equal parallels will have the same or area of (parallelogram ABEF)
equal altitudes or heights. = area of (quad. ABED) + area of (∆DAF) ... (2) [Area addition axiom]

Place the triangles ABC, DEF so that their bases BC, EF are in the same In ∆s CBE and DAF
straight line and the vertices on the same side of it, and suppose AL, [opposite sides of a
DM are the equal altitudes. We have to show that AD is parallel to mCB = mDA
parallelogram]
BCEF. mBE = mAF
[opposite sides of a
parallelogram]
Proof m∠CBE = m∠DAF [a BC || AD, BE || AF]
AL and DM are parallel, for they are both perpendicular to BF.

∴ ∆CBE ≅ ∆DAF [S.A.S. cong. axiom]
Also mAL = mDM. (given) ∴ area of (∆CBE) = area of (∆DAF) ...(3) [cong. area axiom]

∴ AD is parallel to LM.

Hence area of (parallelogram ABCD)

A similar proof may be given in the case of parallelograms.

= area of (parallelogram ABEF)
from (1), (2) and (3)
Useful Result Corollary

A diagonal of a parallelogram divides it into two congruent

(i) The area of a parallelogram is equal to that of a rectangle on the
triangles (S.S.S.) and hence of equal area. same base and having the same altitude.

(ii) Hence area of parallelogram = base x altitude

Theorem 16.1.1
Parallelograms on the same base and between the same Proof
parallel lines (or of the same altitude) are equal in area. Let ABCD be a parallelogram. AL is an altitude corresponding to
Given side AB.
Two parallelograms ABCD and ABEF having the same base AB (i) Since parallelogram ABCD and rectangle ALMB are on the same
and between the same parallel lines AB and DE. base AB and between the same parallels,
D E ∴ by above theorem it follows that
F C
area of (parallelogram ABCD) = area of

(rect. ALMB)
(ii) But area of (rect. ALMB) = AB % AL

A B Hence area of (parallelogram ABCD) = AB % AL.

5
same parallels
Theorem 16.1.2

Hence area (||gm ABCD) = area (||gm EFGH)
From (i) and (ii)

Parallelograms on equal bases and having the same (or

equal) altitude are equal in area. EXERCISE 16.1
Given 1. Show that the line segment joining the mid-points of opposite sides
Parallelograms ABCD, EFGH are on the

of a parallelogram, divides it into two equal parallelograms.

equal bases BC, FG, having equal altitudes. 2. In a parallelogram ABCD, mAB = 10 cm. The altitudes corresponding
to sides AB and AD are respectively 7 cm and 8 cm. Find AD.
To Prove 3. If two parallelograms of equal areas have the same or equal bases,
area of (parallelogram ABCD) = area of (parallelogram EFGH) their altitudes are equal.
Construction Theorem 16.1.3

Place the parallelograms ABCD and EFGH so that their equal Triangles on the same base and of the same (i.e. equal)
bases BC, FG are in the straight line BCFG. Join BE and CH.

altitudes are equal in area.
Proof Given
Statements Reasons
∆s ABC, DBC on the same base BC, and
The given ||gms ABCD and EFGH are Their altitudes are equal

having equal altitudes.

between the same parallels (given)
Hence ADEH is a straight line || BC
To Prove
∴ mBC = mFG Given
area of (∆ABC) = area of (∆DBC)
= mEH EFGH is a parallelogram
Now mBC = mEH and they are ||
Construction
∴ BE and CH are both equal and ||
Draw BM || to CA, CN || to BD meeting AD produced in M, N.
Hence EBCH is a parallelogram A quadrilateral with

Proof
two opposite sides
Statements Reasons
congruent and parallel is ∆ ABC and ∆ DBC are between the same || Their altitudes are equal
s
a parallelogram Hence MADN is parallel to BC

Now Area of ||gm ABCD = Area of ||gm EBCH Being on the same base

∴ Area (||gm BCAM) = Area (||gm BCND)

These ||gm are on the same

....(i) BC and between the

........(i) base BC and between the

same parallels

same ||s
Being on the same base 1
But Area of ∆ABC = (Area of ||gm BCAM) Each diagonal of a ||gm
But Area of ||gm EBCH = Area of ||gm EFGH EH and between the 2

........(ii) bisects it into two

.....(ii)


7
congruent triangles
1 1
and Area of ∆DBC = (Area of (|| BCND)
gm
and area of ∆DFE = area of (||gm EFYD)
2 2

........(iii)
......(iii)
Hence Area (∆ ABC) = Area (∆ DBC) From (i), (ii) and (iii) ∴ area (∆ABC) = area (∆DEF) From (i), (ii) and (iii)
Theorem 16.1.4 Corollaries

Triangles on equal bases and of equal altitudes are equal in 1. Triangles on equal bases and between the same parallels are
area. equal in area.
2. Triangles having a common vertex and equal bases in the same
straight line, are equal in area.
EXERCISE 16.2
Given
∆s ABC, DEF on equal base BC, EF and having altitudes equal.
1. Show that a median of a triangle divides it into two triangles of
equal area.
To Prove 2. Prove that a parallelogram is divided by its diagonals into four
Area of (∆ ABC) = Area of (∆ DEF) triangles of equal area.
Construction
3. Divide a triangle into six equal triangular parts.
Place the ∆s ABC and DEF so that their equal bases BC and EF are
in the same straight line BCEF and their vertices on the same side of
it. Draw BX || CA and FY || ED meeting AD produced in X, Y respectively. REVIEW EXERCISE 16
Proof 1. Which of the following are true and which are false?
Statements Reasons (i) Area of a figure means region enclosed by bounding lines
∆ABC, ∆DEF are between the same Their altitudes are equal of closed figure.
parallels (given) (ii) Similar figures have same area.
∴ XADY is || to BCEF (iii) Congruent figures have same area.
∴ area (||gm BCAX) = area (||gm EFYD) (iv) A diagonal of a parallelogram divides it into two non-
......(i) These ||gm are on equal bases

congruent triangles.
and between the same (v) Altitude of a triangle means perpendicular from vertex to
parallels the opposite side (base).
1 (vi) Area of a parallelogram is equal to the product of base
But Area of ∆ABC = Area of (||gm BCAX) Diagonal of a ||gm bisects it
2

......(ii)

and height.
9
16. Theorems Related with Area eLearn.Punjab
2. Find the area of the following.

(i)
(ii)

(iii) (iv)
3. Define the following

(i) Area of a figure (ii) Triangular Region
(iii) Rectangular Region
(iv) Altitude or Height of a triangle
SUMMARY
In this unit we mentioned some necessary preliminaries, stated and

proved the following theorems alongwith corollaries, if any.
• Area of a figure means region enclosed by the boundary lines of
a closed figure.
• A triangular region means the union of triangle and its interior.
• By area of triangle means the area of its triangular region
• Altitude or height of a triangle means perpendicular distance to
base from its opposite vertex.
• Parallelograms on the same base and between the same parallel
lines (or of the same altitude) are equal in area.
• Parallelograms on equal bases and having the same (or equal)
altitude are equal in area.
• Triangles on the same base and of the same (i.e. equal) altitudes
are equal in area.
• Triangles on equal bases and of equal altitudes are equal in area.
Version: 1.1
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version: 1.1
CHAPTER
17 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY
-TRIANGLES
Animation 17.1: Practical Geometry - Triangles

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17. Practical Geometry - Triangles eLearn.Punjab 17. Practical Geometry - Triangles eLearn.Punjab
Students Learning Outcomes Given

Two sides, say
After studying this unit, the students will be able to: mAB = 4.6cm and mAC = 4cm and the included angle, m∠A = 60°.

• Construct a triangle having given: two sides and the included

angle, one side and two of the angles, two of its sides and the angle Required
opposite to one of them and two of them angles, two of its sides and To construct the rABC using given information of sides and the
the angle opposite to one of them (with all the three possibilities). included angle = ∠600
• Draw: angle bisectors, altitudes, perpendicular bisectors, medians,
of a given triangle and verify their concurrency. Construction:
• Construct a triangle equal in area to a given quadrilateral. Construct (i) Draw a line segment mAB = 4.6cm

a rectangle equal in area to a given triangle. Construct a square (ii) At the end A of AB make m∠BAC = ∠600

equal in area to a given rectangle. Construct a triangle of equivalent (iii) Cut off mAC = 4cm from the terminal side of ∠600.

area on a base of given length. (iv) Join BC

(v) Then ABC is the required r.

Introduction
In this unit we shall learn to construct different triangles, (b) To construct a triangle, having given one side and two of the
rectangles, squares etc. The knowledge of these basic constructions angles.
is very useful in every day life, especially in the occupations of wood-
working, graphic art and metal trade etc. Intermixing of geometrical
figures is used to create artistic look. The geometrical constructions
are usually made with the help of a pair of compasses, set squares,
dividers and a straight edge.
Observe that
If the given line segments are too big or too small , a suitable
scale may be taken for constructing the figure.
17.1 Construction of Triangles

(a) To construct a triangle, having given two sides and the Given
included angle. The side mAB = 5cm, say and two of the angles, say
m∠A = 60°
and m∠B = 60°.

Required
To construct the rABC using given data.

3
Construction: Construction:
(i) Draw a line segment mAB = 5cm

(i) Draw a line segment AD of any length.

(ii) At the end A of AB make m∠BAC = ∠600

(ii) At A make m∠DAB = m∠A = a

(iii) At the end point B of BA make m∠ABC = ∠600

(iii) Cut off AB = c.

(iv) The terminal sides of these two angles meet at C.

(iv) With centre B and radius equal to a, draw an arc.

(v) Then ABC is the required r.

Three cases arise.

Observe that Case I

When two angles of a triangle are given, the third angle can be When the arc with radius a cuts AD in two distinct points C and C’
found from the fact that the sum of three angles of triangle is 1800. as in Figure (a). Joint BC and BC’.
Thus two angles being known, all the three are known, and we can Then both the triangles ABC and ABC’ have the given parts and are

take any two of these three angles as the base angles with given side the required triangles.
as base.
Case II
(c) Ambiguous Case When the arc with radius a only touches AD at C, as in Figure (b).
To construct a triangle having given two of its sides and the Join BC.

angle opposite to one of them. Then rABC is the required triangle angled

at C.

Case III
When the arc with radius a neither cuts nor
touches AD as in Figure (c).
There will be no triangle in this case. Figure (c)
Note: Recall that in a rABC the length of the side opposite to ∠A is

Figure (a) Figure (b) denoted by a, opposite to ∠B is denoted by b and opposite to ∠C is
denoted by c.
Given EXERCISE 17.1

Two sides a, c and m∠A = a opposite to one of them, say a.
1. Construct rABC in which
Required (i)
mAB = 3.2cm, mBC = 4.2cm,
mCA = 5.2cm

To construct a triangle having the given parts. (ii) mAB = 4.2cm,

mBC = 3.9cm,
mCA = 3.6cm

(iii) mAB = 4.8cm,

mBC = 3.7cm,
m∠B = 60°

(iv) mAB = 3cm,

mAC = 3.2cm,
m∠A = 45°


5
17.1.1 Drawing angle bisectors, altitudes etc.

(v) mAB = 4.2cm, mCA = 3.5cm,
m∠C = 75°
(vi) mAB = 2.5cm, m∠A = 30°, m∠B = 105°

(a) Draw angle bisectors of a given triangle and verify their

(vii) mAB = 3.6cm, m∠A = 75°, m∠B = 45°

concurrency.

2. Construct rXYZ in which

(i) mYZ = 7.6cm, mXY = 6.1cm and m∠X = 90°
Example

(ii) mZX = 6.4cm, mYZ = 2.4cm and m∠X = 90°

(i) Construct rABC having given

(iii) mXY = 5.5cm, mZX = 4.5cm and m∠Z = 90°.
mAB = 4.6cm, mBC = 5cm and

3. Construct a right-angled r measure of whose hypotenuse is 5
mCA = 5.1cm.

cm and one side is 3.2 cm. (Hint: Angle in a semi-circle is a right
angle). (ii) Draw its angle bisectors and verify that

4. Construct a right-angled isosceles triangle whose hypotenuse is they are concurrent.

(i) 5.2 cm long

Given

[Hint: A point on the right bisector of a line segment is

The side mAB = 4.6cm, mBC = 5cm and

equidistant form its end points.]
(ii) 4.8 cm
(iii) 6.2 cm
(iv) 5.4 cm
mCA = 5.1cm of a ∆ABC.
5. (Ambiguous Case) Construct a rABC in which
(i) mAC = 4.2cm, mAB = 5.2cm,
m∠B = 45° (two ∆s)
Required
(ii) mAC = 2.5cm, mAB = 5.0cm,
m∠A = 30° (one ∆s)
(i) To construct rABC.

(iii) mBC = 5cm, mAB = 3.5cm,

m∠B = 60°
(ii) To draw its angle bisectors and verify their concurrency.

Definitions Construction
Three or more than three lines are said to be concurrent, if (i) Take mBC = 5cm.

they all pass through the same point. The common point is called (ii) With B as centre and radius mBA = 4.6cm draw an arc.

the point of concurrency of the lines. The point of concurrency has (iii) With C as centre and radius mCA = 5.1cm draw another arc which

its own importance in geometry. They are given special names. intersects the first arc at A.
(iv) Join BA and CA to complete the rABC.

(i) The internal bisectors of the angles of a triangle meet at a (v) Draw bisectors of ∠B and ∠C meeting each other in the point I.

point called the incentre of the triangle. (vi) Now draw bisector of the third ∠A.

(ii) The point of concurrency of the three perpendicular bisectors (vii) We observe that the third angle bisector also passes through the
of the sides of a r is called the circumcentre of the r .

point I.
(iii) The point of concurrency of the three altitudes of a r is called
(viii) Hence the angle bisectors of the rABC are concurrent at I, which
its orthocentre. lies within the r.
(iv) The point where the three medians of a r meet is called the
centroid of the triangle. Note: Recall that the point of concurrency of bisectors of the angles
of triangle is called its incentre. Version: 1.1
Version: 1.1
7
(b) Draw altitudes of a given triangle and verify their concurrency. Example
(i) Construct a rABC having given mAB = 4cm, mBC = 4.8cm and

Example mAC = 3.6cm.

(i) Construct a triangle ABC in which
(ii) Draw perpendicular bisectors of its sides and verify that they

mBC = 5.9cm, m∠B = 560 and are concurrent.

m∠C = 440.
(ii) Draw the altitudes of the triangle
Given
and verify that they are concurrent. Three sides mAB = 4cm, mBC = 4.8cm and mAC = 3.6cm of a rABC.

Given Required
The side mBC = 5.9cm and (i) To Construct rABC.

m∠B = 560, m∠C = 440.

(ii) To draw perpendicular bisectors of its sides and to verify that

they are concurrent.

Required
(i) To Construct rABC.

(ii) To draw its altitudes and verify their concurrency.

Construction
(i) Take mBC = 5.9cm.

(ii) Using protractor draw m∠CBA = 560 and m∠BCA = 440 to complete

the rABC

(iii) From the vertex A drop AP ^ BC.

(iv) From the vertex B drop BQ ^ CA. These two altitudes meet in the

point O inside the rABC.

(v) Now from the third vertex C, drop CR ^ AB.

Construction
(vi) We observe that this third altitude also passes through the point
(i) Take mBC = 4.8cm.

of intersection O of the first two altitudes.

(ii) With B as centre and radius mBA = 4cm draw an arc.

(vii) Hence the three altitudes of rABC are concurrent at O. (iii) With C as centre and radius mCA = 3.6cm draw another arc that

intersects the first arc at A.

Note: Recall that the point of concurrency of the three altitudes of a (iv) Join BA and CA to complete the rABC.

triangle is called its orthocentre. (v) Draw perpendicular bisectors of BC and CA meeting each other

at the point O.

(c) Draw perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a given triangle (vi) Now draw the perpendicular bisector of third side AB.

and verify their concurrency. (vii) We observe that it also passes through O, the point of intersection

of first two perpendicular bisectors.


9
(viii) Hence the three perpendicular bisectors of size of rABC are

(iii) With B as centre and radius mBC = 3.5cm draw another arc which

concurrent at O.
intersects the first arc at C.
(iv) Join AC and BC to get the rABC.

Note: Recall that the point of concurrency of the perpendicular (v) Draw perpendicular bisectors of the sides AB, BC and CA of the

bisectors of the sides of a triangle is called its circumcentre. rABC and mark their mid-points P, Q and R respectively.
(vi) Join A to the mid-point Q to get the median AQ.

(d) Draw medians of a given triangle and verify their concurrency (vii) Join B to the mid-point R to get the median BR.

(viii) The medians AQ and BR meet in the point G.
Example (ix) Now draw the third median CP.

(i) Construct a rABC in which mAB = 4.8cm, mBC = 3.5cm and

(x) We observe that the third median also passes through the point

mAC = 4cm. of intersection G of the first two medians.

(ii) Draw medians of rABC and verify that they are concurrent at
(xi) Hence the three medians of the rABC pass through the same

a point within the triangle. By measurement show that the point G. That is, they are concurrent at G. By measuring,
medians divide each other in the ratio 2 : 1. AG : GQ = 2 : 1 etc.
Note: Recall that the point of concurrency of the three medians of a
Given triangle is called the centroid of the rABC.
Three side mAB = 4.8cm, mBC = 3.5cm and mAC = 4cm of a rABC.

EXERCISE 17.2
Required
(i) To Construct rABC.
1. Construct the following r’s ABC. Draw the bisectors of their angles

(ii) Draw its medians and verify their concurrency.

and verify their concurrency.
(i)
mAB = 4.5cm, mBC = 3.1cm,
mCA = 5.2cm

(ii) mAB = 4.2cm,

mBC = 6cm,
mCA = 5.2cm

(iii) mAB = 3.6cm,

mBC = 4.2cm,
m∠B = 75°.

2. Construct the following r’s PQR. Draw their altitudes and show

that they are concurrent.

(i)
mPQ = 6cm, mQR = 4.5cm,
mPR = 5.5cm

(ii) mPQ = 4.5cm,

mQR = 3.9cm,
m∠R = 45°

(iii) mRP = 3.6cm,

m∠Q = 30°,
m∠P = 105°.

3. Construct the following triangles ABC. Draw the perpendicular

bisectors of their sides and verify their concurrency. Do they meet
inside the triangle?
(i) mAB = 5.3cm, m∠A = 45°, m∠B = 30°
Construction

(ii) mBC = 2.9cm, m∠A = 30°, m∠B = 60°

(i) Take mAB = 4.8cm.

(iii) mAB = 2.4cm, mAC = 3.2cm, m∠A = 120°.

(ii) With A as centre and mAC = 4cm as radius draw an arc.


11
4. Construct the following rs XYZ. Draw their three medians and mQR = 7cm, mRS = 6cm, mSP = 2.75cm. m∠QRS = 600, and
show that they are concurrent. m∠RSP = 900. 1
(i)
mYZ = 4.1cm, m∠Y = 60°,
m∠X= 75°

[Hint: 2.75 = 2 x 5.5]

(ii) mXY = 4.5cm,

mYZ = 3.4cm,
mZX = 5.6cm

3. Construct a r equal in area to the quadrilateral ABCD, having

(iii) mZX = 4.3cm,

m∠X = 75°,
m∠Y = 45°

mAB = 6cm, mBC = 4cm, mAC = 7.2cm, m∠BAD = 1050, and

mBD = 8cm.
17.2 Figures with Equal Areas 4. Construct a right-angled triangle equal in area to
a given square.
(i) Construct a triangle equal in area to a given quadrilateral.
Given (ii) Construct a rectangle equal in area to a given triangle.

A quadrilateral ABCD.
Given
Required rABC

To construct a r equal in area to quadrilateral ABCD.

Required
Construction To construct a rectangle equal in area
(i) Join AC.

to rABC .
(ii) Through D draw DP || CA, meeting BA produced at P.

(iii) Join PC.

Construction
(iv) Then PBC is the required triangle.

(i) Take a rABC.

fg
(ii) Draw DP, the perpendicular bisector

Observe that of BC.

rs APC, ADC stand on the same base AC and between the same fg fg
(iii) Through the vertex A of rABC draw PAQ || BC intersecting PD at P.

parallels AC and PD. (iv) Take mPQ = mDC.

Hence rAPC = rADC

(v) Join Q and C.

rAPC + rABC = rADC + rABC or rPBC = quadrilateral ABCD.

(vi) Then CDPQ is the required rectangle.

EXERCISE 17.3 Example

Construct a parallelogram equal in area to a given triangle having

1. (i) Construct a quadrilateral ABCD, having mAB = mAC = 5.3cm,

one angle equal to a given angle.
mBC = mCD = 3.8cm and mAD = 2.8cm.
(ii) On the side BC construct a r equal in area to the quadrilateral

Given
ABCD. rABC and ∠a.

2. Construct a r equal in area to the quadrilateral PQRS, having

13
Required (v) On DM as a side construct a square DFLM.

To construct a parallelogram equal in This shall be the required square.
area to rABC and having one angle = ∠a
Example
Construction Construct a square equal in area to a given triangle.
(i) Bisect BC at D.

(ii) Draw DE making ∠CDE = ∠a

g
(iii) Draw AEF || to BC cutting DE at E.

(iv) Cut off EF = DC. Join C and F.

Then CDEF is the required parallelogram.
EXERCISE 17.4
1. Construct a r with sides 4 cm, 5 cm and 6 cm and construct a

rectangle having its area equal to that of the r. Measure its
Given

diagonals. Are they equal?

rABC.
2. Transform an isosceles r into a rectangle.
3. Construct a rABC such that mAB = 3cm, mBC = 3.8cm, mAC = 4.8cm.
Required
Construct a rectangle equal in area to rABC, the and measure its
To construct a square equal in area to rABC.

sides.
Construction
(iii) Construct a square equal in area to a given rectangle. fg
(i) Draw PAQ || BC.

(ii) Draw the perpendicular bisector of BC, bisecting it at D and

Given fg

meeting PAQ at P.
A rectangle ABCD.

(iii) Draw CQ ^ PQ meeting it in Q.

(iv) Take a line EFG and cut off EF = DP and FG = DC.

Required

(v) Bisect EG at O.
To construct a square equal in area to

(vi) With O as centre and radius = OE draw a semi - circle.

rectangle ABCD.

(vii) At F draw FM ^ EG meeting the semi - circle at M.

(viii) With MF as a side, complete the required square FMNR.

Construction

(i) Produced AD to E making mDE = mCD.

(iv) Construct a triangle of equivalent area on a base of given

(ii) Bisect AE at O.
length.

(iii) With centre O and radius OA describe a semi - circle.

(iv) Produced CD to meet the semi - circle in M.


15
Given
rABC 6. Construct a r having base 5 cm and other sides equal to 5 cm
and 6 cm. Construct a square equal in area to given r.
Required
To construct a triangle with base x and having area equivalent to REVIEW EXERCISE 17
area rABC.
1. Fill in the following blanks to make the statement true:

(i) The side of a right angled triangle opposite to 90o is called ……

(ii) The line segment joining a vertex of a triangle to the mid-point

of its opposite side is called a ……

(iii) A line drawn from a vertex of a triangle which is …… to its

opposite side is called an altitude of the triangle.

Construction (iv) The bisectors of the three angles of a triangle are ……

(i) Construct the given rABC.

(v) The point of concurrency of the right bisectors of the three

fg
(ii) Draw AD || BC.
sides of the triangle is …… from its vertices.
fg
(iii) With B as centre and radius = x, draw an arc cutting AD in M.
(vi) Two or more triangles are said to be similar if they are

(iv) Join BM and CM.

equiangular and measures of their corresponding sides are ….
(v) Then BCM is the required triangle with base BM = x and area
(vii) The altitudes of a right triangle are concurrent at the …… of the

equivalent to rABC.
right angle.
EXERCISE 17.5
1. Construct a rectangle whose adjacent sides are 2.5 cm and 5 cm

respectively. Construct a square having area equal to the given
rectangle. 3. Define the following
2. Construct a square equal in area to a rectangle whose adjacent (i) Incentre (ii) Circumcentre
sides are 4.5 cm and 2.2 cm respectively. Measure the sides of (iii) Ortho centre (iv) Centroid
the square and find its area and compare with the area of the (v) Point of concurrency
rectangle.
3. In Q.2 above verify by measurement that the perimeter of the SUMMARY
square is less than that of the rectangle.
4. Construct a square equal in area to the sum of two squares In this unit we learnt the construction of following figures and relevant
having sides 3 cm and 4 cm respectively. concepts:
5. Construct a r having base 3.5 cm and other two sides equal to
• To construct a triangle, having given two sides and the included
3.4 cm and 3.8 cm respectively. Transform it into of a square equal
angle.
Version: 1.1 square area. Version: 1.1

17
17. Practical Geometry - Triangles eLearn.Punjab
• To construct a triangle, having given one side and two of the angles.
• To construct a triangle having given two of its sides and the angle
opposite to one of them.
• Draw angle bisectors of a given triangle and verify their concurrency.
• Draw altitudes of a given triangle and verify their concurrency.
• Draw perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a given triangle and

verify their concurrency.
• Draw medians of a given triangle and verify their concurrency.
• Construct a triangle equal in area to a given quadrilateral.
• Construct a rectangle equal in area to a given triangle.
• Construct a square equal in area to a given rectangle.
• Construct a triangle of equivalent area on a base of given length.
• Three or more than three lines are said to be concurrent if these
pass through the same point and that point is called the point of
concurrency.
• The point where the internal bisectors of the angles of a triangle
meet is called incentre of a triangle.
• Circumscentre of a triangle means the point of concurrency of the
three perpendiculars bisectors of the sides of a triangle.
• Median of a triangle means a line segment joining a vertex of a
triangle to the midpoint of the opposite side.
• Orthocentre of a triangle means the point of concurrency of three
altitudes of a triangle.
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Students Learning Outcomes 22. Verify the result (AB)-1 = B-1A-1

with real life,

• equality of two matrices.

5. Multiply a matrix by a real number.

6. Verify commutative and associative laws under addition.

7. Define additive identity of a matrix.

9. Know whether the given matrices are suitable for multiplication.

11. Verify associative law under multiplication.

14. Define multiplicative identity of a matrix.

as entries or elements of the matrix. (Plural of matrix is matrices)

The matrices are denoted conventionally by the capital letters

A, B, C, M, N etc, of the English alphabets.

18. Define singular and non-singular matrices.

1.1.1 Rows and Columns of a Matrix

20. Find multiplicative inverse of a non-singular matrix A and verify

It is important to understand an entity of a matrix with the

1 2 0 R1 In matrix A, the entries presented in horizontal (i) are equal matrices.

(b) their corresponding elements are equal. Thus A = B

2 3 5 In matrix B, all the entries presented in

The number of rows and columns in a matrix specifies its order.

1.1.3 Equal Matrices

Let A and B be two matrices. Then A is said to be equal to B,

(ii) their corresponding entries are equal.

(v) Null or Zero Matrix

(vi) Transpose of a Matrix

A matrix is called a column matrix, if it has only one column.

B is 2-by-3, the order of C is 1-by-3 and order of D is 3-by-1, which

 2 1 3  2 -1 3 (xii) Identity Matrix

(x) Diagonal Matrix

, (a) Square matrices (b) Rectangular matrices

Addition of A and B, written A + B is obtained by adding the entries

3. From the following matrices, identify diagonal, scalar and unit

If A and B are two matrices of same order, then subtraction

5. Find the transpose of each of the following matrices:

Some solved examples regarding addition and subtraction are given

6. Verify that if then

(i) (At)t = A (ii) (Bt)t = B

1.3.4 Commutative and Associative Laws of Addition of

(a) Commutative Law under Addition

Note that the order of a matrix is unchanged under the operation of

1.3.3 Multiplication of a Matrix by a Real Number

Scalar multiplication of a matrix leaves the order of the matrix

Thus the associative law of addition is verified: (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)

1.3.5 Additive Identity of a Matrix

If A and B are two matrices of same order and

1. Which of the following matrices are conformable for addition?

1.3.6 Additive Inverse of a Matrix

(i) (A + B)t = At + Bt (ii) (A – B)t=At – Bt

(iv) (v) 2A (vi) ( 1)B

Here number of columns

verify the following rules.

then associative law under multiplication is given as (AB)C = A(BC)

8. then verify that L.H.S. = (AB)C

Which shows that

1.4.2 Distributive Laws of Multiplication over Addition and

(a) Let A, B and C be three matrices. Then distributive laws of

L.H.S = A (B+C) R.H.S. = AB − AC

1.4.4 Multiplicative Identity of a Matrix