Lecture 1

INTRODUCTION TO VECTOR ANALYSIS

1.0 DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY

Table 1. Standard units of measurement of some fundamental quantities

Quantity Standard Unit of Measurement (SI)
length meter (m)
mass kilogram (kg)
time second (s)
temperature Kelvin (K)

Dimensional homogeneity is a quality of an equation pertaining to both sides of the

equation having the same units. This is vital in calculations as terms of different units (or
nature) cannot be added nor subtracted. Dimensional homogeneity can also be used as a
tool to check for the soundness of calculation results. For example, if one is computing for
the speed of an object, then the answer should be in meters/second (SI units).
Fundamental quantities involved in computations for this course and their respective
standard units of measurements are shown in Table 1.

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SAMPLE PROBLEM 1 (dimensional homogeneity)

The acceleration �� of a particle is related to its velocity ��, its position coordinate
��, and time �� by the equation below where A and B are constants.
�� = A��3�� + B����2
The dimensions are as follows:
m 2 m
[��] = [ s ], [��] = [ s], [��] = [m], [��] = [s]

Derive the dimensions of A and B if the equation above is to be dimensionally

homogeneous.

Reconstruct the given equation in terms of their units.

�� = A��3�� + B����2
m 2 3 m 2
[ s ] = [A][m ][s] + [B][ s][s ] (EQ 1.1)

Terms inside the brackets [ ] pertain to units.

Note that the term �� is the sum of the two terms A��3�� and B����2.
Considering dimensional homogeneity, the two terms have the same unit as their
sum, otherwise they cannot be added with each other. It then follows that,
[��] = [A��3��] (EQ 1.2)
[��] = [B����2] (EQ 1.3)

Solving for [A] from EQ 1.1 and EQ 1.2,

[��] = [A��3��]
m 2 3
[ s ] = [A][m ][s]
m 2
[A] = [ s ][1

m3 ∙ s]
[��] = [��
��
���� ∙ �� ]

Solving for [B] from EQ 1.1 and EQ 1.3,

[��] = [B����2]
m 2 m 2
[ s ] = [B][ s][s ]
m 2
[B] = [ s ][s
2
m∙s ]
�� ��
[��] = [ �� ]
 The units of terms A and B are 1
3 3
2
m ∙s and 1s , respectively.

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SAMPLE PROBLEM 2 (conversion of units)

Convert 14.7 lb/in2to kN/m2 where lb is a unit of force (lb force, lbf). Consider the
following conversion factors: 1 lbf = 4.448 N, 1 in = 0.0254 m

Multiply units to be converted with its respective conversion factors such that the unit
to be converted cancels out.

Step 1. Convert lbfto N using the given conversion factor.

14.7lbf
2
in ×4.448 N
N
1 lbf= 65.386 in2

Step 2. Convert N to kN.

N 2
65.386 in ×1 kN

1000 N= 0.0654kN
in2

Step 3. Convert in2to m2 using the given conversion factor.

2
in ×12in2

0.0654kN ������.����
2
0.02542 m = ������ ��
��

Errors from repeated rounding off can be minimized by performing multiple

conversions with a single equation (steps 1 to 3 fused into one).
2 2
14.7lbf 1000 N×1 in
2
in ×4.448 N

1 lbf×1 kN

2.0 VECTOR QUANTITIES

 2
0.02542 m = �

� �

� �

� �
�
� �
�
� �
�. �
�
� ��

2.1 SCALAR VS. VECTOR QUANTITIES

Scalar quantities are completely specified by a single value or magnitude with an

appropriate unit and has no direction (e.g. speed and distance).

Vector quantities are fully described by both magnitude and direction (e.g. velocity and
displacement). Vector quantities are usually represented by a letter with an arrow on top
⃗
(i.e. A ) or bold letters (i.e. A).

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SAMPLE PROBLEM 3 (computing distance and displacement)

A runner travelled from point A to point D by passing through points B and then C with
each point being reached in 2-minute intervals. Consider the diagram below.
(a) What is the distance travelled by the runner in 6 minutes?

Distance is a scalar quantity and thus, only describes the magnitude (length of path
covered by the runner). It does not vary with direction. The total distance covered by
the runner travelling from point A to D through points B and C can be determined as
the sum of the distance between each point.

�� = 0 min to �� = 2 min ������ = 30 + 80 + 40 = 150 m

�� = 2 min to �� = 4 min ������ = 80 + 40 = 120 m
�� = 4 min to �� = 6 min ������ = 80 m
�� = 0 min to �� = 6 min ������ = ������ + ������ + ������ =
������ m

(b) What is the displacement of the runner in 6 minutes?

Displacement, being a vector quantity, considers both magnitude and direction. The
sign (i.e. positive or negative) of the vector quantity changes with direction. In this
case, displacement is positive if the movement is to the right; negative if the
movement is to the left. Unlike distance, displacement is not a path-dependent
quantity and thus, can be quantified without identifying the path taken by an object in
motion. Displacement can be determined by getting the difference between the final
and the initial position as shown in EQ 2.1.

∆�� = displacement
∆�� = ���� − ���� = final initial position
position �� = (EQ 2.1)
���� where ��

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Using EQ 2.1, displacement can be determined as

∆�� = ���� − ����

∆�� = ���� − ����
∆�� = (30 + 80) − 0
∆�� = ������ ��

Using the same methodology used for solving distance to determine displacement
from point A to D yields the same answer. Note that, unlike distance, displacement
considers the direction of motion (with positive and negative signs).
 �� = 0 min to �� = 2 min ������ = + 150 m
�� = 2 min to �� = 4 min ������ = − 120 m
�� = 4 min to �� = 6 min ������ = + 80 m
�� = 0 min to �� = 6 min ������ = ������ + ������ + ������ =
������ m

2.2. VECTOR DIRECTION

Figure 2.1 shows the sign convention for different directions in the Cartesian coordinate
system.

Figure 2.1 Sign convention for directions in the Cartesian coordinate system

Vectors may exist in between two axes (i.e. northwest NW and southeast SE) and may
have either the same or different sign conventions on the �� and �� axes (Figure 2.2).
For example, vectors in the SE direction have a positive �� component but a negative
�� component. The directions NE, NW, SW, and SE are used to describe vectors that
form exactly 45o with both the �� and �� axes bounding the vector.

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 Figure 2.2 Vectors between the �� and �� axes

Vectors that do not form exactly 45o with either of the bounding �� and �� axes are
described using the value of the angle it forms with the �� and �� axes. For example,
the vector shown in Figure 2.3 forms a 25o-angle with the negative �� axis (south). This
vector is described as 25oE of S (east of south) as it is 25oto the east of south (−�� axis).
It can also be described based on the complementary angle of 25o which is 65o(from the
positive �� axis). The direction of this vector can, therefore, also be referred to as 65oS
of E. The direction 25oE of S can also be written as “S 25o E”.

Figure 2.3 Vector between the +�� and the −�� axes

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SAMPLE PROBLEM 4 (determining the direction of vectors)

Determine the direction of the vectors drawn below.

(a) Determining the direction of vector A:

Vector A forms an angle exactly 45o with either the −�� axis (south) or the +��
axis (east). Its direction can be described as SE (southeast).

(b) Determining the direction of vector B:

Vector B forms a 120o-angle with the −�� axis. 120ocannot be used as a reference
for its direction as it is bounded by the +�� axis and the +�� axis. The angle
formed by vector B from the +�� axis, ��, can be determined as
�� = 120�� − 90�� = 30��

Vector B, therefore, is 30oto the east of the +�� axis (north). Its direction can be
described as 30oE of N (or 60o N of E).

(c) Determining the direction of vector C:

Vector C is 15oto the south of the −�� axis (west). Its direction can be described as
15o S of W (or 75o W of S).

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2.3. BASIC VECTOR ARITHMETIC

The following are rules on basic vector arithmetic.

1. Two vectors are considered equal only if they have equal magnitude and they point in
exactly the same direction.
⃗
2. The sum of two or more vectors is represented by a resultant vector, R
. 3. Vectors follow the commutative law of addition, such that
A+B=B+A
4. Vectors follow the associative law of addition, such that
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
5. The negative of a vector has the same magnitude but is opposite in direction, such that
A + (−A) = 0
6. Vector subtraction is performed by adding the negative of the vector being subtracted
from another vector, such that
A − B = A + (−B)

2.4. RESULTANT OF A VECTOR

The resultant vector, R, is the sum of two or more vectors. It can be determined graphically
(via tail to tip method) or mathematically. The tail to tip method can be used to visualize
the vectors and the resultant, but the determination of the exact value of the resultant is
practically done mathematically.

The tail to tip (graphical) method is performed as follows. Refer to Figure 2.4 for the tail
and tip of a vector.

Figure 2.4 Tail and tip of a vector (arrow)

1. Draw the first vector with its tail at the origin (the starting point). 2. Place the tail of
succeeding vectors to the tip of the previous vector. The order of placement of the vectors
does not matter.
3. Once all vectors have been drawn, draw the resultant vector from the tail of the first
vector (the starting point) to the tip of the last vector drawn.

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Figure 2.5 shows the application of tail to tip method to determine R where R is the sum of
vectors A, B, C, and D.

Figure 2.5 Determining the resultant using tail to tip method

The determination of the resultant mathematically involves resolving vectors to its

components in the �� and �� axes (for 2D vectors). The components of vector A,
���� and ���� are shown in Figure 2.6a. Since vector A is the resultant of its
components, a right triangle can be formed from the tail to tip visualization of the vector
and its components (Fig 2.6b).

Figure 2.6 Visualization of vector A and its components (a) in the Cartesian coordinate system
and (b) as a right triangle

The following equations were deduced applying trigonometric identities on the right
triangle in Figure 2.6b. EQ 2.5 was derived by applying the Pythagorean theorem on the
same right triangle.

cos �� =����
������ = �� cos �� (EQ 2.2)
sin �� =����
������ = �� sin�� (EQ 2.3)
�������� =����
������ = tan−1 (����
����) (EQ 2.4)
2
�� = ����2 + ����2 �� = √����2 + 2
���� (EQ 2.5)
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The resultant of a vector can also be resolved to its components. Each component of the
resultant, ���� and ����, is the sum of the respective vector components which comprise the
resultant (EQ 2.6, EQ 2.7). The magnitude and direction of the resultant vector is evaluated
using EQ 2.8 and EQ 2.9.

�� = �� + �� + ��

���� = ���� + ���� + ���� (EQ 2.6)

���� = ���� + ���� + ���� (EQ 2.7)

�� = √����2 + ����2(EQ 2.8)

���� = tan−1 (|����

����|) (EQ 2.9)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5 (determining the resultant of given vectors)

Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant vector A = 2.0 km SE, vector B =
1,200 m 34o W of N, and vector C = 890 m E. Roughly draw the vectors and the
resultant using the tail to tip method to confirm your answer.

Given:

�� = 2.0 km, �� =1.2 km, �� =0.89 km

To achieve dimensional homogeneity, all values have been expressed in km. Vectors A, B, and

C, are visualized as follows:

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Applying the tail to tip method, the resultant R

can
 be visualized as the figure on the right

It is recommended to create a table such as one

below when evaluating resultant of vectors. Note
that all angles, ��, were measured from the +�� axis.
Vector ��-component ��-component

A ���� = �� cos �� = 2 ���� = �� sin�� = 2

cos(−45) sin(−45)

B ���� = �� cos �� = 1.2 ���� = �� sin�� = 1.2

cos(124) sin(124)

C ���� = �� cos �� = 0.89 ���� = �� sin �� = 0.89

cos(0) = 0.89 sin(0) = 0

R ���� = ���� + ���� + ���� = ���� + ���� +

���� ����

Solving for the components of ��, ���� and ����:

���� = ���� + ���� + ���� = 2 cos(−45) + 1.2 cos(124) + 0.89
���� = 1.6332 km
���� = ���� + ���� + ���� = 2 sin(−45) + 1.2 sin(124) + 0
���� = −0.4194 km

Solving for the magnitude of the resultant, ��:

�� = √����2 + ����2 = √(1.63322) + (−0.4194)2

�� = ��. �������� ����

Solving for the direction of the resultant, ����:

�� = tan−1 (|����
����|) = tan−1 (|−0.4194

1.6332 |)
�� = ����.���������� S of E

Note that multiple angles can have the same tangent since tan−1(��) = �� ∓
180�� where �� is an integer. When assigning directions for the angle obtained,
consider the values (positive or negative) of the �� and �� components. In this case,
since the �� components is negative and the �� component is positive, the direction
becomes S (based on −��) of E (based on +��). Using EQ 2.9 to evaluate �� will
always result to an angle drawn from either the +�� or the −�� axis.
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SAMPLE PROBLEM 6 (vector subtraction)

Determine the magnitude and direction of vector C if C = A−B given that A is 15.0
inches 12o N of W, and B is 23.0 inches 24o W of S.

Given:
�� = 15.0 in, �� = 23.0 in

Note that �� = �� − �� is evaluated as �� = �� +

(−��). Given that �� is 23.0 inches 24o W of S then
−�� is 23.0 inches 24oE of N as visualized below.
��-component ��-component

15 cos 168 15 sin 168

�
�

−� 23 cos 66 23 sin66
�

� ���� ����
�

�� = �� + (−��)
���� = ���� + (−����) = 15 cos 168 + 23 cos 66
���� = −5.3173 in
���� = ���� + (−����) = 15 sin168 + 23 sin66
���� = 24.1302 in

Solving for the magnitude of vector C,

�� = √����2 + ����2 = √(−5.31732) + (24.13022)

�� = ����.�������� ����

Solving for the direction of vector C,

 �� = tan−1 (����

����) = tan−1 (|24.1302

−5.3173|)
�� = ����.�������� �� ���� ��

(Note that the �� component is negative while the �� component is positive

(quadrant II). Therefore, the angle points N of W.)

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SAMPLE PROBLEM 7 (evaluation of a missing vector)

Suppose that the resultant, R, of vectors A, B and C is 235.0 meters 47oS of W. What is
the magnitude and direction of vector B if vector A is 127.0 m east and vector C is 115
meters 22o W of N?

Given:
�� = 127.0 m, �� = 115 m, �� = 235.0 m
��-component ��-component

A 127 cos 0 = 127 127 sin0 = 0

B ���� ����

C 115 cos 112 115 sin 112

R 235 cos 227 235 sin 227

Since �� = �� + �� + ��, it follows that �� = �� − �� − ��. Therefore,

���� = ���� − ���� − ���� = 235 cos 227 − 127 − 115 cos 112
���� = −244.1899 m

���� = ���� − ���� − ���� = 235 sin227 − 0 − 115 sin112

���� = −278.4943 m

Solving for the magnitude of vector B,

�� = √����2 + ����2 = √(−244.1899)2 + (−278.4943)2

�� = ������.�������� ��

Solving for the direction of vector B,

 �� = tan−1 (����

����) = tan−1 (|−278.4943

−244.1899|)
�� = ����.���������� �� ���� ��

(Note that since both �� and �� components are negative (quadrant III), the angle
points S of W.)

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SUMMARY OF where

EQUATIONS

Displacement ∆�� = displacement

���� = final position
���� = initial position
∆�� = ���� − ����

Vector Component Analysis Resultant of Vectors cos �� =����

������ = �� cos �� ���� = ���� + ���� + ���� sin ��

=����
������ = �� sin�� ���� = ���� + ���� + ����
�������� =����
������ = tan−1 (����
����) �� = √����2 + ����2
��2 = ����2 + ����2 �� = √����2 + ����2 ���� = tan−1 (|����

��

��|

)
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BOARD PROBLEM

The sum of vectors D, E and F is a resultant with a magnitude of 24.80 cm pointing 21.34o
west of north. If D is 30.0 cm southwest, the �� −component of E, ���� is −44.32 cm,
and the �� −component of F, ���� is 20.0 cm, determine

(a) the �� −component of E, ����, and

(b) the magnitude and direction of F.

WEB-BASED SIMULATION

1. Click on the link on Labster Simulation for Vectors and Scalars: Guide two astronauts
on a mission to Mars shared in your respective Blackboard course sites. It will open a
new tab and will bring you to the home page of simulation activity.
 Note: Labster Simulation cannot be accessed using mobile phones, tablets, and other
handheld devices. Please use your desktop or laptop. It is also recommended to use
Google Chrome as your web browser.

2. Follow the instructions given to accomplish the activity. Your progress will be tracked by
learning from the theories discussed, accomplishing all the given task, completing all
missions, and answering the quiz after every task. You should be able to finish the
whole activity by having a 100% progress and by answering the 10-item quiz.

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Name: Student Number: Instructor: Section:

PRACTICE & PROBLEM-SOLVING EXERCISES (PPE)

# 1: INTRODUCTION TO VECTOR ANALYSIS
Copy and fill-out the header of the PPE for each page of your solution. Present neatly the
organized solutions to the following answered problems. Box the final answers. Copy and
sign the Thomasian Honor Code in the last page of your solution.

1. Vector I is 20.00 km southeast, Z is 14.00 km west, A is 12.50 km 35o W of S, and L is

15.00 km 58o N of W. If the resultant, R, is R = I + Z + A + L,

(a) find the ��-component of ��, and (Ans: ���� = −14.98 km)
(b) the ��-component of ��. (Ans: ���� = −11.66 km)
(c) What is the magnitude of the resultant? (Ans: �� = 18.98 km)
(d) At what angle and direction is the resultant pointing to? (θ = 37.90o S of W)
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Name: Student Number: Instructor: Section:

PRACTICE & PROBLEM-SOLVING EXERCISES (PPE)

# 1: INTRODUCTION TO VECTOR ANALYSIS
Copy and fill-out the header of the PPE for each page of your solution. Present neatly the
organized solutions to the following answered problems. Box the final answers. Copy and
sign the Thomasian Honor Code in the last page of your solution.

2. The resultant of three vectors is 90.00 cm 34o N of W. If two of these three vectors are
17.89 cm 27o W of S, and 36.00 cm NW, what is the magnitude and direction of the
third vector? (Ans: 57.85 cm, 44.76o N of W)
 For the exclusive use of UST Faculty of Engineering students 17
Name: Student Number: Instructor: Section:

PRACTICE & PROBLEM-SOLVING EXERCISES (PPE)

# 1: INTRODUCTION TO VECTOR ANALYSIS
Copy and fill-out the header of the PPE for each page of your solution. Present neatly the
organized solutions to the following answered problems. Box the final answers. Copy and
sign the Thomasian Honor Code in the last page of your solution.

3. A biker travelled 270.0 meters 42 o N of E to point A, then 80.0 meters west to point B,
and finally, 120.0 m northwest to reach point C.
(a) How far and in what direction should he travel to go back to where he started?
 (Ans: 267.92 m, 82.32oS of W)
(b) From the starting point, how far and in what direction should he go to reach point
B in a straight line? (Ans: 217.25 m, 56.26o N of E)

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