Fingerprint scanners are security systems of biometrics.

They are now used in police stations, security industries and most recently, on computers. Every person has marks on his or hers fingers. They can not be removed or changed. These marks have a pattern and this pattern is called the fingerprint. Every fingerprint is special, and different from any other in the world. Because there are countless combinations, fingerprints have become an ideal means of identification.

Types of fingerprint scanners

There are two types of fingerprint scanners: the optical scanner and the capacitance scanner. The basic function of these two types of scanners is to get an image of a person s fingerprint and find a match for this print in the database. The capacitance scanner is better, because the images are more exact and precise. Scanners are used for scanning.

Construction forms
There are two construction forms: the stagnant and the moving fingerprint scanner. Stagnant: The finger must be dragged over the small scanning area. This form is not as good as the moving form, but its cheaper. The image is not very good, because maybe the finger is not regularly dragged over the scanning area. Moving: The finger lays on the scanning area, while the scanner runs underneath. Because the scanner runs regularly over the fingerprint, the images are better
Fingerprint recognition or fingerprint authentication refers to the automated method of verifying a match between two human fingerprints. Fingerprints are one of many forms of biometrics used to identify individuals and verify their identity. This article touches on two major classes of algorithms (minutia and pattern) and four sensor designs (optical, ultrasonic, passive capacitance, and active capacitance).

Background
The analysis of fingerprints for matching purposes generally requires the comparison of several features of the print pattern. These include patterns, which are aggregate characteristics of ridges, and minutia points, which are unique features found within the patterns.[1] It is also necessary to know the structure and properties of human skin in order to successfully employ some of the imaging technologies. Patterns

The three basic patterns of fingerprint ridges are the arch, loop, and whorl. An arch is a pattern where the ridges enter from one side of the finger, rise in the center forming an arc, and then exit

the other side of the finger. The loop is a pattern where the ridges enter from one side of a finger, form a curve, and tend to exit from the same side they enter. In the whorl pattern, ridges form circularly around a central point on the finger. Scientists have found that family members often share the same general fingerprint patterns, leading to the belief that these patterns are inherited.[2]
Minutia features

The major Minutia features of fingerprint ridges are: ridge ending, bifurcation, and short ridge (or dot). The ridge ending is the point at which a ridge terminates. Bifurcations are points at which a single ridge splits into two ridges. Short ridges (or dots) are ridges which are significantly shorter than the average ridge length on the fingerprint. Minutiae and patterns are very important in the analysis of fingerprints since no two fingers have been shown to be identical.[3]

Ridge ending.

Bifurcation.

Short Ridge (Dot).

Fingerprint sensors
A fingerprint sensor is an electronic device used to capture a digital image of the fingerprint pattern. The captured image is called a live scan. This live scan is digitally processed to create a biometric template (a collection of extracted features) which is stored and used for matching. This is an overview of some of the more commonly used fingerprint sensor technologies.
[edit] Optical

Optical fingerprint imaging involves capturing a digital image of the print using visible light. This type of sensor is, in essence, a specialized digital camera. The top layer of the sensor, where the finger is placed, is known as the touch surface. Beneath this layer is a light-emitting phosphor layer which illuminates the surface of the finger. The light reflected from the finger passes through the phosphor layer to an array of solid state pixels (a charge-coupled device) which captures a visual image of the fingerprint. A scratched or dirty touch surface can cause a bad image of the fingerprint. A disadvantage of this type of sensor is the fact that the imaging capabilities are affected by the quality of skin on the finger. For instance, a dirty or marked

finger is difficult to image properly. Also, it is possible for an individual to erode the outer layer of skin on the fingertips to the point where the fingerprint is no longer visible. It can also be easily fooled by an image of a fingerprint if not coupled with a "live finger" detector. However, unlike capacitive sensors, this sensor technology is not susceptible to electrostatic discharge damage. [4]
[edit] Ultrasonic

Ultrasonic sensors make use of the principles of medical ultrasonography in order to create visual images of the fingerprint. Unlike optical imaging, ultrasonic sensors use very high frequency sound waves to penetrate the epidermal layer of skin. The sound waves are generated using piezoelectric transducers and reflected energy is also measured using piezoelectric materials. Since the dermal skin layer exhibits the same characteristic pattern of the fingerprint, the reflected wave measurements can be used to form an image of the fingerprint. This eliminates the need for clean, undamaged epidermal skin and a clean sensing surface.[5]
[edit] Capacitance

Capacitance sensors utilize the principles associated with capacitance in order to form fingerprint images. In this method of imaging, the sensor array pixels each act as one plate of a parallel-plate capacitor, the dermal layer (which is electrically conductive) acts as the other plate, and the nonconductive epidermal layer acts as a dielectric.
[edit] Passive capacitance

A passive capacitance sensor uses the principle outlined above to form an image of the fingerprint patterns on the dermal layer of skin. Each sensor pixel is used to measure the capacitance at that point of the array. The capacitance varies between the ridges and valleys of the fingerprint due to the fact that the volume between the dermal layer and sensing element in valleys contains an air gap. The dielectric constant of the epidermis and the area of the sensing element are known values. The measured capacitance values are then used to distinguish between fingerprint ridges and valleys.[6]
[edit] Active capacitance

Active capacitance sensors use a charging cycle to apply a voltage to the skin before measurement takes place. The application of voltage charges the effective capacitor. The electric field between the finger and sensor follows the pattern of the ridges in the dermal skin layer. On the discharge cycle, the voltage across the dermal layer and sensing element is compared against a reference voltage in order to calculate the capacitance. The distance values are then calculated mathematically, and used to form an image of the fingerprint.[7] Active capacitance sensors measure the ridge patterns of the dermal layer like the ultrasonic method. Again, this eliminates the need for clean, undamaged epidermal skin and a clean sensing surface.[7]

[edit] Algorithms

Matching algorithms are used to compare previously stored templates of fingerprints against candidate fingerprints for authentication purposes. In order to do this either the original image must be directly compared with the candidate image or certain features must be compared.[8]
[edit] Pattern-based (or image-based) algorithms

Pattern based algorithms compare the basic fingerprint patterns (arch, whorl, and loop) between a previously stored template and a candidate fingerprint. This requires that the images be aligned in the same orientation. To do this, the algorithm finds a central point in the fingerprint image and centers on that. In a pattern-based algorithm, the template contains the type, size, and orientation of patterns within the aligned fingerprint image. The candidate fingerprint image is graphically compared with the template to determine the degree to which they match.[9]

The Economics
We'll start with one of the less subjective issues. GPS units are expensive. They're expensive to develop as tamper-proof and jamming-proof, they're expensive to build, and they're even quite expensive to monitor. At current, GPS tracking systems aren't being used instead of any other tracking mechanisms. As such, agencies require new money to fund all this, and that money has to come from somewhere during current budget woes. So, GPS tracking of criminals isn't economically practicalat least, after they've gotten out of jail. What about substituting strictly monitored GPS tracking instead of a incarceration? Think of it as highly restrictive parole. One could ensure that a suspect doesn't go back to their old ways, while saving a lot of taxpayer money while they're at it. This would certainly lighten the load on an overburdened criminal system, freeing up money for any number of other purposes, such as for harm reduction and rehabilitation programs to prevent crime in the first place. The idea's been toyed with by legislators, but never implemented.

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The Efficacy
Many have challenged the usefulness of GPS tracking for criminalsor at least, the image that it will completely prevent certain types of crimes from happening. Since GPS tracking of criminals has begun, there have been deaths at the hands of those being tracked, indicating that the system does not do nearly as much good as once hoped. After all, just because you know someone's location doesn't mean you know what they're doing there. GPS tracking might make for good evidence after the crime has been committed, but it doesn't directly prevent the crime

from happening. In essence, it can create a false sense of security when people overestimate its capabilities. GPS tracking devices are also not fool proof. They may be jammed quite easily, GPS signals being quite weak. The devices may also be removed with a little bit of trouble, leaving the criminal unfettered while police scamper to locate him. Nor do they do much good in crowded indoor environments such as malls or apartment buildings, where a criminal act may be committed without the GPS device providing foolproof evidence that it was, in fact, the perp.

The Ethics
Here's the tricky bit. Ought one track criminals after they have served their sentence? Many feel that it must be distinguished by the criminal. There is little sense in tracking white collar criminals, for instance, but sex offenderswho already have lists of their name and location published publiclyare a hot target for tracking devices. The idea is that by actually enforcing existing restrictions on their movement, such as being within a given distance of a school, will work to prevent further offenses by repeat sex offenders. Another use is to enforce restraining orders, which might also prevent many deaths by the hands of violent stalkers or exes. Still, at least in theory, these people have already served their sentence: after they have done so, why continue the punishment? GPS tracking devices are large and conspicuous, and what certainly interrupt the daily life of a criminal once free, preventing them from reintegrating into society and thus making them even more likely to resort to crime again. And then there are the privacy issues: once free, does a government body, even in the name of prevention, have the right to such a deep invasion of privacy as tracking location? Some have argued lifelong tracking as mandated by many states as unconstitutional. This is a tricky dilemma to resolve. And, ought GPS tracking systems replace traditional incarceration? Maybe not in all cases murder being a good example of this. Jail is as much punitive as keeping people genuinely dangerous to society off the streets. But for minor crimes, many people see it as just a more restrictive parole, a much more constructive way to rehabilitate someone. Another nice little advantage of this system is that those who have committed soft crimes won't be exposed to hardened criminals, a notorious problem where people who just committed minor crimes are transformed by their jail time into something that society really has to fear. Still, the danger of letting criminals out on the street before they've learned their lesson is a frightening one, and one that people aren't likely to abide by without some serious protections. For some excellent pieces discussing this complex issue, check out both the links within this article, and the following: More States Move To Use GPS Tracking of Sex Offenders Fox News

GPS sex offender tracking. Detailed breakdown of terms, laws and costs.

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Tracking & Positioning

The most common type of ethics violation that is specific to GPS-enabled cell phones is with the GPS technology withintechnology that enables the positioning of your cell phone with extreme accuracy wherever it happens to be in the world. This can lead to some pretty deeply disturbing potential violations of ethics by many parties, from the government to random strangers to even your employer. Check some examples out below.

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No Law
Part of the reason why there are so many ethics violations because of GPS is that there is no formal constitutional protection for any type of telecommunications within the United States. Worse, even the courts have made no coherent decisions on how much privacy a consumer should expect for either their cell phone communications or its location; the rulings varying from the owner expecting no privacy whatsoever to requiring a full criminal search warrant to peer into any kind of cell phone information. What will emerge out of this mess of court rulings is anyone's guess, but, for now, the gray area surrounding telecommunications privacy has led to a plethora of actions that smell like ethical violations to many. Things are a little less indistinct once you get abroad. In most European countries, for instance, there is explicit privacy of telecommunications provided in their constitutions, which does a lot to discourage any possible ethical violation.

FBI & Roving Bugs

The FBI is notorious for its questionable investigative techniques, and GPS-enabled cell phones are no exception. One of the most recent known uses that the FBI has had for GPS cell phones is creating a roving bug, that is, a locating device that also has the microphone remotely activated, all without the consent of the owner. This is a powerful tool to take down crime, for sure, but many of its known targets have been of only the barest suspicion. This has been approved of by top judges in the US Justice Department, although another judge has ruled that this requires a warrant and probable cause. However, the FBI appears to have made no plans to stop this program as of the writing of this article.

Political Activists & Pedophiles

Taking it a step further, what about tracking your local concerned citizen who is a bit vocal about the issues they care about, attending protests and the like? The FBI has been known to use GPSenabled cell phones to track political activists even if they're peaceful and nonviolent. While the government hardly has the best track record regarding even mild dissidents, this has led to a considerable amount of alarm amongst human right organizations including, ironically enough, the very people the FBI are tracking. There are all sorts of shades of gray involved with who's to be tracked and who's to be left alone. Pedophiles who committed their crimes decades ago are often tracked, just as other criminals who really may have moved on with their lives. While it certainly can be argued that such tracking of individuals may result in a few captured criminals here and there, many also wonder whether this is worth the loss of human liberties. It's a question that's up for debate.

Employers & Ethics

Many employers are handing out GPS-enabled cell phones to their employees, which poses another potential ethics violations. Currently, it is legal for employees to use GPS technology to track employees during work hours. Check to see what your employer's policy on cell phone tracking is. Check out this website for more information on employer monitoring and your rights as an employee.

Stalking
Stalking, another extreme example, can be taken to a whole new level with this sort of technology. Hacking a GPS-enabled cell phone to show someone's position at all times means that stalkers can stalk their victims from the safety of their own home without physically revealing themselves until they feel the need towhich may be too late for the victim if the stalker is violently inclined. Tracking someone's every move behind closed doors is a frightening possibility.

Viruses
There are a plethora of applications and downloads available for cell phones, some of which may contain viruses including ones that may track your position. While there haven't been any known largescale viruses to have done this quite yet, the threat is there and quite frightening. Your location known at any time to some malignant third party is not a pleasant thought. The best defense against this is to be careful of what you download onto your phone.

Other Methods of Tracking

Probably the most common method of mobile tracking is via triangulation of signal strength for different nearby signal towers, analogous to how proper GPS works. Otherwise, a rough approximation may be found just by what signal tower you happen to be using when your phone sends out a roaming signal. Wifi networks can also be used, but this is more difficult as there is no real coherent organization to them for any third party to utilize for tracking purposes.

Proper Ethics?
But, what breaches of privacy are ethical, then, if any? Take a look back in history, back to the original use of cell phone positioning: emergency services. If ambulances could know exactly where you were dialing 911 from, then they could get the proper aid to you that much faster. Doubtless, this has saved many lives: it's hard to find much wrong with this sort of use of GPS technology.

Protecting Your Privacy

If you have a GPS-enabled phone, check to see if you can disable the function except when desired. That's really your first and only line of defense against such breaches, although it is by no means a guarantee. Skilled hackers can remotely access your phone and activate pretty much any feature they please. Not to scare anyone. Still worried about your privacy? There are a number of organizations out there attempting to fight for the right to privacy in the digital age. The largest of these groups is the Electronic Frontier Foundation. If you'd like to keep track of court cases and other happenings to do with cell phones and positioning, you can follow the EFF Cell Tracking webpage or subscribe to their feed.

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http://peemrc.ornl.gov/projects.shtml

The interlock contacts installed in the previous section's motor control circuit work fine, but the motor will run only as long as each pushbutton switch is held down. If we wanted to keep the motor running even after the operator takes his or her hand off the control switch(es), we could change the circuit in a couple of different ways: we could replace the pushbutton switches with toggle switches, or we could add some more relay logic to "latch" the control circuit with a single, momentary actuation of either switch. Let's see how the second approach is implemented, since it is commonly used in industry:

When the "Forward" pushbutton is actuated, M1 will energize, closing the normally-open auxiliary contact in parallel with that switch. When the pushbutton is released, the closed M1 auxiliary contact will maintain current to the coil of M1, thus latching the "Forward" circuit in the "on" state. The same sort of thing will happen when the "Reverse" pushbutton is pressed. These parallel auxiliary contacts are sometimes referred to as seal-in contacts, the word "seal" meaning essentially the same thing as the word latch. However, this creates a new problem: how to stop the motor! As the circuit exists right now, the motor will run either forward or backward once the corresponding pushbutton switch is pressed, and will continue to run as long as there is power. To stop either circuit (forward or backward), we require some means for the operator to interrupt power to the motor contactors. We'll call this new switch, Stop:

Now, if either forward or reverse circuits are latched, they may be "unlatched" by momentarily pressing the "Stop" pushbutton, which will open either forward or reverse circuit, de-energizing the energized contactor, and returning the seal-in contact to its normal (open) state. The "Stop" switch, having normally-closed contacts, will conduct power to either forward or reverse circuits when released. So far, so good. Let's consider another practical aspect of our motor control scheme before we quit adding to it. If our hypothetical motor turned a mechanical load with a lot of momentum, such as a large air fan, the motor might continue to coast for a substantial amount of time after the stop button had been pressed. This could be problematic if an operator were to try to reverse the motor direction without waiting for the fan to stop turning. If the fan was still coasting forward and the "Reverse" pushbutton was pressed, the motor would struggle to overcome that inertia of the large fan as it tried to begin turning in reverse, drawing excessive current and potentially reducing the life of the motor, drive mechanisms, and fan. What we might like to have is some kind of a time-delay function in this motor control system to prevent such a premature startup from happening. Let's begin by adding a couple of time-delay relay coils, one in parallel with each motor contactor coil. If we use contacts that delay returning to their normal state, these relays will provide us a "memory" of which direction the motor was last powered to turn. What we want each time-delay contact to do is to open the starting-switch leg of the opposite rotation circuit for several seconds, while the fan coasts to a halt.

If the motor has been running in the forward direction, both M1 and TD1 will have been energized. This being the case, the normally-closed, timed-closed contact of TD1 between wires 8 and 5 will have immediately opened the moment TD1 was energized. When the stop button is pressed, contact TD1 waits for the specified amount of time before returning to its normallyclosed state, thus holding the reverse pushbutton circuit open for the duration so M2 can't be energized. When TD1 times out, the contact will close and the circuit will allow M2 to be energized, if the reverse pushbutton is pressed. In like manner, TD2 will prevent the "Forward" pushbutton from energizing M1 until the prescribed time delay after M2 (and TD2) have been deenergized. The careful observer will notice that the time-interlocking functions of TD1 and TD2 render the M1 and M2 interlocking contacts redundant. We can get rid of auxiliary contacts M1 and M2 for interlocks and just use TD1 and TD2's contacts, since they immediately open when their respective relay coils are energized, thus "locking out" one contactor if the other is energized. Each time delay relay will serve a dual purpose: preventing the other contactor from energizing while the motor is running, and preventing the same contactor from energizing until a prescribed time after motor shutdown. The resulting circuit has the advantage of being simpler than the previous example:

y y y

REVIEW: Motor contactor (or "starter") coils are typically designated by the letter "M" in ladder logic diagrams. Continuous motor operation with a momentary "start" switch is possible if a normallyopen "seal-in" contact from the contactor is connected in parallel with the start switch, so that once the contactor is energized it maintains power to itself and keeps itself "latched" on. Time delay relays are commonly used in large motor control circuits to prevent the motor from being started (or reversed) until a certain amount of time has elapsed from an event.