The Basics of Vibration

Isolation Using
Elastomeric Materials

By David Frankovich
Senior Applications Engineer
E-A-R
Indianapolis, Indiana
Introduction This property is especially significant
When motorized equipment, such when designing shock protection for
as electric motors, fans or pumps, is portable electronics, which become
mounted to a solid structure, energy increasingly “miniaturized” with each
can be transferred from the equipment new model. A highly damped material
to the structure in the form of vibration. can provide the required impact protec-
This vibration often radiates from tion in a smaller envelope than would
the structure as audible noise and be required for an undamped material.
potentially reduces performance or
Natural Frequency
damages equipment. Most porta-
All mounting
ble electronics, CD drives and vehi- XIN
systems have a
cle-mounted electronics are especially
natural frequency K=Spring
sensitive to vibrational and shock and Stiffness
(fn)—the
must be isolated from that energy to
frequency at
ensure proper performance.
which the system XOUT
Isolation mounts reduce the transmis- will oscillate if it MASS (M)
sion of energy from one body to anoth- is displaced from
Figure 1
er by providing a resilient connection its static position
between them. Selecting an improper and released. For
mount for an application, however, can example, consider a weight suspended
actually make the problem worse. The from a rubber band, similar to the sin-
incorrect mount may reduce the high gle degree of system model in Figure 1.
frequency vibration, but resonant con- If the mass is pulled down from its rest-
ditions at lower frequencies can actually ing state, stretching the rubber band,
amplify the induced vibration. During and then released, the mass will move
an impact, the mount deflects and up and down at a
returns some of the energy by rebound- certain frequency. This is the natural
ing. Preventing this energy return can frequency. The natural frequency, fn,
extend product life and prevent perfor- is dependent upon the stiffness of the
mance problems such as skipping in a spring, K, and the mass of the load that
CD drive and read/write errors on a it is supporting (M), and can be deter-
hard disk drive. mined by the following equations:
Adding damping to a resilient mount fn=1/2 π√K/M
greatly improves its response. Damping
where K is the stiffness in newtons per
reduces the amplitude of resonant
meter (N/m) and M is the mass in kilo-
vibration by converting a portion of the
grams (Kg), or
energy into low-grade heat. Damping
also dissipates shock energy during fn=3.13√K/W
an impact. This reduces the amount of
deflection required to absorb the shock, where K is the stiffness in pounds per
providing protection in smaller spaces. inch (lb/in) and W is the weight of the
mass in pounds.

Page 2
The natural frequency may also be deter- so viscous damping models can be used
mined using the static deflection that the for analysis. The damping ratio can be
mass induces on the spring in the equation approximated from the loss factor by
fn=1/2 π√G/d 3 the following formula, which is more
accurate at lower damping levels than
where G is the acceleration due to gravity at higher ones.
(9.8 m/s2 or 32.2 ft/s2) and d is the static η≈2c/cc≈2ζ
displacement in meters or inches. This
A loss factor of 0.1 is generally consid-
equation is true only for an undamped
ered a minimum value for significant
system.
damping. Compared to this value, most
Damping commonly used materials, such as steel,
Controlling the natural frequency aluminum and most rubbers, do not
provides one means to control vibration. have a high level of damping. Other
Damping provides another. Damping specialized materials can have very high
is the dissipation of energy, usually by damping. Here are some materials and
releasing it in the form of low-grade heat. their approximate loss factor.
For example, dry friction, the most com- Material Approximate Loss Factor
mon damping mechanism, is the reason Aluminum .007-.005
an object sliding on a surface will slow Steel .05-.10
down and stop. Some mechanical devices Neoprene .1
Butyl Rubber .4
use viscous damping as a means of energy ISODAMP® C-1002 1.0
dissipation. In these systems, fluid losses thermoplastic
caused by a liquid being forced through
a small opening provide the necessary Vibration Isolation
energy loss. The shock absorbers on an The performance of an isolation system
automobile are an example of viscous is determined by the transmissibility
dampers. Mathematical models for vis- of the system—the ratio of the energy
cous damping are well established and going into the system to the energy
provide a means for analysis. Viscous coming from the system. This can be
damping capability is characterized by expressed in terms of acceleration, force
the damping ratio, C/Cc or z. or vibration amplitude. Transmissibility
(T) is equal to
Most elastomeric engineering materials
for vibration isolation use a mechanism T=|A /A |=
√3 1+(2ζ fd/fn )2
out
in

known as hysteretic damping to dissi-

pate energy. When these materials are

2
[1-( f /f ) ] +[2ζ f /f ]
d
n
2 2 d
n

deformed, internal friction causes high

energy losses to occur. The loss factor is Where: T= Transmissibility
used to quantify the level of hysteretic Aout= Energy out of system
damping of a material. The loss factor (η) (transmitted force)
is the ratio of energy dissipated from the Ain= Energy into system
system to the energy stored in the system (Disturbing force)
for every oscillation. It is often useful to ζ= Damping ratio
relate the loss factor to the damping ratio fd= Driving frequency
fn= Natural frequency
Page 3
 When the frequency ratio equals the
10
B Low Damping square root of two (fd/fn =√24), trans-
(Rubber, Silicone)
missibility will once again drop to 1.
3 Amplification Region
This is known as the crossover frequency,
Transmissibility High Damping (E-A-R C-1002)
(Aout /Ain) A and the area below this frequency is
(LOG SCALE) 1
C known as the amplification region. Above
Isolation Region
-3 this frequency lies the isolation region,
D
where transmissibility is less than 1.
-1 As a goal, the isolator designer tries to
1 ℘2 2 4 8
Frequency Ratio (FD /FN) design a mounting system that puts
Figure 2 the primary operating frequencies of
the system in the isolation region. Many
Figure 2 shows two typical transmissi- systems must operate at a number of pri-
bility curves, one for a highly damped mary frequencies or must frequently go
material (ζ≈0.5), another for a material through a startup or slowdown as part
with much lower damping (ζ≈ 0.05) of the operation cycle. For these sys-
At very low frequencies (fd/fn << 1), the tems, damping in the mount becomes
input vibration virtually equals output increasingly important when it must
(the transmissibility is equal to 1), and function at or near resonance.
input displacement essentially equals
that of output.
40
Values of Transmissibility are
35
If the driving frequency equals the nat- for Single Degree of Freedom
30 System under conditions of
ural frequency (fd/fn = 1), the system Peak 25 sinusoidal excitation at the
Transmissibility system natural frequency.
operates at resonance. If damping is 20
15
ignored in the equation for transmissi- 10
bility that was given earlier, a system 5
0
that is operating at resonance will have 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
System Loss Factor
a transmissibility approaching infinity.
As damping increases, the transmissi- Figure 3
bility at resonance decreases. Figure 3
shows the relationship between peak
natural frequency at resonance and loss As frequency continues to increase
factor. Of course, all real world systems above the crossover frequency, the level
have some level of inherent damping, of isolation, or the isolation efficiency,
but this demonstrates the important role increases. Figure 4 shows this relation-
that damping can play in vibration ship. Designers must know the isolation
isolation. When a vibration isolation efficiency of the mounting system when
mount with very little damping is transferred energy must be below a
used at or near resonance, the energy specified level, in devices such as
amplification can create many CD-ROM or hard disk drives.
problems, ranging from a simple
increase in noise levels to catastrophic
damage to mechanical equipment.
Page 4
 100
Design Guide
90 Here are guidelines that will assist in the
80
design of axially loaded isolation mounts
70
Isolation 60 and pads from sheet materials.
Efficiency %
50
40 1. Optimize load. Proper performance
30 depends on proper loading. Referring
20
10 to the natural frequency equation,
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
fn=3.13√K/W 5, if the mass of the load
Crossover Frequency Ratio (F/Fc) is very small for the stiffness of the
selected mount, the natural frequency
Figure 4
of the system will be high, reducing the
Mount Design Using Elastomeric isolation performance. An overloaded
Materials mount, can compress completely, or
There are many material options for bottom out, increasing the effective stiff-
producing resilient elastomeric mounts. ness of the mount. This also increases the
Thermoplastic materials (ones that can natural frequency. Overloading an elas-
be melted and formed), such as many tomeric mount can also cause internal
vinyl and rubber elastomers, can be stresses that can reduce the useful life of
injection-molded into cost efficient and the mount. Generally, a 5% static com-
detailed parts. Thermosets (materials pression of the mount is appropriate for
that react in the mold and cannot be most materials, although static compres-
remelted) offer another option, and must sions of up to 15% may provide adequate
be molded through other methods, com- isolation and part life. For homogeneous
monly compression or transfer molding. elastomers with a durometer (hardness)
Due to longer cycle times, thermoset of around 50-60 shore A, ideal loading is
piece prices often exceed that of thermo- generally around 50 pounds per square
plastics, but the materials can also offer inch (psi), although loading of anywhere
chemical and strength properties that can from 10 - 100 psi may still be effective.
not be met by thermoplastics. Damping Softer elastomers should be loaded less
and stiffness can also vary greatly with than stiffer elastomers.
different materials. (E-A-R Specialty 2. Shape factor (S) of 0.5 to 1.0. Solid
Composites manufactures several elastomers act as incompressible solids,
isolation materials with a variety of and therefore must have room to bulge
stiffnesses and damping properties. in order to deflect. Therefore, the shape
Information on these materials can be factor, or bulge factor, should be opti-
found on the company’s Website or by mized to achieve the expected stiffness.
contacting E-A-R. See back page.) Shape factor (S) is defined as
The following section outlines sever-
S= Area under load.
al key points to be considered when Area free to bulge
designing isolation systems.

Page 5
 A 4. Calculate stiffness (K).
Calculate stiffness using the following
formulas.
B
Disk Ring
K=E πa 2
Corrected K= E (a02-ai2)
Corrected

t t
Figure 5
Block
Example: Consider a mount of the shape in
K=ECorrected lw
Figure 5. Surface A, the loaded surface, t
has an area of 2 square inches. Surface B,
free to bulge on all sides of the mount, a= Disk radius
has a total area of 3 square inches. The ao= Outer ring radius
shape factor is S = 2/3 = 0.66. A high l= Block length
shape factor produces a stiff mount. With t= Thickness
a low shape factor, the mount may buckle ai= Inner ring radius
and be unstable. A shape factor of 0.5 to w= Block width
1.0 proves appropriate for most materials. Combine shapes to determine the stiffness
Changing the thickness of the mount or of complex parts. Many parts can be con-
changing the cross section of the mount sidered a combination of two blocks, a
changes the shape factor. Rings, strips, or block and a disk, or any other combination
other shapes can be useful in creating the of geometry. Determine the stiffness of
proper shape factor. each section as outlined in 4a. Then deter-
3. Determine the dynamic modulus of mine if the parts are in series or parallel.
the elastomeric (E).
 he dynamic modulus of the material can
T
be determined using a reduced frequency
nomogram. The dynamic modulus of a
highly damped material will be affected
by temperature and frequency. A nomo-
gram can provide the dynamic modulus Example A Example B
and loss factor information over a range Block and disk in series Disks in parallel
of temperatures and frequencies. It may Block and disks in series
Figure 6
be useful to convert dynes/cm2. To con-
vert to psi, multiply by 1.45 x 10-5. To
Figure 6 shows some examples. Example
convert to N/m2, multiply by 0.10).
A shows a block in series with a disk
 alculate the effect of the shape
C (they are stacked on top of each other).
factor using the following equations. Example B shows two disks in parallel
Disk Shape Block Shape (they are next to each other). These two
E Corrected = E (1+2S2) E Corrected = 4/3 E (1+S2) disks are also in series with the block.
To determine to overall stiffness, use the
equations below to combine the stiffness-
es of the individual shapes.

Page 6
Shapes in series: molded from ISODAMP thermoplastic
1/KOverall=1/K1+1/K2+1/K3+…+1/Kn material, ISOLOSS® HD urethane, and
VersaDamp™ TPE. These have been
Shapes in parallel:
designed with the appropriate geome-
KOverall=K1+K2+K3+…+Kn
try and load specifications in mind,
Assume the blocks in Figure 6 have a and have been used in many kinds
stiffness of 20 lb/in and the disks have of products. Please consult E-A-R’s
a stiffness of 10 lb/in. The total stiffness “Designing with Isolators” booklet for
of Example A would be more information, including a worksheet
1/KA=1/KBlock+1/KDisk =1/20+1/10=3/20 to determine the natural frequency when
using the molded parts.
KA=20/3=6.66 lb/in E-A-R also manufactures several other
The total stiffness of Example B would be propriety materials that can be used
to solve various vibration and shock
Stiffness of disks in parallel, isolation problems. These include
KDisks=KDisk 1+KDisk 2=10+10=20 lb/in. ISOLOSS VL Low Modulus Urethane
Stiffness of block and disks in series, Elastomer
1/KB=1/KBlock+1/KDisks =1/20+1/20= 1/10 ISOLOSS LS High Density Urethane
Foams
KB=10 lb/in
CONFOR® Ergonomic Urethane Foams
5. Calculate the natural frequency.
Use the following relationship. W is the Acknowledgements
weight load in pounds per isolator. M is Gardner, Ross. “The Reduction of
the mass load in newtons per isolator. High Frequency Vibration and Noise
over-
by Using E-A-R ISODAMP® Isolation
English units: 7fn=3.13√K Materials.” Indianapolis: E-A-R
all
/W Metric units: fn=1/2 π Division, Cabot Corporation, 1976.
overall
√K /M
Inmann Daniel. Engineering Vibration.
Remember, vibration isolation in the Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall,
system will occur above 7√2 fn. Most Inc., 1994.
systems have a certain frequency of
concern from which they must be isolat- Lord, Harold, William Gatley and
ed. This may be the rotational speed of a Harold Evensen. Noise Control for
motor, the blade passing frequency of a Engineers. New York: McGraw Hill
fan, and so forth. As a rule of thumb, the Book Company, 1980.
natural frequency of the mounting sys-
tem should be one-third of the frequency
of concern.
E-A-R Specialty Composites
E-A-R Specialty Composites offers a
wide range of standard molded grom-
mets, bushings and other isolators

Page 7
Aearo Technologies LLC manufactures a complete
range of materials—the broadest selection offered
by a single source—for noise and vibration control
applications. Aearo’s proprietary vinyl and urethane
formulations can be produced as foams and solid
materials, in sheet, roll and bun form, as die-cut and
molded custom parts and in multi-layer composites.

E-A-R TUFCOTE™ acoustical foams, barriers and

composites offer exceptional performance, durability
and versatility for a wide variety of noise and vibra-
tion control applications, from HVAC systems to golf
cars to Class 8 trucks. The foams are manufac-
tured by a proprietary thin-sheet casting method that
affords superior processing control. It also allows
economical in-line, adhesive-free bonding with bar-
rier and damping materials to form multi-function
composites and with backings, facings and reinforce-
ments.

Mechanically strong and durable, ISODAMP™ and

ISOLOSS™ brand sheet damping and isolation
materials, and VersaDamp™ molding materials
effectively address impact noise and structureborne
vibration under diverse physical and environmen-
tal conditions. As standard and custom-molded
parts—grommets, bushings and stud mounts, for
example—these highly damped materials virtually
eliminate unwanted energy from a system, ensuring
precision, shock protection, noise control and vibra-
tion isolation.

Assistance with specific applications, technical

questions or design problems is available from
E-A-R’s Engineering Department. Product literature
and samples also are available by contacting the
Customer Service Department at (651) 575-0151.

Aearo Technologies LLC • a 3M company

7911 Zionsville Road
Indianapolis, IN 46268
Toll-free (877) EAR-IDEA
327-4332
Website: www.earglobal.com
E-mail: [email protected]
©2009 Aearo Technologies Printed 7.16