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12TH Physics (312)


NIOS CLASS 1

Written by Manish Verma


Short Notes
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Senior Secondary Course
Learner’s Guide, Physics (312)

UNITS, DIMENSIONS AND VECTOR

Quantity unit Symbol


Length Meter m
Physics: Scope and Excitement Mass Kilogram Kg
 The scope of Physics is very wide Time Second s
and it covers a vast variety of Electric ampere A
natural phenomena. current
 It includes the study of mechanics, Temperature Kelvin K
heat and thermodynamics, optics,
Luminous Candela Cd
waves and oscillations, electricity
intensity
and magnetism, atomic and nuclear
Amount of mole Mol
physics, electronics and substance
communication etc.

Unit of Measurement Mass:


 The laws of physics are expressed The SI unit of mass is kilogram. It is the
in terms of physical quantities such mass of a particular cylinder made of
as distance, speed, time, force, platinum-iridium alloy.
volume, electric current, etc. For
measurement, each physical Length:
quantity is assigned a unit. The SI unit of length is metre. One metre
is defined as the distance travelled by light
The SI Units
in vacuum in a time interval of
 The name SI is abbreviation for 1/299792458 second.
Système International d’Unitésfor
Time:
the International System of units
One second is defined as the time required
 Standards of Mass, Length and for a Cesium - 133 (133Cs) atom to
Time undergo 9192631770 vibrations between
two hyperfine levels of its ground state.

Significant Figures
Digits in measurement that are known with
certainly plus the first uncertain digit are
called significant figures.

1
Physics (312)
Senior Secondary Course
Learner’s Guide, Physics (312)
 All non-zero
zero digits are significant.  Derivation of units of a physical
For example, 315.58 has five quantity
significant figures
 All zeros between two non-zero
non Vectors and Scalars
digits are significant. For example, A scalar quantity has only magnitude; no
5300405.003 has ten significant direction.
figures.
 All zeros which are to the right of a A vector quantity has both magnitude and
decimal point and also to the right direction.
of a non-zero
zero digit are significant. Representation of Vectors
For example, 50.00 has four
significant figures A vector is represented by a line with an
 All zeros to the right of a decimal arrow indicating its direction.
point and to the left of a non-zero
non
𝐴⃗
digit in a decimal fraction are not
significant. For example, .00043 Addition of Vector
has only two significant figures but
2.00023 has 6 significant figures If two vectors are represented in
magnitude and direction by the two sides
 All zero to the right of last of non
non-
of a triangle taken in order, the resultant is
zero digit are significant, if they
represented by the third side of the triangle
come from some measurement.
taken in the opposite order. This is called
 The number of significant figures
triangle law of vectors.
does not vary with the change in
unit. 𝑅⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵⃗
 In a whole number all zeros to the
right of the last non zero number
are not significant, for example
5000 has only one sig significant
figure.

Derived Units Subtraction of Vector


It is a unit that results from a mathematical 𝑅⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + (−𝐵⃗)
combination of SI base unit.
Applications of Dimensions (or
dimensional equations)
 Derivation of a relationship
between different physical
p
quantities (or formula).
 Checking up of accuracy of a
formula (or relationship between
different physical quantities).
 Conversion of one systemstem of units
into another.

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Senior Secondary Course
Learner’s Guide, Physics (312)
Multiplication of Vectors B. Nm-2
C. J
Scalar Product of Vector
D. No units
The scalar product of two vectors A and B 4. Two forces 20 N and 5 N are
is written as A.B and is equal to AB cosθ, acting at an angle 200 below
where θ is the angle between the vectors. magnitude of resultant force.
A. 18.03N
The scalar product of two vectors is a B. 18.0 N
scalar quantity C. 17.0 N
Vector Product of Vectors D. 16.5N
5. Length of (A+B) if A =3𝚤̂ + 2𝚥̂
The vector product of two vectors A and B and B= 𝚤̂ − 2𝚥̂ + 3𝑘
is written as A×B and is equal to AB sinθ, A. 4
where θ is the angle between the vectors. B. 3
The vector product of two vectors is a C. 5
vector D. 7

Unit Vector
STRETCH YOURSELF
Unit vector has unitary magnitude and has
a specified direction. It has no units and no
dimensions.  All constants are
dimensionless? Explain,
𝐴⃗ what types of quantity is
𝐴=
|𝐴| Avogadro’s number.
 Is the commutative and
associative law applicable
CHECK YOURSELF to vector subtraction?
Explain
 The velocity of sound in
air is 332m/s if the unit of
length is km and unit of
time is hour. What would
1. Significant number in be the value of velocity?
42003042.02 is
A. 15
B. 10
C. 7
D. 5 Answer to check Yourself
2. Dimension of Kinetic energy
A. ML-1T-2 1B) 2D) 3D) 4A) 5C)
B. M2L2T-2
C. MLT-2
D. ML2T-2
3. SI unit of strain is
A. Nm-1

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Physics (312)
NIOS/Acad./2020/312/01/E

National Institute of Open Schooling


Senior Secondary Course – Physics
Lesson 1 : Units, Dimensions And Vectors
Worksheet - 1

Q1.The scope of physics is very wide. It covers a vast variety of Natural Phenomena. Observe
your surroundings and explain one application of physics in day to day life.
Q2. Observe your surroundings and mention any five reasons why you need to measure.
Q3. Pick any five objects from your surroundings of different matter and dimensions. Make a
table as below with suitable units:
Name of the Object Length/Breath/Height Weight/Area/Volume Dimensional Formula
Matchbox 5cm/ 3cm/ 2cm 25 g/ -/ 30cm3 L3

Q4.In ancient time when there was no standard system of measurement. Human body parts were
used as units for measurement.

Explain in your own words why human body parts rejected as units for measurement.
Q5. For measurement, each physical quantity is assigned SI unit such that meter for Distance. It
can be converted in different units by keeping prefix for power of ten. For example
10-2meter = centimeter and 103 meter = Kilometer and so on. Explain why do we need
different units for the same physical quantity?
Q.6.Pick any object from home or school and measure it by suitable scale. After measuring
convert the measured units into three different units of that quantity.
Q7. Give an example of:
a) A physical quantity which has neither unit nor dimensions.
b) A physical quantity which has a unit but no dimensions.
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NIOS/Acad./2020/312/01/E

National Institute of Open Schooling


Senior Secondary Course – Physics
Lesson 1 : Units, Dimensions And Vectors
Worksheet - 1

c) A constant which has no unit.


d) A constant which has a unit.
Q8.Mention 3 scalar quantities and 3 vector quantities from surroundings. Write your comments
why scalar quantities are different than vector quantities and also comment why we need
vectors?
Q9. Push your study table in a certain direction with a force of magnitude say 10N. At the same
time ask your mother, sister or brother to push the same table with a force of magnitude say
15N. Calculate the magnitude of the resultant force on study table and its direction when
forces are acting in same direction and when forces are acting in opposite direction to each
other.
Q10. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are A(3, - 1, 2), B(1, - 1, - 3) and C(4, - 3, 1)
using suitable vector product.

2
Senior Secondary Course
Learner’s Guide, Physics (312)

MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

Speed and Velocity


 relative to the object / point taken
 The total length of the path as reference
covered by a body is the distance
travelled by it.  The rate of change of the relative
 The difference between the initial position of an object with respect
and final position vectors of a to the other object is known as the
body is called its displacement. relative velocity of that object with
 Displacement is the shortest respect to the other
distance between the two positions  The relative velocity of B with
and has a certain direction. respect to A will be 𝑣 − 𝑣
 The rate of change of distance
Acceleration
with time is called speed
 The rate of change of displacement  The acceleration is defined as time
is known as velocity. rate of change of velocity.
 Acceleration is a vector quantity
Average Velocity
and its SI unit is ms-2.
 The average velocity of an object is
Average acceleration
defined as the displacement per
unit time (𝑎) =

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣 −𝑣
𝑣̅ = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑡 −𝑡
𝑥 −𝑥
= The decrease in the rate of change of
𝑡 −𝑡
velocity is retardation
 The average speed of an object is
Position - Time Graph
obtained by dividing the total
distance travelled by the total time  The different positions and
taken: corresponding times can be
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 plotted on a graph giving us
= a certain curve. Such a
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
curve is known as position-
time curve.
Relative Velocity  The time is represented
along x-axis whereas the
 The relative velocity of an object position of the body is
with respect to another object is the represented along y-axis.
rate at which it changes its position
relative to the object / point

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Senior Secondary Course
Learner’s Guide, Physics (312)
 A motion in which the
velocity of the moving object
is constant is known as
uniform motion.

Velocity from position - time graph


Instantaneous velocity

 The velocity of the particle at


any instant of time or at
some point of its path is
called its instantaneous
velocity.
∆𝒙
 𝒗 =
∆𝒕
 The slope (Δx/Δt) of a line
tangent to the curve at that
point gives the
instantaneous velocity.

Position-Time Graph for Non-Uniform


Motion

 The distances covered in


equal intervals of time are
not equal. Such a motion is
said to be non-uniform
motion.
 If the distances covered in
successive intervals are Velocity - Time Graph
increasing, the motion is
Velocity-Time Graph for Uniform
said to be accelerated
motion. Motion
 In uniform motion the
velocity of the body remains
constant, i.e., there is no

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Senior Secondary Course
Learner’s Guide, Physics (312)
change in the velocity with = (1/2) × (v1+v2) × (t2-t1)
time.
Determination of the acceleration of the
body

Average acceleration = = slope of

the tangent
Equations of Motion
Velocity-Time Graph for Non-Uniform
Motion First Equation of Uniformly
Accelerated Motion
The average acceleration of the body is

given by (𝑎)=
𝒗𝟐 − 𝒗𝟏 ∆𝒗 𝑣 −𝑣
𝒂 = = =
𝒕𝟐 − 𝒕𝟏 ∆𝒕 𝑡 −𝑡
= 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝑣−𝑣
𝑎=
𝑡
V =𝒗𝟎 + 𝒂𝒕
Second Equation of Uniformly
Accelerated Motion
Distance travelled = area under v-t graph
= Area of trapezium
1
𝑥 − 𝑥 = (𝑣 + 𝑣 )𝑡
2
Since V =𝑣 + 𝑎𝑡

𝒙 = 𝒙𝟎 + 𝒗𝟎 𝒕 + 𝟏/𝟐 𝒂𝒕𝟐
Determination of the distance travelled
Third Equation of Uniformly
by the body
Accelerated Motion
1
𝑥 − 𝑥 = (𝑣 + 𝑣 )𝑡
2

1
𝑥 − 𝑥 = (𝑣 + 𝑣 )(𝑣 − 𝑣 )
2
V2 =𝒗𝟐𝟎 + 𝟐𝒂(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 )

Motion under Gravity

S= area of trapezium

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Senior Secondary Course
Learner’s Guide, Physics (312)
The free fall of a body towards the earth is
one of the most common examples of
1. Which speed is measured by the
motion with constant acceleration.
speedometer of your scooter?
V =𝒗𝟎 + 𝒈𝒕 2. What is the numerical ratio of
velocity to speed of an object?
𝒙 = 𝒙𝟎 + 𝒗𝟎 𝒕 + 𝟏/𝟐 𝒈𝒕𝟐 3. Derive expression for equation of
V2 =𝒗𝟐𝟎 + 𝟐𝒈(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 ) Motion by v-t graph.
4. Give the difference between
distance and displacement.
5. A bus travels a distance A to B at a
CHECK YOURSELF
speed of 40 km/h and returns to A
at a speed of 30km/h.
1. Slope of position time graph I. What is the average speed
represents for uniform motion. for the whole journey?
A. Uniform Velocity II. What is average velocity?
B. Distance
C. Acceleration Answer to Check yourself
D. None of these
2. A car runs at a constant speed of a 1A) 2A) 3A) 4A) 5C)
circular track of radius 200 meter.
Taking 62.8 second on each lap.
Find the average velocity
A. 0
B. 20ms-1
C. 10ms-1
D. 30ms-1
3. The area under v-t graph gives the
A. Displacement
B. Velocity
C. Acceleration
D. Time
4. The ratio of the displacement of an
object to the time interval is known
as
A. Average velocity
B. Speed
C. Acceleration
D. Distance
5. Slope of velocity time graph
represents
A. Speed
B. Distance
C. Acceleration
D. None of above

STRETCH YOURSELF
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NIOS/Acad./2020/312/02/E
National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary Course – Physics
Lesson – 2 : Motion In A Straight Line
Worksheet - 2

Q1. Woman starts from her home at 10:00 am for a walk with a speed of 10km/h on a straight
road up to parlour that is 5km away. She stays there till 2:00 pm and returns home by an
auto with speed of 15km/h. Choose suitable scales and plot the x-t graph of her motion.
Q2. On a two lane road, Car A is travelling with the speed of 42 km/h. Two cars, Car B and Car
C approaches Car A in opposite direction with the speed of 86 km/h each. At a certain
instant, when the distance between Car A and Car B is equal to Car B and Car C, both being
1km. Car B decides to overtake Car A before Car C does. What minimum acceleration of
Car B is required to avoid an accident?
Q3.Observe moving things in your surroundings and note their speed/velocity. Give explanation
how does velocity differ from speed? Support your answer why velocity is a vector, but not
speed.
Q4.A Policeman moving on a highway with a speed of 25 km/h fires a bullet at a thief’s car
speeding away in the direction with 100 km/h. With what speed does bullet hit the thief’s
car if muzzle speed of bullet is 120km/h?
Q5.Measure the height of the roof of your house from ground. Drop a stone from the roof of
your house and let it fall freely. Calculate the:
(i) Distance travelled in 3s,
(ii) Velocity of the stone when it reaches the ground, and
(iii) Velocity at 2s after the start.
Q6.Drop a ball with full force on the ground and note down its displacement with time.
a) Plot displacement vs time graph.
b) Plot qualitatively velocity vs time graph.
c) Plot qualitatively acceleration vs time graph.
Q7.Just observe the rain. You will observe that rain clouds are at about some kilometer altitude
above the ground say it’s one kilometer above the ground. (a) If a rain drop falls from such a
height freely under gravity, what will be the speed of rain in SI units? Convert the calculated
speed in km/h. (g = 10m/s2)
Q8. If you and your friend ride a bicycle on the road, you will notice that at different times, both
bicycles are found at different positions. Note down five positions at five time intervals for
each.
a) Plot Position Time Graph for Uniform Motion
b) Plot Position Time Graph for Non Uniform Motion
c) Calculate Velocity from Position Time Graph
d) Calculate Distance travelled by you and your friend in 10 Minutes
e) Examine whose speed is more?
Senior Secondary Course
Learner’s Guide, Physics (312)

LAWS OF MOTION

Concepts of Force and Inertia  A body continues to be in a


state of rest or of uniform
 The property of an object by
motion in a straight line
which it resists a change in
unless it is acted upon by a
its state of rest or of uniform
net external force
motion in a straight line is
called Inertia. Mass of a Concept of Momentum
body is a measure of its
 The product of mass m of a
inertia
body and its velocity v is
 The change in velocity of an
called its linear momentum
object can only be brought, if
p. Mathematically
a net force acts on it.
 They may change the shape p = mv
and the size of an object. 
SI units is kg ms-1
 Forces also influence the
 Momentum is a vector
motion of an object.
quantity
 Forces can rotate a body
about an axis. Second Law of Motion
Force and Motion  The rate of change of
momentum of a body is
 Force is a vector quantity.
directly proportional to the
 Motion of a body is
net force acting on the body.
characterised by its
 Change in momentum of the
displacement, velocity etc.
body takes place in the
 For a body in motion, the
direction of net external
velocity will change
force acting on the body.
depending on the direction of
the force acting on it. F =𝑘


 velocity of a body changes as
long as a net force is acting F=kma
on it ∆
Where a =

First Law of Motion (Law of
Inertia)  Unit of force kg m s-2
 The unit of force is Newton

1
Physics (312)
Senior Secondary Course
Learner’s Guide, Physics (312)

Third Law 0f Motion When a bullet is fired from a gun, the gun
recoils.
 To every action, there is an
equal and opposite reaction. 𝑚𝑣 + 𝑀𝑣 = 0
 when two objects interact,
𝑣 = 𝑣
the force exerted by one
object on the other is equal
in magnitude and opposite
in direction to the force Where, m= mass of bullet, M mass
exerted by the latter object of gun, v1 velocity of bullet, v2
on the former velocity of gun.

F12 = - F21  Collision


 Explosion of a bomb
Impulse  Rocket propulsion
 The effect of force applied for
a short duration is called
impulse. Equilibrium of Concurrent
 Impulse is defined as the Forces
product of force (F) and the  A number of forces acting
time duration (Δt) for which simultaneously at a point
the force is applied. are called Concurrent
Impulse = F.Δt Forces.

 That is, impulse is equal to Friction


change in linear momentum.  Force of friction is a contact
 Impulse in a vector quantity force and always acts along
 its SI unit is kg m s-1 (or N s) the surfaces in a direction
Conservation Of Momentum opposite to that of the
motion of the body
 In an isolated system, the 
vector sum of the Static Kinetic
momentum of bodies Friction Friction
remains constant. 𝒇𝒔 ∝ 𝒇𝑵 𝑓 ∝𝑓
𝒇𝒔 = 𝝁𝒔 𝒇𝑵 𝑓 =𝜇 𝑓
𝜇 ,coefficient 𝜇 Coefficient
A Few Illustrations of of static of kinetic
Conservation of Momentum friction friction
 Values of μs and μk for a
Recoil of a gun
given pair of materials
depend on the roughness of

2
Physics (312)
Senior Secondary Course
Learner’s Guide, Physics (312)

D. 6 Kgms-1
 surfaces, there cleanliness,
temperature, humidity etc.
STRETCH YOURSELF
Methods of Reducing Friction
 Use of lubricants such as
1. What is the principle of
grease or oil between the
working of a rocket?
surfaces in contact reduces
2. A cricket player lowers his
friction.
hand while catching a ball
 Flow of compressed and
why?
purified air between the
3. Why are wheels of an
surfaces in contact
automobile made circular?
4. State and explain Newton’s
CHECK YOURSELF second law of motion hence
deduce the relation F=ma
1. S.I. unit of linear momentum 5. Explain the role of friction in
A. Kgms-1 the case of bicycle brake.
B. Kgm-1s What will happen if grease is
C. Kgm-1s-1 put on the rim?
D. Kgms-2
2. 1N is equivalent to
A. 105 dyne
B. 10-5dyne Answer to Check Yourself
C. 106 dyne
D. 10-6dyne
3. Dimension of Impulse is
A. [MLT-1] 1(A) 2(A) 3(A) 4(D) 5(A)
B. [MLT-1]
C. [ML2T-2]
D. [M-1L-1T-1]
4. Conservation of momentum
in a collision particle can be
understood from
A. Conservation of energy
B. Newton Ist law
C. IInd law
D. IInd & IIIrd
5. A boy have a mass 60kg and
travel with a velocity 1.0 ms-
1. Momentum of boy

A. 60 Kgms-1
B. 6 Kgms-2
C. 60 Kgms2

3
Physics (312)
NIOS/Acad./2020/312/03/E
National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary Course – Physics
Lesson 3 : Laws Of Motion
Worksheet – 03

Q1.Though a force is not visible; its effect can be seen or experienced. Observe your
surroundings and mention different kind of effects of forces on different objects.
Q2.Why do the passengers standing in a bus fall in the backward direction when the stationary
bus begins to move suddenly and the passengers are pushed forward when a moving bus
stops suddenly?
Q3.A 200kg stone is moving towards you with velocity 2ms-1 and at the same time a bullet of
2kg with velocity 100 ms-1is moving towards you. Explain with reasons which one is more
dangerous and requires more force to stop.
Q4. Apply Newton’s third law of motion to explain movements of a ball during a game of
football.
Q5. First law of Motion or Law of Inertia states that “a body continuous to be in a state of rest
or of uniform motion in a straight line unless it is acted upon by a net external force”. Now
roll a ball along the ground and observe its motion. Write your observation and explain
why ball comes to rest after travelling some distance without any external force acted upon
it.
Q6.Observe your surroundings and give two examples of friction that are useful and two
examples of friction that are not useful. In case of useful how you will increase friction and
in case of not useful write the method to reduce friction.
Q7.Which diagram represents balanced forces? How do opposing forces affect the motion of
an object if the forces are balanced?

a) b)

c) d)
Q8. Take any solid object from your surrounding and measure it. Lift the load with the help of
a rope at a constant acceleration to your house roof. Measure the height of your house roof

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NIOS/Acad./2020/312/03/E
National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary Course – Physics
Lesson 3 : Laws Of Motion
Worksheet – 03

and let the load covers this height of your house roof in 1minute. Calculate the tension in
the rope.
Q9. Suppose you are standing on a weighing scale on a lift. If the lift is going down with a
downward acceleration of 9 ms–2, what would be the reading of the weighing scale? Take
g = 10 ms–2. Justify your answer with explanation.
Q10.It is generally observed that roads on hilly areas or mountain roads are generally winding
upwards rather than going straight up. Give reasons for the statement.

2
Senior Secondary Course
Learner’s Guide, Physics (312)

MOTION IN A PLANE

Projectile Motion The total time for which the


projectile is in the air. This is
 The motion which has
termed as the time of flight
constant velocity in a certain
direction and constant Time of Flight
acceleration in a direction
The time of flight of a projectile is
perpendicular to that of
the time interval between the
velocity
instant of its launch and the
The two important properties of a instant when it hits the ground.
projectile motion are : 2𝑣 sin 𝜃
𝑇=
(i) a constant horizontal 𝑔
velocity component
Range
(ii) a constant vertically
downward acceleration the path of any projectile launched
component. at an angle to the horizontal is a
parabola or a portion of a
parabola.
𝑣 sin 2𝜃
𝑅=
𝑔
The trajectory of a projectile
𝑦 = 𝑦 + (tan 𝜃)(𝑥 − 𝑥 )
𝑔
− (𝑥
Maximum height, time of flight 2[(𝑣 cos 𝜃 ) ]
and range of a projectile −𝑥 )
Maximum height Circular Motion
At the instant when the projectile It is a movement of object along
is at the maximum height, the the circumference of a circle along
vertical component of its velocity is a circular path
zero.
∆𝒓
𝒗𝒂𝒗 =
h= ∆𝒕
Uniform Circular Motion

1
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uniform circular motion is motion


with constant speed in a circle.

V=log ∆ → ∆

Centripetal Acceleration

a=
AIRCRAFTS IN VERTICAL LOOPS
v= rω

F=

F = 𝑚𝑟𝜔

𝑣
𝑁=𝑚 𝑔+
𝑟

CHECK YOURSELF
Acceleration = Rate of change of
velocity 1. A shell is fired at an angle of
600 to the horizontal
Applications off Uniform Circular
direction with a velocity of
Motion
392 ms-1 time of flight is
An important thing to understand A. 68.235
and remember is that the term B. 69.235
‘centripetal force’ does not refer to C. 70.235
a type of force of interaction like D. 71.235
the force of gravitation or electrical 2. A body is projected with a
force. velocity of 40ms-11 after 2s it
crosses a tower of height
Banking of Roads
20.4m. angle of projection is
𝑚𝑣 A. 450
𝐹 sin 𝜃 =
𝑟 B. 300
C. 900
𝐹 cos 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔
D. 600
𝑣 3. Centripetal force acting on
𝜃 = tan the particle is given
𝑟𝑔
A. F=mrω2
B. F=mr2ω2
C. F=m/rω2
D. F=mr/ω
4. In a circular motion.
A. Speed is constant

2
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B. Speed and velocity


constant Answer to check yourself
C. Velocity is constant
D. None of the above 1B) 2B) 3A) 4A) 5A)
5. Range of the projectile is
expressed as
A. 𝑅 = 𝑉 sin 𝜃
B. 𝑅 =

C. 𝑅 =

D. 𝑅 =

STRETCH YOURSELF

1. Why does a bike rider bend


inward while taking a turn
on a circular path?
2. A stone tied at the end of
string is whirled in a circle. If
the string breaks, the stone
flies away tangentially why?
3. What is uniform circular
motion explain
4. Find a time of flight max
height, horizontal range of
projection with speed 𝑣
making an angle with
horizontal direction form
ground.
5. A car is rounding a curve of
radius 100 m at a speed of
70kmh-1 what is the
centripetal force on a
passenger of mass m=100kg

3
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NIOS/Acad./2020/312/04/E
National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary
Lesson 4 – Motion in a Plane
Worksheet-4

Q1. Observe your surroundings and give examples of Projectile Motion from day to day life.

Q2. Take two balls and project one of them horizontally from the top of the building. At the
same time drop the other ball downward from the same height. Observe the path of both
balls and time to hit the ground. Is it same? Explain with reasons.

Q3. Take a ball and project the ball horizontally from the top of the building. Observe the
projectile motion of ball and explain with reason which two quantities are constant
throughout projectile motion when air resistance is negligible?

Q4. Suppose you want to launch a projectile to land at a certain target, for instance, a cricket
ball beyond the boundary. What are the important factors you have to calculate before
launching the projectile? Analyze projectile motion to determine all these factors.

Q5. Suppose you are riding a bicycle along a Circular path of the Park near the house. Measure
the radius of Circular Path. Count the time to complete one round and calculate the total
length of the Circular Path.

Q6. Take three stones and throw them at different angles such that they reach the same
maximum height as shown in the given figure.

Observe the trajectories of all three projectiles and calculate for all three stones
a) Time of Flight
b) A constant horizontal velocity component
c) A constant vertically downward acceleration component
Observe and explain are these same for all three stones.

Q7. Continue to Q.6 Derive the equation of path of projectile motion and equation of trajectory.

Q8. Observe your surroundings and give examples of Uniform Circular Motion from day to
day life. Explain applications of Uniform Circular Motion in day to day life.
Q9. A truck goes around a circular track of radius R at speed v so that it makes one circuit
every T seconds As it does so it experiences a centripetal acceleration of magnitude p. If
the truck now goes around a different circular track of radius 4R so that it now takes a time
½T to go around once, what is the magnitude of its centripetal acceleration?

Q10. Explain in your own words what is meant by centripetal acceleration? Derive an
expression for the same.
Senior Secondary Course
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GRAVITATION
LAW OF GRAVITATION  Variation with Height
 Every particle attracts every other the magnitude of g decreases as square
particle in the universe with a force of the distance from the centre of the
which varies as the product of their earth increases
masses and inversely as the square
𝐺𝑀
of the distance between them. 𝑔ℎ = ℎ
𝑅 (1 + )
𝑚 𝑚
𝐹∝
𝑟
𝑚 𝑚
𝐹=𝐺  Variation of g with Depth
𝑟
 In vector form The value of g decreases as we go
below the earth
𝑚 𝑚
𝑭𝟏𝟐 = 𝐺 𝑟 4𝜋𝐺
𝑟 𝑔 𝜌(𝑅 − 𝑑)
3
𝑚 𝑚
𝑭𝟐𝟏 = −𝐺 𝑟  Variation of g with Latitude
𝑟
𝑭𝟏𝟐 = −𝑭𝟐𝟏 𝒈𝝀 = 𝒈 − 𝑹𝝎𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝀
Where 𝑔 is gravity at latitude, g value of
gravity at pole, ω angular velocity of earth
,R radius of earth.
 The constant of proportionality G , WEIGHT AND MASS
is called the universal constant of
gravitation.  The force with which a body is
 Value of G is pulled towards the earth is called
6.67 × 10 𝑁𝑚 𝑘𝑔 its weight. If m is the mass of the
body, then its weight W is given by
 Its value remains the same between
W = mg
any two objects everywhere
 It’s unit is newton.
ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY  Since g varies from place to place,
F = ma( By Newton’s second law) weight of a body also changes from
place to place
F=𝐺 (By law of gravitation)
 The weight is maximum at the
a=g=𝐺 poles and minimum at the equator

 The mass of a body, however, does


VARIATION IN THE VALUE OF G not change. Mass is an intrinsic

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property of a body. Therefore, it ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES


stays constant wherever the body
may be situated
Gravitational Potential and Potential
𝑣
energy 𝑣 =
√2
Gravitational Potential (V) of mass M is
defined as the gravitational potential
energy of unit mass. Hence,
dU = - F. dr

dU = 𝑑𝑟

U =GMm ∫∞ 𝑑𝑟 Polar Orbit Equatorial orbit


Satellite used for Satellite used for
Kepler’s Laws Of Planetary Motion remote sensing communication
1: The orbit of a planet is an ellipse with Altitude is 800 km Height is fixed at
the Sun at one of the foci (An ellipse has around 3600 km
Time period is 100 Time period of
two foci.)
min rotation is 24 hour
2: The area swept by the line joining the
planet to the sun in unit time is constant
throughout the orbit. CHECK YOURSELF

3: The square of the period of revolution of


a planet around the sun is proportional to 1. Dimension of gravitational
the cube of its average distance from the constant G.
Sun. If we denote the period by T and the A. M-1L3T-2
average distance from the Sun as r, B. M-1L3T-1
C. M-1L2T-2
𝑇 ∝𝑟
D. ML3T-2
Orbital Velocity of Planets
2. Value of g at λ =600, radius of
𝟐𝝅𝒓
𝒗𝒐𝒓𝒃 = earth is 6371 km
𝑻 A. 9.836 ms-2
B. 9.8ms-2
𝑮𝑴𝒔
𝒗𝒐𝒓𝒃 = C. 9.7ms-2
𝒓𝟐 D. 9.836ms-2
3. S.I. unit of gravitational potential
ESCAPE VELOCITY
A. Jkg-1
It is defined as the minimum velocity B. Jkg
required by an object to escape the C. J-1kg
gravitational pull of the earth D. (Jkg)-2
4. Mass of earth is 5.97x1024kg and
2𝐺𝑀 its radius is 6371km escape
𝑣 = velocity from earth is
𝑅

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A. 11.3 ms-1
B. 11.3 kms-1
C. 11.9 kms-1
D. 11.9ms-1
5. The atmosphere around the earth is
held by
A. Gravity
B. Winds
C. Clouds
D. None of the above

STRETCH YOURSELF
1. Why is gravitational potential
energy always negative? Explain
2. A boy is weightless at the center of
earth why?
3. At what depth would the value of g
be 50% of what it is on the surface
of the earth?
4. Obtain an expression for the orbital
velocity of a satellite orbiting the
earth.
5. A polar satellite is placed at a
height of 1000 km from earth
surface. Calculate its orbital period
and orbital velocity.

Answer to check yourself

1A) 2A) 3A ) 4B) 5A)

3 Physics (312)
NIOS/Acad./2020/312/05/E
National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary
Lesson 5 – Gravitation
Worksheet-5

Q1. Throw different objects of different matter and different volume; vertically or horizontally
and you will observe that all objects thrown upward comes back to the ground after
reaching a point. Have you ever thought about this phenomenon? Explain the
phenomenon. Is it same for all objects?
a) If Yes, Support your answer with reasons
b) If No, Support your answer with reasons

Q2. Universal Law of Gravitation states that every particle attracts every other particle in the
universe with a force which varies as the product of their masses and inversely as the
square of the distance between them. It is observed that falling apple attracted towards the
earth; as the law stated above why don’t we see the earth moving towards the apple?

Q3. Suppose gravitational constant G is ten times smaller and mass of Sun is ten times bigger.
Comment, will the acceleration due to gravity on earth will change.
a) If Yes, Support your answer with reasons
b) If Yes, Give some impact of change of acceleration due to gravity on earth
c) If No, Support your answer with reasons

Q4. Take two objects of different mass and separate them by any distance. Note down the M 1
and M2 and distance between them. Calculate the gravitational force between them. Now
observe what will happen to gravitational force between them if you make following
changes
a) Distance is four times but masses M1 and M2 are same
b) The masses M1 and M2 are doubled but the distance remains the same
c) Distance is four times and the masses M1 and M2 are also doubled

Q5. The acceleration produced by the force of gravity is called the acceleration due to gravity
𝑴
and is given by 𝒈 = 𝑮 𝑹𝟐
The quantity R2 in the denominator gives that the magnitude of g decreases as square of the
distance from the centre of the earth increases. Comment about
a) Variation of g with Latitude
b) Variation of g with Depth
c) Variation of g with Height

Q6. The force with which an object is pulled towards the earth is called its weight. Comment
why weight of any object on the Moon is 1/6 times that on the earth? Suppose you can lift
an object of mass 20 kg on earth, what can be the maximum mass of object which can be
lifted by you on the Moon?
Q7. Continue to Q6. Comment
a) Is the mass of an object stays constant wherever the body may be situated in the
universe?
b) Is the weight of an object stays constant wherever the body may be situated in the
universe?
c) Is the weight of an object stays constant wherever the body may be situated on
earth?
d) What will be the weight of an object at centre of earth of radius R?

Q8. Take a stone tied with a string and whirl the stone in a horizontal circular path as shown in
figure. Observe the path of stone if the string breaks suddenly. Will it continue to move in
same circular path or will change the path? Explain your answer with reasons.

Q9. Kepler’s laws apply to any system where the force binding the system is gravitational in
nature. State Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion and comment why Earth and other Planet
doesn’t fall into the Sun while Earth and other Planet is acted upon by gravitation of Sun.

Q10. A cricket match is played in Sydney in Australia but we can watch it live in India. A
game of Tennis played in America is enjoyed in India. What you think what makes it
possible? Find out the Minimum number of satellites that are required to cover entire earth
so that at least one satellite is visible from any point on the equator.
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Work, Energy and power

Work favour the the motion of


motion of the the body.
 The work done by a force is the body.
product of the magnitude of a
force component in the direction
of the displacement and
displacement of this object
 If force F is acting at angle θ
with respect to displacement d
of the object
 W =Fcosθ.d or W =F.d
 Dimension formula
W = force * displacement
= Mass * Acceleration* Work done by Force of Gravity
distance
 The work done against the force
= [M][LT-2][L]
mg and the displacement is
= [ML2T-2]
upward
 SI unit Joule W = Fd cos 1800
 1kWh = 3.6*106J = -mgh
Positive work and negative  The force and displacement d
are in the same direction
work
W =Fd cos 00
Positive work Negative = mgh
work
Force and Force is
displacement opposite to
is parallel to displacement
each other.
0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 90 90< θ≤ 180
W = Fdcos00 W=
Fdcos1800
W=Fd W = -F d
External force Force oppose
1
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 When the object is lifted up,the  Dimension of power [ML2T-


3
work done by the gravitational ]
force is negative but the work  1k W h = 3.6 MJ(mega
done by the person lifting the joule)
object is positive
 When the object is being Work and Kinetic Energy
lowered the work done by the  Kinetic energy
gravitational force is positive but The energy possessed by a body
the work done by the person by virtue of its motion is called
lowering the object is negative. kinetic energy. Let m = mass of
the body, v = velocity of the
body then K.E. = ½ m v2
Work done by a variable force
Work energy theorem
 magnitude and direction of a
force varies with position,
the work done by such a
force for an infinitesimal
displacement is given by  The work energy theorem states
∆𝑾 = 𝑭(𝒙)∆𝒙 that the work done by the
𝑾= 𝑭(𝒙)∆𝒙 resultant of all forces acting on a
𝒍𝒊𝒎 ∆𝒙→𝟎
body is equal to the change in
kinetic energy of the body.
Work done by a spring
Potential energy
F =-kx (Hook’s Law)
 Object possess another kind of
energy due to their position in
space. This energy is known
as Potential Energy.
Work = force * distance

Conservation of Energy
 The total energy of an isolated
Where k is spring constant system always remain constant.
 The energy may change its form.
Power
Conservation of mechanical energy
 The rate at which work is
during the freefall of a body
done is called power.
 Average power = work done/
time taken
 Unit of power = joule/second
= watt
2
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 When the force is independent


of path followed by the object
known as conservative force.

V2= u2+2gs
U=0 , s=h1
V2 = 2gh1  A conservative force has a
property that the work done by a
K.E. = ½ mv2
conservative force is
= (m/2) 2gh1 independent of the path.
= mgh1 WAB(along 1) = -WBA(along 2)
WAB+ WBA = 0
K.E. + P.E. = mgh1+mgh2  The work done by the
= mgh conservative force on an object
is zero when the object moves
Total energy is conserved. around a closed path and return
Conservation of mechanical energy back to its starting point.
for a mass oscillating on a spring Non conservative force
 A non-conservative force has a
property that the work done by a
conservative force is dependent
of the path.

½ k xm2 = ½ m v2
K.E. + P.E. (before collision) = K.E. +
P.E. (after collision)
The total energy is conserved. Elastic and Inelastic collision
Conservative and Dissipative Forces  When two bodies interact, it is
termed as collision.
Conservative forces  Collision is an isolated event in
which a strong force acts
between two or more bodies for
3
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a short time as a result of which Elastic Collision (Head on)


the energy and momentum of For conservation of
the interacting particle change. momentum
 Types of collision : on the basis
of kinetic energy
Perfectly Perfectly
elastic Inelastic
collision collision
If the forces When two
of interaction colliding bodies
between the stick together
two bodies after the collision
are and move as one
conservative, single unit, it is
the total termed as 𝒎𝑨 𝒗𝑨𝒊 + 𝒎𝑩 𝒗𝑩𝒊 = 𝒎𝑨 𝒗𝑨𝒇 + 𝒎𝑩 𝒗𝑩𝒇
kinetic energy perfectly
is conserved inelastic collision For conservation of kinetic
energy
If in a If in a collision
1 1
collision, two bodies stick 𝑚 𝑣 + 𝑚 𝑣
kinetic energy together or move 2 2
1 1
after collision with same = 𝑚 𝑣 + 𝑚 𝑣
is equal to velocity after the 2 2
kinetic energy collision, the 2𝑚 𝑣 𝑣 (𝑚 − 𝑚 )
before collision is said 𝑣 = +
𝑚 +𝑚 𝑚 +𝑚
collision, the to be perfectly
collision is inelastic 2𝑚 𝑣 𝑣 (𝑚 − 𝑚 )
said to be 𝑣 =− +
𝑚 +𝑚 𝑚 +𝑚
perfectly
elastic.
Coefficient of Coefficient of
restitution e = restitution e = 0 Check Your Progress
1
1. Which one of the following is
Examples : Example :
correct
(1) Collision Collision
between between a bullet a) K.E. = P2/2m
atomic and a block of b) P/2m
particles (2) wood into which c) P/2m2
Bouncing of it is fired. When d) (P/2m)2
ball with the bullet 2. For perfectly inelastic collision,
same velocity remains embeded value of coefficient for
after the in the block. restitution e is
collision with a) E=1
earth. b) E<1
c) E=0
4
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d) E>1 5. What is meant by collision?


3. If 𝑨 = 𝚤̂ + 2𝚥̂ − 𝑘 and 𝑩 =
−𝚤̂ − 2𝚥 − 2𝑘 the value of A.B Answer to Check Yourself
A. -2
B. -4
C. 3
D. -3
4. The slope of the K.E versus 1A) 2C) 3D) 4B) 5 C)
position for gives the ratio of
change of
A. Work
B. Momentum
C. Force
D. power
5. If two masses m1 and m2 collide
, the ratio of changes in their
respective velocity is
proportional to
a) m1/m2

b) 𝑚2
𝑚1

c) m2/m1

d) 𝑚1
𝑚2

Stretch Yourself
1. When an air bubble raise in
water. What happen to its
potential energy
2. A body of mass 50 kg has a
momentum of 100 kgms-1
calculate its K.E.
3. What is meant by zero work?
State the condition under which
a force does no work give
example
4. State and explain work energy
principles.
5
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National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary
Lesson 6 – Work Energy and Power
Worksheet-6

Q1. Suppose you are riding a bicycle along a straight horizontal road. Note down the distance
travelled and mass of the bicycle. Is there any work done by the bicycle against gravity.
a) If Yes, Calculate the work done by the bicycle against gravity
b) If No, Support your answer with reasons

Q2. Work done is defined by W = Fd cos where the angle  between the force and the
displacement is important. In fact, it leads us to the situation in which work becomes a
positive or a negative quantity.
Hence, observe your surroundings and give examples of positive work and negative work
from day to day life.

Q3. Continue to Q2, we did not consider whether the work is done in one second or in one
hour. However, the time taken to perform a particular work is important, in our daily life.
Why, it is important to know the rate at which work is done and how will you calculate the
rate at which work is done?

Q4. In Physics work is defined as done by a force, whatever its magnitude, if there is
displacement of the object. The capacity to do work is called energy. All objects, moving
or stationary possess some kind of energy due to their motion or position in space.
Hence, observe your surroundings and explain different types of energies possessed by
moving or stationary objects.

Q5. Take three identical balls and arrange them as given in the figure below on frictionless
surface.

Two balls bearing in contact with each other are hit head on by third ball moving initially
with a speed v as shown in above figure. Consider collision is elastic, observe and write
down the possible result/results after collision.

Q6. Observe your surroundings and explain Law of Conservation of Energy by having one
example from day to day life.
Q7. Observe your surroundings; give examples of Conservative Forces and Non Conservative
Forces. Differentiate Conservative Forces and Non Conservative Forces with supportive
explanation.

Q8. It’s well known phenomena that a healthy human heart beats 72 times in one minute.
Assume that average work done by a healthy human heart is 0.6J while it beats once.
Calculate the power used by heart in one minute.

Q9. Your father is driving a car of mass 2000kg. He started the car from rest; explain how
much work must be done by the engine to attain the speed of 1 km h-1 in 2 minutes. The
speed of car is 80 km h-1 on a highway. Suddenly father applies brakes to avoid an
accident and the car comes to rest in 5 seconds. Comment on the average power of the
brakes.

Q10. A man fires a bullet of mass 1kg on a target and bullet gets embedded into target of Mass
50kg. Comment which type of collision is this? The velocity of bullet before collision is
120km/h? Calculate
a) Velocity of the system after collision.
b) Kinetic energies before and after the collision?
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7
Motion of a Rigid Body

Rigid Body coordinates (x2 , y2 , z2 ) and so on the


coordinates of CM are given by
 A rigid body is one in which the ………
separation between the constituent 𝑥=
………
particles does not change with its
motion.
CENTRE OF MASS (C.M.) OF A
RIGID BODY


x= ∑


Y= ∑
 The potential energies of particles
1 and 2 are mgz1 and mgz2 , ∑
respectively. The potential energy z= ∑
of the particle at C is 2mgz.
 The forces acting on a body can be
2 mgz = mgz1 + mgz2 of two kinds. Some forces can be
𝑧 +𝑧 due to sources outside the body.
𝑧= These forces are called the external
2
forces.
(m1 + m2 )gz = m1gz1 + m2gz2  A familiar example is the force of
gravity.
 Some other forces arise due to the
𝑚 𝑧 +𝑚 𝑧 interaction among the particles of
𝑧=
(𝑚 + 𝑚 ) the body. These are called internal
 The point C is called the centre of forces.
mass (CM) of the system. As such,  A familiar example is cohesive
it is a mathematical tool and there force
is no physical point as CM.  The CM of a body moves as
though the entire mass of the body
If the particle with mass m1 has were located at that point and it
coordinates (x1 , y1 , z1 ) with respect to was acted upon by the sum of all
some coordinate system, mass m2 has the external forces acting on the
body.
1
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CM of Some Bodies T=∑𝑵


𝒊 𝟏
𝟏
𝒎𝒊 𝒓𝟐𝒊 𝝎𝟐
𝟐

I =∑ 𝒎𝒊 𝒓𝟐𝒊
I is called the moment of inertia of the
body.

TRANSLATIONAL AND
ROTATIONAL MOTION OF A RIGID
Equations of motion for a
BODY
uniformly rotating rigid body
 When a rigid body moves in such a
way that all its particles move  θ=ωt
along parallel paths its motion is  𝜔 =𝜔 +αt
called translational motion  θ = 𝜔 t + 𝛼𝑡
 The motion of a rigid body in  𝜔 = 𝜔 + 2𝛼𝜃
which all its constituent particles
describe concentric circular paths is Theorems of moment of inertia
known as rotational motion.
Theorem of parallel axes
Moment of Inertia
Theorem of parallel axis states that the
T= (1/2)𝒎𝟏 𝒗𝟐𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐𝟐 moment of inertia about an axis parallel to
𝟏
the axis passing through its centre of mass
=∑𝑵
𝒊 𝟏 𝒎𝒊 𝒗𝟐𝒊 is equal to the moment of inertia about its
𝟐
centre of mass plus the prod
product of mass

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and square of the perpendicular distance If there is no net torque acting on the body
between the parallel axes
𝑑𝐿
= 0.
𝑑𝑡
 This means that there is no change
in angular momentum, i.e. the
angular momentum is constant.
 This is the principle of
conservation of angular
momentum.
Check your progress
1. Position of center of mass of
uniform solid sphere.
𝐼 = 𝐼 + 𝑀𝑑
a) Center of Sphere
Theorem of perpendicular axes b) Radius of sphere
c) Diameter of sphere
The sum of the moments of inertia about x d) N.A
and y axes is equal to the moment of 2. Which one of the following is
inertia about the z– axis. correct?
𝐼 =𝐼 +𝐼 A. 𝜏 = 𝑟. 𝐹
B. 𝜏 =𝑟×𝐹
C. 𝜏 = 𝑟/𝐹
D. 𝜏 = 𝐹/𝑟
3. Dimension of angular velocity
a) M0L0T-2
b) M0L0T-1
c) M1L0T-1
d) M0L1T-1
4. Moment of inertia for a solid
Torque and Couple sphere of radius R
The turning effect of a force is called a) 2/5 MR2
torque. Its magnitude is given by b) 2/3MR2
c) 1/2MR2
τ = F s = Fr sin θ d) 1/4MR2
5. For which of the following does
ANGULAR MOMENTUM
the center of mass lie outside of
 . The product of linear momentum body
and the distance from the axis is a) Pencil
called angular momentum, denoted b) Dice
by L. c) Bangle
 L=∑ 𝜔 𝑚 𝑟 d) Shotput
 L=Iω Check your strength
Conservation of angular 1. Can a body in translator motion
momentum have angular momentum explain?
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2. Can a body in translatory motion
have angular momentum?
3. State the two theorem of M.I.
4. In a molecule of CO the nuclei of
the two atoms are 1.13x10-10 m
apart. Locate the center of mass of
the molecule
5. Discuss the physical meaning of
angular momentum.

Answer to Check Yourself

1A) 2B) 3 B) 4A) 5C)

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Senior Secondary Course: Physics
Lesson 7: Motion of Rigid Body
Worksheet -7

1. In general, when extended bodies interact with each other and the distance between
them is very much as compared to their sizes, which can be ignored and they may be
treated as point masses. Observe your surroundings and give examples of such cases
where the sizes of the bodies are not important?

2. Observe your surroundings and give examples of Rigid Bodies. Explain why these
bodies are known as rigid bodies?

3. Enlist any five rigid bodies from your surroundings. Is every rigid body has a Center of
Mass (CM). If yes then find CM of these rigid bodies. Is CM always lies at the centre or
it may be outside the body? What can be the reason for the CM not being at the centre?

4. Can the body perform both translational motion and rotational motion simultaneously?
Observe your surroundings and enlist bodies having translational motion, rotational
motion and both translation and rotational motion. Write the condition for which a body
can’t have transactional motion; it can have only rotational motion.

5. Describe the expression of a moment of inertia for rigid body.

6. Why does a solid sphere have smaller moment of inertia than a hollow cylinder having
same mass and radius, about an axis passing through their axes of symmetry?

7. There are two theorems which connect moments of inertia about two axes; one of which
is passing through the CM of the body that is theorem of parallel axes and another one
is theorem of perpendicular axes. Explain both theorems with their applications.

8. Measure dimensions of your room door and note it down. Release the door by exerting
a force, let 5N at its edge (away from the hinges). Compute the torque produced which
causes the door to open.

9. If there is no net torque acting on the body it means that there is no change in angular
momentum, i.e. the angular momentum is constant. Name and explain the principle.

10. What will be the angular momentum of a thin hoop of radius 2 m and mass 1 kg that is
rotating at a velocity of 4 rad/s?
Senior Secondary Course
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8
ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

MOLECULAR THEORY OF and the molecular force is very


MATTER : INTER-MOLECULAR weak (almost negligible).
FORCES Molecules of a gas are almost free
to move inside a container
 matter is made up of atoms and
molecules. ELASTICITY
 The forces which act between them
 when an external force is applied
are responsible for the structure of
on an object, its shape or size (or
matter.
both) change, i.e. deformation
 The interaction forces between
takes place. The extent of
molecules are known as inter-
deformation depends on the
molecular forces.
material and shape of the body and
the external force. When the
deforming forces are withdrawn,
the body tries to regain its original
shape and size.
 The property of matter to regain its
original shape and size after
removal of the deforming forces is
called elasticity.
Elastic and Plastic Bodies
 When the separation is large, the  A body which regains its original
force between two molecules is state completely on removal of the
attractive and weak. As the deforming force is called perfectly
separation decreases, the net force elastic.
of attraction increases up to a  if it completely retains its modified
particular value and beyond this, form even on removing the
the force becomes repulsive.
deforming force, i.e. shows no
 a distance R = R0 the net force tendency to recover the
between the molecules is zero. This deformation, it is said to be
separation is called equilibrium perfectly plastic.
separation.
 In solids, molecules are very close Molecular Theory of Elasticity
to each other at their equilibrium
 Due to inter-atomic forces, solid
separation
takes such a shape that each atom
 In liquids, the average separation remains in a stable equilibrium
between the molecules is somewhat
 When the body is deformed, the
larger
atoms are displaced from their
 In gases, the intermolecular
separation is significantly larger
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original positions and the inter-


atomic distances change.
 If in deformation, the separation
increases beyond their equilibrium
separation (i.e., R >R0 ), strong
attractive forces are developed.
However, if inter–atomic
separation decreases (i.e. R < R0 ),
strong repulsive forces develop.
Shearing Stress :
These forces, called restoring
forces,  If the deforming forces act
tangentially or parallel to the
Stress
surface (Fig 8.5a) so that shape of
 The internal restoring force acting the body changes without change
per unit area of cross-section of a in volume, the stress is called
deformed body is called stress. shearing stress.

Stress = restoring force area = deforming


force ( ) area ( ) F A or Stress = F A
The unit of stress is Nm–2
Longitudinal Stress
 If the deforming forces are along
the length of the body, we call the
stress produced as longitudinal
stress, Strain
 Strain is defined as the change in
dimension (e.g. length, shape or
volume) per unit dimension of the
body.
Linear Strain :
 If on application of a longitudinal
deforming force, the length l of a
Normal Stress body changes by Δl (Fig. 8.6), then
linear strain = change in length
 If the deforming forces are applied
/original length
uniformly and normally all over the
surface of the body so that the
change in its volume occurs
without change in shape . we call
the stress produced as normal
stress.

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Volume Strain :
 If on application of a uniform
pressure Δp, the volume V of the
body changes by ΔV without
change of shape of the body, then
Volume strain = change in volume
/original volume

 Region of Proportionality
 Elastic Limit
 Point C
 Breaking point F
 The stress corresponding to
breaking point F is called
breaking stress or tensile
Shearing strain: strength.
 When the deforming forces are Within the elastic limit, the maximum
tangential the shearing strain is stress which an object can be subjected to
given by the angle θ through which is called working stress and the ratio
a line perpendicular to the fixed between working stress and breaking stress
plane is turned due to deformation. is called factor of safety.
Stress-Strain Curve for Rubber
Steel is more Elastic than Rubber
HOOKE’S LAW
 Within elastic limit, stress is
directly proportional to
corresponding strain. i.e. stress α
strain or stress strain = constant (E
Stress-strain Curve for a Metallic Wire
 This constant of proportionality E
is a measure of elasticity of the
substance and is called modulus of
elasticity
Modulus of Elasticity
Young’s Modulus:
The ratio of the longitudinal stress to the
longitudinal strain is called Young’s
modulus for the material of the body.

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Bulk Modulus: stretched by 0.20 cm. tensile stress


is
The ratio of normal stress to the volume
a) 9.8x107nm
strain is called bulk modulus of the
b) 9.8x107nm-2
material of the body.
c) 9.8x107n/m
Modulus of Rigidity or Shear Modulus: 3. S. I. unit of young modules is
a) NM-2
The ratio of the shearing stress to shearing b) Nm-3
strain is called modulus of rigidity of the c) N-1m-2
material of the body. d) NM
Elastic Energy 4. Which one of the following is
correct
 When a spring is either compressed ∆
A. 𝜎 =
or extended, it undergoes a change ∆

in its configuration and is capable B. 𝜎 =

of performing work. ∆
C. 𝜎 =


D. 𝜎 =

5. Elastic potential energy is


A. 𝑈 = 𝑘𝑟
B. 𝑈 = 𝑘𝑟
C. 𝑈 =
D. 𝑈 =

Elastic energy
Stretch yourself
 It is a kind of potential energy and
it is the energy which is associated
with the state of compression or 1. Is steel is more elastic than rubber,
extension of an elastic object like a explain
spring 2. Why gas have no fixed shape and
size then solid. Explain
Check yourself
3. How much force is required to
1. The stress may be have an increase of 0.5% in the
a) Longitudinal length of a metallic wire of radius
b) Normal 0.1mm.Given 𝛾 = 9 × 10 𝑁𝑚
c) Shearing 4. Why poission ratio have no units?
d) All the above Explain
2. A load of 100 kg is suspended by a 5. What is Young Modulus? Derive
wire of length 1.0 m and cross expression for Young Modulus
sectional area 0.10cm2. wire is

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Senior Secondary Course: Physics
Lesson 8: Elastic Properties of Solids
Worksheet-8

1. It is well known phenomenon that some objects regain their original shape and size when a
suitable force is applied on these objects whereas others do not. Explain why it is so with
suitable examples from your surroundings.

2. Frame any two questions for the following Paragraph –


We know that matter is made up of atoms and molecules. The forces which act between
them are responsible for the structure of matter. The interaction forces between molecules
are known as inter-molecular forces.

The variation of inter molecular forces with inter molecular separation is shown in above
figure.
When the separation is large, the force between two molecules is attractive and weak. As
the separation decreases, the net force of attraction increases up to a particular value and
beyond this, the force becomes repulsive. At a distance R = R0 the net force between the
molecules is zero. This separation is called equilibrium separation. Thus, if inter-molecular
separation R > R0 there will be an attractive force between molecules. When R < R0, a
repulsive force will act between them.

3. Continue to Q2, classify the objects from your surroundings into solid, liquid, and gaseous.
The forces which act between molecules are responsible for the structure of matter. Define
and explain the forces responsible for the structure of matter.

4. Observe your surroundings and enlist Elastic and Plastic Bodies. Define Elastic and Plastic
Bodies. Is any perfectly elastic or perfectly plastic body exists in nature? Explain the
phenomenon of elasticity in terms of inter-molecular forces.
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Senior Secondary Course: Physics
Lesson 8: Elastic Properties of Solids
Worksheet-8

5. When an external force or system of forces is applied on a body, it undergoes a change in


the shape or size according to nature of the forces. But the internal restoring force opposes
the deforming force. Define and explain the internal restoring force acting per unit area of
cross-section of a deformed body and its different types with suitable examples.

6. Take a metallic wire of uniform cross-section. Apply different amount of increasing forces
and note down the changes in metallic wire. Plot a Stress-Strain Curve for metallic wire
when a metallic wire of uniform cross-section is subjected to different amount of
increasing forces. Explain the regions and points on the curve that is of particular
importance.

7. Explain and verify Hooke’s Law.

8. A tensile test was conducted on a steel wire. The diameter and the gauge length of wire
were 5cm and 200cm respectively. Wire was stretched by a load 5kg. The extension in
wire was 0.21mm. Calculate
a) Longitudinal Stress
b) Longitudinal Strain
c) Young’s Modulus

9. A metal rod of 40 mm diameter and 4 m long is subjected to a tensile force of 120 kN, it
showed and elongation of 4 mm and reduction of diameter by 0.012 mm. Calculate the
Poisson's ratio and three moduli of elasticity.

10. Observe your surroundings and write different applications of elastic behaviour of
materials in day to day life.
Senior Secondary Course
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9
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE  Therefore, Patm = h ρ g = 0.76 ×
13600 × 9.8 Nm–2 = 1.01 × 10 5
 effect of force on unit area is called Nm–2 = 1.01 × 105 Pa
pressure
 The pressure exerted by a fluid at BUOYANCY
rest is known as hydrostatic
 The upward force, which acts on an
pressure
object when submerged in a fluid,
 The SI Unit of pressure is Nm–2
is known as buoyant force
and is also called Pascal (Pa) in the
honour of French scientist Blaise Archimedes principle
Pascal.
 It state that when an object is
Hydrostatic Pressure at a point in submerged partially or fully in a
side a liquid fluid, the magnitude of the buoyant
force on it is always equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by the
object

Floating objects
 One of the forces is due to
gravitational force, which pulls it
downwards.
 However, the displaced water
exerts buoyant force which acts
upwards. These forces balance
each other in equilibrium state and
the object is then said to be floating
 Pressure does not depend upon on water.
shape of the vessel.
PASCAL’S LAW
Atmospheric Pressure
 which states that when pressure is
 The pressure exerted by the applied at any part of an enclosed
atmosphere is known as the liquid, it is transmitted
atmospheric pressure undiminished to every point of the
 In equi1ibrium, atmospheric liquid as well as to the walls of the
pressure equals the pressure container
exerted by the mercury column.

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 This law is also known as the law  Detergents and surface tension
of transmission of liquid pressure.  Wax-Duck floating on water

Applications of Pascal’s Law ANGLE OF CONTACT

 Hydraulic Press/Balance/Jack/Lift It is the angle that the tangential plane to


the liquid surface makes with the
tangential plane to the wall of the
container, to the point of contact, as
measured from within the liquid, is known
as angle of contact.
CAPILLARY ACTION
Hydraulic Jack or Car Lifts
The phenomenon of rise or depression of
Hydraulic Brakes liquids in capillary tubes is known as
capillary action or capillarity.
SURFACE TENSION
Rise of a Liquid in a Capillary Tube
 Surface tension is a property of the
liquid surface due to which it has VISCOSITY
the tendency to decrease its surface Viscosity
area.
 The surface tension of a liquid can  The property of a fluid by virtue of
be defined as the force per unit which it opposes the relative
length in the plane of liquid surface motion in its adjacent layers is
known as viscosity.
 Dimensions of coefficient of
 The intermolecular forces are of viscosity are [ML–1 T–1
two types: cohesive and adhesive. TYPES OF LIQUID FLOW
Cohesive forces characterise
attraction between the molecules of Streamline Motion
the same substance, whereas force
The path followed by fluid particles is
of adhesion is the attractive force
called line of flow. If every particle
between the molecules of two
passing through a given point of the path
different substances.
follows the same line of flow as that of
Surface Energy preceding particles, the flow is said to be
streamlined. A streamline can be
Surface tension is equal to the surface represented as the curve or path whose
energy per unit area. tangent at any point gives the direction of
the liquid velocity at that point.
Applications of Surface Tension
 Mosquitoes sitting on water
 Excess pressure on concave side of Equation of Continuity
a spherical surface
Critical Velocity and Reynolds’s
 Spherical drop
Number
 Air Bubble in water
 Soap bubble floating in air
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When the velocity of flow is less than a 1. Does pressure depend on


certain value, called critical velocity the shape of vessel
A. Yes
The flow remains streamlined. But when
B. No
the velocity of flow exceeds the critical
C. May be
velocity, the flow becomes turbulent
D. None of the above
The value of critical velocity of any liquid 2. Dimension of Surface
depends on the z nature of the liquid, i.e. Tension is
coefficient of viscosity ( η ) of the liquid; z A. MT-1
diameter of the tube (d) through which the B. MT-2
liquid flows; and z density of the liquid C. M-1T-2
(ρ). D. MT2
3. Dimension of coefficient of
STOKES’ LAW viscocity
A.
According to Stokes, the viscous force MLT-2
depends on: z coefficient of viscosity (η) B. MLT-2
C.
of the medium z radius of the spherical ML-1T-1
D.
body (r) z velocity of the body (v) MLT-1
4. What is radius of a drop of rain
Terminal Velocity falling through air with terminal
Applications of Stokes’ Law velocity 0.12 ms-1and 𝜂 = 1.8 ×
10 𝑘𝑔𝑚 𝑠 𝜌 = 1.21 𝑘𝑔𝑚 −
 Parachute 3 and 𝜎 = 1.0 × 10 𝑘𝑔𝑚 ,g
 Velocity of rain drops =9.8 ms-2
BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE A. 10 𝑚
B. 10 𝑚
Where the velocity of a fluid is high, the C. 10 𝑚
pressure is low and where the velocity of D. 10 𝑚
the fluid is low, pressure is high. 5. Which of the following works on
Energy of a Flowing Fluid bernaulli principle
A. Carbureator
Bernoulli’s Equation B. Bunsen Burner
The fluid is incompressible, i.e. its density C. Spray gun
does not change when it passes from a D. All of the above
wide bore tube to a narrow bore tube. 2.
The fluid is non-viscous or the effect of Stretch Yourself
viscosity is not to be taken into account. 3.
The motion of the fluid is streamlined
Applications of Bernoulli’s Theorem
1. Explain ,A spinning tennis ball curves
 Flow meter or Venturimeter
during the flight
 Atomizer
2. If mercury is poured on a flat glass plate,
 Spray gun
It break up into small spherical droplet
 Bunsen Burner Explain?
 Carburettor

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3. What is Stokes law? Derive an expression


for Stokes law?
4. The average speed of blood artery(d=2
cm) during the resting part of heat cycle is
30 cm s-1.Is the flow laminar or turbulent?
Density of blood 1.05 g cm-3 and 𝜂 = 4 ×
10 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒

Answer to Check Yourself

1A) 2 B) 3 C) 4

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Lesson 9: Properties of Fluids
Worksheet-9

1. If you pour water and honey in separate funnels, you will observe that water comes out
more easily than honey. Explain the properties of liquids which cause the difference in
their flow.

2. Take a container and make three to four holes at different heights in the container. Fill the
container with water and observe the flow of water from different holes. Explain the
phenomenon responsible for different pressure at different height in the container.
Calculate the pressure acting on the water at a depth of 2ft at 32°F?

3. Iceberg floats in water with part of it submerged. Calculate the fraction of the volume of
iceberg submerged in water, if the density of ice is ρ = 0.917 g cm-3.

4. It is well known phenomenon that nose starts bleeding and the fountain pen leaks at high
altitudes. Explain the phenomenon.

5. Take an egg and put it into the water, you will observe egg normally sinks in water. If we
want to have an egg to float in water, what should we have to do? Why it is possible for a
body to float completely immersed partially immersed and sinks in water?

6. Pascal’s law states that when pressure is applied at any part of an enclosed liquid, it is
transmitted undiminished to every point of the liquid as well as to the walls of the
container. Observe your surroundings and write applications of Pascal’s law in day to day
life.

7. You may have seen different advertisements highlighting that detergents can remove oil
stains from clothes. Explain how detergents works to remove oil stains from clothes.

8. It is observed that if the lower end of a cloth gets wet, water slowly rises upward. Also
water given to the fields rises in the innumerable capillaries in the stems of plants and trees
and reaches the branches and leaves. Why it is so? Prove that if the radius of tube is less,
liquid rise will be high.

9. Consider two solid spheres P and Q each of density 8 g/cm3 and diameters 1 cm and 0.5
cm, respectively. Sphere P is dropped into a liquid of density 0.8 g/cm3 and
viscosity η=3 poiseulles. Sphere Q is dropped into a liquid of density 1.6 g/cm3 and
viscosity η=2 poiseulles. Calculate the ratio of the terminal velocities of P and Q.

10. Observe your surroundings and comment what happens to the viscosity of liquid and gases
when temperature increases.
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10

KINETIC THEORY OF GASES


Heat Capacity and Specific Heat 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 > 𝜃
 This is the principle of calorimetry
 The amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of its unit Thermal Expansion
mass through 1°C or 1K.
 When heat is given to a substance
 If an amount of heat ΔQ is required
it expands in length, area or
to raise the temperature of a mass
volume. This is called thermal
m of the solid (or liquid) through
expansion.
Δθ, then the specific heat may be

expressed as 𝐶 = Linear expansion

 Thus, the amount of heat required  In linear expansion, the change in
to raise the temperature of a length is directly proportional to
substance is given by: the original length and change in
ΔQ = Δθ mC temperature.

SI unit of specific heat is J kg-1 K-1
 ∆𝑙 ∝ 𝑙 ∆𝜃
Calorimetry ∆𝑙 = 𝛼𝑙 ∆𝜃
where α is the coefficient of linear
 When two bodies at different expansion or temperature
temperatures are kept in contact, coefficient of linear expansion. It is
transfer of heat takes place from given by
the body at higher temperature to ∆𝑙
the body at lower temperature till 𝛼=
𝑙 ∆𝜃
both the bodies acquire the same
temperature. Superficial expansion
 The specific heat of a material and
 The change in area is directly
other physical quantises related to
proportional to the original area
this heat transfer are measured
and change in temperature:
with the help of a device called
∆𝐴 ∝ 𝐴 ∆𝜃
calorimeter and the process of the
measurement is called
∆𝐴 = 𝛽𝐴 ∆𝜃
calcorimetry.
Principle of Calorimetry  where β is the temperature
coefficient of superficial
 The law of conservation of energy, expansion.
Heat lost = Heat gained.
𝑚 𝐶 (𝜃 − 𝜃 ) = 𝑚 𝐶 (𝜃 − 𝜃 )
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝐶 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡,

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∆𝐴
𝛽=
𝐴 ∆𝜃 The coefficient of pressure expansion of a
gas at constant volume is given by
Cubical expansion,

 the change in volume is directly


𝑃 −𝑃
proportional to the change in 𝛾 =
temperature and original volume: 𝑃∆𝜃 ∆

∆𝑉 ∝ 𝑉 ∆𝜃

∆𝑉 = 𝛾𝑉 ∆𝜃 KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

 Where γ in the temperature Assumptions of Kinetic Theory of Gases


coefficient of cubical expansion.
 A gas consists of a very large
∆𝑉 number of identical rigid
𝛾= molecules, which move with all
𝑉 ∆𝜃
possible velocities randomly. The
intermolecular forces between
Relation between α, β and γ them are negligible.
 Gas molecules collide with each
β = 2α other and with the walls of the
container. These collisions are
γ = 3α
perfectly elastic.
Anomalous expansion in water and its  Size of the molecules is negligible
effect compared to the separation
between them.
 The volume of a liquid increases  Between collisions, molecules
with increase in temperature. The move in straight lines with uniform
coefficient of expansion of liquids velocities.
is about 10 times that of solids.  Time taken in a collision is
However, the volume of water does negligible as compared to the time
not increase with temperature taken by a molecule between two
between 0 to 4°C. successive collisions.
Thermal Expansion in Gases  Distribution of molecules is
uniform throughout the container
The coefficient of volume expansion of a
gas at constant pressure is given by

𝑉 −𝑉
𝛾 =
𝑉 ∆𝜃 ∆

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 At constant temperature, the


pressure of a given mass of a gas is
inversely proportional to the
volume of the gas.
 PV = constant
Charle’s Law

 The volume of a given mass of a


gas at constant pressure is directly
proportional to temperature.
𝑉∝𝑇
1 𝑁𝑚 Gay Lussac’s Law
𝑃= 𝐶̅
3 𝑉
 The pressure of a given mass of a
Where P= pressure, m= mass, N= number gas is directly proportional to its
of particle, 𝐶̅ = 𝑢 + 𝑣̅ + 𝑤 absolute temperature T, if its
volume remains constant
 𝑃∝𝑇
KINETIC INTERPRETATION OF
TEMPERATURE Avogadro’s Law
1 𝑁𝑚  Equal volume of ideal gases under
𝑃= 𝐶̅
3 𝑉 the same conditions of temperature
PV =nRT and pressure contains equal number
of molecules.
𝟏
𝒎𝑵𝑪𝟐 = nRT  Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure
𝟑
The total pressure exerted by a
𝟏 𝟑 𝑹 𝟑 gaseous mixture is the sum of the
𝒎𝑪𝟐 = 𝑻 = kT
𝟐 𝟐 𝑵𝑨 𝟐 partial pressures that would be
exerted, if individual gases
𝑹
= 𝒌 = 𝑩𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒛𝒎𝒂𝒎𝒏 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 occupied the space in turn. This is
𝑵𝑨 Dalton’s law of partial pressures.
𝟐𝟑 𝟏
=𝟏. 𝟑𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎 𝒋𝑲 Graham’s law of diffusion of gases
Kinetic energy of a gram mole of a gas is  The rate of diffusion of a gas
𝑅𝑇 .The kinetic energy of a molecule through a porous partition is
depends only on the absolute temperature inversely proportional to the square
root of its density. This is known as
T of the gas and it is quite independent of
Graham’s law of diffusion.
its mass. This fact is known as the kinetic
interpretation of temperature. Degrees of Freedom

 Degrees of freedom of a system of


particles are the number of
Boyle’s Law

3
Physics (312)
Senior Secondary Course
Learner’s Guide, Physics (312)

independent ways in which the Check Yourself


particles of the system can move.
THE LAW OF EQUIPARTITION OF 1. Specific heat of substance depends
ENERGY on
A. Mass
HEAT CAPACITIES OF GASES
B. Volume
An amount of heat to a gas to raise its C. Temperature
temperature through the heat capacity is D. Nature
2. The ratio of molar specific heat
Heat Capacity =
∆𝑸 capacities for a mole of diatomic
∆𝑻 gas molecule is
 The heat capacity of a body per A. 9/7
unit mass of the body is termed as B. 7/9
specific heat capacity of the C. 7/5
substance and is usually denoted by D. 5/7
c. 3. Increase in temperature of the body
∆ is proportional to
Specific heat capacity = A. Amount of heat evolved

 specific heat capacity of a material B. Average kinetic energy
is the heat required to raise the C. Amount of heat absorbed
temperature of its unit mass by 1 D. Density of substance
ºC (or 1 K) 4. When solid iron ball is
heated,which one of the following
The specific heat capacity of a gas at
will have minimum percentage
constant volume (cv )
increase
 the amount of heat required to raise A. Density
the temperature of unit mass of a B. Volume
gas through 1K, when its volume is C. Surface area
kept constant D. Radius
∆𝑄 5. Coefficient of cubical expansion of
𝑐 = water is minimum at
∆𝑇
A. 1000C
The specific heat capacity of a gas at B. 1500C
constant pressure (cP ) C. 40C
D. 00C
 the amount of heat required to raise 6. When a metal rod is heated it
the temperature of unit mass of a expands because
gas through 1K when its pressure is A. All of these
kept constant. B. The size of its atom
∆𝑄 increase
𝑐 =
∆𝑇 C. The distance among its
Relation Between Cp and Cv atom increase
D. The actual cause is
Cp- Cv = R unknown

4
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7. If α and γ are the coefficient of 3) Calculate the pressure in mm of


linear and volume expansion mercury exerted by hydrogen gas if
respectively,then the correct the number of molecules per m3 is
relationship between them is 6.8 × 1024 and the root-mean
A. 3 α = γ square speed of the molecules is
B. 1/3 α = γ 1.90 × 10 m s–1. Avogadro’s
C. 2 α= γ number 6.02 × 1023 and molecular
D. ½ α = γ weight of hydrogen = 2.02).
8. The constant quantity of Boyle’s 4) Define specific heat of a gas at
law is constant pressure. Derive the
A. Only mass of the gas relationship between Cp and Cv.
B. Only temperature of a gas 5) Find an expression for the pressure
C. Mass and pressure of a gas of a gas.
D. Mass and temperature of
a gas
9. Which is the constant quantity in
Ideal Gas Equation
A. P
B. V
C. T
D. R
10. The dimension of universal gas
constant is
A. M L2T-1N-1
B. M L-1T-1N2K-1
C.
ML2T-1N-2K
D. ML-1T-2N-1K-1

Stretch Yourself

1) Explain what is meant by the root-


mean square velocity of the
molecules of a gas. Use the
concepts of kinetic theory of gases
to derives an expression for the
root-mean square velocity of the
molecules in term of pressure and
density of the gas.
2) State the assumptions of kinetic
theory of gases.

5
Physics (312)
NIOS/Acad./2020/312/10/E
National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary Course: Physics
Lesson 10: Kinetic Theory of Gases
Worksheet -10

1. Under different conditions of temperature, pressure and volume, gases exhibit different
properties. Observe your surroundings and write different properties of gases under
different conditions. For example, at room temperature, atoms/molecules have finite
thermal energy. If thermal energy increases, molecules begin to move more freely.

2. The term temperature and heat are often used interchangeably in everyday language. In
Physics, however, is there any difference between temperature and heat?
a) If Yes, Support your answer with reasons.
b) If No, Support your answer with reasons.

3. Take some objects from your surroundings of same mass and supply same quantity of heat
to all objects. You will observe that the rise in temperature is found to be different in
different solids in spite of having the same mass and being supplied the same quantity of
heat. Why it is so? Support your observations with suitable reasons. Also write the
expression for amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a substance.

4. Explain Principle of Calorimetry. Find the temperature of the mixture if a piece of copper
weighing 500 g is heated to 100o C and dropped into 200g of water at 25oC. The specific heat of Cu
is 0.42 joule/gram °C.

5. Which of the following graph diagrams depicts ideal gas behaviour?


NIOS/Acad./2020/312/10/E
National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary Course: Physics
Lesson 10: Kinetic Theory of Gases
Worksheet -10

6. What you understand by an ideal gas? A cylinder containing an ideal gas is in vertical
position and has a piston of mass M that is able to move up or down without friction as
given in figure below

What will be the impact of temperature increase on pressure and volume of gas and why?

7. A mass of gas occupies 200 cm3 at a temperature of 27°C and a pressure of 100 kPa.
Calculate the volume when:
a) The pressure is doubled at constant temperature.
b) The absolute temperature is doubled at constant pressure.
c) The pressure is increased to 150 kPa and the temperature is 127°C.

8. Neon is a monatomic gas in which inter-molecular forces are extremely weak. 1.00 kg of
neon gas has a density of 0.828 kgm-3 at a pressure of 100 kPa and temperature of 293 K.
Calculate:
a) Average kinetic energy of each gas molecule
b) Total kinetic energy of the gas
c) Root-mean-square speed
9. Suppose you want to fill a pressurized tank with a volume of 4.00 L with oxygen-enriched
air for use in diving, and you want the tank to contain 50.0 g of O2 and 150 g of N2. What
will be the total gas pressure in the tank at 25°C?

10. Define specific heat, specific heat at constant volume (Cv) and specific heat at constant
pressure (Cp). Also drive relationship between Cp and Cv
Senior secondary course
Learner’s Guide, Physics (312)

11

THERMODYNAMICS
CONCEPT OF HEAT AND surroundings. A water heater is an
TEMPERATURE open system.
Heat Closed system:
 Heat is the form of energy  It is a system which can exchange
transferred between two (or more) energy but not mass with the
systems or a system and its surroundings. A gas enclosed in a
surroundings because of cylinder fitted with a piston is a
temperature difference. closed system
Isolated system:
Concept of Temperature  It is a system which can exchange
neither mass nor energy with the
All bodies in thermal equilibrium have a
surrounding. A filled thermos
common property, called temperature,
flank is an ideal example of an
Temperature of a body is the property isolated system.
which determines whether or not it is in
Indicator diagram :
thermal equilibrium with other bodies.
 How pressure (P) of a system
Thermodynamic Terms
varies with its volume (V) during a
Thermodynamic system thermodynamic process and is
known as an indicator diagram
 A thermodynamic system refers to
 ΔW = P ΔV
a definite quantity of matter which
is considered unique and separated
from everything else, which can
influence it
Open System
 It is a system which can exchange
mass and energy with the
Senior secondary course
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Isobaric process
 A thermodynamic process that
occurs at constant pressure is an
isobaric process. Heating of water
under atmospheric pressure is an
isobaric process.
Isochoric process
 A thermodynamic process that
occurs at constant volume is an
THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM isochoric process.

Thermodynamic Process Cyclic Process

Reversible process  the system returns back to its


initial state. It means that there is
 If a process is executed so that all no change in the internal energy of
intermediate stages between the the system. ΔU = 0. ∴ ΔQ = ΔW.
initial and final states are
equilibrium states and the process Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
can be executed back along the
 If two bodies or systems A and B
same equilibrium states from its
are separately in thermal
final state to its initial state, it is
equilibrium with a third body C,
called reversible process.
then A and B are in thermal
Irreversible process: equilibrium with each other.

 A process which cannot be Triple Point of Water


retraced along the same
 Triple point of a pure substance is
equilibrium state from final to the
a very stable state signified by
initial state is called irreversible
precisely constant temperature and
process.
pressure values.
Isothermal process  Triple point is a point (on the
phase diagram) at which solid,
 A thermodynamic process that liquid and vapour states of matter
occurs at constant temperature is can co-exist. It is characterised by
an isothermal process. The a particular temperature and
expansion and compression of a pressure.
perfect gas in a cylinder made of
perfectly conducting walls are INTERNAL ENERGY OF A SYSTEM
isothermal processes.
Internal kinetic energy
Adiabatic process
 total kinetic energy of the
 A thermodynamic process in molecules constitutes the internal
which no exchange of thermal kinetic energy of the body
energy occurs is an adiabatic
Internal potential energy
process.
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 The energy arising due to the
inter-molecular forces is called the
internal potential energy
Internal energy of a system = Kinetic
energy of molecules + Potential energy of
molecules
FIRST LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
 The first law of thermodynamics is,
in fact, the law of conservation of
energy for a thermodynamic Isothermal expansion
system. It states that change in
A to B
internal energy of a system during
a thermodynamic process is equal Adiabatic expansion
to the sum of the heat given to it
B to C
and the work done on it.
Isothermal compression
Suppose that ΔQ amount of heat is
given to the system and – ΔW work is C to D
done on the system. Then increase in
Adiabatic compression
internal energy of the system, ΔU,
according to the first law of D to A
thermodynamics is given by ΔU = ΔQ
– ΔW Efficiency of Carnot Engine

SECOND LAW OF Efficiency is defined as the ratio of heat


THERMODYNAMICS converted into work in a cycle to heat
taken from the source by the working
 It is impossible for any system to substance.
absorb heat from a reservoir at a
It is denoted as η: η = Heat converted into
fixed temperature and convert
work Heat taken from source or η = 12
whole of it into work.
efficiency of Carnot engine does not
Carnot Cycle
depend on the nature of the working
 A device which can convert heat substance
into work is called a heat engine
It means that efficiency η can be100%
only when T2 = 0.
Limitation of Carnot’s Engine
the isothermal process will take place only
when piston moves very slowly. It means
that there should be sufficient time for the
heat to transfer from the working
substance to the source.
Senior secondary course
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during the adiabatic process, the piston (d) 31℃
moves extremely fast to avoid heat
5. A black body at a temperature of
transfer. it is not possible to fulfill these
227°C radiates heat at the rate of
vital conditions. Due to these very reasons,
20 cal m-2s-1. When its temperature
all practical engines have an efficiency less
rises to 727°C, the heat radiated
than that of Carnot’s engine.
will be
(a) 40 units
(b) 160 units
Check Yourself (c) 320 units
1. The temperatures of inside and (d) 640 units\
outside of a refrigerator are 273 K
and 303 K respectively. Assuming,
that the refrigerator cycle is Stretch Yourself
reversible, for every joule of work
done, the heat delivered to the 1. Define temperature using the
surrounding will be nearly: Zeroth law of thermodynamics
(a) 10 J 2. Explain Carnot cycle. Use the
(b) 20 J indicator diagram to calculate its
(c) 30 J efficiency.
(d) 50 J 3. State characteristic of the the triple
point.
2. Which of the following parameters
dose not characterize the
thermodynamic state of matter?
(a) work
(b) volume
(c) pressure
(d) Temperature
3. During an adiabatic process, the
pressure of a gas is found to be
proportional to the cube of its
absolute temperature. The ratio
Cp/Cv for the gas is
(a) 2
(b) 3/2
(c) 4/3
(d) 5/3
4. The coefficient performance of a
refrigerator is 5. If the temperature
inside the freezer is -20℃,
calculate the heat rejected to the
surrounding
(a) 11℃
(b) 41℃
(c) 21℃
NIOS/Acad./2020/312/11/E
National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary
Lesson 11 – Thermodynamics
WORKSHEET – 11

Q.1 Observe your surrounding and give three examples of each heat and temperature. Explain
the concept of heat and temperature. A tyre pumped to a pressure of 3.375 atmosphere and
at 27°C suddenly bursts. Calculate the temperature of escaping air. Given γ = 1.5.

Q.2 Define Thermodynamic System. Observe your surrounding and on the basis of
thermodynamic system give one example for each - Open System, Closed System and
Isolated System

Q.3 Take a container and fill it with a boiling liquid (water/ tea/ milk/coffee). Left the container
and observe the temperature in small intervals of 30 minutes. Note down your observations.
It is common experience that after some time, the liquid attains the room temperature. Name
and explain the phenomenon.

Q.4 If any of the thermodynamic variables of a system change while going from one equilibrium
state to another, the system is said to execute a thermodynamic process. Name and define
different types of thermodynamic processes. Observe your surrounding and give three
practical examples of each thermodynamic process.

Q.5 State and explain First Law of Thermodynamics. This law fails to provide answers to some
questions which are known as limitations of the First Law of Thermodynamics. Observe and
mention those limitations of the First Law of Thermodynamics.
.
Q.6 Think and answer, “Can heat be wholly converted into work” “Is it possible for any process
to have as its sole result to transfer heat from a colder body to a hotter body without any
external work. Discuss the postulate which contains answers of such questions.

Q.7 Notice your mother while cooking rice in open vessel with a lid; you will observe that when
water is boiled in a vessel the steam generated inside throws off the lid. Explain the
phenomenon.

Q.8 Name and explain the principle on which modern engines which we use in our daily life are
based on. Also explain different categories of heat engine.

Q.9 Efficiency is defined as the ratio of heat converted into work in a cycle to heat taken from
the source by the working substance. Based on this statement discuss efficiency of Carnot
Engine

Q.10 Calculate the change in internal energy of a block of copper of mass 200 g when it is
heated from 25°C to 75°C. Take specific heat of copper =0.1 cal g-1 °C-1 and assume the
change in volume as negligible.
Senior Secondary Course
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12

HEAT TRANSFER AND SOLAR ENERGY

There are three processes by which


transfer of heat takes place.
These are : conduction, convection and
radiation
Heat is transferred from atom to atom by
conduction. In this process, the atoms do Convection
not bodily move but simply vibrate about
their mean equilibrium positions and pass Rate of heat transfer by convection
energy from one to another. depends on the temperature difference
between the surfaces and also on their
Conduction areas

Radiation
Radiation refers to continuous emission of
energy from the surface of a body. This
energy is called radiant energy and is in
the form of electromagnetic waves. These
waves travel with the velocity of light (3 ×
l08 ms–1) and can travel through vacuum
as well as through air. They can easily be
reflected from polished surfaces and
focussed using a lens.
RADIATION LAWS

Thermal conductivity of a material is


defined as the amount of heat transferred
in one second across a piece of the
material having area of cross-section 1m2
and edge 1m when its opposite faces are
maintained at a temperature difference of 1
K. The SI unit of thermal conductivity is
W m -1k-1
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The rate of radiation at a particular  The ability of the body to absorb


temperature (represented by the area radiant energy falling on it is
between each curve and the horizontal known as its absorptive power
axis) increases rapidly with temperature.
The total absorptive power of a body is
2) Each curve has a definite energy defined as
maximum and a corresponding wavelength
λm (i.e. wavelength of the most intense  The ratio of the energy absorbed to
wave). the energy falling. The absorptive
power (a) is the fraction of the
The λm shifts towards shorter wavelengths incident energy which is absorbed.
with increasing temperature.
Stefan-Boltzmann Law
w. It states that λm shifts towards shorter
wavelengths as the temperature of a body The radiant energy emitted per second
is increased from a surface of area A is proportional to
fourth power of temperature
The product λm T is constant for a body
emitting radiation at temperature T: 𝐸 = 𝐴 𝑒 𝜎𝑇

λm T = constant Where σ is Stefan-Boltzmann constant and


has the value 5.672 × 10-8 Jm-2 s-1 K-4
Kirchhoff’s Law
e is emissivity or relative emittance. It
1 = rλ + aλ + tλ depends on the nature of the surface and
temperature. The value of e lies between 0
Emissive and Absorptive Power and 1, being small for polished metals and
1 for perfectly black materials.
Emissive power
SOLAR ENERGY
The ability of a hot body to emit radiation
is known as its emissive power. The sun is radiating tremendous amount of
energy in the form of light and heat and
The total emissive power of a radiating
even the small fraction of that radiation
body at a particular temperature is defined
received by earth is more than enough to
as
meet the needs of living beings on its
The total amount of energy radiated per surface.
second per unit area of its surface.
Solar Constant
It also depends upon the temperature of
The amount of energy received per unit
the body above the surroundings.
area in one second is called solar constant.
Its unit is Jm -2s-1 Solar constant for earth is found to be 1.36
× 103 W m-2.
Absorptive power
Solar constant multiplied by the surface
 When the radiant energy falls on a area of earth gives us the total energy
body, a part of the energy is received by earth per second.
absorbed.
Q = 2π Re2 C
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Where Re is radius of earth and C is solar 2. Bad conductor is also known as


constant ........
A. Conduction
Greenhouse Effect B. Insulator
C. Radiant
The atmosphere, which contains a trace of D. Termaids
carbon dioxide, is transparent to visible 3. The Stefan-Boltzmann constant
light. Thus, the sun’s light passes through depends on
the atmosphere and reaches the earth’s the_________________?
surface. The earth absorbs this light and a) Medium
subsequently emits it as infrared radiation.
b) Temperature
But carbon dioxidein air is opaque to infra-
c) Surface
red radiations.CO2 reflects these radiations
back rather than allowing them to escape d) None of these
into the atmosphere. As a result, the 4. Which of the following property
temperature of earth increases. This effect of air does not increase with rise
is referred to as the greenhouse effect. in temperature
(A) thermal conductivity
NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING (B) thermal diffusivity
(C) density
the rate of cooling of a hot body is directly
(D) dynamic viscosity
proportional to the mean excess
5. According to Wien’s law, the
temperature of the hot body over that of its
wavelength corresponding to
surroundings provided the difference of
maximum emission is
temperature is small. The law can be
proportional to
deduced from stefan-Boltzmann law.
(A) absolute temperature (T)
E = eσ (T – T0 ) 4 T03 A (B) f
(C) t
= k (T – T0 ) where k = 4eσ 3 T0 A.
(D) inverse of absolute temperature
Hence,
(T)
E α (T – T0 ) This is Newton’s law of 6. The amount of radiation mainly
cooling. depends on
(A) nature of body
(B) temperature of body
(C) type of surface of body
(D) All of these
Check Yourself

Stretch Yourself
1. Heat is transferred in solid by
..........
A. Conduction
B. Convection 1. Why are the woollen clothes
C. Radiation warmer than cotton clothes
D. None of these 2. Why is it more difficult to sip hot
tea from a metal cup than from a
china cup
Senior Secondary Course
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3. Determine the surface area of the


filament of a low incandescent
lamp at 300 K . Given σ =5.7 * 10-8
wm-2k-4 and emissivity e of the
filament 0.3
NIOS/Acad./2020/312/12/E
National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary
Lesson 12 – Heat Transfer and Solar Energy
WORKSHEET – 12

Q1. The second law of thermodynamics state that the natural tendency of heat is to flow
spontaneously from a body at higher temperature to a body at lower temperature. The
transfer of heat continues until the temperatures of the two bodies become equal. There are
three processes by which transfer of heat takes place. These are conduction, convection and
radiation. Observe your surroundings and write two examples of each process with
explanation how this happens.

Q2. How can we capitalize on the principles of heat transfer to improve the way we live?
Perform one activity to observe and compare the principle of heat transfer in black and
white body.

Q3. Why is it important to understand the processes by which transfer of heat takes place? What
is the importance of material selection in choosing a pipe for a hot water system?

Q4. "Using different materials, we can either maximize heat transfer (with high conductance), or
prevent it as much as possible (using insulators)". Observe the surroundings and give at least
two examples from daily life.

Q5. You all are aware about the solar water heaters which use solar energy to heat water for
domestic, commercial, and industrial needs. Explain how solar water heaters capture solar
radiant energy and convert it to thermal energy? Observe and write uses of solar water
heater.

Q6. Newton’s law of cooling states that the rate of cooling of a hot body is directly proportional
to the mean excess temperature of the hot body over that of its surroundings provided the
difference of temperature is small. Observe your surroundings and give two applications of
‘Newton’s Law of Cooling’.

Q7. What is called for the phenomenon when the radiation absorbed by the atmosphere is re-
radiated towards the surface of the Earth? Why have experts become worried about the
greenhouse effect now? Which is the main feedback gas of the greenhouse effect?

Q8. You are required to perform an experiment, in which you take a beaker of water and place it
on a Bunsen burner to boil the water. Then add a piece of copper tube into water, such that
one end of copper tube is sticking out in air. Identify the forms of heat transfer in this
experiment.

Q9. A pan filled with hot food cools from 940C to 860C in 2 minutes when the room temperature
is at 200C. How long will it take to cool from 710 C to 690 C?
Q10. Water is boiled in a rectangular steel tank of thickness 2cm by a constant temperature
furnace. Due to vaporization, water level falls at a steady rate of 1 cm in 9 minutes.
Calculate the temperature of the furnace. Given K for steel = 0.2 cal s-1 m-1 0 C-1)
13

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

PERIODIC MOTION F which is directly proportional to its


displacement x from the fixed point and the
direction of the force is opposite to that of the
displacement.
A motion which repeats itself after a fixed
interval of time is called periodic motion F = - kx
There are two types of periodic motion
: (i) non–oscillatory, and (ii) oscillatory
an oscillatory motion is normally periodic but a
periodic motion is not necessarily oscillatory
a motion which repeats itself in equal intervals of
time is periodic and if it is about a mean position,
it is oscillatory. Basic Terms Associated with SHM

Displacement as a Function of Time Displacement

Periodic Motion is the distance of the harmonic oscillator


from its mean (or equilibrium) position at a
When an object repeats its motion after a definite
given instant.
interval of time, its motion is said to be periodic.
Amplitude
the changes in the position or displacement of the
object can be expressed as a function of time: x = is the maximum displacement of the
af(t + T) where a is a constant and T is the time oscillator on either side of its mean position.
after which the value of x is repeated
Time period
is the time taken by the oscillator to complete one
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION : oscillation.
CIRCLE OF REFERENCE
Frequency
A particle is said to execute simple harmonic
motion if it moves to and fro about a fixed is the number of oscillations completed by an
point periodically, under the action of a force oscillator in one second.
Phase
φ is the angle whose sine or cosine at a given
instant indicates the position and direction of
motion of the oscillator.

Angular Frequency
ω describes the rate of change of phase angle.
It is expressed in radian per second.
Horizontal Oscillations of a Spring-Mass
System

ENERGY OF SIMPLE
HARMONIC OSCILLATOR

Vertical Oscillations of a Spring–Mass


System

DAMPED HARMONIC
OSCILLATIONS
Simple Pendulum
Every oscillating system normally has a
A simple pendulum is a small spherical bob viscous medium surrounding it.
suspended by a long cotton thread held
between the two halves of a clamped split As a result in each oscillation some of its
cork in a stand, energy is dissipated as heat. As the energy of
oscillation decreases the amplitude of A. Rate of change of velocity
oscillation also decreases. B. Displacement
C. Velocity
The amplitude of oscillations of a pendulum D. Direction
in air decreases continuously. Such
oscillations are called damped oscillations. 4. The motion of a particle moving with
simple harmonic motion, from an extremity
FREE AND FORCED to the other, constitutes
VIBRATIONS : RESONANCE
When an oscillatroy system vibrates on its A. Half an oscillation
own, its vibrations are said to be free. If, B. One an oscillation
however, an oscillatory system is driven by an C. Two oscillations
external system, its vibrations are said to be D. None of the above
forced vibrations. And if the frequency of the
driver equals to the natural frequency of the 5. The periodic time of a body moving in
driven, the phenomenon of resonance is said simple harmonic motion is
to occur
A. Directly proportional to its
angular velocity
Check Your self B. Directly proportional to the
weight of the body
C. Directly proportional to the
1. A particle in simple harmonic motion
momentum of swinging body
while passing through mean position will
have D. Inversely proportional to the
angular velocity

A. Maximum kinetic energy and


maximum potential energy
B. Maximum kinetic energy and Stretch Yourself
minimum potential energy
C. Minimum kinetic energy and
maximum potential energy 1. What is phase angle. How is it related to
D. Minimum kinetic energy and angular frequency
minimum potential energy 2. A simple pendulum oscillates with
amplitude 0.04 m .If its time period is
10s calculate its maximum velocity
2. For a body moving with simple harmonic 3. Show graphically how the potential
motion, the number of cycles per second, is energy, kinetic energy and the total
known as its energy E of a simple harmonic
oscillator vary with displacement from
A. Oscillation
equilibrium position.
B. Amplitude
C. Periodic time
D. Frequency
Answer to check yourself
3. In a simple harmonic motion, acceleration of
a particle is proportional to
1B 2 D 3 B 4 A 5 D
NIOS/Acad./2020/312/13/E
National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary
Lesson 13 – Simple Harmonic Motion
WORKSHEET – 13

Q.1 You are familiar with motion in a straight line, projectile motion and circular motion. These
motions are defined by the path followed by the moving object. But some objects execute
motion which is repeated after a certain interval of time. Name the type of motion and give
examples from your surroundings.

Q.2 A particle of 2.5kg mass moves as function of time as y  4 cos1.33   / 5 meters.


Define and calculate Displacement, Amplitude, Time Period, Frequency andAngular
Frequency for given function.

Q.3 A particle is said to execute Simple Harmonic Motion if it moves to and fro about a fixed
point periodically, under the action of a force F which is directly proportional to its
displacement x from the fixed point and the direction of the force is opposite to that of the
displacement. Observe the following functions and pick out the function/functions represent
which represent Simple Harmonic Motion. Give justification for your answer.
a. y  sin t 
b. y  sint   cos3t 
c. y  sint   3 cost 

Q.4 Take a pendulum of any length and let the pendulum to oscillate freely about the point of
suspension. Calculate periodic time of the pendulum. Now increase the length of the
pendulum by 35%. Calculate the percentage increase in the periodic time of the pendulum.

Q.5 Put an oscillating simple pendulum of period T inside a lift which is accelerating
downwards. Observe the effect on time period of oscillating simple pendulum?

Q.6. Consider a particle executing linear Simple Harmonic Motionbetween two points A and B.
The separation between A and B is 10 cm as shown in figure.

Taking the direction from A to B as the positive direction, give the signs of velocity, acceleration
and force on the particle when it is
a. at the end A,
b. at the end B,
c. at 2 cm away from B going towards A
d. at 3 cm away from A going towards B and
e. at 4 cm away from B going towards A
Q.7 Consider a spring with a spring constant 1500 Nm-1 is mounted on a horizontal table as
shown in figure. A mass of 4 kg is attached to the free end of the spring. The mass is then
pulled sideways to a distance of 2.0 cm and released. Determine (i) the frequency of
oscillations, (ii) maximum acceleration of the mass, and (iii) the maximum speed of the
mass.

Q.8 Obtain the corresponding simple harmonic motions of the x-projection of the radius vector
of the revolving particle P for circular motion shown in the figure.

Q.9 Consider a U-tube partially filled with mercury of which one end is connected to a suction
pump and the other end to atmosphere. A small pressure difference is maintained between
the two columns. Show that, when the suction pump is removed, the column of mercury in
the U-tube executes simple harmonic motion.

Q.10 Take two springs with spring constant ‘K’. Firstly connect the springs in series and then in
parallel. Find out the ratio of the frequencies of the vertical Oscillations for these two cases.
Senior Secondary Course
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14

WAVE PHENOMENA

WAVE PROPAGATION Equation of a Simple Harmonic Wave in


One Dimension
y = a sin ωt
Propagation of Transverse Waves
λIn a wave motion, the distance between
the two nearest particles vibrating in the
same phase is called a wavelength. It is
denoted by λ.
Velocity of wave = distance / time
=λ/T

y = a sin (ωt – φ)
the wave moves along the string, all
particles of the string are oscillating up and y(x, t) = a sin (ωt – kx)
down about their respective equilibrium
positions with the same period (T) and y(x, t) = a sin 2π (t/T-x/λ)
amplitude (A). y (x,t) = a sin [(ωt – kx) + φ0 ]
v = vλ
ω = Τ/2π = 2πv Phase difference between two points on
a wave
y = a sin (ωt – kx)
and y = a sin [ωt – k (x + Δx)]
Phase difference between them
2𝜋 2𝜋
∆𝜑 = 𝑘∆𝑥 = ∆𝑥 = − (𝑥2 − 𝑥1)
𝜆 𝜆

Phase difference at the same position


Propagation of a Longitudinal Wave
over a time interval Δt :
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2𝜋 out during compression and flow in during


∆𝜑 = 𝜑 − 𝜑 = (𝑇 − 𝑇 )
𝜆 rarefraction
Transverse and Longitudinal Waves E = γP,

Where γ=

Factors affecting velocity of sound in a


gas
(i)Effect of Temperature

ϒ𝑃 ϒ𝑅𝑇
ʋ= =
𝜌 𝑚

Essential properties of the medium ~ 333 + 0.61t

propagation of longitudinal and transverse


mechanical waves are: Effect of pressure
(i) the particles of the medium must When we increase pressure on a gas, it
possess mass, gets compressed but its density increases
(ii) (ii) the medium must possess in the same proportion as the pressure i.e.
elasticity. Longitudinal waves for P/ρ remains constant. It means that,
propagation in a medium require pressure has no effect on the velocity of
volume elasticity but transverse sound in a gas.
waves need modulus of rigidity
Effect of density
VELOCITY OF LONGITUDINAL
AND TRANSVERSE WAVES IN AN vα
ELASTIC MEDIUM
Newton’s Formula for velocity of sound
in Gas Effect of humidity on velocity of sound
in air
A relation for the velocity of sound in a
gaseous medium. As humidity in air increases (keeping
conditions of temperature and pressure
v= constant), its density decreases and hence
velocity of sound in air increases.
Laplace’s Correction
The change in pressure of air layer caused
Velocity of Waves in Stretched Strings
bypassage of sound takeplace under
adiabatic condition v = 𝐸/𝜌
Air is bad conductor of heat Velocity of longitudinal wave
Compression and rarefaction caused by the 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
sound are too rapid to permit heat to flow
SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES
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y2 = a2 sin [(ωt – kx) + φ]


Interference of waves
I (a + a )
=
I (a − a )
Beats
the number of beats heard in one second
equals the difference in the frequencies of
the two tuning forks.

: At the points where the two pulses


overlap, the resultant displacement is the
vector sum of the displacements due to Superposition of two identical collinear
each of the two wave pulses. This is called waves travelling with the same speed in
the principle of superposition. opposite directions leads to formation of
stationary waves. They are called
Reflection and Transmission of Waves stationary waves, because the wave form
does not move forward, but alternately
when reflection takes place from a denser
shrinks and dilates. The energy merely
medium, the wave undergoes a phase
surges back and forth and on an average,
change of π, that is, it suffers a phase
there is no net flow of energy past a point
reversal.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MUSICAL
Thus on reflection from a rarer medium,
SOUND
no phase change takes place
Pitch
Thus, when reflection takes place from a
denser medium, the longitudinal waves are The term pitch is the characteristic of
reflected without change of type but with musical notes that enables us to classify a
change in sign. And on reflection from a note as ‘high’ or ‘low’.
rare medium, a longitudinal wave is
reflected back without change of sign but Loudness
with change of type. The loudness of sound is a subjective
effect of intensity of sound received by
listeners ear. The intensity of waves is the
average amount of energy transported by
the wave per unit area per second normally
SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES
across a surface at a given point.
TRAVELLING IN THE SAME
DIRECTION Organ Pipes
Superposition of waves travelling in the Awooden or metalpipe producing
same direction give rise to two different musical sound is lnown as organ pipe.
phenomenon
If both the end of pipe are open called
y1 = a1 sin (ωt – kx) and open pipe
Senior Secondary Course
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If one end is closed called close pipe Apparent change of frequency observed
due to the relative motion of the observer
and the source is known as Doppler effect.

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
(i) E.M. waves are transverse in
nature
(ii) They consist of electric (E) and
magnetic fields (B) oscillating
at right angles to each other and
perpendicular to the direction
of propagation (k).
𝑣−𝑣
𝑛
𝑣−𝑣

Check Your Self

1 Transverse waves can be transmitted in


Electromagnetic Spectrum
a) solid
The physical properties of e.m. waves are b) surface of liquid
determined by the frequencies or c) gases
wavelengths and not by the method of d) a&b
their generation 2 Relation between phase difference and
path difference is
a) θ =2πP/λ
b) P =2πλ/P
c) P =2πθ/λ
d) θ =2πP/λ

3 Velocity of sound in air increased by


………… with every degree Celsius rise
DOPPLER EFFECT in temperature
a) 0.5 ms-1
b) 0.61 ms-1
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c) 0.55 ms-1
d) 0.65 ms-1
4 A tunning fork of unknown frequency
gives 5 beats per second with another
tunning of 500 Hz. Frequency of
unknown fork in Hz
a) 495,505
b) 490,510
c) 500,505
d) 495,500
5 The point where amplitude is maximum
but the strain is minimum called
a) nodes
b) antinodes
c) successive node
d) none of the above

Stretch Your Self

1. Write Newton’s formula for the


velocity of sound in a gas and explain
Laplace’s correction
2. Derive the equation of a stationary
wave and show that displacement
nodes are pressure antinodes and
displacement antinodes are pressure
nodes?
3. Describe an experiment to
demonstrate existence of nodes and
antinodes in an organ pipes?
4. How does the velocity of e.m. waves
depend upon the permeability μ and
permittivity ε of the medium through
which they pass?
NIOS/Acad./2020/312/14/E
National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary
Lesson 14 – Wave Phenomenon
WORKSHEET – 14

Q.1 Wave travel linearly and particle can vibrate on its mean position. A wave transmits
momentum. Can it transfer angular momentum?

Q.2 How does the velocity of e.m. waves depend upon the permeability and permittivity of the
medium through which they pass?

Q.3 Do displacement, particle velocity and pressure variation in a longitudinal wave vary with
the same phase?

Q.4 Name important properties of a material medium responsible for the propagation of waves
through it.

Q.5 Two girls are at opposite ends of a brass rod. One girl strikes the end of the rod with a
hammer. Find the ratio of times taken by the sound wave in air and in brass to reach the
second girl?

Q.6 Since we know that there is absence of atmosphere outside of the Earth. Imagine two
astronauts are on the surface of the moon and want to talk each other. Can they talk to each
other?
a) If yes, support your answer with reasons
b) If no, support your answer with reasons

Q.7 An engine blowing a whistle of frequency 250 Hz moves with a velocity 20 ms -1 towards a
hill from which a well defined echo is heard. Calculate the frequency of the echo as heard
by the driver. Velocity of sound in air is 340 ms-1.

Q.8 Does the sound of a bomb explosion travel faster than the sound produced by a humming
bee? Explain with reasons.

Q.9 Two progressive sound waves each of frequency 170 Hz are travelling in opposite directions
in air and superpose to produce stationary waves. The speed of sound in air is 340 ms-1.
What is the separation between (i) two successive nodes, (ii) two successive antinodes and
(iii) a node and its nearest antinode?

Q.10 A resonance tube is resonated with tuning fork of frequency 512 Hz. Two successive
lengths of the resonated air-column are 16.0 cm and 51.0 cm. The experiment is performed
at the room temperature of 40°C. Calculate the speed of sound at 0° C
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15

ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ELECTRIC FIELD

FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY some distance apart is – directly


proportional to their product ; – inversely
The word electric comes from Greek word proportional to the square of the distance r
for amber meaning electron between them; – directed along the line
If you run a comb through your dry hair, joining the two charged particles ; and –
you will note that the comb begins to repulsive for same kind of charges and
attract small pieces of paper attractive for opposite charges

like charges repel and unlike charges 𝑄1 × 𝑄2


𝐹=𝑘
attract each other. 𝑟
1 𝑄1𝑄2
Once a body is charged by friction, it can 𝐹=
be used to charge other conducting bodies 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟
by conduction, i.e., by touching the Where ε is the permittivity of the medium
charged body with an uncharged body; and
induction, i.e., by bringing the charged
body close to an uncharged conductor and If two equal charges separated by one
earthing it metre experience a force of 9 × 109 N,
each charge has a magnitude of one
Conservation of Charge
coulomb
It is neither created nor destroyed. It is
The ratio of forces between two point
only transferred from one body of the
charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance
system to the other
r, when kept in free space (vacuum) and
Quantisation of Charge material medium, is equal to ε/ε0 :

if Q is the charge on an object, it can be where εr is known as relative permittivity


written as Q = Ne, where N is an integer or dielectric constant
and e is charge on an electron.
Principle of Superposition
COULOMB’S LAW
The electrical force between Magnetism
two static point charges q1 and q2 placed
1
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The product of the magnitude of charge


and separation between the charges is
called dipole moment
p = q × 2l

Electric field due to a dipole at an


axial point : End–on position

F = F12 + F13 + F14 + …


× × ×
𝐹=𝑘 +𝑘 +𝑘

ELECTRIC FIELD
Faraday introduced the concept of electric 2𝑃
𝐸=
field. 4𝜋𝜀𝑟
The electric field E at a point is defined as
the electric force F experienced by a
positive test charge q0 placed at that point
divided by the magnitude of the test
charge.
𝐹
𝐸=
𝑞
the action of electric force is mediated
through electric field
Electric Dipole in a Uniform Field

Electric Field due to a Dipole

τ=p×E
Electric Lines of Force (Field Lines)

two equal and opposite charges are The number of field lines passing through
separated by a small distance, the system is a unit area of a plane placed perpendicular
said to form a dipole.

2
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the direction of the field is proportional to Electric Field due to a Long Line
the strength of the field. Charge
The field lines start from a positive charge
radially outward in all directions and
terminate at infinity.

The field lines start from infinity and


terminate radially on a negative charge.

For a dipole, field lines start from the positive


charge and terminate on the Magnetism
negative charge.

z A tangent at any point on field line gives the


direction of electric field at that point.

z The number of field lines passing through


unit area of a surface drawn perpendicular to
the field lines is proportional to the field
strength on this surface.

z Two field lines never cross each other.

Electric Field due to a Uniformly


Charged Spherical Shell
Field at an external point

ELECTRIC FLUX AND GAUSS’ LAW


It states that the net electric flux through a
closed gaussian surface is equal to the total
charge q inside the surface divided by ε0 .
𝒒
𝝋𝒆 =
𝜺𝟎
2𝑃
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀𝑟
Electric Field due to a Point Charge
Field at an Internal Point

3
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d) 2 *10-3
2 SI unit of permittivity of free
space
a) C2N-1m-2
b) C1N-1m-2
c) C2N-2m-2
d) C2N-1m-1

3 The Value of dielectric constant


or relative permitivity
a) Ɛr=1
b) Ɛr>1
Electric Field due to a Plane Sheet of c) Ɛr<1
Charge d) All the above
4 Two charge of ,each of 6.0*10-10 C
are separated bya distance of 2.0
m.Magnitude of coulomb force
between them
a) 8.1 *10-8 N
b) 80 *10-11 N
c) 90 *10-12N
d) 81*10-11N
5 If charge q is taken positive than
diection of electric field E is
a) Toward charge
b) away from charge
c) no changes
Check Your Self d) none of the above

1 A charged object has q= 4.8*10-16 Stretch Your Self


C. Number of fundamental charge
are there on object is
a) 3*103 1 When the electric field lines
are parallel to each other
b) 3 *10-3
c) 2*103
4
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2 The electric force at some point due to


a point charge 3.5 c is 8.5*10-4 N
calculate the strength of electric field at
that point.
3 A proton is placed in a uniform electric
field E 8*1014 Nc-1 calculate the
acceleration of the proton.
4 Drive an expression for electric field
due to a dipole.

5
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NIOS/Acad./2020/312/15/E
National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary
Lesson 15 – Electric Charge and Electric field
WORKSHEET – 15

Q.1 Perform simple activities to demonstrate the existence of charges and forces between
them. On the basis of your observations infer the basic properties of electric charges.
Also explain what will happen to the normal flow of tap water when a charged rod is
brought near it?

Q.2 If the total charge enclosed by a surface is zero, does it imply that the electric field
everywhere on the surface is zero? Conversely, if the electric field everywhere on a
surface is zero, does it imply that net charge inside is zero.

Q.3 Four identical metallic spheres can be treated as point charges. Sphere A and B have
charges “Qa” and “Qb” with separation r as shown in the figure given below.

r
Sphere A is touched with uncharged sphere C and sphere B with uncharged sphere D.
Separation between spheres A and B is then reduced to r/2 as shown in the figure given
below.

r/2
Find new electrostatic force between spheres A and Bin terms of the previous force.

Q.4 Figure given below shows tracks of the three charged particles in a uniform electrostatic
field. Which particle has lowest charge to mass ratio?
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 1

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
3

Q.5 a) Consider a point charge +Q is kept in the vicinity of uncharged conducting plate.
Sketch electric field lines between the charge and the plate.
b) The distance of the field point, on the equatorial plane of a small electric dipole is
halved. By what factor does the electric field due to the dipole change?
Q.6 Consider three point charges +2q, -q and +3q. The charges +2q and -q are enclosed
within a surface “S” and +3q is outside the surface “S” as shown in the figure given
below What is the electric flux due to this configuration through the surface “S”?

Q.7 An electric dipole of dipole moment “p” is placed in a uniform electric field "E”. Write
the expression for the torque experienced by the dipole. Identify two pairs of
perpendicular vectors in the expression.
Show diagrammatically the orientation of the dipole in the field for which the torque is
a) Maximum b) Half of the maximum value and c) Zero.

Q.8 A charge q is placed at the centre of the line joining two equal charges Q. Show that the
system of three charges will be in equilibrium if q = -Q/4.

Q.9 A point charge is placed at the centre of a closed Gaussian spherical surface of radius r.
How is the Electric flux through the surface affected when the following changes are
made in turn?
a) The spherical surface is replaced by a cylindrical surface of the same radius?
b) The point charge is replaced by an electric dipole?

Q.10 Plot a graph showing the variation of F versus 1/r 2 , where r is the distance between
two charges of each pair of charges ( 1C, 2C ) and ( 2C , -3C). Observe the graph
obtained and write your interpretation.
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16

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITORS

ELCTRIC POTENTIAL AND


POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
An electric charge placed at a point in an
electric field has potential energy.
The electric potential at any point in an
electric field is equal to the work done
against the electric force in moving a unit
positive charge from outside the electric
field to that point 1 𝑞
𝑉 = ×
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟
The SI unit of potential and potential
difference is volt 1 𝑞
𝑉 = ×
If one joule of work is done in taking a test 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟
charge of one coulomb from one point to
𝑉= × − ,
the other in an electric field, the potential
difference between these points is said to 𝑟 = 𝑟 + 𝑙 cos 𝜃, 𝑟 = 𝑟 − 𝑙 cos 𝜃
be one volt.
𝑾𝑨𝑩
𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝑽𝑩 − 𝑽𝑨 = ×
𝒒𝟎 𝑉=
Potential at a point due to a Point
Potential Energy of a System of Point
Charge
Charges
𝒒 𝟏 × 𝒒𝟐
𝑼=
4𝜋𝜀 ‖𝑟 ‖
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟑 𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝟑
U= + +
𝒓𝟏𝟐 𝒓𝟏𝟑 𝒓𝟐𝟑

1 𝑞
𝑉 = ×
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟
Potential at a Point due to an Electric
Dipole
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The
he total amount of work done in 𝜺
=𝜀
bringing various point charges of the 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 (𝜀 )
system to their respective positions from
𝐾
infinitely large mutual separations. 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒
=
RELATION BETWEEN ELECTRIC 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒
FIELD AND POTENTIAL 𝑪𝒎
K=
𝑪𝟎
Att any point, the electric field is equal to
negative rate of change of potential with GROUPING OF CAPACITORS
distance (called potential gradient) at that
Parallel Grouping of Capacitors
point in the direction of field.
Δ𝑉
𝐸=−
Δ𝑑
CAPACITANCE
Two conductors having equal but opposite
charges +Q and – Q on them. There is a
potential difference V between them. Such
a system of conductors is called a
capacitor.
C=Q/V
1 farad = 1coulomb/ 1 volt
Capacitance of a Spherical Conductor
𝑪 = 4𝜋𝜀
Types of Capacitors
Capacitance of an insulated conductor can
be increased by bringing near it an
uncharged earthed conductor. This is the equivalent capacitance of a number of
basic principle of a capacitor. capacitors joined in parallel is equal to the
A Parallel Plate Capacitor sum of the individual capacitances.
Remember that in parallel combination, all
A parallel plate capacitor is one of the simplest the capacitors have the same potential
capacitors in which two parallel metallic difference between their plates but charge
plates, each of area A, are separated from one is distributed in proportion to their
another by a small distance d. An insulating
capacitances
medium like air, paper, mica, glass etc
separates the plates. The plates are connected
to the terminals of a battery 𝐶 =𝐶 +𝐶 +𝐶 = 𝐶
𝜀 𝐴
𝑪=
𝒅 Series Grouping of Capacitors
Relative Permittivity or Dielectric
Constant
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symmetrical such as nitrogen, oxygen,


benzene, methane, CO2 , etc.
Polar dielectrics
P = 𝜶𝜺𝟎 𝑬

\
The second plate of the first capacitor is
connected to the first plate of the second
capacitor. The second plate of second
capacitor is connected to first plate of the next
capacitor of the combination and so on. The
second plate of last capacitor of the
combination is connected to the electrical
source

In series combination of capacitors, the


equivalent capacitance is less than the least
of any of the individual capacitances.

1 1 1 1 1
= + + =
𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶
Check Yourself
Energy Stored in a Capacitor
The stored energy is directly proportional to 1. A test charge is moved from lower
the capacitance. It also increases as potential potential point to a higher potential
difference increases. point. The potential energy of test
charge will
𝟏 𝟏 (a) remain the same
𝑼= 𝒒𝑽 = 𝑪𝑽𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 (b) increase
DIELECTRICS AND DIELECTRIC (c) decrease
POLARIZATION (d) become zero
2. Dielectric constant for a metal is
Dielectrics are insulating materials, which (a) zero
transmit electric effects without conducting. (b) infinite
Dielectrics are of two types : non-polar and (c) 1
polar
(d) 10
Non-polar dielectrics 3. 1 volt is equivalent to

In the molecules of non–polar dielectrics,


the centre of positive charge coincides
with the centre of negative charge. Each
molecule has zero dipole moment in its
normal state. These molecules are mostly
Senior Secondary Course
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4. Equi potential surfaces


(a) are closer in regions of large
electric fields compared to regions
of lower electric fields.
(b) will be more crowded near
sharp edges of a conductor.
(c) will always be equally spaced.
(d) both (a) and (b) are correct.
5. The capacitance of a capacitor will
decrease if we introduce a slab of:
(a) copper
(b) aluminium
(c) zinc
(d) None of these

Stretch Yourself

1. Derive an expression for electric


potential energy of charge
distribution
2. The total capacitance of two
capacitor is 4 F when connected in
series and 18 F when connected in
parallel. Find the capacitance of
each capacitor
3. Why is an insulator called a
dielectric.

Hint to Check Yourself

1 C 2 B 3C 4D 5D
NIOS/Acad./2021/312/16/E
National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary
Lesson 16– Electric Potential and Capacitors
WORKSHEET – 16

Q1.Three small spheres each carrying a charge q are placed on the circumference of a circle
of radius r to form an equilateral triangle.Find the electric field and potential at the centre
of the circle.

Q2. Two charges of 5µC and -2µC are placed at points (2cm, 0, 0) and (xcm, 0,0) in a region
of space where there is no other external field.If the electrostatic potential energy of the
system is -0.5 J what is the value of x?

Q3. Statement I: A small metallic sphere is placed at the centre of a large charged spherical
shell and two are the connected by a wire. The charge will not flow from outer sphere to
inner sphere.
Statement II: A charged conductor is placed inside the hollow conductor and two are
connected by the wire. The whole charge will flow on the outer surface of the outer
conductor.
Choose the correct option.
a) Both the statement I and II are correct.
b) Statement I is correct only.
c) Statement II is correct only.
d) Both the statements are untrue

Q4. A parallel plate capacitor of capacitance C is charged to a potential V. It is then


connected to another uncharged capacitor having the same capacitance. Find out the ratio
of the energy stored in the combined system to that stored initially in the single
capacitor.

Q5. a) Plot a graph comparing the variation of potential V and electric field E due to a point
charge Q as a function of distance R from the point charge.
b) Find the ratio of the potential differences that must be applied across the parallel and
the series combination of 2 identical capacitors so that the energy stored, in the two
cases, becomes the same.
Q6. Three points A, B and C lie in the uniform electric field (E) of 5 x 103 N/C as shown in
figure.

A B
5 cm 3 cm
E
C
Find the Potential Difference between points
a) A and C
b) B and C

Q7. The graph given below shows the variation of charge Q versus potential difference V for
two capacitors C1 and C2.The two capacitors have same plate separation but the plate
area of C2 is double than that of C1.Which of the two graphs P and Q correspond to
capacitors C1 and C2 and why?

Q
q P
V
Q.8 Four identical plates each of area a are separated by a distance d. The connection is
shown below. What is the capacitance between P and Q?

P Q
Q.9 Capacitance of a capacitor becomes 7/6 times of the original value if a dielectric slab of
thickness t=2/3d is introduced between the plates. If d is separation between the plates.
What is the dielectric constant of the above mentioned slab?

Q.10 A parallel plate capacitor is made by stacking n equally spaced plates connected
alternatively. If the capacitance between the 2 adjacent plates is C, then calculate the
resultant capacitance.
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17

ELECTRIC CURRENT

The electric current through a conductor is


directly proportional to the potential
ELECTRIC CURRENT difference across it, provided the physical
The free electrons move in a direction conditions such as temperature and pressure
opposite to the field through the conductor. remain unchanged.
This constitutes an electric current.
Conventionally, the direction of current is
taken as the direction in which a positive
charge moves
The electric current through a conductor is
the rate of transfer of charge across a surface
placed normal to the direction of flow.
𝑞
𝐼 =
𝑡
The SI unit of current is ampere. Its symbol is
A
The SI unit of resistance is ohm. It is
expressed by symbol Ω (read as omega)

Resistance and Resistivity

Total charge in the volume element under Where ρ is a constant for the material at
consideration is given by constant temperature. It is called the specific
resistance or resistivity of the material.
If l = 1m and A = 1m2 , then ρ = R ohm-
metre. Thus resistivity of a material is the
resistance offered by a wire of length one
metre and area of cross section one m2 . The
OHM’S LAW
unit of resistivity is ohm metre (Ωm)
In 1828, Ohm studied the relation between
current in a conductor and potential
difference applied across it
Senior Secondary Course
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Reciprocal of resistivity is called


conductivity (specific
ic conductance) and is

denoted by σ :

TYPES OF RESISTORS
Unit of conductivity is Ohm-1 metre-1 or mho-
metre-1 or Sm-1. 1) carbon resistors
2) wire wound resistors
GROUPING OF RESISTORS
TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF
Series Combination
RESISTANCE
Resistors in series by joining them end
end-to-end
such that the same current passes through all The resistivity of a conductor depends on
the resistors. temperature. For most metals, the resistivity
increases with temperature and the change is
Equivalent resistance in series linear over a limited range of temperature :
combination is
ρ = ρ0 [1 + α (T – T0 )] where ρ and ρ0 are
𝑹 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 + …. the resistivity’s at temperatures T and T0 ,
respectively

Temperature coefficient Magnetism of


resistance is numerically equal to the change
Parallel Combination in resistance of a wire of resistance 1Ω at 0°
The resistors in parallel by joining their one C when the temperature changes by 1° C.
end at one point and the other ends at another This property of metals is used in making
point. In parallel combination, same potential resistance thermometers.
difference exists across all resistors
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
Reciprocal of equivalent resistance of parallel (EMF) AND POTENTIAL
combination is equal to the sum of the DIFFERENCE
reciprocals of individual resistances.
EMF is the short form of electromotive force.
1 1 1 1
= + + + … .. EMF of a cell or battery equals the potential
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 difference between its terminals when these
are not connected (open circuit) externally
E = V +Ir
E.M.F. of a cell depends on :
– the electrolyte used in the cell;
Senior Secondary Course
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– the material of the electrodes; and Kirchhoff’s Second Rule (Loop Rule) : This
rule is an application of law of conservation
– the temperature of the cell.
of energy for electrical circuits. It tells us that
Elementary Idea of Primary and the algebraic sum of the products of the
Secondary cells currents and resistances in any closed loop of
an electrical network is equal to the algebraic
Primary Cells : In these cells, the chemical sum of electromotive forces acting in the
energy is directly converted into electrical loop
energy. The material of a primary cell is
consumed as we use the cell and, therefore, it
cannot be recharged and reused. Dry cell
,Daniel Cell, Voltaic Cell etc are examples of
primary cells
Secondary Cells : These are chemical cells
in which electrical energy is stored as a
reversible chemical reaction. When current is
drawn from the cells the chemical reaction
runs in the reverse direction and the original Wheatstone Bridge
substances are obtained. These cells,
therefore, can be charged again and again. It is an arrangement of four resistances which
Acid-accumulator, the type of battery we use can be used to measure one of them in terms
in our inverter or car,is a set of secondary of the other three
cells. 𝑷 𝑹
=
𝑸 𝑺
KIRCHHOFF’S RULES
Kirchhoff formulated two rules which enable
us to know the distribution of current in
complicated electrical circuits or electrical
networks
Kirchhoff’s First Rule (Junction Rule) : It
states that the sum of all currents directed
towards a junction (point) in an electrical
network is equal to the sum of all the currents
directed away from the junction.

POTENTIOMETER
The potentiometer can also be used for
measurement of internal resistance of a cell,
the current flowing in a circuit and
comparison of resistances.
𝐼 =0
The measurements with potentiometer have
following advantages :
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When the potentiometer is balanced, no


current is drawn from the circuit on which the
measurement is being made.
It produces no change in conditions in a
circuit to which it is connected. It makes use
of null method for the measurement and the
galvanometer used need not be calibrated
A metallic solid consists of atoms arranged in
a regular fashion. Each atom usually
contributes free electrons, also called
conduction electrons. These electrons are free
to move in the metal in a random manner,
almost the same way as atoms or molecules
of a gas move about freely in the a container.
It is for this reason that sometimes
conduction electrons are referred to as
electron gas

Comparison of E.M.Fs of two Cells

POWER CONSUMED IN AN
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
The electrical power lost in a conductor as
heat is called joule heat. The heat produced is
proportional to :
(i) square of current (I),
(ii) resistance of conductor (R), and
(iii) time for which current is passed (t)

E1/E2 = l1/l2 Check Yourself


DRIFT VELOCITY OF ELECTRONS
1) The resistance of the wire varies
inversely as:

A. Area of cross section


B. Resistivity
C. Length
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D. Temperature 4. Define resistivity of a conductor.


How does the resistance of a wire
2) Resistance are connected in end to depend on the resistivity of its
end in material, its length and area of
A. Parallel combination cross-section
B. Series combination
C. Circular combination
D. Random combination
3) In parallel combination the current Hint to Check Yourself
passing through each resistor is
A. Same 1A 2B 3C 4D 5A
B. Zero
C. Different
D. low
4) Ohm’s law is not applicable to
A. Dc circuit
B. Small resistance
C. High current
D. Semiconductor

5) Reciprocal of resistivity is known as


A. Conductivity
B. Voltage
C. Resistance
D. None of the above

Stretch Yourself

1. In a potentiometer circuit, balance


point is obtained at 55 cm from
end A when an unknown e.m.f. is
measured. The balance point
shifts to 30 cm from this end
when a cell of 1.02 V is put in the
circuit. Standard cell E always
supplies a constant current.
Calculate the value of unknown
e.m.f.
2. A current of 0.50 A flows through
a resistance of 400Ω. How much
power is lost in the resistor?
3. State Kirchhoff’s rules governing
the currents and electromotive
forces in an electrical network?
NIOS/Acad./2021/312/17/E
National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary
Lesson 17-ELECTRIC CURRENT
WORKSHEET – 17

Q1. A cell having an emf E and internal resistance r is connected across a variable external
resistance R. As the resistance R is increased, plot the graph of potential difference V across
R.

Q2. In a Wheatstone bridge if the battery and galvanometer are interchanged then comment upon
the deflection in galvanometer.

Q3. A steel wire is stretched to make it 0.2% longer. What is the percentage change in its
resistance and resistivity?

Q4. The equivalent resistance between the terminal point P and Q is 4Ω in the given circuit. Find
out the resistance of R in ohms.

Q5. Two conducting wires P and Q are having same diameter but made up of different materials.
Both the wires are joined in series across a battery. If the number density of electrons in P is
3 times than in Q, find the ratio of drift velocity of electrons in the two wires.

Q6. Two conducting wires X and Y of same diameter but different materials are joined in series
to form a battery. If the number density of electrons in X is twice that in Y, find the ratio of
drift velocity of electrons in the two wires. Explain if they are connected in parallel?
Q6. For the potentiometer circuit shown in the given figure point X and Y represent the two
terminals of a cell of an unknown e.m.f. E.A student observed that when the jockey is
moved from end A to end B of the potentiometer wire, the deflection in the galvanometer
remains in the same direction.

a) What are two possible faults in the circuit that could result in this observation?
b) If the galvanometer deflection at the end B is
i) More than at end A
ii) Less than at end A,
Which of the two faults, listed above, would be there in the circuit? Give reasons in
support of your answer in each case.

Q8. In the given circuit, assuming point A to be at zero potential, use Kirchhoff’s rules to
determine the potential at point B

Q9. Two tungsten filaments with resistance R1 and R2 respectively are connected first in series
and then in parallel in a lighting circuit of negligible internal resistance.If R 1>> R2 answer
the following questions –
a) Which lamp will glow more brightly when they are connected in series?
b) If the lamp of résistance R2 now burns out and the lamp R1 alone is plugged in; will
net illumination increase or decrease?
c) Which lamp will glow more brightly when they are connected in parallel?
d) If the lamp of resistance R1 now burns out, how will the net illumination produced
change?

Q10. At the temperature 00C, the electric resistance of conductor B is n times that of conductor
A. Their temperature coefficients of resistance are equal to α2 and α1 respectively. Find the
resistance and temperature coefficients of a resistance of a circuit segment consisting of
these two conductors when they are connected in series.
Senior Secondary Course
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18

MAGNETISM AND MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC


CURRENT

MAGNETS AND THEIR  The one which points towards the


PROPERTIES geographical south is called south
pole
The pieces of naturally occurring
magnetite are called natural magnets. Magnetic Field Lines
Natural magnets are weak, but materials  Interactions between magnets or a
like iron, nickel, cobalt may be converted magnet and a piece of iron
into strong permanent magnets. All essentially representation at a
magnets–natural or artificial – have same distance. This can be understood in
properties. terms of magnetic field

 The direction of magnetic field


Directive Property: vector B at any point is given by
A small bar magnet, when suspended the tangent to the field line at that
freely on its center of mass so as to rotate point.
about a vertical axis, always stays in  The number of field lines that pass
approximately geographical north-south through unit area of a surface held
direction. perpendicular to the lines is
proportional to the strength of
Attractive Property: magnetic field in that region. Thus,
the magnetic field B is large where
 A magnet attracts small pieces of the field lines are closer together
magnetic materials like iron, nickel and smaller where they are far
and cobalt. apart
 The force of attraction is maximum  Outside the magnet, the field lines
at points near the ends of the run from north pole to south pole
magnet. and inside it, these run from south
 These points are called poles of the pole to north pole forming closed
magnet curves .
 The pole which points towards the  Two magnetic field lines can never
geographical north is called is cross each other
north pole and
1
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Applications of Biot-Savart’s Law


Magnetic field at the centre of a circular
coil carrying current
ELECTRICITY AND
MAGNETISM: BASIC CONCEPTS
Magnetic Field around an Electric
Current where n is number
of turns
AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW
Ampere’s circuital law states that the line
integral of the magnetic field B around a
closed loop isμ0 times the total current, I.

BIOT-SAVART’S LAW
Experiments show that the field B due to
an element Δl depends on – current
flowing through the conductor, I;
– length of the element Δl ;
– inversely proportional to the square of
Applications of Ampere’s
the distance of observation point P from
the element Δl ; and
Circuital Law

– the angle between the element and the  Magnetic field due to an infinitely
line joing the element to the observation long current carrying conductor
point.

 Magnetic field due to a solenoid

2
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Electromagnets and Factors


Application of Ampere’s Circuital Affecting their Strength
Law Magnetism Its strength depends on :
Magnetic Field due to a Straight Solenoid (i) Number of turns per unit length of the
solenoid, and (ii) The current flowing
through it.
Concept of Displacement Current
FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE IN
A MAGNETIC FIELD
Fleming’s left hand rule states that if we
stretch the fore finger, the central finger
and the thumb of our left hand at right
angles to each other and hold them in such
a way that the fore finger points in the
direction of magnetic field and the central
finger points in the direction of motion of
positively charged particle, then the thumb
will point in the direction of the Lorentz
force
Magnetic field due to a toroid
A toroid is basically an endless solenoid which
may be formed by bending a straight solenoid
so as to give it a circular shape

3
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Force on a Current Carrying Conductor


in a Uniform Magnetic Field
Force Between two Parallel Wires
Carrying Current The frequency of revolution of the charged
particle is given by
Motion of a Charged Particle in uniform
Electric Field and Magnetic Field (a)
Motion in Electric Field
𝑭 𝒒𝑬
F=am, a= =
𝒎 𝒎
Current Loop as A Dipole
𝒒𝑬 𝟏 𝒒𝑬 𝟐
v=u+ × 𝒕, s = ut+ 𝒕 A current carrying coil behaves like a
𝒎 𝟐 𝒎
magnetic dipole having north and south
poles. One face of the loop behaves as
Motion in magnetic field north pole while the other behaves as south
pole
F=qBv𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
 If θ = 0, F = 0 and charged particle
will move along a straight line with
constant speed.
 If θ = 90°, F will be maximum and A current loop behaves as a magnetic
its direction, according to dipole with magnetic moment M= NIA
Fleming’s left hand rule, will be Like the poles of a magnetic dipole, the
perpendicular to the plane of v and two faces of a current loop are in separable
B and the charged particle will
move along a circular path with a A magnetic dipole in a uniform magnetic
constant speed and frequency. field behaves the same way as an electric
 If θ ≠ 0° ≠ 90°, then the velocity of dipole in a uniform electric field.
the charged particle will be vsinθ A magnetic dipole also has a magnetic
perpendicular to the field and field around it similar to the electric Field
vcosθ parallel to the field. The around an electric dipole
particle, therefore, moves along a
helical path. Torque on a Current Loop

Cyclotron
It is used foraccelerating charged particles
(such as protons, deutron or α–particles) to
highvelocities.
Torque= force × perpendicular distance
between the force=
4
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B I l. b sin θ

Galvanometer
Galvanometer is used to detect electric
current in a circuit Check Yourself
Principle of Galvanometer :
A current carrying coil, when placed in a 1. A magnetic field can be produced
magnetic field, experiences a torque by
(a) A moving charge
(b) A changing electric field
(c) None of these
(d) Both of these
2. Field inside a solenoid is
(a) Directly proportional to its
length
(b) Directly proportional to current
(c) Inversely proportional to total
number of turns
An Ammeter and a Voltmeter (d) Inversely proportional to
Ammeter current
3. The magnetic field near a current
To convert a galvanometer into an carrying conductor is given by
ammeter, a low resistance wire is (a) Coulomb’s law
connected in parallel with the (b) Lenz’ law
galvanometer. The resistance of the shunt (c) Biot-savart’s law
depends on the range of the ammeter (d) Kirchoff’s law
4. The Biot-savart's law is a general
modification of
a) Kirchhoff's law
b) Lenz's law
c) Ampere's law
d) Faraday's laws

5.
Voltmeter
Convert a galvanometer into a voltmeter
by connecting a high resistance in series
with the galvanometer coil Stretch Yourself

1. A long straight wire carries a


current of 10 amperes. Calculate
the intensity of the magnetic field
at a distance of 40 cm from it.
5
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2. An electron is moving in a circular


orbit of radius 5 × 10–11 m at the
rate of7.0 × 1015 revolutions per
second. Calculate the magnetic
field B at the centre of the orbit.
3. A force acts upon a charged
particle moving in a magnetic field,
but this force does not change the
speed of the particle, Why ?
4. The magnetic field at the centre of
a 50cm long solenoid is 4.0 × 10–2
NA–1m–1 when a current of 8.0A
flows through it, calculate the
number of turns in the solenoid.

Hint to check yourself

1D2B3C4C

6
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NIOS/Acad./2020/312/18/E
National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary
Lesson 18 – Magnetism and Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
WORKSHEET – 18

Q1. You must be familiar with basic properties of magnets. Perform activities to explain the
properties of magnets. Explain the reason for the directive property of magnets.

Q2. Interactions between magnets or a magnet and a piece of iron essentially represent action
at a distance. This can be understood in terms of magnetic field. Draw the field lines to
visualize the direction and magnitude of a magnetic field.

Q3. The following diagram shows a current carrying solenoid-

a) Which end A or B represents the North Pole of the solenoid and Why?
b) What would be the effect on the magnetic field strength of the solenoid if the
amount of current is doubled and the radius of the solenoid is reduced to half?

Q4. Two strong bar magnets which produce magnetic fields of equal strength are shown in
diagram below:

Ignoring the earth’s magnetic field -


a) Estimate the direction of magnetic field at point A.
b) What is the approximate direction of magnetic field at point B and C?

Q.5 A100 cm long solenoid has two layers of windings of 300 turns each. The radius of the
lowest layer is 4 cm. The current passing through the solenoid id 5.0 A. Calculate the
magnitude of B (a) Near the center of solenoid on and about the axis. (b) Near the ends
on its axis. (c) Outside the solenoid near the center of solenoid. Deduce how the
magnetic field of a solenoid varies as we move from the center to the axis and then
outside the solenoid.
Q6. A particle of mass m and charge q travelling at velocity v is entering into a uniform
magnetic field of strength B directed inwards into the plane as shown in figure below -

Explain in your own words why the charged particle is taking a curved path in magnetic
field. Explain with reasons, whether the particle is positively charged or negatively
charge.

Q.7 Explain in your own words the basic principle and working of a galvanometer. A
galvanometer with a coil resistance of 10W shows full scale deflection for a current of
5.0 mA. How can this galvanometer be converted as
a) an ammeter of range 0-5A
b) a voltmeter of range 0-20 V.

Q.8 Take different types of vessels available at your home – copper, steel, iron, aluminum
and ceramic. Take a magnet and use this to see which of these is strongly attracted and
which one is feebly attracted. On the basis of your observation, classify various materials
into diamagnetic, paramagnetic and ferromagnetic materials. Mention two distinct
properties of each kind of material.

Q9. A suspended power line is running east-west near the equators as shown in figure below.

Calculate the magnitude of the force due to the earth’s magnetic field that acts on this
suspended power line carrying a current of 100 A from west to east. Assume that the
earth’s magnetic field at this point is 5.0 x 10-5 T.

Q.10 Explain Ampere circuital law. Using Ampere Circuital law, find out the expression for
the magnetic field due to a solenoid. Draw the field lines due to solenoid. Can a
solenoid be assumed to behave similar to a bar magnet? How?
Q.11 Suppose your house is exactly at a point that can be considered as the Earth’s magnetic
North Pole (behaves like South Pole of magnet). Assuming the strength of the earth’s
magnetic field at this point is 5.0 x 10-5 T, calculate the magnetic force and direction in
the following cases –
a) a 2.0 m length of wire carrying current of 10.0 A vertically up the outside wall of
your house.
b) a 2.0 m length of wire carrying a current of 10.0 A running horizontally right to
left across the outside wall of your house.
c) A current carrying wire runs horizontally across a table. The conventional
direction of the flow of current I is from left to right. Represent through a diagram
the direction of the magnetic field around the wire?
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19

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND


ALTERNATING CURRENT

induced emf is proportional to the rate of


change of magnetic flux.
ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION 𝑑𝜑
|𝜀| =
𝑑𝑡
Lenz’s Law
When a current is induced in a conductor,
the direction of the current will be such
that its magnetic effect opposes the change
that induced it.
𝑑𝜑
𝜀= −
𝑑𝑡
Current is induced only when the magnetic
field due to the current in the circuit on the
left changes.
This phenomenon in which a magnetic
field induces an emf is termed as
electromagnetic induction. Eddy currents
Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induced closed loops of currents are set up
Induction in the body of the conductor due to the
change of flux linked with it. These
The relationship between the changing currents flow in closed paths and in a
magnetic field and the induced emf is direction perpendicular to the magnetic
expressed in terms of magnetic flux φB flux. These currents are called eddy
linked with the surface of the coil. currents as they look like eddies or
whirlpools and also sometimes called
the magnetic flux dφB for the area
element ds as dφB = B.ds Foucault currents as they were first
discovered by Foucault.
The SI unit of magnetic flux is weber
(Wb), where 1 Wb = 1 Tm2 . INDUCTANCE
When current in a circuit changes, a
Faraday’s law states that an emf is induced
changing magnetic field is produced
across a loop of wire when the magnetic
around it. If a part of this field passes
flux linked with the surface bound by the
loop changes with time. The magnitude of
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through the circuit itself, current is induced The time taken by the current to reach
in it. about two-third of its steady state value is
equal to by L/R, which is called the
By changing current in a coil, the magnetic
inductive time constant of the circuit.
flux linked with each turn of the coil
changes and hence an induced emf appears
across that coil. This property is called
self-induction. for a pair of coils situated
close to each other such that the flux
associated with one coil is linked through
the other, a changing current in one coil
induces an emf in the other.
Mutual induction of the pair of coils. Mutual Inductance

φ ∝ I or φ = LI
where L is called self-inductance of the
coil. The circuit elements which oppose
change in current are called inductors
Faraday’s Law in terms of Self-
Inductance When current changes in a coil, a changing
magnetic flux develops around it, which
if current in a loop changes, the magnetic may induce emf across an adjoining coil.
flux linked through it also changes and
gives rise to self–induced emf between the 𝜑 = 𝑀𝐼
ends A solenoid has inductance (L) and resistance
ε = – dφ dt = –L dI dt (R), and each of these influence the current in
the circuit
ohm-second is called a henry
𝑑𝐼
current through an inductor cannot change 𝑒 = −𝑀
𝑑𝑡
instantaneously
The SI unit of mutual inductance is also
Self-inductance of a solenoid henry (H), the same as the unit of self-
inductance
𝝋 𝝁𝟎 𝑵𝟐 𝑨
𝑳= =
𝑰 𝒍 ALTERNATING CURRENTS AND
VOLTAGES
LR Circuits
V = Vm cos ωt (19.12a) and I = I m cos ωt
A solenoid has inductance (L) and
resistance (R), and each of these influence Vm and I m are known as the peak values
the current in the circuit of the alternating voltage and current
respectively.
AC Source Connected to a Resistor

I=
Senior Secondary Course
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I = I m cos ωt

Average power
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟐
𝑷𝒂𝒗 =𝑹
𝟐
AC Source Connected to a Capacitor
q = CVm cos ωt
Since I = dq/dt, we can write
I = – ωCVm sin ωt

AC Source Connected to an Inductor

V(t) = Vm cos ωt

I(t) = sin ωt + constant


𝑉
𝐼= sin 𝑤𝑡
1
𝜔𝑐
𝑋 = =

𝑉
𝐼 =
𝑋 XL = ωL = 2 πvL
1
𝑃 = − 𝜔𝐶𝑉 sin 2𝜔𝑡
2
Senior Secondary Course
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Inductive reactance is a measure of the conductors can be supplied by water, coal,


extent to which the inductor limits ac diesel or gas or even nuclear fuel. Accordingly,
current in the circuit. It depends on the we have hydro-generators, thermal
inductance and the frequency of the generators, and nuclear reactors, respectively.
generator
A.C. Generator or Alternator
Series LCR Circuit
A generator basically consists of a loop of
wire rotating in a magnetic field.

𝐸
= (𝑋 − 𝑋 ) + 𝑅
𝐼
1 Dynamo (DC Generator)
𝑉 =
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶 A dynamo is a machine in which
This frequency is called resonance mechanical energy is changed into
frequency and at this frequency impedance electrical energy in the form of direct
is minimum. current

Power in a LCR Circuit


𝑽𝒎 𝑽𝒎
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋
√𝟐 √𝟐𝒁
POWER GENERATOR
A generator is a device that converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy
with the help of magnetic field. A conductor
or a set of conductors is rotated in a magnetic
field and voltage is developed across the
rotating conductor due to electromagnetic
induction. The energy for the rotation of the
Senior Secondary Course
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Check Yourself

1. In a transformer the energy losses


result from
A. Resistive heating in copper
coils - cooper loss,
B. Eddy current losses in form
of heating of iron core -
Eddy current loss.
C. Magnetization heating of
the core during repeated
reversal of magnetization -
hysteresis loss.
D. Flux leakage from the core.

2. If L and R represents inductance


and resistance respectively,then
TRANSFORMER dimension of L/R will be
Basically, a transformer is a device which A. T-1
transfers electric energy (or power) from B. LT
primary windings to secondary win C. L
D. None of the above
the resistance of the primary and 3. When a capacitor is being charged
secondary coils is zero; z there is no flux the charged current
leakage so that the same magnetic flux is A. Increase
linked with each turn of the primary and B. Decrease
secondary coils; and z there is no energy C. Constant
loss in the core. D. Incomplete data
Types of transformers 4. In an a.c. circuit the current
A. Is in phase with the voltage
A step-up transformer increases the B. Leads the voltage
voltage (decreases the current) in C. Lags the voltage
secondary windings D. Any of the one depending
A step-down transformer decreases the upon circumstances
voltage (increases the current) in the 5. An LCR circuit the capacitance is
secondary windings. made one forth when in
resonance.Than what should be the
Efficiency of Transformers change in inductance sothat the
Energy output circuit emain in resonance
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 A. 4 times
Energy input
B. ¼ times
C. 8 times
Senior Secondary Course
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2 times

Stretch Yourself

1. Calculate the frequency at which


the inductive reactance of 0.7 H
inductor is 220 ohm
2. What are the advantages of A.C.
over D.C.
3. What is a phasor and what is a
phasor diagram
4. What is electromagnetic induction?
5. What are eddy current? what are
their harmful effects

Hint to Check Yourself

1 2C 3B 4 D 5 A
NIOS/Acad./2020/312/19/E
National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary
Lesson 19 –Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current
WORKSHEET – 19

Q.1 An airplane with a wingspan of 80 m is flying at a speed of 990 kmh-1at right angles to
the earth’s magnetic field of value 5.0x10-5 T. How much is the emf induced on the tips
of the wings of the plane solely due to earth’s magnetic field? Can this be considered
dangerous for anyone sitting in plane?

Q.2 A single rectangular wire loop is located with its plane perpendicular to a uniform
magnetic field of 2.5 mT directed out of the page. The loop is free to rotate about the
horizontal axis XY.

a) Calculate the amount of magnetic flux passing through the loop in this position.
b) If the loop is rotated about the axis XY by 90o, how much is the amount of flux now
passing through the loop in new position?

Q.3 The south pole of the magnet is moved downwards away from the horizontal coil held
above it. Suggest the direction of induced current flowing in the coil.

Q.4 The induction furnaces are used in the industry for making alloys of different metals.
Explain in your own words, how Eddy currents are used in induction furnaces to make it
possible. Mention the physical principle involved here.

Q.5 In our household when the bulb glows it is an ac source connected to a resistor. Draw the
schematic circuit diagram of this. Show the time variation of current and voltage of a
pure resistive circuit i.e. bulb. How would the time variation of current and voltage vary
if the bulb is replaced by a tube light?
Q.6 The coil of an ac generator completes 50 revolutions per second. The graph of the output
voltage vs time is shown below.

a) Draw a graph showing output voltage vs time if the revolutions of the coil are reduced
to half.
b) Draw a graph showing the variation of magnetic flux vs time for ac coil having 50
revolutions per second.

Q.7 Samar lives in a rural area where the electricity supply is abrupt. In order to run the tube
well in fields, he uses a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Explain in our own words the working of the device.

Q8. The Narora power plant generates electricity at a huge voltage of 24000V. Explain in
your own words how this is transferred to the houses in Noida where the devices are
running with a potential of 220-240V. Why is it needed to transmit power at such high
voltages for long distances?

Q.9 A generator at the power station generates 100 MW of power at 10KV AC. Transformer
T1 steps up the voltage to 500KV AC for transmission through wires having resistance
of 3.0 W. Transformer T2 steps down the voltage to 50 KV AC at substation. If both the
transformers are ideal and the current in the transmission lines is 200 A what is the
power loss during the transmission.

Q.10 Reshma lives in an area where the supply voltage is usually low while her friend Neeru
is in the locality where voltage frequently shoots up. How can both the friends resolve
their electrical issues so that the devices can be saved from damaging?
Senior Secondary Course
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20

REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF LIGHT

REFLECTION OF LIGHT FROM


SPHERICAL SURFACES
Law 1 –The incident ray, the reflected ray
and the normal to the reflecting surface at
the point of incidence always lie in the same  The centre of the sphere, of which
plane. the mirror is a part, is called the
centre of curvature of the mirror
Law 2 –The angle of incidence is equal to
 The radius of this sphere defines its
the angle of reflection
radius of curvature.
∠i = ∠r  The middle point O of the reflecting
surface of the mirror is called its
pole.
 The straight line passing through C
and O is said to be the principal axis
of the mirror. The circular outline (or
periphery) of the mirror is called its
aperture and
 The angle (∠MCM ′ ) which the
aperture subtends at C is called the
angular aperture of the mirror.
 Aperture is a measure of the size of
the mirror.
 A beam of light incident on a
spherical mirror parallel to the
principal axis converges to or
appears to diverge from a common
point after reflection. This point is
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known as principal focus of the


mirror.
 The distance between the pole and
the principal focus gives the focal
length of the mirror.
 A plane passing through the focus MIRROR FORMULA
perpendicular to the principal axis is
called the focal plane.
 Considering small aperture mirrors
and rays close to the principal axis,
called paraxial rays.
 The rays away from the principal
axis are called marginal or
parapheral rays.)

Ray Diagrams for Image Formation

 The ray of light through centre of


Refraction of Light
curvature retraces its path.  When light passes obliquely from a
 The ray of light parallel to the rarer medium (air) to a denser
principal axis, on reflection, passes medium (water,glass), there is a
through the focus; and the ray of change in its direction of
light through F is reflected parallel propagation.
to the principal axis  This bending of light at
the boundary of two dissimilar media
 Real image of an object is formed
is called refraction.
when reflected rays actually When a ray of light is refracted at an
intersect. These images are inverted interface, it obeys the following two laws :
and can be projected on a screen.
They are formed on the same side as Law I : The incident ray, the refracted ray
the object in front of the mirror and the normal to the surface at the
point of incidence always lie in the same
 Virtual image of an object is formed
plane.
by reflected rays that appear to
diverge from the mirror. Such Law II : The ratio of the sine of the angle of
images are always erect and virual; incidence to the sine of the angle of
these cannot be projected on a refraction is constant for a given pair of
screen. They are formed behind the media.
mirror
It is independent of the angle of
incidence when light propagates from a rarer
to a denser medium. Moreover, for

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a light of given colour, the ratio depends


only on the pair of media.
REFRACTION AT A SPHERICAL
SURFACE

when light travels from water to glass, the


refractive index of glass with respect to
water can be expressed in terms of the Thin lens : If the thickness of a lens is negligible
refractive in comparison tothe radii of curvature of its
indices of glass and water with respect to curved surfaces, the lens is referred to as a thin
air. lens.
 Principal axis is the line joining the
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
centres of curvature of two
surfaces of the lens.
 Light must travel from an optically
denser to an optically rarer medium.  Optical centre is the point at the
centere of the lens situated on the
 The angle of incidence in the denser
principal axis. The rays passing
medium must be greater than the
through the optical centre do not
critical angle for the two media.
deviate.
 Principal focus is the point at which
rays parallel and close to the
principal axis converge to or appear
to diverge. It is denoted by F Rays
Mirage : Mirage is an optical illusion which of light can pass through a lens in
is observed in deserts or on either direction. So every lens has
tarred roads in hot summer days. two principal focii, one on its either
This, creates an illusion of water, which side.
actually is not there.  Focal length is the distance between
the optical centre and the principal
focus. As per the sign convention,
OF is positive for a convex lens and
negative for a concave lens.

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 Focal plane is the plane passing POWER OF A LENS


through the focus of a lens
perpendicular to its principal ax
axis. The power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal
of its focal length in metre
Newton’s Formula
P =1/f

The S1 unit of power of a lens is m-1

The power of a convex lens is
positive and that of a concave lens is
negative
FORMATION OF IMAGES BY
LENSES
The following properties of the rays are used
in the formation of images by lenses:

 A ray of light through the optical


centre of the lens passes undeviated. Check Yourself
 A parallel ray, after refraction,
passes through the principal focus.
 A ray of light through F or F′ is 1. Mirage is a phenomenon due to
rendered parallel to the principal (A)refraction of light
axis after refraction. (B) reflection of light
 Any two of these rays can be chosen (C)total internal reflection of light
for drawing ray diagram
(D)diffraction of light.
The lens formula
2. For a total internal reflection, which
of the following is correct?
(A) Light travels from rarer to denser
medium.
(B) Light travels from denser to rarer
medium.
(C) Light travels in air only.
(D) Light travels in water only.
3. An under-water
water swimmer cannot see very
clearly even in absolutely clear water
because of
(A) absorption of light in water
The magnification of a lens is defined as the
(B) scattering of light in water
ratio of the height of the image
formed by the lens to the height of the object (C) reduction of speed of light in water
(D) change in the focal length of eye
lens

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4. The image formed by a concave mirror is 1 C 2 B 3 D 4 C 5A


(A) always real
(B) always virtual
(C) certainly real if the object is virtual
(D) certainly virtual if the object is real
5. Which of the following phenomena is
used in optical fibers ?
(A) Total internal reflection
(B) Scattering
(C) Diffraction
(D) Refraction

Stretch Yourself

1. An object of size 3.0cm is placed 14cm


in front of a concave lens of focal length
21 cm. Describe the nature of the image
by the lens. What happens if the object is
moved farther from the lens?
2. . A small object is placed at a distance of
15cm from two coaxial thin convex
lenses in contact. If the focal length of
each lens is 20cm. Calculate the focal
length and the power of the combination
and the distance between the object and
its image.
3. What is the nature and position of image
formed when the object is at (i) infinity
(ii) 2 f (iii) f in case of concave mirror
and convex mirror.
4. How is +2.5 dioptre different from –2.5
dioptre? Define dioptre.

Hint to Check Yourself

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NIOS/Acad./2020/312/20/E
National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary
Lesson 20 – Reflection and Refraction of Light
WORKSHEET – 20

Q1. A ray is incident at an angle of 20o to a plane mirror as shown in figure. If mirror is
rotated by 10o in anticlockwise direction and incident ray is rotated by 10 o in clockwise
direction then by what angle the reflected ray will be rotated?

Q2. Draw the ray diagram in each case to show the position and nature of the image formed
when the object is placed:
a) at the centre of curvature of a concave mirror
b) between the pole P and focus F of a concave mirror
c) in front of a convex mirror
d) at 2F of a convex lens
e) in front of a concave lens

Q3. Consider a convex mirror of radius 50 cm. An object is at the distance 50 cm from the
pole of the mirror. Find the position of the image formed at its axis.

Q4. The diagram below shows a ray of light traveling through air towards a thin layer of
linseed oil (n=1.50) resting on top of water (n=1.33). The light ray approaches the
linseed oil at an angle of incidence of 48.2°.

a) Determine the angle of refraction at the air-linseed oil boundary.


b) Determine the angle of refraction at the linseed oil-water boundary.
Q5. There are many manifestations of refraction and total internal reflection in real life
situations. Observe your surroundings and write any two.

Q6. A light ray is passing through water (n=1.33) towards the boundary with a transparent
solid at an angle of 56.4°. The light refracts into the solid at an angle of refraction of
42.1°. Determine the index of refraction of the unknown solid.

Q7. An optical fibre made up the glass with refractive index n1 = 1.5 (core) which is
surrounded by another glass of refractive index n2(cladding). Find the refractive index n2
of the cladding such that the critical angle between the two cladding is 80°.

Q8. Explain why substances with high refractive index like diamond, sparkle?

Q9. Lenses and mirrors are widely used in our daily life. It has been observed that lenses and
mirrors do not produce a perfect image. Explain the defects in the image formation and
factors responsible for the defects in the image formation.

Q10. A concave lens has focal length of 20 cm. At what distance from the lens; a 5 cm tall
object is placed so that it forms an image at 15 cm from the lens? Also calculate the size
of the image formed.
Senior Secondary Course
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21

DISPERSION AND SCATTERING OF LIGHT

DISPERSION OF LIGHT

 The splitting of white light


into its constituent colours
or wavelengths
 by a medium is called
dispersion
 The speed and wavelength of waves
change when they travel from one
medium to another.
 Variation of the refractive index of a
material with wavelength is known
as dispersion.
 In free space and even in air, the speeds
of all waves of the visible light are the
same. So, they are not separated. (Such
a medium is called a non-dispersive
medium.)  Splitting of white light into
 In an optically denser medium, the component colours is known as
component wavelengths (colours) travel dispersion.
with different speeds and therefore get  The bending of the original beam
separated. Such a medium is called PQN along MR and MV etc. is
dispersive medium known as deviation.
 The angle between the emergent ray
Dispersion through a Prism
and the incident ray is known as the
angle of deviation

The Angle of Deviation

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Rainbow Formation
 Dispersion of sunlight through suspanded water
drops in air produces a spectracular effect in
nature in the form of rainbow on a rainy day.
With Sun at our back, we can see a
 The angle between the emergent ray brighter and another fainter rainbow.
RS and the incident ray PQ at D is  The primary rainbow is formed by
known as the angle of deviation (δ). two refractions and a single internal
reflection of sunlight in a water drop
Angle of Minimum Deviation
 The secondary rainbow is formed by
 The minimum value of the angle of two refractions and two internal
deviation is called angle of minimum reflections of light on the water drop.
deviation (δm).
 It depends on the material of the
prism and the wavelength of light
used.


SCATTERING OF LIGHT IN
Angular Dispersion and Dispersive Power
ATMOSPHERE
Ratio of the angular dispersion to the mean
deviation is taken as the dispersive power
Scattering of Light
(ω) of the material of the prism : This phenomenon involves interaction of
radiation with matter

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wavelengths with almost equal intensity.


The resultant scattered light is therefore
white. So, a thin layer of clouds appears
white.

Red colour of the Sun at Sunrise and


Sunset

The intensity of scattered light is given by


Rayleigh’s law of scattering.

According to this law, the intensity of


scattered light is inversely proportional to
the fourth power of its wavelength: In the morning and evening when the Sun is
near the horizon, light has to travel a greater
distance through the atmosphere. The violet
and blue wavelengths are scattered by dust
Blue Colour of the Sky particles and air molecules at an angle of
about 900 . The sunlight thus becomes
 The blue light is scattered almost six devoid of shorter wavelengths and the
times more intensely than the red longer wavelength of red colour reaches the
light observer so the Sun appears to us as red
 The scattered light becomes rich in
the shorter wavelengths of violet, Raman Effect
blue and green colours.
 On further scattering, the violet light When light radiation undergoes scattering
does not reach observe’s eye as the from a transparent substance (solid, liquid or
eye iscomparatively less sensitive to gas) then the frequency of the scattered
violet than blue and other radiation may be greater or less than the
wavelengths in itsneighbourhood. frequency of the incident radiation. This
 So, when we look at the sky far away
phenomenon is known as Raman effect
from the sun, it appears blue.
White colour of the clouds

The clouds are formed by the assembly of


small water drops whose size becomes more Check Yourself
than the average wavelength of the visible
light (5000Å). These droplets scatter all the

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1. The colour which is scattered most in 2. The deviation produced for red,
atmosphere is yellow and violet colours by a crown
A. Red glass are 2.840 , 3.280 and 3.720
B. Green respectively. Calculate the dispersive
C. Yellow power of the glass material.
D. Blue 3. A lens can be viewed as a
2. The phenomenon of scattering of combination of two prisms placed
light by the colloidal particle is with their bases together. Can we
known as observe dispersion using a lens.
A. Raman effect Justify your answer.
B. Newton’s ring 4. The angle of minimum deviation for
C. Spectral effect a 600 glass prism is 390 . Calculate
D. Tyndal effect the refractive index of glass.
3. Colour of sky appears blue its due to
A. Shorter wavelength of blue
colour
B. The size of fine particle in
atmosphere is almost equal to
wavelength of blue colour
C. As extent of scattering of Hint to Check Yourself
blue light is more it enters
our eyes
D. All of these
4. Which colour will be observed by a 1D 2 D 3 D 4C 5C
astronaut travelling in space
A. Blue
B. Indico
C. Black
D. Green
5. How many component of white light
A. 5
B. 6
C. 7
D. 8

Stretch Yourself

1. For a prism, show that i + e = A + δ

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NIOS/Acad./2020/312/21/E
National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary
Lesson 21 – Dispersion and Scattering of Light
WORKSHEET – 21

Q1. The splitting of white light into its constituent colours or wavelengths by a medium is
called dispersion. Explain the phenomenon by using one example from daily life.

Q2. The curve of angle of incidence versus angle of deviation is plotted as shown in figure
below. What is the refractive index of the prism used?

Deviation

Q3. Take a prism and allow light to pass through the prism. Observe and draw a ray diagram
showing the dispersion through a prism when a narrow beam of white light is incident on
one of its refracting surfaces. Also indicate the order of the colours of the spectrum
obtained. Comment, size and angle of the prism influence dispersion or not?

Q4. Perform an activity to explain how light reaches even those nooks and corners where it
normally is not able to reach straight from the source. The position of a star as seen by us
is its true position or not; justify with explanation.

Q5. You observed that sky appears blue, clouds appear white and the sun appears red at
sunrise as well as at sunset. Why it happens so? Give explanation for each case.

Q6. A prism (μ=1.5) has a refracting angle of 300 for monochromatic. Find the angle of
minimum, angle of incidence and refraction of a monochromatic ray incident
perpendicularly on one of its surface.

Q7. A ray of light passing through a glass prism of refracting angle 60 º undergoes a
minimum deviation of 30º. Calculate the velocity of light in glass if the velocity
of light in air is 3×10 10 cm s -1 .

Q8. A ray of white light, incident upon a glass prism, is dispersed into its various
colour components. Which one of the following colours: orange, violet, red, green
experience the greatest amount of refraction and why?

Q9. Calculate the angular dispersion produced by a prism of angle 6º, if the refractive indices
of material of prism for blue and green colours are 1.664 and 1.655.

Q10. When light radiation undergoes scattering from a transparent substance (solid, liquid or
gas) then the frequency of the scattered radiation may be greater or less than the
frequency of the incident radiation. Name and explain the phenomenon.
Senior Secondary Course
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22

WAVE PHENOMENA AND LIGHT

HUYGENS’ PRINCIPLE Interference of Light


Huygens’ postulated that light is a wave, Interference of light refers to redistribution
which travels through a hypothetical of energy due to superposition of light
Medium called ether. waves from two coherent sources.
Young’s Double Slit Experiment
The Huygens’principle states that
 Sunlight was allowed to pass through a
Each point on a wavefront becomes a source pin hole S and then, at some distance
of secondary disturbance which spreads out away, through two pin holes S1 and S2
in the medium. equidistant from S and close to each
other.
 The position of wavefront at any
 spherical wavefronts would spread
later instant may be obtained by
drawing a forward common envelop Instruments out from the pin hole S
to all these secondary wavelets at which get divided into two
that instant. wavefronts by S1 and S2 .
 In an isotropic medium, the energy  If S is illuminated by a
carried by waves is transmitted monocromatic source of light, such
equally in all directions. as sodium, these act as coherent
 If the initial shape, position, the
sources and in-phase waves of equal
direction of motion and the speed of
the wavefront is known, its position amplitude from these sources
at a later instant can be ascertained superpose as they move beyond S 1S2
bygeometrical construction.
Propagation of Waves

Constructive Interference

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the superposition principle that some points on


the screen C will have maximum displacement
(or amplitude) because the crests due to one
set of waves coincide with the crests due to
another set of waves.

 points will appear bright because the


intensity of light
ight wave is proportional to
the square of the amplitude.
 Superposition of waves at these Fringe width
points leads to what is known as
constructive interference the fringe width of an interference pattern
remains the same for any two consecutive value
of n

Destructive Interference:

 The points where the crests due to


one set of waves coincide with the
troughs due to the other set and vice
vice-
versa, the totalamplitude is zero.
 It is so because the waves reach
these points completely out of phase.
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
Such points appear dark on the
screen. Bending of light around the edges of an
 These points correspond to obstacle is known as diffraction.
destructive interference.
To observe diffraction, either of the
Intensity of fringes: following conditions must be
To analyse the interference pattern, we
satisfied:
calculate the intensity of the bright and dark
a) The size of the obstacle or the aperture
fringes in the interference pattern for harmonic should be of the order of the
waves. wavelength of the incident wave.

The separation between the obstacle or


aperture and the screen should be
considerably larger (a few thousand times)
Phase Difference and Path Difference than the size of the obstacle or
aperture
The phase difference can be expressed in terms
of the path difference between the waves Diffraction at a Single Slit
during their journey from the sources to a point
on the observation screen.
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when the path difference between the


extreme waves diffracted by the extreme
points in a particular direction is an
integral multiple of , the resultant diffracted
intensity in that direction will be
Check Yourself
zero.

1. Interference of two light waves can


be observed with the help of a
A. Spectrometer
B. Photometer
C. Prism
D. Michelson experiment
2. The interference of two light wave is
constructive if
A. Two waves are in same phase
B. Two waves are in opposite
phase
POLARISATION OF LIGHT C. Two waves are perpendicular
to each other
D. Two waves are obtained from
two different sources
3. Fringe width in the interference
pattern will be more, when coherent
source are
A. Close together
B. Too much apart
C. Inclined at a certain angle
D. Inclined at π/4
4. Colours of thin films result from
The phenomenon in which vibrations of light get
A. Dispersion of light
confined in a particular plane containing the
direction of propagation is called polarisation of
B. Interference of light
light. C. Absorption of light
D. Scattering of light
5. When white light is used in Newton
rings experiment, then
A. All fringes are black

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B. All fringes are white


C. All fringes are coloured Hint to Check Yourself
D. No fringes are observed

Stretch Yourself
1D 2 A 3 A 4 B 5 C

1. What is a wavefront? What is the


direction of a beam of light with
respect to the associated wavefront?
State the Huygens’ principle and
explain the propagation of light
waves.
2. Describe Young’s double slit
experiment to produce interference.
Deduce an expression for the width
of the interference fringes.
3. For a material of refractive index
1.42, calculate the polarising angle
for a beam of unpolarised light
incident on it.
4. In Young’s experimental set-up, the
slit separation is 2 mm and the
distance between the slits and the
observation screen is 100 cm.
Calculate the path difference
between the waves arriving at a point
5 cm away from the point where the
line dividing the slits touches the
screen.
5. Distinguish between the polarized
and unpolarized lights.

4
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NIOS/Acad./2020/312/22/E
National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary
Lesson 22 – Wave Phenomena and Light
WORKSHEET – 22

Q1. How do the interference fringes in Young's double-slit experiment changes with the change
in the position of the source lamp from the centerline between the slits?

Q2. Describe the effect on interference fringes in Young's double-slit experiment when the
monochromatic light source is replaced by a multichromatic light source.

Q3. How the interference patterns would be affected when one slit is coated with the paint?

Q4. What are the necessary conditions which need to be fulfilled to obtain an interference pattern
from the propagation of two light waves?

Q5. Describe the physical process behind the white and blue color of the clouds and sky,
respectively.

Q6. Draw a suitable diagram showing that refracted ray, and reflected ray are at 90 degrees at
Brewster angle.

Q7. What would be the sky color in the absence of an atmosphere?

Q8. Briefly explain the types of wave fronts.

Q9. Calculate the reflection index when the polarization angle of any medium is 45 degrees.

Q10. What is the value of slit width when the light of wavelength 6000 Angstroms passes
through a single slit, and the angular deflection to the 8th dark band on the side of central
maxima?
Senior Secondary Course
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23

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

(vi) Visual angle is the angle subtended by


the object at human eye
MICROSCOPE
Near point is the distance from the eye for
which the image of an object placed there is A Simple Microscope
formed (by eye lens) on the retina.
When a convex lens of short focal length is
(i) The near point varies from person to used to see magnified image of a small
person and with the age of an individual. object, it is called a simple microscope.

(ii) Least distance of distinct vision is the


distance upto which the human eye can see
the object clearly without any strain on it.
For a normal human eye, this distance is
generally taken to be 25 cm.

(iii) Angular magnification is the ratio of


the angle subtended by the image at the eye
(when the microscope is used) to the angle
subtended by the object at the unaided eye A Compound Microscope
when the object is placed at the least
distance of distinct vision. It is also called  A compound microscope consists of
the magnifying power of the microscope. two convex lenses.
 A lens of short aperture and short
(iv) When the image is formed at infinity,
focal length faces the object and is
least strain is exerted on the eye for getting
called the objective.
it focused on the retina. This is known as
normal adjustment. Another lens of short focal length but large
aperture facing the eye is called the eye
(v) Linear magnification is the ratio of the
piece. The objective and eye piece are
size of the image to the size of the object.
placed coaxially at the two ends of a tube.
Senior Secondary Course
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Telescopes are used to see distant objects


such as celestial and terrestrial bodies

The use of a telescope increases the visual


angle and brings the image nearer to the eye

Refracting Telescope
Astronomical telescopes are used to observe
Magnifying Power of a compound heavenly or astronomical bodies.
microscope Terrestrial telescopes are used to see distant
The ratio of the angle subtended by the final objects on the earth. So it is necessary to see
image at the eye to the angle subtended by an erect image. Even Galilean telescope is
the object at unaided eye, when both are used to see objects distinctly on the surface
placed at the least distance of distinct vision of earth.

Reflecting telescope
A reflecting telescope is used to see distant
stars and possesses large light-gathering
power in order to obtain a bright image of
even a faint star deep in space. The
objective is made of a concave mirror,
having large aperture and large focal length.
This concave mirror, being parabolic in
shape, is free from spherical aberration.

RESOLVING POWER :

THE RAYLEIGH’S CRITERION


The resolving power of an optical
TELESCOPES instrument is its ability to resolve (or
separate) the images of two point objects
lying close to each other.
Senior Secondary Course
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Rayleigh suggested that two images can be Resolving Power of a Microscope


seen as distinct when the first minimum of
the diffraction pattern due to one object falls The resolving power of a microscope is
on the central maximum of the other. This is measured in terms of the smallest linear
called Rayleigh’s criterion. separation between the two objects which
can just be seen through the microscope as
separate.

This smallest linear separation between two


objects is called the limit of resolution of the
microscope.

The resolving power of a telescope


Check Yourself
The resolving power of a telescope is its
ability to form separate images of two
distant point objects situated close to each
other. 1. Magnifying power of a simple
microscope having a focal length
It is measured in terms of the angle 2.5cm
subtended at its objective by two close but A. 10
distinct objects whose images are just seen B. 11
in the telescope as separate. C. 12
D. 1.0
This angle is called the limit of resolution
2. Nature of image formed by simple
of the telescope.
microscope is
If the angle subtended by two distinct A. Virtual erect and magnified
objects is less than this angle, the images of B. Virtual inverted and magnified
the objects can not be resolved by the C. Real inverted and magnified
telescope D. Real erect and magnified
3. If the focal length of the objective of
The smaller the value of this angle, higher a telescope is 50 cm and that of the
will be the resolving power of the telescope. eye piece is 2cm.Magnification is
A. 20
B. 25
C. 30
D. None of the above
Senior Secondary Course
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4. Resolving power of light microscope


is
A. 2mm
B. 0.2 mm
C. 0.1 mm
D. 1mm
5. The minimum distance for the eye to
focus any object is
A. 10cm
B. 25 cm
C. 32cm
D. 42 cm

Stretch Yourself

1. Why should the objective and the


eye piece of a compound microscope
have short focal length?
2. Derive an expression for the
magnification of compound
microscope?
3. State difference between refracting
microscope and reflecting
microscope?

Hint to Check Yourself

1A 2A 3A 4A 5B
NIOS/Acad./2020/312/23/E
National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary
Lesson 23 – Optical Instruments
WORKSHEET – 23

Q1. Why the objective of microscope has a small focal length?

Q2. Explain why the telescopes enable us to view the distant stars which are not visible through
the naked eye?

Q3. Explain why the object appears smaller when the positions of an objective and eye-piece in a
telescope are inverted?

Q4. How the magnification of a very small object can be achieved at 3.5?

Q5. What are the benefits of seeing from two eyes instead of one eye?

Q6. Differentiate between refractive and reflective telescope.

Q7. Explain why the size of the sun appears to be very small from the earth, even though the
radius of the sun is much larger than that of the earth?

Q8. The height of tower A is 20m, and tower B is 25 m, while the distance of tower A and B
from the observer is 10m and 20m, respectively. Explain which tower will appear taller and
why?

Q9. Calculate the distance between an eyepiece and objective in a compound microscope when
the focal length of the objective and eyepiece is 20mm and 15mm, respectively, and the
distance between object and objective is 1.5 cm, and the image is formed at infinity.

Q10. What is the focal length of a telescope when the separation between an objective and eye
piece is 60 cm, and the magnifying power of the telescope is 20?
Senior Secondary Course
Learner‘s Guide, Physics (312)

24

STRUCTURE OF ATOM

Rutherford’s Experiment on particles was bombarded on a thin


Scattering of α-Particles gold foil

 Rutherford’s scattering experiment Nuclear Model of Atom


indicated the presence of small
 The entire charge and most of the mass of
central region inside the atom where
the atom is confined in a very small (~10 -
all the positive charge and most of 15
m) central region, called the nucleus.
the mass of the atom is concentrated.
 The negatively charged electrons revolve
 The region was named as the
at a distance around it such that the atom
nucleus. Electrons revolve around
as a whole is electrically neutral and
the nucleus and total negative charge
stable.
is equal to the total positive charge
of the nucleus.
 Rutherford’s model of atom could
not explain satisfactorily the
observed stability of the atom and
the electromagnetic radiation emitted
by the atoms.

Stability of the atom


 Electrons are negatively charged.
 These are attracted by the nucleus and get
accelerated.
 Geiger and Marsden performed an  An accelerated charged particle, according
experiment in which a beam of α- to classical wave theory, emits

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electromagnetic radiations. Hence, the are called stationary states. Note that
revolving electrons should lose energy an electron can move in a stationary
eventually and spiral into the nucleus state but its energy is constant.
 Energy is emitted by an atom only
Frequency of electromagnetic radiation
when its electron “falls” from an
The electron spiralling towards the nucleus allowed higher energy level Ef to
will emit electromagnetic radiations of all another allowed lower level Ei . The
frequencies giving rise to a continuous change in energy is the energy of the
spectrum. But experiments show that atoms emitted photon.
emit radiations of certain well defined  An electron only absorbs radiation
frequencies only. when it “jumps” to a higher energy
level from a lower energy level. The
Bohr’s Model of Hydrogen Atom change in energy of an electron can
be related to the frequency or
 Electrons in an atom move in
wavelength of the emitted or
circular orbits around the nucleus
absorbed photon:
with the centripetal force supplied by
the Coulomb force of attraction Energy Levels
between the electron and the nucleus.
Mathematically,
𝑚𝑣 1 𝑍𝑒
=
𝑟 4𝜋𝜖 𝑟
where Z denotes the number of
positive charges in the nucleus.
 If the infinite number of possible
circular orbits, only those orbits are the radius of its inner most orbit is called
allowed for which the value of Bohr radius. It is denoted by a0 and its
orbital angular momentum of the magnitude is 5.3 × 10– 11m.
electron is an integral multiple of
Expression for the speed of the electron in
h/2π :
the nth orbit
|𝐿 |= mvr =
where L is the orbital angular
momentum, equal to mvr for a
circular orbit. Here h is Planck’s
constant and n is an integer.
 An electron moving in an allowed
orbit does not radiate any energy. In
these allowed orbits, the energy of Potential energy
the electron is constant. These orbits
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= 2, 3, 4...). The frequencies of


various spectral lines of this series
are given by

Total energy

Balmer series

It was discovered in 1885 in the visible


region. According to Bohr, this series
arises,
R is Rydberg constant
 When electron jumps to the second
 Energy of an electron in various
orbit (m = 2) from higher orbits (n =
allowed orbits is inversely
3, 4, 5...). The frequencies of various
proportional to the square of the
spectral lines of the series are given
number of orbit; and
by
 The energy in an orbit is negative,
which implies that the electron is
bound to the nucleus.

HYDROGEN SPECTRUM Paschen series

Lyman series It was discovered in 1908 in the near infra-


red region.
It was discovered by Lymen in 1906.
According to Bohr, this series arises  The existence of this series can be
explained by assuming that electrons
 When an electron jumps to the first
jump to third orbit (m = 3) from
orbit (m = 1) from an higher orbit (n
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higher orbits (n = 4, 5, 6...). The


frequencies of various spectral lines
in the region are given by

Brackett series

It was discovered in mid infra-red region. In


this series,

 Electrons jump to fourth orbit (n =


4) from higher orbits (n = 5, 6...).
Therefore, the frequencies of various
X–RAYS
spectral lines in the region are given
by

Pfund series

It was discovered in far infra-red region.


According to Bohr, this series is obtained
X–rays are produced when fast moving
when
electrons are suddenly stopped by a heavy metal
 Electron jumps to fifth orbit (n1 = 5) in a glass tube having extremely low pressure.
from any higher orbit (n = 6, 7,...).
The electrons emitted by the hot filament are
The frequencies of various spectral
focused on the target which is made up of metal
lines of the series are given by
of high melting point and high atomic number

Properties of X–rays

X–rays show the following properties:

(i) They affect the photographic plate


(ii) They cause fluorescence in certain
chemical compounds.
(iii) They ionize the gases
(iv) They show no reflection in mirrors,
no refraction in glass, no diffraction
with the conventional gratings but
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when refined techniques are used elements but at slightly differing


with atomic layers of crystals, they wavelengths Each characteristic line
show all these familiar phenomena obeyed a specific equation. For
of light. example, K2 lines obey the
(v) They do not get deviated by following relation
electric or magnetic field.

X– Rays Spectra:

 The element whose X–ray spectra is


studied is placed at the place of Check Yourself
target of the X–rays tube.
 The X–ray wavelengths are
determined by the Bragg’s
spectrometer.
1. The size of the atom is approximately
 The intensity of X–rays increases at equal to
all wavelengths as the voltage across A. 10-4 cm to 10-8 m
the tube is increased. B. 10-6 cm to 10-8 m
 The shortest wavelength λmin emitted C. 10-8 cm to 10-10 m
is sharply defined and it depends on D. 10-12 cm to 10-14 m
the voltage applied.
2. Rutherford in his experiment
 As the voltage is increased, the
wavelength at which the maximum
bombarded thin metallic foils by
emission occurs shifts towards the A. Electron
shortest wavelength side B. α-Particles
 Continuous X–rays are produced C. proton
when the kinetic energy of the D. neutron
incident electrons is transformed 3. According to Bohr’s model of
into electromagnetic radiation upon
Hydrogen atom
collision with atoms. Before being
stopped, electrons make several A. The angular momentum of
collisions and produce photons of all the electron is quantized
frequencies B. The angular velocity of the
electron is quantized
Mosley’s law
C. The linear momentum of
Mosley investigated the characteristic X– the electron is quantized
rays of a large number of elements.
D. The linear velocity of the
 some specific characteristic lines electron is quantized
appeared in the spectra of all
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4. The Lithium atom has 3 electron. 5. How are continuous x-rays


The third electron will bein produced? What is the condition for
the production of photons of highest
A. L-shell
frequency?
B. K -shell
C. M -shell
Hint to Check Yourself
D. N –shell
5. A Hydrogen atom is in p-state.For
1C 2 B 3 A 4 A 5 B
this value of Jare
A. 5/2,3/2,1/2
B. 3/2,1/2
C. -1/2,+1/2,3/2
D. -1/3,-3/2

Stretch Yourself

1. The Rydberg constant for hydrogen


is 1096700 m–1. Calculate the short
and long wavelength limits of
Lyman series.
2. In Rutherford’s α-particle scattering
experiment, what observation led
him to predict the existance of
nucleus?
3. State the postulates of Bohr’s model
of atom.
4. The energy transition in H-atom
occurs from n = 3 to n = 2 energy
level. Given R = 1.097 × 107 m–1.
(i) What is the wavelength of the
emitted radiations? (ii) Will this
radiation lie in the range of visible
light? (iii) To which spectral series
does this transition belong?

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NIOS/Acad./2020/312/24/E
National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary
Lesson 24 – Structure of Atom
WORKSHEET – 24

Q1. If the energy of electron associated with the first orbit in hydrogen atom is -2.17 ×10-18 J.
Find out the energy associated with fourth orbit? Also, calculate the radius of fourth orbit.

Q2. Calculate the ratio of longest and shortest wavelength of Balmer series.

Q3. Find out the wavelength of light emitted when an electron in hydrogen atom makes
transition from fifth orbit to ground state. Also find the energy difference between these
states.

Q4. Explain applications of X-rays in medical science.

Q5. What is the origin of line spectra? Can you observe any difference between white light
spectra obtained from the sun light passing through prism and that of hydrogen spectra?

Q6. Suggest a phenomenon opposite to X-ray production. Justify your answer.

Q7. Calculate the velocity of electron in a hydrogen atom in ground state. Compare it with the
velocity of light.

Q8. Can you observe hydrogen spectrum in your laboratory? Give one suggestion.

Q9. Explain the limitations of Rutherford’s atomic model?

Q10. Suppose the wavelength of X-rays is 0.2 nm. Calculate the kinetic energy in (eV) of the
incident electron which produced such X-rays.
Senior Secondary Course
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25

DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT  For every material, there exists a


threshold frequency below which no
The emission of electrons from metals
photoelectrons are emitted.
irradiated by light of a frequency greater
 For a particular frequency, the
than a certain characteristic frequency is
number of photoelectrons emitted
called photoelectric effect.
per unit area of the emitting surface
Experimental Arrangement to Study is proportional to the intensity of the
Photoelectric Effect incident light.
 There is practically no time lapse
(~10-9s) between the incidence of
light on the metal and emission of
electrons from it. photoelectric
 emission is an instantaneous process.

EINSTEIN’S THEORY OF
PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION

The work function of a conductor is the


minimum energy required by an electron to
come out of the conductor surface.

The energy E of a single photon is given by


 The maximum velocity of E = hʋ
photoelectrons increases with
Kmax = 𝑚𝑣 = ℎ(ʋ − ʋ )
frequency of incident light and
depends on the nature of emitter
material.
 The maximum velocity of For vmax to be positive, no emission can take
photoelectrons does not depend on place for ʋ < ʋ0 . That is, the incident light
the intensity of incident light.
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must have frequency above the threshold


frequency.

Kmax is linearly
arly proportional to ((ʋ – ʋ0 )

 An increase in the intensity of


incident light of frequency ʋ
corresponds to an increase in the
number of photons.
 Each and every photon has same
energy; there is no increase in the
energy of photoelectrons. However,
the no. of emitted electrons and
hence photocurrent will increa increase
with increase in intensity.
 The energy transferr from photons is
instantaneous, i.e. there is alm
almost no Applications
time lag.
 Since work function is a
characteristic property of a material, Reproduction of sound in
cinematography
ʋoo is independent of the intensity of
incident light.
Transmitting pictures over large
distances
PHOTOELECTRIC TUBE

The photoelectric tube is based on Transmitting pictures over large


distances
photoelectric effect

 The value of saturation current is


determined by the intensity of THE DE BROGLIE HYPOTHESIS
incident light.
 If the intensity of light is increased,
the saturation current also increased
“particles” such as electrons, and protons
should also exhibit wave characteristics
under certain circumstances Light is an
electromagnetic radiation and exhibits wave-
wave
particle duality.

𝜆 = ℎ/𝑃

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λ is called de Broglie wavelength

Applications of de Broglie Waves

 Electron microscope
Electron microscopes are scientific
instruments that use a beam of highly
energetic electrons to examine objects
Check Yourself
on a very fine scale

1. The photo electric effect predict that


light is made of
A. Photons
B. Electrons
C. Neutrons
D. All the three mentioned in
A,B,C
2. The work function for photoelectric
effect
A. Depends upon the frequency
of incident light
B. Is same for all metal
Optical microscope
C. Is different for different metal
D. None of the above
3. The velocity of the photoelectrons
depends upon
A. Frequency of the incident
photon only
B. Intensity of the incident
photon only

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C. Intensity and frequency of the 5. What is the difference between a


incident photon photon and a matter particle?
D. None of the above
4. Light of wavelength 5000A0 falls on
a sensitive plate with photoelectric
work function equal to 1.9 eV. The
frequency of photon is
A. 6*1014 Hint to Check Yourself
B. 6*1010
C. 3*1010
D. 6*1016
1A 2 C 3 A 4 A 5 B
5. In question 4 the energy of the
photon in eV is
A. 0.248
B. 2.48
C. 24
D. 0.0248

Stretch Yourself

1. Calculate the maximum kinetic


energy of the emitted photoelectrons
when light of frequency v = 1015 Hz
is incident on a zinc plate. The work
function of zinc is 3.4 eV.
2. How is velocity of photoelectrons
affected if the wavelength of incident
light is increased?
3. Describe the salient features of
Einstein’s theory of photoelectric
effect.
4. What was the aim of Davisson and
Germer’s experiment? On what
principle does it depend?
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NIOS/Acad./2020/312/25/E
National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary
Lesson 25 – Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter
WORKSHEET – 25

Q1. Plot graph showing the variation of


A. frequency and stopping frequency
B. frequency and maximum kinetic frequency
C. frequency and current
D. frequency and current
E. Intensity and stopping potential
F. time and current

Q2. Complete the table


Element Work function Element Work Function
Cs Pb
K Al
Ca Cu
Na Ag
Mo Ni

Q3. Define distance of closet approach. Derive an expression r0 = Ze(2e)/4.


Q4. In an orbit every electron have a negative energy. What is the significance of this
negative energy?

Q5. Calculate the value of Rydberg constant?

Q6. Why group 1 element of periodic table are suitable for photoelectric emission?

Q7. For head to head interaction of Gold nucleus and alpha particle. The closet distance of
approach is 4*10-4 .Calculate the kinetic energy of alpha particle

Q8. What are the limitation of Rutherford model?

Q9. State whether the following statement are true or false


 The photoelectron emitted per unit area from the emitting surface vary linearly with
the intensity of light
 If the frequency of the incident light increase the maximum K.E. of photoelectron also
increase
 In photoelectric tube ,contain a semi cylindrical cathode and an anode in form of a
straight wire
 Saturation current is determined by the intensity of incident light
 matter waves are not same thing as De Broglie waves
 matter waves faster than light

Q10. Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectron when light of
frequency V=1020 hz .The work function of Zinc is 3.4 eV
Senior Secondary Course
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26

NUCLEI AND RADIOACTIVITY

The number of neutrons in a nucleus is usually


denoted by N = A – Z. Usually N > Z. The
Atom is the smallest entity that acts as the difference (N–Z) increases as A increases.
building block of all matter.
Size
It consists of an extremely small central core,
called the nucleus, around which electrons The sizes of atomic nuclei are usually quoted in
revolve in certain specified orbits. Though terms of their radii. Many nuclei are nearly
nucleus is very tiny, it is amazingly complex and spherical in shape and the radius R is given
approximately by the formula R = r0 A1/3
THE ATOMIC NUCLEUS
Here r0 is the unit nuclear radius and its
Charge and Mass numerical value is taken as 1.2 fermi, a unit of
length in honour of famous physicist Enrico
- Fermi

Notation

Electron Proton The nucleus of an atom is represented by the


chemical symbol of the element, with the A
negative Positive
value as its superscript and Z value as its
1.6*10-19 C 1.6*10-19 C
subscript; both on the left hand side of the
chemical symbol. Thus if the chemical symbol
of an element is, say, X, its nucleus is
Neutron represented by 𝐴𝑍𝑋
neutral
Unified Atomic Mass
The unit of atomic mass, abbreviated as u, is
defined as (1/12)th of the actual mass of 126 𝐶 .
We know that the value of the mass of a carbon
atom is 1.99267 × 10 -26kg. Hence

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 These nuclear forces must account for


the attractive force between : – a proton
and a neutron; – two protons; and – two
neutrons.
 nuclear force is charge independent.

Mass Defect and Binding Energy RADIOACTIVITY


a natural phenomenon in which atoms emit
The mass of the nucleus of an atom of any
radiations to attain stability
element is always found to be less than the sum
of the masses of its constitutent nucleons. This
Nature of Radiations
difference in mass is called mass-defect

mass defect appears as energy which binds the


nucleons together.

 Lord Rutherford established the


existence of two distinct components :
α-particles and β-rays. The existence of
third radiation – gamma rays – was
established by P. Villard
 The emitted radiation is called the
radioactive radiation and the process of
disintegration (break-up) of atomic
nuclei (by emitting α, β and γ-rays) is
called radioactive decay
 Sometimes, the break-up can be induced
HOW DO NUCLEONS CLING by bombarding stable nuclei with other
light particles (like neutron and
TOGETHER : NUCLEAR FORCE
protons). It is then called artificial radio-
activity.
Characteristic Properties
 the gravitational as well as electrostatic α-particles
forces obey inverse square law

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 Alpha particles are helium nuclei ( 42𝐻𝑒  They can ionize gas atoms but to a much
) and consist of two protons and two smaller extent than the α-particles.
neutrons. Being charged particles, they  Negatively charged β-particles can pass
get deflected in electric and magnetic through a few mm of aluminium sheets.
fields. They are about 100 times more
 They produce fluorescence in penetrating than α-particles.
substances like zinc sulphide and  Average energies of negative β-particles
barium platino cyanide, affect a vary between 2 MeV and 3MeV. Due to
photographic plate, can induce their small mass, their velocities vary in
radioactivity in certain elements and range from 0.33c to 0.988c, where c is
produce nuclear reactions. velocity of light.
 They have great ionizing power. A
single particle in its journey through a (iii) γ-rays
gas can ionize thousands of gas atoms γ-rays are electromagnetic waves of high
before being absorbed. frequency, and as such highly energetic. They
 They have little penetration power are characterized with the following properties :
through solid substances, and get
scattered by thin foils of metals.  They do not get deflected by electric or
 They can be stopped by 0.02 mm thick magnetic fields. They travel with
aluminum sheet. velocity of light in free space.
 The energies of α particles emitted from  Their penetration power is more than
a radioactive substance is a that of α and β-particles; γ-rays can
characteristic of the emitting nucleus. penetrate through several centimeters of
This corresponds to a variation in their iron and lead sheets.
velocity from 1.4 × 107 m s–1 to 2.05 ×  They have ionizing power that is
107 m s–1. smaller compared to that of α and β-
particles.
β-particles  They can produce fluorescence in
materials and affect a photographic
 β-Particles can be both positively and
plate.
negatively charged.
 They originate in the nucleus in the Radioactive Decay
process of conversion of a neutron into a
proton, and vice versa. Further studies In any radioactive decay,
of β-particles have revealed the
following properties.  spontaneous emission consists of
 Being charged particles, they get either a single αparticle or a β-
deflected by electric and magnetic particle.
fields.  The emission of an α-particle from a
 They produce fluorescence in materials radioactive nucleus (called parent
like zinc-sulphide and barium nucleus) changes it into a new
plationcynide; and affect photographic nucleus (new element is called
plates. daughter nucleus) with its atomic

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number decreased by two and its Thus, decay constant (λ) may be defined as
mass number decreased by four. the ratio of the instantaneous rate of
 Similarly, emission of a β particle disintegration to the number of radioactive
changes the parent nucleus into a atoms present at that instant.
daughter nucleus with its atomic
number increased by unity (if it is Half time
β– emission) but its mass number
The half life (T1/2) of any radioactive element is
remains unchanged.
defined as the time in which the number of
 The emission of γ-rays does not
parent radioactive atoms decreases to half of the
change the atomic number or the
initial number. By definition, at t = T1/2, N =
mass number of the parent nucleus
N0 /2
and hence no new nucleus is
formed.

Law of Radioactive Decay


The number of radioactive atoms
disintegrating per second is proportional to
the number of radioactive atoms present at
that instant of time. This is called law of
radioactive decay.

CheckYourself

1. Radioactive substance do not emit


A. Neutrons
B. Alpha rays
C. Beta rays
D. Gamma rays

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2. The half life of a radioactive of nucleons; (v) Half-life; (vi)


elements depend on Average life; (vii) Decay constant.
A. Temperature 2. If the activity of a redioactive sample
B. Pressure drops to 1/16 th of its initial value in
C. Nature of element 1 hour and 20 minutes, Calculate the
D. Quantity of radioactive half-life
element 3. State the law of radioactive decay
3. Which of the following statement 4. Write the characteristics of alpha
istrue decay
A. Radioactivity is a statistical
process Hint to Check Yourself
B. Radioactivity is a
spontaneous process
C. Radioactivity is a neutral
characteristic of some
element
D. Radioactive elements cannot 1A 2C 3D 4A 5D
be produced in the laboratory
4. The half life of a radioactive decay is
n times its mean life, n is equal to
A. 0.6930
B. 0.06930
C. 1/0.6930
D. 0.3070
5. The life of a radioactive substances
30 days. The substance will
disintegrate completely in
A. 30days
B. 300 days
C. 3000 days
D. Infinite time

Stretch Yourself

1. Define the following terms: (i)


Atomic number; (ii) Mass number;
(iii) Mass defect; (iv) Binding energy

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Lesson 26 – Wave Phenomena and Light
WORKSHEET – 26

Q1. Calculate the mass of oxygen atom in amu and also calculate energy.

Q2. If me = 0.00594u, mp=1.007276u, mn=1.008665u, m(He32)=3.016030u. Calculate mass


defect.

Q3. Complete
Th23290 .................Ra22888........................Ac22889 Bdecay
Th--------- alpha decay Ra----Rn22086
alpha decay.... 21282.............Bi21283

Q4. Calculate the numbers of neutron and proton in Cl3517., U23592, Ac22889, Po21684.

Q5. Nuclear radius of O168 is 3*10-15m what will be the nuclear radius of Bi212.

Q6. You are given two nuclides of Y73 and Y43 are the isotopes of same element. Which one
is more stable? Explain?

Q7. What is nuclear binding energy. Drive mathematical expression for B.E.

Q8. Define alpha, beta, gamma decay in terms of


 Intensity
 Charge
 Ionising power
 Mass
 Energy
 Speed.

Q9. The half life of radium is 1000years. After how many years will 1g of pure radium
reduce to 1mg.
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27

NUCLEAR FISSION AND FUSION

CHEMICAL AND NUCLEAR In nuclear reactions, the nuclei, not


REACTIONS electrons, of the reactants interact with each
other. They result in the formation of new
Chemical Reaction elements. This process is also called
The formation of a new compound molecule transmutation of nuclei.
due to rearrangement of valence electrons in The phenomenon of nuclear transmutation
interacting atoms and molecules with the or nuclear reaction was discovered by Lord
release or absorption of energy is called a Rutherford in the year 1919. He bombarded
chemical reaction. nitrogen gas with high energy α-particles of
In this process, the nucleus is not affected at energy 7.7 M eV obtained from a polonium
all. Even the electrons in the inner orbits source.
remain unaffected.

𝐶 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 4.8 𝑒𝑉

In this chemical reaction, 4.08 eV energy is


released for each reacting carbon atom. It is
called the binding energy (B.E) of CO2
molecule. R

The important points to be noted in chemical Conservation Laws for Nuclear Reactions
reactions are Energies of the order of 10 eV
are involved. The sum of the mass numbers of the
reactants is equal to the sum of mass
Change of mass is of the order of 10–35 kg, numbers of the products. mass number 7 = 3
which is extremely small and we say that the + 4 = 6 + 1 is conserved
mass is conserved.
The sum of atomic numbers of the reactants
The total number of atoms of each type on is equal to the sum of atomic numbers of the
the right hand side of the chemical equation products. atomic number 4 = 3 + 1 = 2 + 2 is
is always equal to the total number of atoms conserved.
of each type on the left hand side.
Nuclear reactions follow the law of
Nuclear Reactions conservation of energy.
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mass is concentrated form of energy. A substance like 235


92𝑈 which undergoes
Therefore the sum of input kinetic energy fission by thermal neutrons is called a fissile
plus the mass of the reactants is equal to the material
output kinetic energy plus the mass of the
products. Nuclear Chain Reaction

Chain reaction occurs when more than one


Nuclear reactions follow the law of
emitted neutron induce further fission for each
conservation of momentum, which results in
primary fission.
distribution of kinetic energy among various
product nuclei.

NUCLEAR FISSION

When a heavy nucleus like uranium is


bombarded by slow neutrons, it splits into two
fragment with release of 2-3 neutrons and 200
MeV energy. This process is known as nuclear
fission.

Mechanism of Nuclear Fission

NUCLEAR REACTOR

A reflector is put next to the core to stop


neutron leakage from the core. z The whole
assembly is placed inside a vessel, called
pressure vessel. Usually, a few inches thick
stainless steel is used for this purpose. z A
thick shield is provided to protect the
scientists and other personnel working
around the reactor from radiations coming
from the reactor core. It is usually in the
form of a thick concrete wall. z The entire
structure is placed inside a reactor building.
It is air tight and is maintained at a pressure
slightly less than the atomospheric pressure
so that no air leaks out of the building

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The nuclear energy is perhaps an important


option for meeting our future energy needs
NUCLEAR FUSION through peaceful applications.

The process in which two light nuclei The most important peaceful application of
combine to form a heavier nucleus is called nuclear energy is in the generation of electricity
nuclear fusion
One of the main advantages of nuclear power
2
1𝐷 + 21𝐷 → 42𝐻𝑒 + 𝑄 plant is that the fuel is not required to be fed into
it continuously like the gas or coal in a thermal
Energy in the Sun and Stars power plant. Further, it does not pollute the
environment to the extent discharge of smoke or
The sun mainly consists of hydrogen and ash from fossil fuel/power plants do.
helium gases
Check Yourself
four hydrogen nuclei fuse into a helium
nucleus with the release of two positrons
(electron-like microscope particles of the 1. Fission of a nucleus is achieved by
same mass but positive charge) and 26.8 bombarding it with
MeV energy. The tremendous amount of A. Neutrons
energy released in a thermo-nuclear reaction B. Protons
is the source of energy in stars. The quantity C. X-ray
of hydrogen in the sun is sufficient to keep it D. Electrons
shining for nearly 8 billion years more. 2. Nuclear energy is released in fission
because binding energy per nucleon
4 11𝐻 → 42𝐻𝑒 + 2 01𝑒 + 𝑄
is
NUCLEAR ENERGY
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A. Greater for fission fragment 4. Calculate the mass of 235U


than for parent nucleus consumed to generate 100 mega
B. Smaller for fission fragment watts of power for 30 days.
than for parent nucleus
C. Same for fission fragment
and nucleus Hint to Check Yourself
D. None of the above
3. The Helium atom does not contain
A. Two proton 1A 2A3D 4C 5C
B. Two electron
C. Six nucleon
D. Two neutrons
4. Which of the following is a good
moderator
A. Helium
B. Cadmium
C. Graphite
D. Ordinary water
5. Energy generation in star is mainly
due to
A. Chemical reaction
B. Fission of heavy nuclei
C. Fusion of light nuclei
D. Fusion of heavy nuclei

Stretch Yourself

1. What is nuclear fusion and fission?


Write an equation of nuclear fusion to
support your answer.
2. What is the source of energy in the
sun? How is it generated? Illustrate
with an example.
3. Calculate the energy released in a
fusion reaction 4 42𝐻𝑒 → 126𝐶 Given, the
mass of on α-particle = 4.00263u

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Lesson 27 – Fission and Fusion
WORKSHEET – 27

Q1. Everyone knows that radioactivity can be dangerous to health. The cell of the body affected
by exposure of radioactivity .what is the safety measure for nuclear radiation.

Q2. Name nuclear reactors are used to generate electric power,can produce radioactive isotopes
Name the example of isotopes produce in nuclear reactor which are used in medical science,
agriculture and industry.

Q3. A nuclear reactor is a device in which controlled chain reaction takes place. The ability of
neutrons to be captured by U235 nuclei depend upon the speed of neutron. Slow neutrons
are helpful to cause fission than the fast neutron. A substance known as moderator is used to
slow the fission neutron. Why lighter elements are better moderators for nuclear reactor than
heavier elements.

Q4. What is the power output of a 92U235 reactor if it takes 30 days to end 3 kg fuel? Given that
energy emitted in per fission is 150 MeV and N= 6.023 * 1026 (kilomole)-1

Q5. Energy is conserved in aa nuclear reaction. What is meaning of positive Q value of nuclear
reaction and negative value of nuclear reaction? Consider the following reaction
8O +1H –Q
14 4 17 1
7N + 2He
m(7N ) =14.003074 u ,m(2He )= 4.002604u,m(8O17)=16.999133u, m(1H1)=1.007825 u
14 4

Calculate the value of Q.

Q6. A nuclear reaction involves the bombarding of a target nucleus by sone incident particle and
produce a product nucleus and out particle. The target nucleus is written initial position
ofbracket and final product nucleus at final.inside the bracket,the incident and outgoing
particle together, p,d,n,α has their usual meaning. Write a nuclear reaction for
 (p,d) reaction
 (n,α) reaction
 (d,α) reaction
 (p,n) reaction
 Photo nuclear reaction

Q7. Complete the following nuclear reaction


 Fe199 + H11 → O168 +..............
 Al2713 + n10→........ + He42
 Th23490 → Pa23491 +.........
 Cu6329 + D21 → Zn6430 +.............
 U23592 + n10 → Ba14156 +Kr9236 +.............
 Be94+He42→C126+............
 Li73 + H11 → He42 +...........
Q8. The temperature of the Sun has not decreased for millions of year, it remains a mystery. The
question arises that what is the source of so much energy. The fusion reaction is responsible
for this amount of energy. Thermo nuclear energy is responsible for the energy produced in
Sun and Star. What are these two thermo nuclear energy. Explain with Chemical reaction.

Q9. Make a comparison between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion in terms of
 Process
 Energy Per Gram
 Material Used
 Availability Of Material
 Radioactive Isotopes
 Reaction

Q10. The fission of 1 nucleolus of U23592 releases 200 MeV energy. How much fission should
occur per second for producing a power of 1M?
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28

SEMICONDUCTORS AND SEMICONDUCTING DEVICES

ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS


When two atoms come closer to form a stable
structure, such that the separation between them
tends to be lesser than their diameter (d), the
energy states tend to overlap, which is forbidden
by Pauli's exclusion principle.

Hence, they get modified and corresponding to Conductor Semiconductor Insulator


each of the interaction energy states, two energy
INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC
states are created: one slightly lower than the
normal state which is called the bonding state and SEMICONDUCTORS
the other slightly higher than the normal state
An Intrinsic Semiconductor
called the antibonding state
 Pure silicon and germanium are intrinsic
Quasi continuous distribution of energy states,
semiconductors as the electrons in these
which are though separate but practically in
elements are all tightly held in their
discriminable, is called energy band.
crystalline structure, i.e., they do not have
The process of interaction of energy states (and free electrons.
thereby energy band formation) starts from outer  When energy is added to pure silicon in the
unfilled energy states and then proceeds to valence form of heat, say, it can cause a few electrons
level. The band formed of unfilled energy levels is to break free of their bonds, leaving behind a
hole in each case.
called conduction band and the one formed of
 These electrons move randomly in the crystal.
filled valence levels is called valence band.
These electrons and holes are called free
Classification of Solids as Conductors, carriers, and move to create electrical current
 when a free electron moves in a crystal because
Semiconductors and Insulators on the
of thermal energy; its path deviates whenever it
basis of Energy Bands collides with a nucleus or other free electrons.
This gives rise to a zig-zag or random motion,
which is similar to that of a molecule in a gas

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when a silicon (or germanium) crystal is doped with a


pentavalent element, it develops excess free electrons
and is said to be an n-type semiconductor. Such
impurities are known as donor impurities.

p-type Semiconductor

An Extrinsic Semiconductor
The process in which some atoms of a pure or intrinsic
semiconductor are replaced by impurity atoms from
their lattice-sites is called doping and the impurity so
added is called dopant.

 Such doped semiconductors are called extrinsic


semiconductors. If silicon (or germanium) is doped with a trivalent
(three electrons in the outermost shell) atom like
boron, aluminium, gallium or indium, three valence
electrons form covalent bonds with three silicon
n-and p-type Semiconductors atoms and deficiency of one electron is created. This
deficienty of electron is referred to as hole.
n-type Semiconductor
 Such a semiconductor is said to be a p-type
semiconductor and the impurities are known as
acceptor impurities.

A p-n JUNCTION
When a n-type material is placed in contact with a p-
type material . The formation is known as p-n
junction.

When silicon (or germanium) is doped with a Formation of a p-n Junction


pentavalent (five electrons in the outermost orbit) atom
like phosphorus, arsenic or antiomony, four electrons
form covalent bonds with the four neighbouring silicon
atoms, but the fifth (valence) electron remains unbound
and is available for conduction

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FORWARD AND REVERSE BIASED


p-n JUNCTION
Biasing means application of voltage

To make a p-n junction to conduct, we have to make


electrons move from the n-type region to the p-type
region and holes moving in the reverse direction. To do
To form a p-n junction, the most convenient way is to
so, we have to overcome the potential barrier across the
introduce donor impurities on one side and acceptor
junction by connecting a battery to the two ends of the
impurities into the other side of a single semiconducting
p-n junction diode
crystal,
Positive terminal of the battery connected to the p-
after a few recombinations, a narrow region near the
side and negative terminal of the battery connected
junction is depleted in mobile charge carriers. It is
about 0.5 μm thick and is called the deplection region to the n-side. This is called forward bias [Fig.
or space-charge region. 28.9(a)]. z Positive terminal of the battery
connected to the n-side and negative terminal of
the battery connected to the p-side. This is called
reverse bias

Due to accumulation of charges near the junction, an


CHARACTERISTICS OF p-n
electric field is established. This gives rise to
electrostatic potential, known as barrier potential. This JUNCTION DIODES
barrier has polarities, as shown in Fig. 28.7. When there
is no external electric field, this barrier prevents Forward Bias Characteristics
diffusion of charge carriers across the junction.

The forward voltage required to get the junction in


conduction mode is called knee voltage. It is about 0.7
V for Si and 0.3 V for Ge p-n junction

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As the applied voltage is increased beyond knee


voltage, the current through the diode increases
linearly.

Reverse Bias Characteristics

To draw reverse bias characteristics of a p-n junction

(i) The terminals of the junction are reversed. I–V Characteristics of Zener diode
(ii) (ii) Instead of milliammeter, microammeter
(μ A) is used Zener diode is fabricated by heavily doping both the p-
(iii) The unidirectional conducting property of and n-sides of the junction. Hence depletion layer
a diode is used to convert ac voltage into dc formed is very thin 6 (< 10 m) − . And the electric field
voltage as a rectifier. across the depletion layer is extremely high 6 –1 ( 5×
(iv) Diodes are also used in adaptors to 10 N C ) ∼ even for a small reverse bias voltage of 5 V.
recharge batteries of cell phones,
CDplayers, laptops, etc.
(v) A device that uses batteries often contains a
diode as it simply blocks any current from
leaving the battery, if it is reverse biased.
This protects the sensitive electronics in the
device.

TYPES OF DIODES

Characteristics of light-emitting diode


 In light-emitting diode (LED) when the forward
current of diode is small the intensity of light
emitted is small.
 As the forward current increases, the intensity
of the emitted light increases and reaches a
maximum value. Further increase in the
forward current results in a decrease of light
intensity.
 LEDs are biased such that the light emitting
efficiency is maximum.
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close to the junction. Separation of electrons and holes


is due to the electric field of the depletion layer.
Electrons are swept to the n-side and the holes to the p-
side.

I-V Characteristics of Photo diode

 The photo diode is fabricated such that the


generation of electron – hole pairs takes place
in or near the depletion region in the diode. Due
to the electric field of the junction, the electrons TRANSISTORS – pnp and npn
and holes are separated before they recombine.
 A transistor is basically a silicon or germanium
 The direction of the electric field is such that
crystal containing three alternate regions of p
the electrons reach the n-side and the holes
and n-type semiconductors. These three regions
reach the p-side. The electrons are collected on
are called emitter(E), base(B) and collector(C).
the n-side and the holes are collected on the p-
side giving rise to an emf.  The middle region is the base and the outer two
regions are emitter and collector. the emitter
 When an external load is connected, the current
and collector are of the same type (p or n) and
flows. The magnitude of the photocurrent
collector is the largest of the three regions.
depends on the intensity of the incident light.

I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell


The generation of emf, when the light falls on a solar
cell is due to the following three basic processes:
generation, separation and collection. Generation of
electron – hole pairs is due to the light (with hν> Eg)

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A np-n Transistor
𝐼 𝐼 𝛼
𝛼 = 𝑐 ,𝛽 = 𝐼 𝑐 ,𝛽 = 1−𝛼
𝐼𝐸 𝐵

A p-n-p Transistor

Transistor Configurations
A transistor is a two-port device; it can take an input
and deliever an output. For both input and output, two
terminals are needed. This can be done in a transistor
by making one of the three terminals common

When emitter is common to both input and output


circuits, we obtain common emitter (CE) configuration Transistor Characteristics
When base is common to both input and output circuits, Common Emitter (CE) Configuration of a
we obtain common base (CB) configuration
npn Transistor
When collector is common to both input and output
circuits, we have common collector (CC) configuration

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Common Emitter (CE) Configuration of a pnp


Transistor

Check Yourself

1. For rectifying action we use


A. Choke
B. Transformer
C. Condenser
Input Characteristics
D. Diode
2. The saturation current in a diode can be
increased by
A. Lowering plate potential
B. Raising plate potential
C. Increasing cathode temperature
D. Decreasing cathode temperature
3. Can a diode valve be used as an oscillator
A. Yes
B. No
C. Some times with another diode
D. None of the above
4. A semiconductor is the substance which
Output Characteristics contains
A. A large number of free electron
B. Only one electron in the outermost
electron
C. Only few electronat room
temperature

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D. No free electon at o0K and


atomforms covalent bond with
neighbouring bond
5. Which one of the followingis
semiconductor
A. Plastic
B. Aluminium
C. Wood
D. Cesium

Stretch Yourself

1. Describe the most important characteristic


of a p-n junction diodes.
2. Explain the formation of depletion region
in a p-n junction diode.
3. Which charge carriers conduct forward
current in a p-n junction diode?
4. Differentiate between (i) Forward bias and
reverse bias (ii) Avalancehe and zener
breakdown
5. Explain the working of p-n-p and n-p-n
transistors

Hint to Check Yourself

1C 2C 3B 4D 5D

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Lesson 28 – Semiconductors and Semiconducting Devices
Worksheet No- 28

Q1. In a matter we have solid, liquid and gas. Further solids are classified into three parts on the
basis of energy bands i.e, (∆E=0, ∆E≤3 eV, ∆E> 3 eV). Explain these types of solid with
suitable diagram.

Q2. Diode is a semiconductor device which plays an important role in Electronic appliances.
Find some diodes in your surroundings and draw the symbol of different types of diodes and
what is the principle mechanism of those diodes.

Q3. What are majority carrier and minority carrier in N – type and P-type.How biasing affect the
Majority carrier and minority carrier?

Q4. The resistivity of N-type germanium is 0.01 ohm meter at room temperature. Find the donor
concentration if the mobility of electron is 0.39 m2/volt sec.

Q5. Semiconductors are classified on the basis of purity and impurityHowyou make compare
these two types of semiconductors Explain briefly with diagram showing flow t of electron
and holes.Is semiconductor obey ohm’s law?

Q6. n-type and p-type semiconductors have electrons and holes respectively.What you observe
when n-type material is placed near with p-type material? Shall we find some useful device?
If so, How? Explain p-n type diode with diagram.

Q7. A crystal of certain pure material becomes an electric conductor when EM radiation with
lambda shorter than 180nm is incident on it. What is the value of energy gap for this
material?

Q8. The potential difference across a PN junction can be applied in two ways forward and
reverse. Explain forward and reverse bias with suitable diagram.

Q9. An pure Ge has a resistivity of 0.47 Ω m. if the mobility of electron is 0.39 m2(volt-sec)-1 and
mobility of holes is 0.19 m2(volt-sec)-1. Find intrinsic carrier concentration.

Q10. Draw a circuit diagram representing the biasing of a Light Emitting Diode. Explain the
factors wave length of light, Intensity of light .Give two advantages of LED over the lamp.

Q11. Carbon (C) and Silicon (Si) both have tetra valancy in their outermost shell. Comment how
both Carbon (C) and Silicon (Si) differ with each other. Also give reasons why Silicon is
used in Semiconductor devices?

Q12. A common base connection Ie=1ma and Ic=0.95ma. Calculate the value of Iv.
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29

APPLICATIONS OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

The maximum reverse voltage that a diode


APPLICATIONS OF p-n JUNCTION can oppose without breakdown is called its
DIODES 𝑣
Peak Inverse Voltage(PIV) 𝑣𝑑𝑐 = 𝜋𝑚
a p–n junction exhibits asymmetric electrical
conduction ,i.e., its resistance in forward
bias is different from that in reverse bias.
This property of a diode is used in
rectification, i.e., conversion of an ac signal
into a dc signal(of constant magnitude).

Half-Wave Rectification

The signal from ac mains is fed into a step


down transformer T which makes it
available at the terminals X and Y. The load
resistance RL is connected to these terminals
through a p-n junction diode D. where Vm is the peak ac voltage. The dc
current Idc through the load resistance RL is
In the positive half cycle, during the time given by
interval 0 to T/2, diode D will be forward
biased and conduct, i.e., current flows
through RL from A to B. However, during
the negative half cycle, i.e., in the interval
T/2 to T, D is reverse biased and the Full-Wave Rectification
junction will not conduct, i.e. no current
flows through R The input signal in a centre tapped step
down transformer. (It has two identical

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secondary windings connected in series.)


D1and D2 are two p-n junction diodes, One
end of the load resistance RL is connected to
the central point Y of the secondary
windings and the other end is connected to
the cathode terminals of the diodes D1 and
D2. The anodes of these diodes are
connected respectively to the ends X and Z The capacitor C connected across the load to
of the secondary windings. The potentials at reduce fluctuations is called a filter
the ends X and Z are in opposite phase with capacitor.
respect to Y, i.e., when potential of X is
positive, Z will be negative and vice versa Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator

𝐼𝑧 = 𝐼𝑠 − 𝐼𝐿

The power dissipation in Zener diode is


given by the relation

𝑃𝑑 = 𝑉𝑧 × 𝐼𝑍

TRANSISTOR APPLICATIONS

Transistor as an Amplifier

Filtering

𝑉
Voltage gain, 𝐴𝑣 = 𝑉𝑜
𝑖

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𝑖𝑜
Current gain, 𝐴𝑖 =
𝐼𝑖

𝑃𝑜
Power gain, 𝐴𝑝 = 𝑃𝑖

Transistor as a switch

a transistor conducts current across the


collector-emitter path only when a voltage is
applied to the base. When no base voltage is LOGIC GATES
present, the switch is off. When base voltage
is present, the switch is on. The information carried by these waveforms
is called signal.

 When the signal takes any value


within a range of amplitude at any
instant of time, it is called a
continuous signal.
 When the signal takes the value only
at certain times, it is called a
discrete signal.
Transistor as an Oscillator  When the signal takes only
particular finite number of
An electronic oscillator is a device which amplitude values, it is called a
generates continuous electrical oscillations. digital signal
In a simple oscillator circuit, a parallel LC
circuit is used as resonant circuit and an
amplifier is used to feed energy to the
resonant circuit. It can generate frequencies
from audio to radio range depending on the
choice of L and C.
Basic Logic Gates

Logic gates are devices which have one or


more inputs and one output. They give
different output when the input bits differ in
their arrangement. The output produced by
these gates follows the laws of Boolean
logic

AND Gate

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The Boolean expression for the AND


operation is represented as

Y = A.B = AB = A × B and read as A AND


B

Combination Logic Gates

Two most important gates formed by


combination of logic gates are (1)
NAND[NOT+AND] and

(2) NOR [NOT+OR] gates.

NAND Gate

The NAND Gate is obtained by combining


AND gate and NOT gate,
OR Gate
The Boolean expression of a NAND
The Boolean expression for an OR operation operation is represented as Y = A.B = A×B
is represented as = AB

Y = A + B and read as A or B

NOR Gate

The NOR gate, obtained by combining an


NOT Gate
OR gate and NOT gate
Which inverts the signal, i.e., if input is ‘1’
The Boolean expression for a NOR
then output of NOT gate is ‘0’ and for
operation is represented as Y = A+B
‘0’input, the output is ‘1’.

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1. Explain how a Zener diode helps to


stabilize dc against load variation.
2. Draw a circuit using diodes and
transistors to implement a NAND
gate.
3. Draw a circuit using diodes and
transistors to implement a NOR gate.
4. Why the Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
Check Yourself of a p-n junction diode in half-wave
rectifier with filter capacitor is
double of that without the capacitor?
5. For a CE amplifier, RL = 2000 Ω , ri
1. Which of the following are known as = 500 Ω and β = 50. Calculate
universal gates? voltage gain and power gain.
a) NAND & NOR b) AND & OR
c) XOR & OR d) EX-NOR &
XOR Hint to Check Yourself
2. In Zener diode, the Zener breakdown
voltage takes place at
A) Above 6 v B) Below 6 V 1a 2b 3c 4b 5b
C)At 6 v D) All of the above
3. Voltage feedback in feedback
amplifier is proportional to
a) Grid voltage
b) Square of output voltage
c) Output voltage
d) Square of gridvoltage
4. A transistor is essentially
a) Power driven device
b) A current operated device
c) A voltage operated device
d) A resistance operated device
5. Push pull amplifier employ
a) 4 transistor
b) 2 transistor
c) 1 transistor
d) None of the above

Stretch Yourself

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NIOS/Acad./2020/312/29/E
National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary
Lesson 29 – Applications of Semiconductor Devices
WORKSHEET – 29

Q1. In order to charge a laptop or a cell phone, we require dc current. The current received at
homes is ac current at 50 Hz. Explain in your own words how use of a simple p-n
junction diode can help in achieving this. What is this process known as?

Q2. Consider the circuit diagram as shown in the figure below and answer the following in
your own words -

a. Name the device whose working is depicted in the figure.


b. Graphically represent input voltage signal and the corresponding output voltage
signal?
c. What is the significance of Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)?

Q3.You are familiar with voltage regulators found in devices such as computer, automobile
alternators and central power station generator plants, designed to automatically
maintain a constant voltage. Explain in your own words how a Zener diode works as a
voltage regulator.
a. Suggest advantages of using Zener diode in place of a rectifier with filter circuit for
voltage regulation.
b. What would happen to the quality of sound in an amplifier if the voltage supplied is
fluctuating?

Q4. List two devices in your home which require a constant power supply. Draw an
appropriate circuit diagram showing the working of these devices.

Q5. Observe the electrical appliances available at your home. List 4 different devices using
transistors in their basic circuitry. Look out the use of transistors in those devices as
switch, amplifier or oscillator. Make a table suggesting the use of transistor in that
device.
Name of Electrical Appliance Use of Transistor As
Q6. Identify the Logic Gate on the basis of the truth table mentioned below and write its
Boolean expression.
A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
Design the circuit diagram using the basic Logic Gates to realize the above truth table.

Q7. Look out for a loudspeaker available in your vicinity. Identify how a transistor is being
used in CE configuration to get amplification. Draw the input and output characteristics
of a transistor in CE configuration.

Q8. Look at the circuit diagram shown below. Complete the truth table based on the Logic
Gate shown below and identifies the Boolean expression and the Logic Gate formed.

A B A B Q Q
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1

Q9. In our modern society, extensive use of electricity has enabled various uses of transistors
in every electronic circuit. Transistors are used in our day to day lives in many forms.
Observe and write what are the various applications and uses of transistor in daily life?

Q10. Explain in your own words how to realize a NOT Gate using transistors. Explain
working of a Colpitt’s oscillator using the circuit diagram.
Senior Secondary Course
Learner’s Guide, Physics (312)

30

COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

A MODEL COMMUNICATION
SYSTEM
– energy and power signals; and –
 Communication systems endeavour deterministic and random signal.
to transmit information from –
BAND WIDTH OF SIGNALS
 one to one, i.e., point-to-point
 The most crucial parameter in
communication; – one to many,
communication systems is the
i.e., broadcast communication;
signal bandwidth, which refers to
 – many to many, i.e., telephone the frequency range in which the
conference call or a chat room. signal varies. However, it has
different meaning in analog and
digital signals.
 While analog bandwidth measures
the range of spectrum each signal
occupies, digital bandwidth gives
Elements of a Communication System the quantity of information
 a source of signal, a sensor contained in a digital signal.
transducer and a transmitter, which Electromagnetic Waves in
launches the signal carrying Communication
information.
 an intervening medium/channel to
guide and carry the signal over
long distances, and
 a signal receiver and an actuator
transducer to intercept the signal
and retrieve the information.
TYPES OF SIGNALS – ANALOGUE
AND DIGITAL
continuous time (analog) and discrete time COMMUNICATION MEDIA
(digital) signals;
 There are two types of
– coded and uncoded signals; – communication channels:
periodic and aperiodic signals;  wireline (using guided media) or

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 wireless (using unguided media).  D layer at a height of about 80km


Wireline channels physically reflects e.m. waves in the low
connect the transmitter to the frequency range (3kHz – 300kHz)
receiver with a “wire,” which could but absorbs waves in the medium
be a twisted pair of transmission frequency range (300 kHz –
lines, a coaxial cable or an optical 3MHz) and high frequency range
fibre. Consequently, wireline (3 – 30MHz).
channels are more private and
 E layer at height of about 110km
comparatively less prone to
interference than wireless channels helps in propagation of waves in
the medium frequency range but
Transmission lines reflects waves in the high
frequency range in the day time.
Optical Fibre
 F1 layer at a height of about 180
The 1960 invention of the laser (acronym
km lets most of the high frequency
for Light Amplification by Stimulated
waves to pass through.
Emission of Radiation) completely
revolutionized communication technology.  F2 layer (at a height of 300 km in
The laser, which is a highly coherent daytime and 350 km at night)
source of light waves, can be used as an reflects e.m. waves upto 30MHz
enormously high capacity carrier wave for and allows waves of higher
information carrying signals (voice, data or frequencies to pass through.
video) transmitted through an optical Ground Wave Propagation
waveguide, such as an optical fibre.
In ground wave propagation, the
The basic principle involved in all long electromagnetic waves travel along the
distance communication systems is surface of the earth.
multiplexing, i.e., simultaneous
transmission of different messages over Sky Wave or Ionospheric Propagation
the same pathways. In sky wave or ionospheric propagation,
the electromagnetic waves of frequencies
between 3MHz – 30MHz launched by a
transmitting antenna travel upwards, get
reflected by the ionophere and return to
distant locations. In this mode, the
reflecting ability of the ionosphere controls
the propagation characteristics of the sky
wave.
Five layers are considered to play main
role in communicaiton:
 C layer at about 60km above the
surface of earth reflects e.m. waves
in the frequency range 3kHz –
300kHz. It is therefore used for
direct long range communication.
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Space Wave Propagation

MODULATION – ANALOGUE AM
AND FM, DIGITAL (PCM)
The process of processing a signal to make
it suitable for transmission is called
modulation
In space wave propagation, some of the  Amplitude modulation,
VHF radio waves (30 MHz – 300MHz)
radiated by an antenna can reach the The amplitude of a high-frequency
receiver travelling either directly through carrier wave is modified in
space or after reflection by the curvature of accordance with the strength of a
the earth. low-frequency audio or video
modulating signal . When the
Satellite Communication amplitude of the modulating wave
increases, the amplitude of the
The modulated carrier waves are beamed
modulated carrier also increases
by a transmitter directly towards the
and vice versa — the envelope of
satellite.
the modulated wave takes the form
The satellite receiver amplifies the depending on the amplitude and
received signal and retransmits it to earth frequency of modulating signal
at a different frequency to avoid
interference. These stages are called
uplinking and down-linking.

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 frequency modulation DEMODULATION


The amplitude of the carrier wave The modulated signal carrying the
remains constant, but its frequency information, once radiated by the antenna,
is continuously varied in travels in space. Since there are so many
accordance with the instantaneous transmitting stations, thousands of signals
amplitude of the audio or video reach our antenna.
signal. When the amplitude of the
modulating signal voltage is large,
the carrier frequency goes up, and
Check Yourself
when the amplitude of the
modulating signal is low, the
carrier frequency goes down, i.e.,
the frequency of the FM wave will
vary from a minimum to a 1. In amplitude modulation, which
maximum, corresponding to the among the following is constant?
minimum and maximum values of a) Amplitude
the modulating signal b) Frequency
c) Wave length
 Phase modulation
d) Time period
It involves changing the phase
angle of the carrier signal in
accordance with the modulating 2. Which of the following is constant
frequency. Analog pulse in the case of frequency
modulation is either amplitude modulation?
modulated or time modulated. a) Modulation
Similarly, digital pulse modulation b) Wavelength
is of two types: pulse code c) Amplitude
modulation and pulse delta d) Frequency
modulation.
3. Examples of analog modulation
Pulse code modulation techniques
a) Frequency type modulation
the modulating signal is first sampled, and b) Amplitude type modulation
the magnitude (with respect to a fixed c) Both a and b
reference) of each sample is quantised. (It d) None of the above
is a digital representation of an analog 4. What is the function of
signal where the magnitude of the signal is demodulation?
sampled regularly at uniform intervals of a) Modulates signal
duration Ts . The binary code is b) Demodulates signal
transmitted usually by modulating an c) Maintains signal
analog current in a transmission medium d) None of the above
such as a landline whereas pulse code 5. Bandwidth is expressed in terms of
modulation is used in digital telephone
a) Bits per second
systems and for digital audio recording on
b) Hertz
compact discs. c) Meter
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d) Second

Stretch Yourself
1. Calculate the wavelength of a radio
wave of frequency of 20 MHz
propagating in space.
2. What is the frequency range of X-
ray and infrared ray
3. The core of an optical fibre is made
of glass with a refractive index of
1.51 and the cladding has a
refractive index of 1.49. Calculate
the critical angle for total internal
reflection
4. What is demodulation?
5. Distinguish between the terms
analogue and digital signals.
Define a ‘bit’

Hint to Check Yourself

1B 2C 3C 4B 5A

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NIOS/Acad./2020/312/30/E
National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary
Lesson 30 – Communication Systems
WORKSHEET – 30

Q.1 Communication is a basic characteristic of all living beings. Communication entails


transmitting and receiving information from one individual/place to another. Observe
your surroundings and comment how technology has affected communication.

Q.2 Continue to Q.1, you know that communication of information involves use of signals,
which are classified on the basis of their origin and nature. Explain in your own words
Model, Elements and Types of Communication System.

Q.3 In communication, we use different ways to transport the electrical signal from the
transmitter to the receiver. Explain the mechanism of these transmissions and working of
some common communication devices. For the following radio frequency bands,
identify the wavelength range and the mode of propagation -
Radio Waves Wavelength Range (m) Mode of propagation
Short Wave
Medium Wave
Long Wave

Q.4 An optical fiber is used to propagate light from one end to the other end of the fiber. If
the refractive index of the core is 1.575 and the refractive index of the cladding is 1.515,
at what max angle should light be launched inside the optical fiber so that it gets totally
internally reflected. How would this launching angle be affected if the refractive index of
the core is reduced to 1.56?

Q.5 At your homes you observe the cable TV networks. Find out the frequency range used
for operating the following networks -
TV Network Frequency Range
Tata Sky
Dish TV
Sun Direct
Videocon D2H
Hathway
Den Networks

Q.6 You want to make a call using your mobile phone to your friend staying in New York,
USA from the place you are staying. Explain schematically how signal transmission will
take place from your end to your friend.

Q7. If the modulating signal in an AM system is given by – va(t) = 25 sin(6.2 x 104t).


The frequency of the side band is 5.5 x 106 Hz. Estimate the angular frequency of the
carrier wave.
Q.8 Look at the following figures given below –

Figure - a

Figure - b

Figure – c

and answer the questions given below -


a. Identify the kind of modulation.
b. Communication mode where it is used

Q.9 The wireless communication between a transmitting and a receiving station utilizing the
space around the earth, i.e. atmosphere is called space communication. The essential
feature of space communication is that a signal emitted from anantenna of the transmitter
has to reach the antenna of the receiver. Explain different ways of space communication;
depending on the frequency of radio wave.

Q.10 From the radio station you are receiving AM signals. These signals are received by the
radio set at your home. Explain in your own words with the help of block diagram how
the signal is retrieved at your end by the process of demodulation.

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