Physics
Physics
Physics
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Senior Secondary Course
Learner’s Guide, Physics (312)
Significant Figures
Digits in measurement that are known with
certainly plus the first uncertain digit are
called significant figures.
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Physics (312)
Senior Secondary Course
Learner’s Guide, Physics (312)
All non-zero
zero digits are significant. Derivation of units of a physical
For example, 315.58 has five quantity
significant figures
All zeros between two non-zero
non Vectors and Scalars
digits are significant. For example, A scalar quantity has only magnitude; no
5300405.003 has ten significant direction.
figures.
All zeros which are to the right of a A vector quantity has both magnitude and
decimal point and also to the right direction.
of a non-zero
zero digit are significant. Representation of Vectors
For example, 50.00 has four
significant figures A vector is represented by a line with an
All zeros to the right of a decimal arrow indicating its direction.
point and to the left of a non-zero
non
𝐴⃗
digit in a decimal fraction are not
significant. For example, .00043 Addition of Vector
has only two significant figures but
2.00023 has 6 significant figures If two vectors are represented in
magnitude and direction by the two sides
All zero to the right of last of non
non-
of a triangle taken in order, the resultant is
zero digit are significant, if they
represented by the third side of the triangle
come from some measurement.
taken in the opposite order. This is called
The number of significant figures
triangle law of vectors.
does not vary with the change in
unit. 𝑅⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵⃗
In a whole number all zeros to the
right of the last non zero number
are not significant, for example
5000 has only one sig significant
figure.
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Learner’s Guide, Physics (312)
Multiplication of Vectors B. Nm-2
C. J
Scalar Product of Vector
D. No units
The scalar product of two vectors A and B 4. Two forces 20 N and 5 N are
is written as A.B and is equal to AB cosθ, acting at an angle 200 below
where θ is the angle between the vectors. magnitude of resultant force.
A. 18.03N
The scalar product of two vectors is a B. 18.0 N
scalar quantity C. 17.0 N
Vector Product of Vectors D. 16.5N
5. Length of (A+B) if A =3𝚤̂ + 2𝚥̂
The vector product of two vectors A and B and B= 𝚤̂ − 2𝚥̂ + 3𝑘
is written as A×B and is equal to AB sinθ, A. 4
where θ is the angle between the vectors. B. 3
The vector product of two vectors is a C. 5
vector D. 7
Unit Vector
STRETCH YOURSELF
Unit vector has unitary magnitude and has
a specified direction. It has no units and no
dimensions. All constants are
dimensionless? Explain,
𝐴⃗ what types of quantity is
𝐴=
|𝐴| Avogadro’s number.
Is the commutative and
associative law applicable
CHECK YOURSELF to vector subtraction?
Explain
The velocity of sound in
air is 332m/s if the unit of
length is km and unit of
time is hour. What would
1. Significant number in be the value of velocity?
42003042.02 is
A. 15
B. 10
C. 7
D. 5 Answer to check Yourself
2. Dimension of Kinetic energy
A. ML-1T-2 1B) 2D) 3D) 4A) 5C)
B. M2L2T-2
C. MLT-2
D. ML2T-2
3. SI unit of strain is
A. Nm-1
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Physics (312)
NIOS/Acad./2020/312/01/E
Q1.The scope of physics is very wide. It covers a vast variety of Natural Phenomena. Observe
your surroundings and explain one application of physics in day to day life.
Q2. Observe your surroundings and mention any five reasons why you need to measure.
Q3. Pick any five objects from your surroundings of different matter and dimensions. Make a
table as below with suitable units:
Name of the Object Length/Breath/Height Weight/Area/Volume Dimensional Formula
Matchbox 5cm/ 3cm/ 2cm 25 g/ -/ 30cm3 L3
Q4.In ancient time when there was no standard system of measurement. Human body parts were
used as units for measurement.
Explain in your own words why human body parts rejected as units for measurement.
Q5. For measurement, each physical quantity is assigned SI unit such that meter for Distance. It
can be converted in different units by keeping prefix for power of ten. For example
10-2meter = centimeter and 103 meter = Kilometer and so on. Explain why do we need
different units for the same physical quantity?
Q.6.Pick any object from home or school and measure it by suitable scale. After measuring
convert the measured units into three different units of that quantity.
Q7. Give an example of:
a) A physical quantity which has neither unit nor dimensions.
b) A physical quantity which has a unit but no dimensions.
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Learner’s Guide, Physics (312)
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣 −𝑣
𝑣̅ = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑡 −𝑡
𝑥 −𝑥
= The decrease in the rate of change of
𝑡 −𝑡
velocity is retardation
The average speed of an object is
Position - Time Graph
obtained by dividing the total
distance travelled by the total time The different positions and
taken: corresponding times can be
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 plotted on a graph giving us
= a certain curve. Such a
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
curve is known as position-
time curve.
Relative Velocity The time is represented
along x-axis whereas the
The relative velocity of an object position of the body is
with respect to another object is the represented along y-axis.
rate at which it changes its position
relative to the object / point
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Senior Secondary Course
Learner’s Guide, Physics (312)
A motion in which the
velocity of the moving object
is constant is known as
uniform motion.
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Senior Secondary Course
Learner’s Guide, Physics (312)
change in the velocity with = (1/2) × (v1+v2) × (t2-t1)
time.
Determination of the acceleration of the
body
∆
Average acceleration = = slope of
∆
the tangent
Equations of Motion
Velocity-Time Graph for Non-Uniform
Motion First Equation of Uniformly
Accelerated Motion
The average acceleration of the body is
–
given by (𝑎)=
𝒗𝟐 − 𝒗𝟏 ∆𝒗 𝑣 −𝑣
𝒂 = = =
𝒕𝟐 − 𝒕𝟏 ∆𝒕 𝑡 −𝑡
= 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝑣−𝑣
𝑎=
𝑡
V =𝒗𝟎 + 𝒂𝒕
Second Equation of Uniformly
Accelerated Motion
Distance travelled = area under v-t graph
= Area of trapezium
1
𝑥 − 𝑥 = (𝑣 + 𝑣 )𝑡
2
Since V =𝑣 + 𝑎𝑡
𝒙 = 𝒙𝟎 + 𝒗𝟎 𝒕 + 𝟏/𝟐 𝒂𝒕𝟐
Determination of the distance travelled
Third Equation of Uniformly
by the body
Accelerated Motion
1
𝑥 − 𝑥 = (𝑣 + 𝑣 )𝑡
2
1
𝑥 − 𝑥 = (𝑣 + 𝑣 )(𝑣 − 𝑣 )
2
V2 =𝒗𝟐𝟎 + 𝟐𝒂(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 )
S= area of trapezium
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Senior Secondary Course
Learner’s Guide, Physics (312)
The free fall of a body towards the earth is
one of the most common examples of
1. Which speed is measured by the
motion with constant acceleration.
speedometer of your scooter?
V =𝒗𝟎 + 𝒈𝒕 2. What is the numerical ratio of
velocity to speed of an object?
𝒙 = 𝒙𝟎 + 𝒗𝟎 𝒕 + 𝟏/𝟐 𝒈𝒕𝟐 3. Derive expression for equation of
V2 =𝒗𝟐𝟎 + 𝟐𝒈(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 ) Motion by v-t graph.
4. Give the difference between
distance and displacement.
5. A bus travels a distance A to B at a
CHECK YOURSELF
speed of 40 km/h and returns to A
at a speed of 30km/h.
1. Slope of position time graph I. What is the average speed
represents for uniform motion. for the whole journey?
A. Uniform Velocity II. What is average velocity?
B. Distance
C. Acceleration Answer to Check yourself
D. None of these
2. A car runs at a constant speed of a 1A) 2A) 3A) 4A) 5C)
circular track of radius 200 meter.
Taking 62.8 second on each lap.
Find the average velocity
A. 0
B. 20ms-1
C. 10ms-1
D. 30ms-1
3. The area under v-t graph gives the
A. Displacement
B. Velocity
C. Acceleration
D. Time
4. The ratio of the displacement of an
object to the time interval is known
as
A. Average velocity
B. Speed
C. Acceleration
D. Distance
5. Slope of velocity time graph
represents
A. Speed
B. Distance
C. Acceleration
D. None of above
STRETCH YOURSELF
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National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary Course – Physics
Lesson – 2 : Motion In A Straight Line
Worksheet - 2
Q1. Woman starts from her home at 10:00 am for a walk with a speed of 10km/h on a straight
road up to parlour that is 5km away. She stays there till 2:00 pm and returns home by an
auto with speed of 15km/h. Choose suitable scales and plot the x-t graph of her motion.
Q2. On a two lane road, Car A is travelling with the speed of 42 km/h. Two cars, Car B and Car
C approaches Car A in opposite direction with the speed of 86 km/h each. At a certain
instant, when the distance between Car A and Car B is equal to Car B and Car C, both being
1km. Car B decides to overtake Car A before Car C does. What minimum acceleration of
Car B is required to avoid an accident?
Q3.Observe moving things in your surroundings and note their speed/velocity. Give explanation
how does velocity differ from speed? Support your answer why velocity is a vector, but not
speed.
Q4.A Policeman moving on a highway with a speed of 25 km/h fires a bullet at a thief’s car
speeding away in the direction with 100 km/h. With what speed does bullet hit the thief’s
car if muzzle speed of bullet is 120km/h?
Q5.Measure the height of the roof of your house from ground. Drop a stone from the roof of
your house and let it fall freely. Calculate the:
(i) Distance travelled in 3s,
(ii) Velocity of the stone when it reaches the ground, and
(iii) Velocity at 2s after the start.
Q6.Drop a ball with full force on the ground and note down its displacement with time.
a) Plot displacement vs time graph.
b) Plot qualitatively velocity vs time graph.
c) Plot qualitatively acceleration vs time graph.
Q7.Just observe the rain. You will observe that rain clouds are at about some kilometer altitude
above the ground say it’s one kilometer above the ground. (a) If a rain drop falls from such a
height freely under gravity, what will be the speed of rain in SI units? Convert the calculated
speed in km/h. (g = 10m/s2)
Q8. If you and your friend ride a bicycle on the road, you will notice that at different times, both
bicycles are found at different positions. Note down five positions at five time intervals for
each.
a) Plot Position Time Graph for Uniform Motion
b) Plot Position Time Graph for Non Uniform Motion
c) Calculate Velocity from Position Time Graph
d) Calculate Distance travelled by you and your friend in 10 Minutes
e) Examine whose speed is more?
Senior Secondary Course
Learner’s Guide, Physics (312)
LAWS OF MOTION
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Senior Secondary Course
Learner’s Guide, Physics (312)
Third Law 0f Motion When a bullet is fired from a gun, the gun
recoils.
To every action, there is an
equal and opposite reaction. 𝑚𝑣 + 𝑀𝑣 = 0
when two objects interact,
𝑣 = 𝑣
the force exerted by one
object on the other is equal
in magnitude and opposite
in direction to the force Where, m= mass of bullet, M mass
exerted by the latter object of gun, v1 velocity of bullet, v2
on the former velocity of gun.
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Learner’s Guide, Physics (312)
D. 6 Kgms-1
surfaces, there cleanliness,
temperature, humidity etc.
STRETCH YOURSELF
Methods of Reducing Friction
Use of lubricants such as
1. What is the principle of
grease or oil between the
working of a rocket?
surfaces in contact reduces
2. A cricket player lowers his
friction.
hand while catching a ball
Flow of compressed and
why?
purified air between the
3. Why are wheels of an
surfaces in contact
automobile made circular?
4. State and explain Newton’s
CHECK YOURSELF second law of motion hence
deduce the relation F=ma
1. S.I. unit of linear momentum 5. Explain the role of friction in
A. Kgms-1 the case of bicycle brake.
B. Kgm-1s What will happen if grease is
C. Kgm-1s-1 put on the rim?
D. Kgms-2
2. 1N is equivalent to
A. 105 dyne
B. 10-5dyne Answer to Check Yourself
C. 106 dyne
D. 10-6dyne
3. Dimension of Impulse is
A. [MLT-1] 1(A) 2(A) 3(A) 4(D) 5(A)
B. [MLT-1]
C. [ML2T-2]
D. [M-1L-1T-1]
4. Conservation of momentum
in a collision particle can be
understood from
A. Conservation of energy
B. Newton Ist law
C. IInd law
D. IInd & IIIrd
5. A boy have a mass 60kg and
travel with a velocity 1.0 ms-
1. Momentum of boy
A. 60 Kgms-1
B. 6 Kgms-2
C. 60 Kgms2
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NIOS/Acad./2020/312/03/E
National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary Course – Physics
Lesson 3 : Laws Of Motion
Worksheet – 03
Q1.Though a force is not visible; its effect can be seen or experienced. Observe your
surroundings and mention different kind of effects of forces on different objects.
Q2.Why do the passengers standing in a bus fall in the backward direction when the stationary
bus begins to move suddenly and the passengers are pushed forward when a moving bus
stops suddenly?
Q3.A 200kg stone is moving towards you with velocity 2ms-1 and at the same time a bullet of
2kg with velocity 100 ms-1is moving towards you. Explain with reasons which one is more
dangerous and requires more force to stop.
Q4. Apply Newton’s third law of motion to explain movements of a ball during a game of
football.
Q5. First law of Motion or Law of Inertia states that “a body continuous to be in a state of rest
or of uniform motion in a straight line unless it is acted upon by a net external force”. Now
roll a ball along the ground and observe its motion. Write your observation and explain
why ball comes to rest after travelling some distance without any external force acted upon
it.
Q6.Observe your surroundings and give two examples of friction that are useful and two
examples of friction that are not useful. In case of useful how you will increase friction and
in case of not useful write the method to reduce friction.
Q7.Which diagram represents balanced forces? How do opposing forces affect the motion of
an object if the forces are balanced?
a) b)
c) d)
Q8. Take any solid object from your surrounding and measure it. Lift the load with the help of
a rope at a constant acceleration to your house roof. Measure the height of your house roof
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National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary Course – Physics
Lesson 3 : Laws Of Motion
Worksheet – 03
and let the load covers this height of your house roof in 1minute. Calculate the tension in
the rope.
Q9. Suppose you are standing on a weighing scale on a lift. If the lift is going down with a
downward acceleration of 9 ms–2, what would be the reading of the weighing scale? Take
g = 10 ms–2. Justify your answer with explanation.
Q10.It is generally observed that roads on hilly areas or mountain roads are generally winding
upwards rather than going straight up. Give reasons for the statement.
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Senior Secondary Course
Learner’s Guide, Physics (312)
MOTION IN A PLANE
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Learner’s Guide, Physics (312)
Centripetal Acceleration
a=
AIRCRAFTS IN VERTICAL LOOPS
v= rω
F=
F = 𝑚𝑟𝜔
𝑣
𝑁=𝑚 𝑔+
𝑟
CHECK YOURSELF
Acceleration = Rate of change of
velocity 1. A shell is fired at an angle of
600 to the horizontal
Applications off Uniform Circular
direction with a velocity of
Motion
392 ms-1 time of flight is
An important thing to understand A. 68.235
and remember is that the term B. 69.235
‘centripetal force’ does not refer to C. 70.235
a type of force of interaction like D. 71.235
the force of gravitation or electrical 2. A body is projected with a
force. velocity of 40ms-11 after 2s it
crosses a tower of height
Banking of Roads
20.4m. angle of projection is
𝑚𝑣 A. 450
𝐹 sin 𝜃 =
𝑟 B. 300
C. 900
𝐹 cos 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔
D. 600
𝑣 3. Centripetal force acting on
𝜃 = tan the particle is given
𝑟𝑔
A. F=mrω2
B. F=mr2ω2
C. F=m/rω2
D. F=mr/ω
4. In a circular motion.
A. Speed is constant
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Senior Secondary Course
Learner’s Guide, Physics (312)
C. 𝑅 =
D. 𝑅 =
STRETCH YOURSELF
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Physics (312)
NIOS/Acad./2020/312/04/E
National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary
Lesson 4 – Motion in a Plane
Worksheet-4
Q1. Observe your surroundings and give examples of Projectile Motion from day to day life.
Q2. Take two balls and project one of them horizontally from the top of the building. At the
same time drop the other ball downward from the same height. Observe the path of both
balls and time to hit the ground. Is it same? Explain with reasons.
Q3. Take a ball and project the ball horizontally from the top of the building. Observe the
projectile motion of ball and explain with reason which two quantities are constant
throughout projectile motion when air resistance is negligible?
Q4. Suppose you want to launch a projectile to land at a certain target, for instance, a cricket
ball beyond the boundary. What are the important factors you have to calculate before
launching the projectile? Analyze projectile motion to determine all these factors.
Q5. Suppose you are riding a bicycle along a Circular path of the Park near the house. Measure
the radius of Circular Path. Count the time to complete one round and calculate the total
length of the Circular Path.
Q6. Take three stones and throw them at different angles such that they reach the same
maximum height as shown in the given figure.
Observe the trajectories of all three projectiles and calculate for all three stones
a) Time of Flight
b) A constant horizontal velocity component
c) A constant vertically downward acceleration component
Observe and explain are these same for all three stones.
Q7. Continue to Q.6 Derive the equation of path of projectile motion and equation of trajectory.
Q8. Observe your surroundings and give examples of Uniform Circular Motion from day to
day life. Explain applications of Uniform Circular Motion in day to day life.
Q9. A truck goes around a circular track of radius R at speed v so that it makes one circuit
every T seconds As it does so it experiences a centripetal acceleration of magnitude p. If
the truck now goes around a different circular track of radius 4R so that it now takes a time
½T to go around once, what is the magnitude of its centripetal acceleration?
Q10. Explain in your own words what is meant by centripetal acceleration? Derive an
expression for the same.
Senior Secondary Course
Learner’s Guide, Physics (312)
GRAVITATION
LAW OF GRAVITATION Variation with Height
Every particle attracts every other the magnitude of g decreases as square
particle in the universe with a force of the distance from the centre of the
which varies as the product of their earth increases
masses and inversely as the square
𝐺𝑀
of the distance between them. 𝑔ℎ = ℎ
𝑅 (1 + )
𝑚 𝑚
𝐹∝
𝑟
𝑚 𝑚
𝐹=𝐺 Variation of g with Depth
𝑟
In vector form The value of g decreases as we go
below the earth
𝑚 𝑚
𝑭𝟏𝟐 = 𝐺 𝑟 4𝜋𝐺
𝑟 𝑔 𝜌(𝑅 − 𝑑)
3
𝑚 𝑚
𝑭𝟐𝟏 = −𝐺 𝑟 Variation of g with Latitude
𝑟
𝑭𝟏𝟐 = −𝑭𝟐𝟏 𝒈𝝀 = 𝒈 − 𝑹𝝎𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝀
Where 𝑔 is gravity at latitude, g value of
gravity at pole, ω angular velocity of earth
,R radius of earth.
The constant of proportionality G , WEIGHT AND MASS
is called the universal constant of
gravitation. The force with which a body is
Value of G is pulled towards the earth is called
6.67 × 10 𝑁𝑚 𝑘𝑔 its weight. If m is the mass of the
body, then its weight W is given by
Its value remains the same between
W = mg
any two objects everywhere
It’s unit is newton.
ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY Since g varies from place to place,
F = ma( By Newton’s second law) weight of a body also changes from
place to place
F=𝐺 (By law of gravitation)
The weight is maximum at the
a=g=𝐺 poles and minimum at the equator
1 Physics (312)
Senior Secondary Course
Learner’s Guide, Physics (312)
dU = 𝑑𝑟
2 Physics (312)
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Learner’s Guide, Physics (312)
A. 11.3 ms-1
B. 11.3 kms-1
C. 11.9 kms-1
D. 11.9ms-1
5. The atmosphere around the earth is
held by
A. Gravity
B. Winds
C. Clouds
D. None of the above
STRETCH YOURSELF
1. Why is gravitational potential
energy always negative? Explain
2. A boy is weightless at the center of
earth why?
3. At what depth would the value of g
be 50% of what it is on the surface
of the earth?
4. Obtain an expression for the orbital
velocity of a satellite orbiting the
earth.
5. A polar satellite is placed at a
height of 1000 km from earth
surface. Calculate its orbital period
and orbital velocity.
3 Physics (312)
NIOS/Acad./2020/312/05/E
National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary
Lesson 5 – Gravitation
Worksheet-5
Q1. Throw different objects of different matter and different volume; vertically or horizontally
and you will observe that all objects thrown upward comes back to the ground after
reaching a point. Have you ever thought about this phenomenon? Explain the
phenomenon. Is it same for all objects?
a) If Yes, Support your answer with reasons
b) If No, Support your answer with reasons
Q2. Universal Law of Gravitation states that every particle attracts every other particle in the
universe with a force which varies as the product of their masses and inversely as the
square of the distance between them. It is observed that falling apple attracted towards the
earth; as the law stated above why don’t we see the earth moving towards the apple?
Q3. Suppose gravitational constant G is ten times smaller and mass of Sun is ten times bigger.
Comment, will the acceleration due to gravity on earth will change.
a) If Yes, Support your answer with reasons
b) If Yes, Give some impact of change of acceleration due to gravity on earth
c) If No, Support your answer with reasons
Q4. Take two objects of different mass and separate them by any distance. Note down the M 1
and M2 and distance between them. Calculate the gravitational force between them. Now
observe what will happen to gravitational force between them if you make following
changes
a) Distance is four times but masses M1 and M2 are same
b) The masses M1 and M2 are doubled but the distance remains the same
c) Distance is four times and the masses M1 and M2 are also doubled
Q5. The acceleration produced by the force of gravity is called the acceleration due to gravity
𝑴
and is given by 𝒈 = 𝑮 𝑹𝟐
The quantity R2 in the denominator gives that the magnitude of g decreases as square of the
distance from the centre of the earth increases. Comment about
a) Variation of g with Latitude
b) Variation of g with Depth
c) Variation of g with Height
Q6. The force with which an object is pulled towards the earth is called its weight. Comment
why weight of any object on the Moon is 1/6 times that on the earth? Suppose you can lift
an object of mass 20 kg on earth, what can be the maximum mass of object which can be
lifted by you on the Moon?
Q7. Continue to Q6. Comment
a) Is the mass of an object stays constant wherever the body may be situated in the
universe?
b) Is the weight of an object stays constant wherever the body may be situated in the
universe?
c) Is the weight of an object stays constant wherever the body may be situated on
earth?
d) What will be the weight of an object at centre of earth of radius R?
Q8. Take a stone tied with a string and whirl the stone in a horizontal circular path as shown in
figure. Observe the path of stone if the string breaks suddenly. Will it continue to move in
same circular path or will change the path? Explain your answer with reasons.
Q9. Kepler’s laws apply to any system where the force binding the system is gravitational in
nature. State Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion and comment why Earth and other Planet
doesn’t fall into the Sun while Earth and other Planet is acted upon by gravitation of Sun.
Q10. A cricket match is played in Sydney in Australia but we can watch it live in India. A
game of Tennis played in America is enjoyed in India. What you think what makes it
possible? Find out the Minimum number of satellites that are required to cover entire earth
so that at least one satellite is visible from any point on the equator.
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Conservation of Energy
The total energy of an isolated
Where k is spring constant system always remain constant.
The energy may change its form.
Power
Conservation of mechanical energy
The rate at which work is
during the freefall of a body
done is called power.
Average power = work done/
time taken
Unit of power = joule/second
= watt
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V2= u2+2gs
U=0 , s=h1
V2 = 2gh1 A conservative force has a
property that the work done by a
K.E. = ½ mv2
conservative force is
= (m/2) 2gh1 independent of the path.
= mgh1 WAB(along 1) = -WBA(along 2)
WAB+ WBA = 0
K.E. + P.E. = mgh1+mgh2 The work done by the
= mgh conservative force on an object
is zero when the object moves
Total energy is conserved. around a closed path and return
Conservation of mechanical energy back to its starting point.
for a mass oscillating on a spring Non conservative force
A non-conservative force has a
property that the work done by a
conservative force is dependent
of the path.
½ k xm2 = ½ m v2
K.E. + P.E. (before collision) = K.E. +
P.E. (after collision)
The total energy is conserved. Elastic and Inelastic collision
Conservative and Dissipative Forces When two bodies interact, it is
termed as collision.
Conservative forces Collision is an isolated event in
which a strong force acts
between two or more bodies for
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b) 𝑚2
𝑚1
c) m2/m1
d) 𝑚1
𝑚2
Stretch Yourself
1. When an air bubble raise in
water. What happen to its
potential energy
2. A body of mass 50 kg has a
momentum of 100 kgms-1
calculate its K.E.
3. What is meant by zero work?
State the condition under which
a force does no work give
example
4. State and explain work energy
principles.
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Lesson 6 – Work Energy and Power
Worksheet-6
Q1. Suppose you are riding a bicycle along a straight horizontal road. Note down the distance
travelled and mass of the bicycle. Is there any work done by the bicycle against gravity.
a) If Yes, Calculate the work done by the bicycle against gravity
b) If No, Support your answer with reasons
Q2. Work done is defined by W = Fd cos where the angle between the force and the
displacement is important. In fact, it leads us to the situation in which work becomes a
positive or a negative quantity.
Hence, observe your surroundings and give examples of positive work and negative work
from day to day life.
Q3. Continue to Q2, we did not consider whether the work is done in one second or in one
hour. However, the time taken to perform a particular work is important, in our daily life.
Why, it is important to know the rate at which work is done and how will you calculate the
rate at which work is done?
Q4. In Physics work is defined as done by a force, whatever its magnitude, if there is
displacement of the object. The capacity to do work is called energy. All objects, moving
or stationary possess some kind of energy due to their motion or position in space.
Hence, observe your surroundings and explain different types of energies possessed by
moving or stationary objects.
Q5. Take three identical balls and arrange them as given in the figure below on frictionless
surface.
Two balls bearing in contact with each other are hit head on by third ball moving initially
with a speed v as shown in above figure. Consider collision is elastic, observe and write
down the possible result/results after collision.
Q6. Observe your surroundings and explain Law of Conservation of Energy by having one
example from day to day life.
Q7. Observe your surroundings; give examples of Conservative Forces and Non Conservative
Forces. Differentiate Conservative Forces and Non Conservative Forces with supportive
explanation.
Q8. It’s well known phenomena that a healthy human heart beats 72 times in one minute.
Assume that average work done by a healthy human heart is 0.6J while it beats once.
Calculate the power used by heart in one minute.
Q9. Your father is driving a car of mass 2000kg. He started the car from rest; explain how
much work must be done by the engine to attain the speed of 1 km h-1 in 2 minutes. The
speed of car is 80 km h-1 on a highway. Suddenly father applies brakes to avoid an
accident and the car comes to rest in 5 seconds. Comment on the average power of the
brakes.
Q10. A man fires a bullet of mass 1kg on a target and bullet gets embedded into target of Mass
50kg. Comment which type of collision is this? The velocity of bullet before collision is
120km/h? Calculate
a) Velocity of the system after collision.
b) Kinetic energies before and after the collision?
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7
Motion of a Rigid Body
∑
x= ∑
∑
Y= ∑
The potential energies of particles
1 and 2 are mgz1 and mgz2 , ∑
respectively. The potential energy z= ∑
of the particle at C is 2mgz.
The forces acting on a body can be
2 mgz = mgz1 + mgz2 of two kinds. Some forces can be
𝑧 +𝑧 due to sources outside the body.
𝑧= These forces are called the external
2
forces.
(m1 + m2 )gz = m1gz1 + m2gz2 A familiar example is the force of
gravity.
Some other forces arise due to the
𝑚 𝑧 +𝑚 𝑧 interaction among the particles of
𝑧=
(𝑚 + 𝑚 ) the body. These are called internal
The point C is called the centre of forces.
mass (CM) of the system. As such, A familiar example is cohesive
it is a mathematical tool and there force
is no physical point as CM. The CM of a body moves as
though the entire mass of the body
If the particle with mass m1 has were located at that point and it
coordinates (x1 , y1 , z1 ) with respect to was acted upon by the sum of all
some coordinate system, mass m2 has the external forces acting on the
body.
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I =∑ 𝒎𝒊 𝒓𝟐𝒊
I is called the moment of inertia of the
body.
TRANSLATIONAL AND
ROTATIONAL MOTION OF A RIGID
Equations of motion for a
BODY
uniformly rotating rigid body
When a rigid body moves in such a
way that all its particles move θ=ωt
along parallel paths its motion is 𝜔 =𝜔 +αt
called translational motion θ = 𝜔 t + 𝛼𝑡
The motion of a rigid body in 𝜔 = 𝜔 + 2𝛼𝜃
which all its constituent particles
describe concentric circular paths is Theorems of moment of inertia
known as rotational motion.
Theorem of parallel axes
Moment of Inertia
Theorem of parallel axis states that the
T= (1/2)𝒎𝟏 𝒗𝟐𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐𝟐 moment of inertia about an axis parallel to
𝟏
the axis passing through its centre of mass
=∑𝑵
𝒊 𝟏 𝒎𝒊 𝒗𝟐𝒊 is equal to the moment of inertia about its
𝟐
centre of mass plus the prod
product of mass
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and square of the perpendicular distance If there is no net torque acting on the body
between the parallel axes
𝑑𝐿
= 0.
𝑑𝑡
This means that there is no change
in angular momentum, i.e. the
angular momentum is constant.
This is the principle of
conservation of angular
momentum.
Check your progress
1. Position of center of mass of
uniform solid sphere.
𝐼 = 𝐼 + 𝑀𝑑
a) Center of Sphere
Theorem of perpendicular axes b) Radius of sphere
c) Diameter of sphere
The sum of the moments of inertia about x d) N.A
and y axes is equal to the moment of 2. Which one of the following is
inertia about the z– axis. correct?
𝐼 =𝐼 +𝐼 A. 𝜏 = 𝑟. 𝐹
B. 𝜏 =𝑟×𝐹
C. 𝜏 = 𝑟/𝐹
D. 𝜏 = 𝐹/𝑟
3. Dimension of angular velocity
a) M0L0T-2
b) M0L0T-1
c) M1L0T-1
d) M0L1T-1
4. Moment of inertia for a solid
Torque and Couple sphere of radius R
The turning effect of a force is called a) 2/5 MR2
torque. Its magnitude is given by b) 2/3MR2
c) 1/2MR2
τ = F s = Fr sin θ d) 1/4MR2
5. For which of the following does
ANGULAR MOMENTUM
the center of mass lie outside of
. The product of linear momentum body
and the distance from the axis is a) Pencil
called angular momentum, denoted b) Dice
by L. c) Bangle
L=∑ 𝜔 𝑚 𝑟 d) Shotput
L=Iω Check your strength
Conservation of angular 1. Can a body in translator motion
momentum have angular momentum explain?
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2. Can a body in translatory motion
have angular momentum?
3. State the two theorem of M.I.
4. In a molecule of CO the nuclei of
the two atoms are 1.13x10-10 m
apart. Locate the center of mass of
the molecule
5. Discuss the physical meaning of
angular momentum.
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1. In general, when extended bodies interact with each other and the distance between
them is very much as compared to their sizes, which can be ignored and they may be
treated as point masses. Observe your surroundings and give examples of such cases
where the sizes of the bodies are not important?
2. Observe your surroundings and give examples of Rigid Bodies. Explain why these
bodies are known as rigid bodies?
3. Enlist any five rigid bodies from your surroundings. Is every rigid body has a Center of
Mass (CM). If yes then find CM of these rigid bodies. Is CM always lies at the centre or
it may be outside the body? What can be the reason for the CM not being at the centre?
4. Can the body perform both translational motion and rotational motion simultaneously?
Observe your surroundings and enlist bodies having translational motion, rotational
motion and both translation and rotational motion. Write the condition for which a body
can’t have transactional motion; it can have only rotational motion.
6. Why does a solid sphere have smaller moment of inertia than a hollow cylinder having
same mass and radius, about an axis passing through their axes of symmetry?
7. There are two theorems which connect moments of inertia about two axes; one of which
is passing through the CM of the body that is theorem of parallel axes and another one
is theorem of perpendicular axes. Explain both theorems with their applications.
8. Measure dimensions of your room door and note it down. Release the door by exerting
a force, let 5N at its edge (away from the hinges). Compute the torque produced which
causes the door to open.
9. If there is no net torque acting on the body it means that there is no change in angular
momentum, i.e. the angular momentum is constant. Name and explain the principle.
10. What will be the angular momentum of a thin hoop of radius 2 m and mass 1 kg that is
rotating at a velocity of 4 rad/s?
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8
ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
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Volume Strain :
If on application of a uniform
pressure Δp, the volume V of the
body changes by ΔV without
change of shape of the body, then
Volume strain = change in volume
/original volume
Region of Proportionality
Elastic Limit
Point C
Breaking point F
The stress corresponding to
breaking point F is called
breaking stress or tensile
Shearing strain: strength.
When the deforming forces are Within the elastic limit, the maximum
tangential the shearing strain is stress which an object can be subjected to
given by the angle θ through which is called working stress and the ratio
a line perpendicular to the fixed between working stress and breaking stress
plane is turned due to deformation. is called factor of safety.
Stress-Strain Curve for Rubber
Steel is more Elastic than Rubber
HOOKE’S LAW
Within elastic limit, stress is
directly proportional to
corresponding strain. i.e. stress α
strain or stress strain = constant (E
Stress-strain Curve for a Metallic Wire
This constant of proportionality E
is a measure of elasticity of the
substance and is called modulus of
elasticity
Modulus of Elasticity
Young’s Modulus:
The ratio of the longitudinal stress to the
longitudinal strain is called Young’s
modulus for the material of the body.
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Elastic energy
Stretch yourself
It is a kind of potential energy and
it is the energy which is associated
with the state of compression or 1. Is steel is more elastic than rubber,
extension of an elastic object like a explain
spring 2. Why gas have no fixed shape and
size then solid. Explain
Check yourself
3. How much force is required to
1. The stress may be have an increase of 0.5% in the
a) Longitudinal length of a metallic wire of radius
b) Normal 0.1mm.Given 𝛾 = 9 × 10 𝑁𝑚
c) Shearing 4. Why poission ratio have no units?
d) All the above Explain
2. A load of 100 kg is suspended by a 5. What is Young Modulus? Derive
wire of length 1.0 m and cross expression for Young Modulus
sectional area 0.10cm2. wire is
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Lesson 8: Elastic Properties of Solids
Worksheet-8
1. It is well known phenomenon that some objects regain their original shape and size when a
suitable force is applied on these objects whereas others do not. Explain why it is so with
suitable examples from your surroundings.
The variation of inter molecular forces with inter molecular separation is shown in above
figure.
When the separation is large, the force between two molecules is attractive and weak. As
the separation decreases, the net force of attraction increases up to a particular value and
beyond this, the force becomes repulsive. At a distance R = R0 the net force between the
molecules is zero. This separation is called equilibrium separation. Thus, if inter-molecular
separation R > R0 there will be an attractive force between molecules. When R < R0, a
repulsive force will act between them.
3. Continue to Q2, classify the objects from your surroundings into solid, liquid, and gaseous.
The forces which act between molecules are responsible for the structure of matter. Define
and explain the forces responsible for the structure of matter.
4. Observe your surroundings and enlist Elastic and Plastic Bodies. Define Elastic and Plastic
Bodies. Is any perfectly elastic or perfectly plastic body exists in nature? Explain the
phenomenon of elasticity in terms of inter-molecular forces.
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Lesson 8: Elastic Properties of Solids
Worksheet-8
6. Take a metallic wire of uniform cross-section. Apply different amount of increasing forces
and note down the changes in metallic wire. Plot a Stress-Strain Curve for metallic wire
when a metallic wire of uniform cross-section is subjected to different amount of
increasing forces. Explain the regions and points on the curve that is of particular
importance.
8. A tensile test was conducted on a steel wire. The diameter and the gauge length of wire
were 5cm and 200cm respectively. Wire was stretched by a load 5kg. The extension in
wire was 0.21mm. Calculate
a) Longitudinal Stress
b) Longitudinal Strain
c) Young’s Modulus
9. A metal rod of 40 mm diameter and 4 m long is subjected to a tensile force of 120 kN, it
showed and elongation of 4 mm and reduction of diameter by 0.012 mm. Calculate the
Poisson's ratio and three moduli of elasticity.
10. Observe your surroundings and write different applications of elastic behaviour of
materials in day to day life.
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9
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE Therefore, Patm = h ρ g = 0.76 ×
13600 × 9.8 Nm–2 = 1.01 × 10 5
effect of force on unit area is called Nm–2 = 1.01 × 105 Pa
pressure
The pressure exerted by a fluid at BUOYANCY
rest is known as hydrostatic
The upward force, which acts on an
pressure
object when submerged in a fluid,
The SI Unit of pressure is Nm–2
is known as buoyant force
and is also called Pascal (Pa) in the
honour of French scientist Blaise Archimedes principle
Pascal.
It state that when an object is
Hydrostatic Pressure at a point in submerged partially or fully in a
side a liquid fluid, the magnitude of the buoyant
force on it is always equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by the
object
Floating objects
One of the forces is due to
gravitational force, which pulls it
downwards.
However, the displaced water
exerts buoyant force which acts
upwards. These forces balance
each other in equilibrium state and
the object is then said to be floating
Pressure does not depend upon on water.
shape of the vessel.
PASCAL’S LAW
Atmospheric Pressure
which states that when pressure is
The pressure exerted by the applied at any part of an enclosed
atmosphere is known as the liquid, it is transmitted
atmospheric pressure undiminished to every point of the
In equi1ibrium, atmospheric liquid as well as to the walls of the
pressure equals the pressure container
exerted by the mercury column.
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This law is also known as the law Detergents and surface tension
of transmission of liquid pressure. Wax-Duck floating on water
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1A) 2 B) 3 C) 4
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Lesson 9: Properties of Fluids
Worksheet-9
1. If you pour water and honey in separate funnels, you will observe that water comes out
more easily than honey. Explain the properties of liquids which cause the difference in
their flow.
2. Take a container and make three to four holes at different heights in the container. Fill the
container with water and observe the flow of water from different holes. Explain the
phenomenon responsible for different pressure at different height in the container.
Calculate the pressure acting on the water at a depth of 2ft at 32°F?
3. Iceberg floats in water with part of it submerged. Calculate the fraction of the volume of
iceberg submerged in water, if the density of ice is ρ = 0.917 g cm-3.
4. It is well known phenomenon that nose starts bleeding and the fountain pen leaks at high
altitudes. Explain the phenomenon.
5. Take an egg and put it into the water, you will observe egg normally sinks in water. If we
want to have an egg to float in water, what should we have to do? Why it is possible for a
body to float completely immersed partially immersed and sinks in water?
6. Pascal’s law states that when pressure is applied at any part of an enclosed liquid, it is
transmitted undiminished to every point of the liquid as well as to the walls of the
container. Observe your surroundings and write applications of Pascal’s law in day to day
life.
7. You may have seen different advertisements highlighting that detergents can remove oil
stains from clothes. Explain how detergents works to remove oil stains from clothes.
8. It is observed that if the lower end of a cloth gets wet, water slowly rises upward. Also
water given to the fields rises in the innumerable capillaries in the stems of plants and trees
and reaches the branches and leaves. Why it is so? Prove that if the radius of tube is less,
liquid rise will be high.
9. Consider two solid spheres P and Q each of density 8 g/cm3 and diameters 1 cm and 0.5
cm, respectively. Sphere P is dropped into a liquid of density 0.8 g/cm3 and
viscosity η=3 poiseulles. Sphere Q is dropped into a liquid of density 1.6 g/cm3 and
viscosity η=2 poiseulles. Calculate the ratio of the terminal velocities of P and Q.
10. Observe your surroundings and comment what happens to the viscosity of liquid and gases
when temperature increases.
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10
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∆𝐴
𝛽=
𝐴 ∆𝜃 The coefficient of pressure expansion of a
gas at constant volume is given by
Cubical expansion,
∆𝑉 ∝ 𝑉 ∆𝜃
𝑉 −𝑉
𝛾 =
𝑉 ∆𝜃 ∆
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Stretch Yourself
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Lesson 10: Kinetic Theory of Gases
Worksheet -10
1. Under different conditions of temperature, pressure and volume, gases exhibit different
properties. Observe your surroundings and write different properties of gases under
different conditions. For example, at room temperature, atoms/molecules have finite
thermal energy. If thermal energy increases, molecules begin to move more freely.
2. The term temperature and heat are often used interchangeably in everyday language. In
Physics, however, is there any difference between temperature and heat?
a) If Yes, Support your answer with reasons.
b) If No, Support your answer with reasons.
3. Take some objects from your surroundings of same mass and supply same quantity of heat
to all objects. You will observe that the rise in temperature is found to be different in
different solids in spite of having the same mass and being supplied the same quantity of
heat. Why it is so? Support your observations with suitable reasons. Also write the
expression for amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a substance.
4. Explain Principle of Calorimetry. Find the temperature of the mixture if a piece of copper
weighing 500 g is heated to 100o C and dropped into 200g of water at 25oC. The specific heat of Cu
is 0.42 joule/gram °C.
6. What you understand by an ideal gas? A cylinder containing an ideal gas is in vertical
position and has a piston of mass M that is able to move up or down without friction as
given in figure below
What will be the impact of temperature increase on pressure and volume of gas and why?
7. A mass of gas occupies 200 cm3 at a temperature of 27°C and a pressure of 100 kPa.
Calculate the volume when:
a) The pressure is doubled at constant temperature.
b) The absolute temperature is doubled at constant pressure.
c) The pressure is increased to 150 kPa and the temperature is 127°C.
8. Neon is a monatomic gas in which inter-molecular forces are extremely weak. 1.00 kg of
neon gas has a density of 0.828 kgm-3 at a pressure of 100 kPa and temperature of 293 K.
Calculate:
a) Average kinetic energy of each gas molecule
b) Total kinetic energy of the gas
c) Root-mean-square speed
9. Suppose you want to fill a pressurized tank with a volume of 4.00 L with oxygen-enriched
air for use in diving, and you want the tank to contain 50.0 g of O2 and 150 g of N2. What
will be the total gas pressure in the tank at 25°C?
10. Define specific heat, specific heat at constant volume (Cv) and specific heat at constant
pressure (Cp). Also drive relationship between Cp and Cv
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11
THERMODYNAMICS
CONCEPT OF HEAT AND surroundings. A water heater is an
TEMPERATURE open system.
Heat Closed system:
Heat is the form of energy It is a system which can exchange
transferred between two (or more) energy but not mass with the
systems or a system and its surroundings. A gas enclosed in a
surroundings because of cylinder fitted with a piston is a
temperature difference. closed system
Isolated system:
Concept of Temperature It is a system which can exchange
neither mass nor energy with the
All bodies in thermal equilibrium have a
surrounding. A filled thermos
common property, called temperature,
flank is an ideal example of an
Temperature of a body is the property isolated system.
which determines whether or not it is in
Indicator diagram :
thermal equilibrium with other bodies.
How pressure (P) of a system
Thermodynamic Terms
varies with its volume (V) during a
Thermodynamic system thermodynamic process and is
known as an indicator diagram
A thermodynamic system refers to
ΔW = P ΔV
a definite quantity of matter which
is considered unique and separated
from everything else, which can
influence it
Open System
It is a system which can exchange
mass and energy with the
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Isobaric process
A thermodynamic process that
occurs at constant pressure is an
isobaric process. Heating of water
under atmospheric pressure is an
isobaric process.
Isochoric process
A thermodynamic process that
occurs at constant volume is an
THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM isochoric process.
Q.1 Observe your surrounding and give three examples of each heat and temperature. Explain
the concept of heat and temperature. A tyre pumped to a pressure of 3.375 atmosphere and
at 27°C suddenly bursts. Calculate the temperature of escaping air. Given γ = 1.5.
Q.2 Define Thermodynamic System. Observe your surrounding and on the basis of
thermodynamic system give one example for each - Open System, Closed System and
Isolated System
Q.3 Take a container and fill it with a boiling liquid (water/ tea/ milk/coffee). Left the container
and observe the temperature in small intervals of 30 minutes. Note down your observations.
It is common experience that after some time, the liquid attains the room temperature. Name
and explain the phenomenon.
Q.4 If any of the thermodynamic variables of a system change while going from one equilibrium
state to another, the system is said to execute a thermodynamic process. Name and define
different types of thermodynamic processes. Observe your surrounding and give three
practical examples of each thermodynamic process.
Q.5 State and explain First Law of Thermodynamics. This law fails to provide answers to some
questions which are known as limitations of the First Law of Thermodynamics. Observe and
mention those limitations of the First Law of Thermodynamics.
.
Q.6 Think and answer, “Can heat be wholly converted into work” “Is it possible for any process
to have as its sole result to transfer heat from a colder body to a hotter body without any
external work. Discuss the postulate which contains answers of such questions.
Q.7 Notice your mother while cooking rice in open vessel with a lid; you will observe that when
water is boiled in a vessel the steam generated inside throws off the lid. Explain the
phenomenon.
Q.8 Name and explain the principle on which modern engines which we use in our daily life are
based on. Also explain different categories of heat engine.
Q.9 Efficiency is defined as the ratio of heat converted into work in a cycle to heat taken from
the source by the working substance. Based on this statement discuss efficiency of Carnot
Engine
Q.10 Calculate the change in internal energy of a block of copper of mass 200 g when it is
heated from 25°C to 75°C. Take specific heat of copper =0.1 cal g-1 °C-1 and assume the
change in volume as negligible.
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12
Radiation
Radiation refers to continuous emission of
energy from the surface of a body. This
energy is called radiant energy and is in
the form of electromagnetic waves. These
waves travel with the velocity of light (3 ×
l08 ms–1) and can travel through vacuum
as well as through air. They can easily be
reflected from polished surfaces and
focussed using a lens.
RADIATION LAWS
Stretch Yourself
1. Heat is transferred in solid by
..........
A. Conduction
B. Convection 1. Why are the woollen clothes
C. Radiation warmer than cotton clothes
D. None of these 2. Why is it more difficult to sip hot
tea from a metal cup than from a
china cup
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Q1. The second law of thermodynamics state that the natural tendency of heat is to flow
spontaneously from a body at higher temperature to a body at lower temperature. The
transfer of heat continues until the temperatures of the two bodies become equal. There are
three processes by which transfer of heat takes place. These are conduction, convection and
radiation. Observe your surroundings and write two examples of each process with
explanation how this happens.
Q2. How can we capitalize on the principles of heat transfer to improve the way we live?
Perform one activity to observe and compare the principle of heat transfer in black and
white body.
Q3. Why is it important to understand the processes by which transfer of heat takes place? What
is the importance of material selection in choosing a pipe for a hot water system?
Q4. "Using different materials, we can either maximize heat transfer (with high conductance), or
prevent it as much as possible (using insulators)". Observe the surroundings and give at least
two examples from daily life.
Q5. You all are aware about the solar water heaters which use solar energy to heat water for
domestic, commercial, and industrial needs. Explain how solar water heaters capture solar
radiant energy and convert it to thermal energy? Observe and write uses of solar water
heater.
Q6. Newton’s law of cooling states that the rate of cooling of a hot body is directly proportional
to the mean excess temperature of the hot body over that of its surroundings provided the
difference of temperature is small. Observe your surroundings and give two applications of
‘Newton’s Law of Cooling’.
Q7. What is called for the phenomenon when the radiation absorbed by the atmosphere is re-
radiated towards the surface of the Earth? Why have experts become worried about the
greenhouse effect now? Which is the main feedback gas of the greenhouse effect?
Q8. You are required to perform an experiment, in which you take a beaker of water and place it
on a Bunsen burner to boil the water. Then add a piece of copper tube into water, such that
one end of copper tube is sticking out in air. Identify the forms of heat transfer in this
experiment.
Q9. A pan filled with hot food cools from 940C to 860C in 2 minutes when the room temperature
is at 200C. How long will it take to cool from 710 C to 690 C?
Q10. Water is boiled in a rectangular steel tank of thickness 2cm by a constant temperature
furnace. Due to vaporization, water level falls at a steady rate of 1 cm in 9 minutes.
Calculate the temperature of the furnace. Given K for steel = 0.2 cal s-1 m-1 0 C-1)
13
Angular Frequency
ω describes the rate of change of phase angle.
It is expressed in radian per second.
Horizontal Oscillations of a Spring-Mass
System
ENERGY OF SIMPLE
HARMONIC OSCILLATOR
DAMPED HARMONIC
OSCILLATIONS
Simple Pendulum
Every oscillating system normally has a
A simple pendulum is a small spherical bob viscous medium surrounding it.
suspended by a long cotton thread held
between the two halves of a clamped split As a result in each oscillation some of its
cork in a stand, energy is dissipated as heat. As the energy of
oscillation decreases the amplitude of A. Rate of change of velocity
oscillation also decreases. B. Displacement
C. Velocity
The amplitude of oscillations of a pendulum D. Direction
in air decreases continuously. Such
oscillations are called damped oscillations. 4. The motion of a particle moving with
simple harmonic motion, from an extremity
FREE AND FORCED to the other, constitutes
VIBRATIONS : RESONANCE
When an oscillatroy system vibrates on its A. Half an oscillation
own, its vibrations are said to be free. If, B. One an oscillation
however, an oscillatory system is driven by an C. Two oscillations
external system, its vibrations are said to be D. None of the above
forced vibrations. And if the frequency of the
driver equals to the natural frequency of the 5. The periodic time of a body moving in
driven, the phenomenon of resonance is said simple harmonic motion is
to occur
A. Directly proportional to its
angular velocity
Check Your self B. Directly proportional to the
weight of the body
C. Directly proportional to the
1. A particle in simple harmonic motion
momentum of swinging body
while passing through mean position will
have D. Inversely proportional to the
angular velocity
Q.1 You are familiar with motion in a straight line, projectile motion and circular motion. These
motions are defined by the path followed by the moving object. But some objects execute
motion which is repeated after a certain interval of time. Name the type of motion and give
examples from your surroundings.
Q.3 A particle is said to execute Simple Harmonic Motion if it moves to and fro about a fixed
point periodically, under the action of a force F which is directly proportional to its
displacement x from the fixed point and the direction of the force is opposite to that of the
displacement. Observe the following functions and pick out the function/functions represent
which represent Simple Harmonic Motion. Give justification for your answer.
a. y sin t
b. y sint cos3t
c. y sint 3 cost
Q.4 Take a pendulum of any length and let the pendulum to oscillate freely about the point of
suspension. Calculate periodic time of the pendulum. Now increase the length of the
pendulum by 35%. Calculate the percentage increase in the periodic time of the pendulum.
Q.5 Put an oscillating simple pendulum of period T inside a lift which is accelerating
downwards. Observe the effect on time period of oscillating simple pendulum?
Q.6. Consider a particle executing linear Simple Harmonic Motionbetween two points A and B.
The separation between A and B is 10 cm as shown in figure.
Taking the direction from A to B as the positive direction, give the signs of velocity, acceleration
and force on the particle when it is
a. at the end A,
b. at the end B,
c. at 2 cm away from B going towards A
d. at 3 cm away from A going towards B and
e. at 4 cm away from B going towards A
Q.7 Consider a spring with a spring constant 1500 Nm-1 is mounted on a horizontal table as
shown in figure. A mass of 4 kg is attached to the free end of the spring. The mass is then
pulled sideways to a distance of 2.0 cm and released. Determine (i) the frequency of
oscillations, (ii) maximum acceleration of the mass, and (iii) the maximum speed of the
mass.
Q.8 Obtain the corresponding simple harmonic motions of the x-projection of the radius vector
of the revolving particle P for circular motion shown in the figure.
Q.9 Consider a U-tube partially filled with mercury of which one end is connected to a suction
pump and the other end to atmosphere. A small pressure difference is maintained between
the two columns. Show that, when the suction pump is removed, the column of mercury in
the U-tube executes simple harmonic motion.
Q.10 Take two springs with spring constant ‘K’. Firstly connect the springs in series and then in
parallel. Find out the ratio of the frequencies of the vertical Oscillations for these two cases.
Senior Secondary Course
Learner’s Guide, Physics (312)
14
WAVE PHENOMENA
y = a sin (ωt – φ)
the wave moves along the string, all
particles of the string are oscillating up and y(x, t) = a sin (ωt – kx)
down about their respective equilibrium
positions with the same period (T) and y(x, t) = a sin 2π (t/T-x/λ)
amplitude (A). y (x,t) = a sin [(ωt – kx) + φ0 ]
v = vλ
ω = Τ/2π = 2πv Phase difference between two points on
a wave
y = a sin (ωt – kx)
and y = a sin [ωt – k (x + Δx)]
Phase difference between them
2𝜋 2𝜋
∆𝜑 = 𝑘∆𝑥 = ∆𝑥 = − (𝑥2 − 𝑥1)
𝜆 𝜆
Where γ=
ϒ𝑃 ϒ𝑅𝑇
ʋ= =
𝜌 𝑚
If one end is closed called close pipe Apparent change of frequency observed
due to the relative motion of the observer
and the source is known as Doppler effect.
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
(i) E.M. waves are transverse in
nature
(ii) They consist of electric (E) and
magnetic fields (B) oscillating
at right angles to each other and
perpendicular to the direction
of propagation (k).
𝑣−𝑣
𝑛
𝑣−𝑣
c) 0.55 ms-1
d) 0.65 ms-1
4 A tunning fork of unknown frequency
gives 5 beats per second with another
tunning of 500 Hz. Frequency of
unknown fork in Hz
a) 495,505
b) 490,510
c) 500,505
d) 495,500
5 The point where amplitude is maximum
but the strain is minimum called
a) nodes
b) antinodes
c) successive node
d) none of the above
Q.1 Wave travel linearly and particle can vibrate on its mean position. A wave transmits
momentum. Can it transfer angular momentum?
Q.2 How does the velocity of e.m. waves depend upon the permeability and permittivity of the
medium through which they pass?
Q.3 Do displacement, particle velocity and pressure variation in a longitudinal wave vary with
the same phase?
Q.4 Name important properties of a material medium responsible for the propagation of waves
through it.
Q.5 Two girls are at opposite ends of a brass rod. One girl strikes the end of the rod with a
hammer. Find the ratio of times taken by the sound wave in air and in brass to reach the
second girl?
Q.6 Since we know that there is absence of atmosphere outside of the Earth. Imagine two
astronauts are on the surface of the moon and want to talk each other. Can they talk to each
other?
a) If yes, support your answer with reasons
b) If no, support your answer with reasons
Q.7 An engine blowing a whistle of frequency 250 Hz moves with a velocity 20 ms -1 towards a
hill from which a well defined echo is heard. Calculate the frequency of the echo as heard
by the driver. Velocity of sound in air is 340 ms-1.
Q.8 Does the sound of a bomb explosion travel faster than the sound produced by a humming
bee? Explain with reasons.
Q.9 Two progressive sound waves each of frequency 170 Hz are travelling in opposite directions
in air and superpose to produce stationary waves. The speed of sound in air is 340 ms-1.
What is the separation between (i) two successive nodes, (ii) two successive antinodes and
(iii) a node and its nearest antinode?
Q.10 A resonance tube is resonated with tuning fork of frequency 512 Hz. Two successive
lengths of the resonated air-column are 16.0 cm and 51.0 cm. The experiment is performed
at the room temperature of 40°C. Calculate the speed of sound at 0° C
Senior Secondary Course
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15
ELECTRIC FIELD
Faraday introduced the concept of electric 2𝑃
𝐸=
field. 4𝜋𝜀𝑟
The electric field E at a point is defined as
the electric force F experienced by a
positive test charge q0 placed at that point
divided by the magnitude of the test
charge.
𝐹
𝐸=
𝑞
the action of electric force is mediated
through electric field
Electric Dipole in a Uniform Field
τ=p×E
Electric Lines of Force (Field Lines)
two equal and opposite charges are The number of field lines passing through
separated by a small distance, the system is a unit area of a plane placed perpendicular
said to form a dipole.
2
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the direction of the field is proportional to Electric Field due to a Long Line
the strength of the field. Charge
The field lines start from a positive charge
radially outward in all directions and
terminate at infinity.
3
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d) 2 *10-3
2 SI unit of permittivity of free
space
a) C2N-1m-2
b) C1N-1m-2
c) C2N-2m-2
d) C2N-1m-1
5
Physics(312)
NIOS/Acad./2020/312/15/E
National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary
Lesson 15 – Electric Charge and Electric field
WORKSHEET – 15
Q.1 Perform simple activities to demonstrate the existence of charges and forces between
them. On the basis of your observations infer the basic properties of electric charges.
Also explain what will happen to the normal flow of tap water when a charged rod is
brought near it?
Q.2 If the total charge enclosed by a surface is zero, does it imply that the electric field
everywhere on the surface is zero? Conversely, if the electric field everywhere on a
surface is zero, does it imply that net charge inside is zero.
Q.3 Four identical metallic spheres can be treated as point charges. Sphere A and B have
charges “Qa” and “Qb” with separation r as shown in the figure given below.
r
Sphere A is touched with uncharged sphere C and sphere B with uncharged sphere D.
Separation between spheres A and B is then reduced to r/2 as shown in the figure given
below.
r/2
Find new electrostatic force between spheres A and Bin terms of the previous force.
Q.4 Figure given below shows tracks of the three charged particles in a uniform electrostatic
field. Which particle has lowest charge to mass ratio?
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 1
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
3
Q.5 a) Consider a point charge +Q is kept in the vicinity of uncharged conducting plate.
Sketch electric field lines between the charge and the plate.
b) The distance of the field point, on the equatorial plane of a small electric dipole is
halved. By what factor does the electric field due to the dipole change?
Q.6 Consider three point charges +2q, -q and +3q. The charges +2q and -q are enclosed
within a surface “S” and +3q is outside the surface “S” as shown in the figure given
below What is the electric flux due to this configuration through the surface “S”?
Q.7 An electric dipole of dipole moment “p” is placed in a uniform electric field "E”. Write
the expression for the torque experienced by the dipole. Identify two pairs of
perpendicular vectors in the expression.
Show diagrammatically the orientation of the dipole in the field for which the torque is
a) Maximum b) Half of the maximum value and c) Zero.
Q.8 A charge q is placed at the centre of the line joining two equal charges Q. Show that the
system of three charges will be in equilibrium if q = -Q/4.
Q.9 A point charge is placed at the centre of a closed Gaussian spherical surface of radius r.
How is the Electric flux through the surface affected when the following changes are
made in turn?
a) The spherical surface is replaced by a cylindrical surface of the same radius?
b) The point charge is replaced by an electric dipole?
Q.10 Plot a graph showing the variation of F versus 1/r 2 , where r is the distance between
two charges of each pair of charges ( 1C, 2C ) and ( 2C , -3C). Observe the graph
obtained and write your interpretation.
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16
1 𝑞
𝑉 = ×
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟
Potential at a Point due to an Electric
Dipole
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The
he total amount of work done in 𝜺
=𝜀
bringing various point charges of the 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 (𝜀 )
system to their respective positions from
𝐾
infinitely large mutual separations. 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒
=
RELATION BETWEEN ELECTRIC 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒
FIELD AND POTENTIAL 𝑪𝒎
K=
𝑪𝟎
Att any point, the electric field is equal to
negative rate of change of potential with GROUPING OF CAPACITORS
distance (called potential gradient) at that
Parallel Grouping of Capacitors
point in the direction of field.
Δ𝑉
𝐸=−
Δ𝑑
CAPACITANCE
Two conductors having equal but opposite
charges +Q and – Q on them. There is a
potential difference V between them. Such
a system of conductors is called a
capacitor.
C=Q/V
1 farad = 1coulomb/ 1 volt
Capacitance of a Spherical Conductor
𝑪 = 4𝜋𝜀
Types of Capacitors
Capacitance of an insulated conductor can
be increased by bringing near it an
uncharged earthed conductor. This is the equivalent capacitance of a number of
basic principle of a capacitor. capacitors joined in parallel is equal to the
A Parallel Plate Capacitor sum of the individual capacitances.
Remember that in parallel combination, all
A parallel plate capacitor is one of the simplest the capacitors have the same potential
capacitors in which two parallel metallic difference between their plates but charge
plates, each of area A, are separated from one is distributed in proportion to their
another by a small distance d. An insulating
capacitances
medium like air, paper, mica, glass etc
separates the plates. The plates are connected
to the terminals of a battery 𝐶 =𝐶 +𝐶 +𝐶 = 𝐶
𝜀 𝐴
𝑪=
𝒅 Series Grouping of Capacitors
Relative Permittivity or Dielectric
Constant
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\
The second plate of the first capacitor is
connected to the first plate of the second
capacitor. The second plate of second
capacitor is connected to first plate of the next
capacitor of the combination and so on. The
second plate of last capacitor of the
combination is connected to the electrical
source
1 1 1 1 1
= + + =
𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶
Check Yourself
Energy Stored in a Capacitor
The stored energy is directly proportional to 1. A test charge is moved from lower
the capacitance. It also increases as potential potential point to a higher potential
difference increases. point. The potential energy of test
charge will
𝟏 𝟏 (a) remain the same
𝑼= 𝒒𝑽 = 𝑪𝑽𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 (b) increase
DIELECTRICS AND DIELECTRIC (c) decrease
POLARIZATION (d) become zero
2. Dielectric constant for a metal is
Dielectrics are insulating materials, which (a) zero
transmit electric effects without conducting. (b) infinite
Dielectrics are of two types : non-polar and (c) 1
polar
(d) 10
Non-polar dielectrics 3. 1 volt is equivalent to
Stretch Yourself
1 C 2 B 3C 4D 5D
NIOS/Acad./2021/312/16/E
National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary
Lesson 16– Electric Potential and Capacitors
WORKSHEET – 16
Q1.Three small spheres each carrying a charge q are placed on the circumference of a circle
of radius r to form an equilateral triangle.Find the electric field and potential at the centre
of the circle.
Q2. Two charges of 5µC and -2µC are placed at points (2cm, 0, 0) and (xcm, 0,0) in a region
of space where there is no other external field.If the electrostatic potential energy of the
system is -0.5 J what is the value of x?
Q3. Statement I: A small metallic sphere is placed at the centre of a large charged spherical
shell and two are the connected by a wire. The charge will not flow from outer sphere to
inner sphere.
Statement II: A charged conductor is placed inside the hollow conductor and two are
connected by the wire. The whole charge will flow on the outer surface of the outer
conductor.
Choose the correct option.
a) Both the statement I and II are correct.
b) Statement I is correct only.
c) Statement II is correct only.
d) Both the statements are untrue
Q5. a) Plot a graph comparing the variation of potential V and electric field E due to a point
charge Q as a function of distance R from the point charge.
b) Find the ratio of the potential differences that must be applied across the parallel and
the series combination of 2 identical capacitors so that the energy stored, in the two
cases, becomes the same.
Q6. Three points A, B and C lie in the uniform electric field (E) of 5 x 103 N/C as shown in
figure.
A B
5 cm 3 cm
E
C
Find the Potential Difference between points
a) A and C
b) B and C
Q7. The graph given below shows the variation of charge Q versus potential difference V for
two capacitors C1 and C2.The two capacitors have same plate separation but the plate
area of C2 is double than that of C1.Which of the two graphs P and Q correspond to
capacitors C1 and C2 and why?
Q
q P
V
Q.8 Four identical plates each of area a are separated by a distance d. The connection is
shown below. What is the capacitance between P and Q?
P Q
Q.9 Capacitance of a capacitor becomes 7/6 times of the original value if a dielectric slab of
thickness t=2/3d is introduced between the plates. If d is separation between the plates.
What is the dielectric constant of the above mentioned slab?
Q.10 A parallel plate capacitor is made by stacking n equally spaced plates connected
alternatively. If the capacitance between the 2 adjacent plates is C, then calculate the
resultant capacitance.
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17
ELECTRIC CURRENT
Total charge in the volume element under Where ρ is a constant for the material at
consideration is given by constant temperature. It is called the specific
resistance or resistivity of the material.
If l = 1m and A = 1m2 , then ρ = R ohm-
metre. Thus resistivity of a material is the
resistance offered by a wire of length one
metre and area of cross section one m2 . The
OHM’S LAW
unit of resistivity is ohm metre (Ωm)
In 1828, Ohm studied the relation between
current in a conductor and potential
difference applied across it
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denoted by σ :
TYPES OF RESISTORS
Unit of conductivity is Ohm-1 metre-1 or mho-
metre-1 or Sm-1. 1) carbon resistors
2) wire wound resistors
GROUPING OF RESISTORS
TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF
Series Combination
RESISTANCE
Resistors in series by joining them end
end-to-end
such that the same current passes through all The resistivity of a conductor depends on
the resistors. temperature. For most metals, the resistivity
increases with temperature and the change is
Equivalent resistance in series linear over a limited range of temperature :
combination is
ρ = ρ0 [1 + α (T – T0 )] where ρ and ρ0 are
𝑹 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 + …. the resistivity’s at temperatures T and T0 ,
respectively
– the material of the electrodes; and Kirchhoff’s Second Rule (Loop Rule) : This
rule is an application of law of conservation
– the temperature of the cell.
of energy for electrical circuits. It tells us that
Elementary Idea of Primary and the algebraic sum of the products of the
Secondary cells currents and resistances in any closed loop of
an electrical network is equal to the algebraic
Primary Cells : In these cells, the chemical sum of electromotive forces acting in the
energy is directly converted into electrical loop
energy. The material of a primary cell is
consumed as we use the cell and, therefore, it
cannot be recharged and reused. Dry cell
,Daniel Cell, Voltaic Cell etc are examples of
primary cells
Secondary Cells : These are chemical cells
in which electrical energy is stored as a
reversible chemical reaction. When current is
drawn from the cells the chemical reaction
runs in the reverse direction and the original Wheatstone Bridge
substances are obtained. These cells,
therefore, can be charged again and again. It is an arrangement of four resistances which
Acid-accumulator, the type of battery we use can be used to measure one of them in terms
in our inverter or car,is a set of secondary of the other three
cells. 𝑷 𝑹
=
𝑸 𝑺
KIRCHHOFF’S RULES
Kirchhoff formulated two rules which enable
us to know the distribution of current in
complicated electrical circuits or electrical
networks
Kirchhoff’s First Rule (Junction Rule) : It
states that the sum of all currents directed
towards a junction (point) in an electrical
network is equal to the sum of all the currents
directed away from the junction.
POTENTIOMETER
The potentiometer can also be used for
measurement of internal resistance of a cell,
the current flowing in a circuit and
comparison of resistances.
𝐼 =0
The measurements with potentiometer have
following advantages :
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POWER CONSUMED IN AN
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
The electrical power lost in a conductor as
heat is called joule heat. The heat produced is
proportional to :
(i) square of current (I),
(ii) resistance of conductor (R), and
(iii) time for which current is passed (t)
Stretch Yourself
Q1. A cell having an emf E and internal resistance r is connected across a variable external
resistance R. As the resistance R is increased, plot the graph of potential difference V across
R.
Q2. In a Wheatstone bridge if the battery and galvanometer are interchanged then comment upon
the deflection in galvanometer.
Q3. A steel wire is stretched to make it 0.2% longer. What is the percentage change in its
resistance and resistivity?
Q4. The equivalent resistance between the terminal point P and Q is 4Ω in the given circuit. Find
out the resistance of R in ohms.
Q5. Two conducting wires P and Q are having same diameter but made up of different materials.
Both the wires are joined in series across a battery. If the number density of electrons in P is
3 times than in Q, find the ratio of drift velocity of electrons in the two wires.
Q6. Two conducting wires X and Y of same diameter but different materials are joined in series
to form a battery. If the number density of electrons in X is twice that in Y, find the ratio of
drift velocity of electrons in the two wires. Explain if they are connected in parallel?
Q6. For the potentiometer circuit shown in the given figure point X and Y represent the two
terminals of a cell of an unknown e.m.f. E.A student observed that when the jockey is
moved from end A to end B of the potentiometer wire, the deflection in the galvanometer
remains in the same direction.
a) What are two possible faults in the circuit that could result in this observation?
b) If the galvanometer deflection at the end B is
i) More than at end A
ii) Less than at end A,
Which of the two faults, listed above, would be there in the circuit? Give reasons in
support of your answer in each case.
Q8. In the given circuit, assuming point A to be at zero potential, use Kirchhoff’s rules to
determine the potential at point B
Q9. Two tungsten filaments with resistance R1 and R2 respectively are connected first in series
and then in parallel in a lighting circuit of negligible internal resistance.If R 1>> R2 answer
the following questions –
a) Which lamp will glow more brightly when they are connected in series?
b) If the lamp of résistance R2 now burns out and the lamp R1 alone is plugged in; will
net illumination increase or decrease?
c) Which lamp will glow more brightly when they are connected in parallel?
d) If the lamp of resistance R1 now burns out, how will the net illumination produced
change?
Q10. At the temperature 00C, the electric resistance of conductor B is n times that of conductor
A. Their temperature coefficients of resistance are equal to α2 and α1 respectively. Find the
resistance and temperature coefficients of a resistance of a circuit segment consisting of
these two conductors when they are connected in series.
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18
BIOT-SAVART’S LAW
Experiments show that the field B due to
an element Δl depends on – current
flowing through the conductor, I;
– length of the element Δl ;
– inversely proportional to the square of
Applications of Ampere’s
the distance of observation point P from
the element Δl ; and
Circuital Law
– the angle between the element and the Magnetic field due to an infinitely
line joing the element to the observation long current carrying conductor
point.
2
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Cyclotron
It is used foraccelerating charged particles
(such as protons, deutron or α–particles) to
highvelocities.
Torque= force × perpendicular distance
between the force=
4
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B I l. b sin θ
Galvanometer
Galvanometer is used to detect electric
current in a circuit Check Yourself
Principle of Galvanometer :
A current carrying coil, when placed in a 1. A magnetic field can be produced
magnetic field, experiences a torque by
(a) A moving charge
(b) A changing electric field
(c) None of these
(d) Both of these
2. Field inside a solenoid is
(a) Directly proportional to its
length
(b) Directly proportional to current
(c) Inversely proportional to total
number of turns
An Ammeter and a Voltmeter (d) Inversely proportional to
Ammeter current
3. The magnetic field near a current
To convert a galvanometer into an carrying conductor is given by
ammeter, a low resistance wire is (a) Coulomb’s law
connected in parallel with the (b) Lenz’ law
galvanometer. The resistance of the shunt (c) Biot-savart’s law
depends on the range of the ammeter (d) Kirchoff’s law
4. The Biot-savart's law is a general
modification of
a) Kirchhoff's law
b) Lenz's law
c) Ampere's law
d) Faraday's laws
5.
Voltmeter
Convert a galvanometer into a voltmeter
by connecting a high resistance in series
with the galvanometer coil Stretch Yourself
1D2B3C4C
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NIOS/Acad./2020/312/18/E
National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary
Lesson 18 – Magnetism and Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
WORKSHEET – 18
Q1. You must be familiar with basic properties of magnets. Perform activities to explain the
properties of magnets. Explain the reason for the directive property of magnets.
Q2. Interactions between magnets or a magnet and a piece of iron essentially represent action
at a distance. This can be understood in terms of magnetic field. Draw the field lines to
visualize the direction and magnitude of a magnetic field.
a) Which end A or B represents the North Pole of the solenoid and Why?
b) What would be the effect on the magnetic field strength of the solenoid if the
amount of current is doubled and the radius of the solenoid is reduced to half?
Q4. Two strong bar magnets which produce magnetic fields of equal strength are shown in
diagram below:
Q.5 A100 cm long solenoid has two layers of windings of 300 turns each. The radius of the
lowest layer is 4 cm. The current passing through the solenoid id 5.0 A. Calculate the
magnitude of B (a) Near the center of solenoid on and about the axis. (b) Near the ends
on its axis. (c) Outside the solenoid near the center of solenoid. Deduce how the
magnetic field of a solenoid varies as we move from the center to the axis and then
outside the solenoid.
Q6. A particle of mass m and charge q travelling at velocity v is entering into a uniform
magnetic field of strength B directed inwards into the plane as shown in figure below -
Explain in your own words why the charged particle is taking a curved path in magnetic
field. Explain with reasons, whether the particle is positively charged or negatively
charge.
Q.7 Explain in your own words the basic principle and working of a galvanometer. A
galvanometer with a coil resistance of 10W shows full scale deflection for a current of
5.0 mA. How can this galvanometer be converted as
a) an ammeter of range 0-5A
b) a voltmeter of range 0-20 V.
Q.8 Take different types of vessels available at your home – copper, steel, iron, aluminum
and ceramic. Take a magnet and use this to see which of these is strongly attracted and
which one is feebly attracted. On the basis of your observation, classify various materials
into diamagnetic, paramagnetic and ferromagnetic materials. Mention two distinct
properties of each kind of material.
Q9. A suspended power line is running east-west near the equators as shown in figure below.
Calculate the magnitude of the force due to the earth’s magnetic field that acts on this
suspended power line carrying a current of 100 A from west to east. Assume that the
earth’s magnetic field at this point is 5.0 x 10-5 T.
Q.10 Explain Ampere circuital law. Using Ampere Circuital law, find out the expression for
the magnetic field due to a solenoid. Draw the field lines due to solenoid. Can a
solenoid be assumed to behave similar to a bar magnet? How?
Q.11 Suppose your house is exactly at a point that can be considered as the Earth’s magnetic
North Pole (behaves like South Pole of magnet). Assuming the strength of the earth’s
magnetic field at this point is 5.0 x 10-5 T, calculate the magnetic force and direction in
the following cases –
a) a 2.0 m length of wire carrying current of 10.0 A vertically up the outside wall of
your house.
b) a 2.0 m length of wire carrying a current of 10.0 A running horizontally right to
left across the outside wall of your house.
c) A current carrying wire runs horizontally across a table. The conventional
direction of the flow of current I is from left to right. Represent through a diagram
the direction of the magnetic field around the wire?
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through the circuit itself, current is induced The time taken by the current to reach
in it. about two-third of its steady state value is
equal to by L/R, which is called the
By changing current in a coil, the magnetic
inductive time constant of the circuit.
flux linked with each turn of the coil
changes and hence an induced emf appears
across that coil. This property is called
self-induction. for a pair of coils situated
close to each other such that the flux
associated with one coil is linked through
the other, a changing current in one coil
induces an emf in the other.
Mutual induction of the pair of coils. Mutual Inductance
φ ∝ I or φ = LI
where L is called self-inductance of the
coil. The circuit elements which oppose
change in current are called inductors
Faraday’s Law in terms of Self-
Inductance When current changes in a coil, a changing
magnetic flux develops around it, which
if current in a loop changes, the magnetic may induce emf across an adjoining coil.
flux linked through it also changes and
gives rise to self–induced emf between the 𝜑 = 𝑀𝐼
ends A solenoid has inductance (L) and resistance
ε = – dφ dt = –L dI dt (R), and each of these influence the current in
the circuit
ohm-second is called a henry
𝑑𝐼
current through an inductor cannot change 𝑒 = −𝑀
𝑑𝑡
instantaneously
The SI unit of mutual inductance is also
Self-inductance of a solenoid henry (H), the same as the unit of self-
inductance
𝝋 𝝁𝟎 𝑵𝟐 𝑨
𝑳= =
𝑰 𝒍 ALTERNATING CURRENTS AND
VOLTAGES
LR Circuits
V = Vm cos ωt (19.12a) and I = I m cos ωt
A solenoid has inductance (L) and
resistance (R), and each of these influence Vm and I m are known as the peak values
the current in the circuit of the alternating voltage and current
respectively.
AC Source Connected to a Resistor
I=
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I = I m cos ωt
Average power
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟐
𝑷𝒂𝒗 =𝑹
𝟐
AC Source Connected to a Capacitor
q = CVm cos ωt
Since I = dq/dt, we can write
I = – ωCVm sin ωt
V(t) = Vm cos ωt
𝑉
𝐼 =
𝑋 XL = ωL = 2 πvL
1
𝑃 = − 𝜔𝐶𝑉 sin 2𝜔𝑡
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𝐸
= (𝑋 − 𝑋 ) + 𝑅
𝐼
1 Dynamo (DC Generator)
𝑉 =
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶 A dynamo is a machine in which
This frequency is called resonance mechanical energy is changed into
frequency and at this frequency impedance electrical energy in the form of direct
is minimum. current
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NIOS/Acad./2020/312/19/E
National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary
Lesson 19 –Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current
WORKSHEET – 19
Q.1 An airplane with a wingspan of 80 m is flying at a speed of 990 kmh-1at right angles to
the earth’s magnetic field of value 5.0x10-5 T. How much is the emf induced on the tips
of the wings of the plane solely due to earth’s magnetic field? Can this be considered
dangerous for anyone sitting in plane?
Q.2 A single rectangular wire loop is located with its plane perpendicular to a uniform
magnetic field of 2.5 mT directed out of the page. The loop is free to rotate about the
horizontal axis XY.
a) Calculate the amount of magnetic flux passing through the loop in this position.
b) If the loop is rotated about the axis XY by 90o, how much is the amount of flux now
passing through the loop in new position?
Q.3 The south pole of the magnet is moved downwards away from the horizontal coil held
above it. Suggest the direction of induced current flowing in the coil.
Q.4 The induction furnaces are used in the industry for making alloys of different metals.
Explain in your own words, how Eddy currents are used in induction furnaces to make it
possible. Mention the physical principle involved here.
Q.5 In our household when the bulb glows it is an ac source connected to a resistor. Draw the
schematic circuit diagram of this. Show the time variation of current and voltage of a
pure resistive circuit i.e. bulb. How would the time variation of current and voltage vary
if the bulb is replaced by a tube light?
Q.6 The coil of an ac generator completes 50 revolutions per second. The graph of the output
voltage vs time is shown below.
a) Draw a graph showing output voltage vs time if the revolutions of the coil are reduced
to half.
b) Draw a graph showing the variation of magnetic flux vs time for ac coil having 50
revolutions per second.
Q.7 Samar lives in a rural area where the electricity supply is abrupt. In order to run the tube
well in fields, he uses a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Explain in our own words the working of the device.
Q8. The Narora power plant generates electricity at a huge voltage of 24000V. Explain in
your own words how this is transferred to the houses in Noida where the devices are
running with a potential of 220-240V. Why is it needed to transmit power at such high
voltages for long distances?
Q.9 A generator at the power station generates 100 MW of power at 10KV AC. Transformer
T1 steps up the voltage to 500KV AC for transmission through wires having resistance
of 3.0 W. Transformer T2 steps down the voltage to 50 KV AC at substation. If both the
transformers are ideal and the current in the transmission lines is 200 A what is the
power loss during the transmission.
Q.10 Reshma lives in an area where the supply voltage is usually low while her friend Neeru
is in the locality where voltage frequently shoots up. How can both the friends resolve
their electrical issues so that the devices can be saved from damaging?
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Stretch Yourself
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NIOS/Acad./2020/312/20/E
National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary
Lesson 20 – Reflection and Refraction of Light
WORKSHEET – 20
Q1. A ray is incident at an angle of 20o to a plane mirror as shown in figure. If mirror is
rotated by 10o in anticlockwise direction and incident ray is rotated by 10 o in clockwise
direction then by what angle the reflected ray will be rotated?
Q2. Draw the ray diagram in each case to show the position and nature of the image formed
when the object is placed:
a) at the centre of curvature of a concave mirror
b) between the pole P and focus F of a concave mirror
c) in front of a convex mirror
d) at 2F of a convex lens
e) in front of a concave lens
Q3. Consider a convex mirror of radius 50 cm. An object is at the distance 50 cm from the
pole of the mirror. Find the position of the image formed at its axis.
Q4. The diagram below shows a ray of light traveling through air towards a thin layer of
linseed oil (n=1.50) resting on top of water (n=1.33). The light ray approaches the
linseed oil at an angle of incidence of 48.2°.
Q6. A light ray is passing through water (n=1.33) towards the boundary with a transparent
solid at an angle of 56.4°. The light refracts into the solid at an angle of refraction of
42.1°. Determine the index of refraction of the unknown solid.
Q7. An optical fibre made up the glass with refractive index n1 = 1.5 (core) which is
surrounded by another glass of refractive index n2(cladding). Find the refractive index n2
of the cladding such that the critical angle between the two cladding is 80°.
Q8. Explain why substances with high refractive index like diamond, sparkle?
Q9. Lenses and mirrors are widely used in our daily life. It has been observed that lenses and
mirrors do not produce a perfect image. Explain the defects in the image formation and
factors responsible for the defects in the image formation.
Q10. A concave lens has focal length of 20 cm. At what distance from the lens; a 5 cm tall
object is placed so that it forms an image at 15 cm from the lens? Also calculate the size
of the image formed.
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DISPERSION OF LIGHT
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Rainbow Formation
Dispersion of sunlight through suspanded water
drops in air produces a spectracular effect in
nature in the form of rainbow on a rainy day.
With Sun at our back, we can see a
The angle between the emergent ray brighter and another fainter rainbow.
RS and the incident ray PQ at D is The primary rainbow is formed by
known as the angle of deviation (δ). two refractions and a single internal
reflection of sunlight in a water drop
Angle of Minimum Deviation
The secondary rainbow is formed by
The minimum value of the angle of two refractions and two internal
deviation is called angle of minimum reflections of light on the water drop.
deviation (δm).
It depends on the material of the
prism and the wavelength of light
used.
SCATTERING OF LIGHT IN
Angular Dispersion and Dispersive Power
ATMOSPHERE
Ratio of the angular dispersion to the mean
deviation is taken as the dispersive power
Scattering of Light
(ω) of the material of the prism : This phenomenon involves interaction of
radiation with matter
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1. The colour which is scattered most in 2. The deviation produced for red,
atmosphere is yellow and violet colours by a crown
A. Red glass are 2.840 , 3.280 and 3.720
B. Green respectively. Calculate the dispersive
C. Yellow power of the glass material.
D. Blue 3. A lens can be viewed as a
2. The phenomenon of scattering of combination of two prisms placed
light by the colloidal particle is with their bases together. Can we
known as observe dispersion using a lens.
A. Raman effect Justify your answer.
B. Newton’s ring 4. The angle of minimum deviation for
C. Spectral effect a 600 glass prism is 390 . Calculate
D. Tyndal effect the refractive index of glass.
3. Colour of sky appears blue its due to
A. Shorter wavelength of blue
colour
B. The size of fine particle in
atmosphere is almost equal to
wavelength of blue colour
C. As extent of scattering of Hint to Check Yourself
blue light is more it enters
our eyes
D. All of these
4. Which colour will be observed by a 1D 2 D 3 D 4C 5C
astronaut travelling in space
A. Blue
B. Indico
C. Black
D. Green
5. How many component of white light
A. 5
B. 6
C. 7
D. 8
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NIOS/Acad./2020/312/21/E
National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary
Lesson 21 – Dispersion and Scattering of Light
WORKSHEET – 21
Q1. The splitting of white light into its constituent colours or wavelengths by a medium is
called dispersion. Explain the phenomenon by using one example from daily life.
Q2. The curve of angle of incidence versus angle of deviation is plotted as shown in figure
below. What is the refractive index of the prism used?
Deviation
Q3. Take a prism and allow light to pass through the prism. Observe and draw a ray diagram
showing the dispersion through a prism when a narrow beam of white light is incident on
one of its refracting surfaces. Also indicate the order of the colours of the spectrum
obtained. Comment, size and angle of the prism influence dispersion or not?
Q4. Perform an activity to explain how light reaches even those nooks and corners where it
normally is not able to reach straight from the source. The position of a star as seen by us
is its true position or not; justify with explanation.
Q5. You observed that sky appears blue, clouds appear white and the sun appears red at
sunrise as well as at sunset. Why it happens so? Give explanation for each case.
Q6. A prism (μ=1.5) has a refracting angle of 300 for monochromatic. Find the angle of
minimum, angle of incidence and refraction of a monochromatic ray incident
perpendicularly on one of its surface.
Q7. A ray of light passing through a glass prism of refracting angle 60 º undergoes a
minimum deviation of 30º. Calculate the velocity of light in glass if the velocity
of light in air is 3×10 10 cm s -1 .
Q8. A ray of white light, incident upon a glass prism, is dispersed into its various
colour components. Which one of the following colours: orange, violet, red, green
experience the greatest amount of refraction and why?
Q9. Calculate the angular dispersion produced by a prism of angle 6º, if the refractive indices
of material of prism for blue and green colours are 1.664 and 1.655.
Q10. When light radiation undergoes scattering from a transparent substance (solid, liquid or
gas) then the frequency of the scattered radiation may be greater or less than the
frequency of the incident radiation. Name and explain the phenomenon.
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Constructive Interference
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Destructive Interference:
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Stretch Yourself
1D 2 A 3 A 4 B 5 C
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Senior Secondary
Lesson 22 – Wave Phenomena and Light
WORKSHEET – 22
Q1. How do the interference fringes in Young's double-slit experiment changes with the change
in the position of the source lamp from the centerline between the slits?
Q2. Describe the effect on interference fringes in Young's double-slit experiment when the
monochromatic light source is replaced by a multichromatic light source.
Q3. How the interference patterns would be affected when one slit is coated with the paint?
Q4. What are the necessary conditions which need to be fulfilled to obtain an interference pattern
from the propagation of two light waves?
Q5. Describe the physical process behind the white and blue color of the clouds and sky,
respectively.
Q6. Draw a suitable diagram showing that refracted ray, and reflected ray are at 90 degrees at
Brewster angle.
Q9. Calculate the reflection index when the polarization angle of any medium is 45 degrees.
Q10. What is the value of slit width when the light of wavelength 6000 Angstroms passes
through a single slit, and the angular deflection to the 8th dark band on the side of central
maxima?
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OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
Refracting Telescope
Astronomical telescopes are used to observe
Magnifying Power of a compound heavenly or astronomical bodies.
microscope Terrestrial telescopes are used to see distant
The ratio of the angle subtended by the final objects on the earth. So it is necessary to see
image at the eye to the angle subtended by an erect image. Even Galilean telescope is
the object at unaided eye, when both are used to see objects distinctly on the surface
placed at the least distance of distinct vision of earth.
Reflecting telescope
A reflecting telescope is used to see distant
stars and possesses large light-gathering
power in order to obtain a bright image of
even a faint star deep in space. The
objective is made of a concave mirror,
having large aperture and large focal length.
This concave mirror, being parabolic in
shape, is free from spherical aberration.
RESOLVING POWER :
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1A 2A 3A 4A 5B
NIOS/Acad./2020/312/23/E
National Institute of Open Schooling
Senior Secondary
Lesson 23 – Optical Instruments
WORKSHEET – 23
Q2. Explain why the telescopes enable us to view the distant stars which are not visible through
the naked eye?
Q3. Explain why the object appears smaller when the positions of an objective and eye-piece in a
telescope are inverted?
Q4. How the magnification of a very small object can be achieved at 3.5?
Q5. What are the benefits of seeing from two eyes instead of one eye?
Q7. Explain why the size of the sun appears to be very small from the earth, even though the
radius of the sun is much larger than that of the earth?
Q8. The height of tower A is 20m, and tower B is 25 m, while the distance of tower A and B
from the observer is 10m and 20m, respectively. Explain which tower will appear taller and
why?
Q9. Calculate the distance between an eyepiece and objective in a compound microscope when
the focal length of the objective and eyepiece is 20mm and 15mm, respectively, and the
distance between object and objective is 1.5 cm, and the image is formed at infinity.
Q10. What is the focal length of a telescope when the separation between an objective and eye
piece is 60 cm, and the magnifying power of the telescope is 20?
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STRUCTURE OF ATOM
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electromagnetic radiations. Hence, the are called stationary states. Note that
revolving electrons should lose energy an electron can move in a stationary
eventually and spiral into the nucleus state but its energy is constant.
Energy is emitted by an atom only
Frequency of electromagnetic radiation
when its electron “falls” from an
The electron spiralling towards the nucleus allowed higher energy level Ef to
will emit electromagnetic radiations of all another allowed lower level Ei . The
frequencies giving rise to a continuous change in energy is the energy of the
spectrum. But experiments show that atoms emitted photon.
emit radiations of certain well defined An electron only absorbs radiation
frequencies only. when it “jumps” to a higher energy
level from a lower energy level. The
Bohr’s Model of Hydrogen Atom change in energy of an electron can
be related to the frequency or
Electrons in an atom move in
wavelength of the emitted or
circular orbits around the nucleus
absorbed photon:
with the centripetal force supplied by
the Coulomb force of attraction Energy Levels
between the electron and the nucleus.
Mathematically,
𝑚𝑣 1 𝑍𝑒
=
𝑟 4𝜋𝜖 𝑟
where Z denotes the number of
positive charges in the nucleus.
If the infinite number of possible
circular orbits, only those orbits are the radius of its inner most orbit is called
allowed for which the value of Bohr radius. It is denoted by a0 and its
orbital angular momentum of the magnitude is 5.3 × 10– 11m.
electron is an integral multiple of
Expression for the speed of the electron in
h/2π :
the nth orbit
|𝐿 |= mvr =
where L is the orbital angular
momentum, equal to mvr for a
circular orbit. Here h is Planck’s
constant and n is an integer.
An electron moving in an allowed
orbit does not radiate any energy. In
these allowed orbits, the energy of Potential energy
the electron is constant. These orbits
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Total energy
Balmer series
Brackett series
Pfund series
Properties of X–rays
X– Rays Spectra:
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Senior Secondary
Lesson 24 – Structure of Atom
WORKSHEET – 24
Q1. If the energy of electron associated with the first orbit in hydrogen atom is -2.17 ×10-18 J.
Find out the energy associated with fourth orbit? Also, calculate the radius of fourth orbit.
Q2. Calculate the ratio of longest and shortest wavelength of Balmer series.
Q3. Find out the wavelength of light emitted when an electron in hydrogen atom makes
transition from fifth orbit to ground state. Also find the energy difference between these
states.
Q5. What is the origin of line spectra? Can you observe any difference between white light
spectra obtained from the sun light passing through prism and that of hydrogen spectra?
Q7. Calculate the velocity of electron in a hydrogen atom in ground state. Compare it with the
velocity of light.
Q8. Can you observe hydrogen spectrum in your laboratory? Give one suggestion.
Q10. Suppose the wavelength of X-rays is 0.2 nm. Calculate the kinetic energy in (eV) of the
incident electron which produced such X-rays.
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EINSTEIN’S THEORY OF
PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION
Kmax is linearly
arly proportional to ((ʋ – ʋ0 )
𝜆 = ℎ/𝑃
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Electron microscope
Electron microscopes are scientific
instruments that use a beam of highly
energetic electrons to examine objects
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on a very fine scale
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Q6. Why group 1 element of periodic table are suitable for photoelectric emission?
Q7. For head to head interaction of Gold nucleus and alpha particle. The closet distance of
approach is 4*10-4 .Calculate the kinetic energy of alpha particle
Q10. Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectron when light of
frequency V=1020 hz .The work function of Zinc is 3.4 eV
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Notation
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Alpha particles are helium nuclei ( 42𝐻𝑒 They can ionize gas atoms but to a much
) and consist of two protons and two smaller extent than the α-particles.
neutrons. Being charged particles, they Negatively charged β-particles can pass
get deflected in electric and magnetic through a few mm of aluminium sheets.
fields. They are about 100 times more
They produce fluorescence in penetrating than α-particles.
substances like zinc sulphide and Average energies of negative β-particles
barium platino cyanide, affect a vary between 2 MeV and 3MeV. Due to
photographic plate, can induce their small mass, their velocities vary in
radioactivity in certain elements and range from 0.33c to 0.988c, where c is
produce nuclear reactions. velocity of light.
They have great ionizing power. A
single particle in its journey through a (iii) γ-rays
gas can ionize thousands of gas atoms γ-rays are electromagnetic waves of high
before being absorbed. frequency, and as such highly energetic. They
They have little penetration power are characterized with the following properties :
through solid substances, and get
scattered by thin foils of metals. They do not get deflected by electric or
They can be stopped by 0.02 mm thick magnetic fields. They travel with
aluminum sheet. velocity of light in free space.
The energies of α particles emitted from Their penetration power is more than
a radioactive substance is a that of α and β-particles; γ-rays can
characteristic of the emitting nucleus. penetrate through several centimeters of
This corresponds to a variation in their iron and lead sheets.
velocity from 1.4 × 107 m s–1 to 2.05 × They have ionizing power that is
107 m s–1. smaller compared to that of α and β-
particles.
β-particles They can produce fluorescence in
materials and affect a photographic
β-Particles can be both positively and
plate.
negatively charged.
They originate in the nucleus in the Radioactive Decay
process of conversion of a neutron into a
proton, and vice versa. Further studies In any radioactive decay,
of β-particles have revealed the
following properties. spontaneous emission consists of
Being charged particles, they get either a single αparticle or a β-
deflected by electric and magnetic particle.
fields. The emission of an α-particle from a
They produce fluorescence in materials radioactive nucleus (called parent
like zinc-sulphide and barium nucleus) changes it into a new
plationcynide; and affect photographic nucleus (new element is called
plates. daughter nucleus) with its atomic
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number decreased by two and its Thus, decay constant (λ) may be defined as
mass number decreased by four. the ratio of the instantaneous rate of
Similarly, emission of a β particle disintegration to the number of radioactive
changes the parent nucleus into a atoms present at that instant.
daughter nucleus with its atomic
number increased by unity (if it is Half time
β– emission) but its mass number
The half life (T1/2) of any radioactive element is
remains unchanged.
defined as the time in which the number of
The emission of γ-rays does not
parent radioactive atoms decreases to half of the
change the atomic number or the
initial number. By definition, at t = T1/2, N =
mass number of the parent nucleus
N0 /2
and hence no new nucleus is
formed.
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Lesson 26 – Wave Phenomena and Light
WORKSHEET – 26
Q1. Calculate the mass of oxygen atom in amu and also calculate energy.
Q3. Complete
Th23290 .................Ra22888........................Ac22889 Bdecay
Th--------- alpha decay Ra----Rn22086
alpha decay.... 21282.............Bi21283
Q4. Calculate the numbers of neutron and proton in Cl3517., U23592, Ac22889, Po21684.
Q5. Nuclear radius of O168 is 3*10-15m what will be the nuclear radius of Bi212.
Q6. You are given two nuclides of Y73 and Y43 are the isotopes of same element. Which one
is more stable? Explain?
Q7. What is nuclear binding energy. Drive mathematical expression for B.E.
Q9. The half life of radium is 1000years. After how many years will 1g of pure radium
reduce to 1mg.
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𝐶 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 4.8 𝑒𝑉
The important points to be noted in chemical Conservation Laws for Nuclear Reactions
reactions are Energies of the order of 10 eV
are involved. The sum of the mass numbers of the
reactants is equal to the sum of mass
Change of mass is of the order of 10–35 kg, numbers of the products. mass number 7 = 3
which is extremely small and we say that the + 4 = 6 + 1 is conserved
mass is conserved.
The sum of atomic numbers of the reactants
The total number of atoms of each type on is equal to the sum of atomic numbers of the
the right hand side of the chemical equation products. atomic number 4 = 3 + 1 = 2 + 2 is
is always equal to the total number of atoms conserved.
of each type on the left hand side.
Nuclear reactions follow the law of
Nuclear Reactions conservation of energy.
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NUCLEAR FISSION
NUCLEAR REACTOR
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The process in which two light nuclei The most important peaceful application of
combine to form a heavier nucleus is called nuclear energy is in the generation of electricity
nuclear fusion
One of the main advantages of nuclear power
2
1𝐷 + 21𝐷 → 42𝐻𝑒 + 𝑄 plant is that the fuel is not required to be fed into
it continuously like the gas or coal in a thermal
Energy in the Sun and Stars power plant. Further, it does not pollute the
environment to the extent discharge of smoke or
The sun mainly consists of hydrogen and ash from fossil fuel/power plants do.
helium gases
Check Yourself
four hydrogen nuclei fuse into a helium
nucleus with the release of two positrons
(electron-like microscope particles of the 1. Fission of a nucleus is achieved by
same mass but positive charge) and 26.8 bombarding it with
MeV energy. The tremendous amount of A. Neutrons
energy released in a thermo-nuclear reaction B. Protons
is the source of energy in stars. The quantity C. X-ray
of hydrogen in the sun is sufficient to keep it D. Electrons
shining for nearly 8 billion years more. 2. Nuclear energy is released in fission
because binding energy per nucleon
4 11𝐻 → 42𝐻𝑒 + 2 01𝑒 + 𝑄
is
NUCLEAR ENERGY
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Lesson 27 – Fission and Fusion
WORKSHEET – 27
Q1. Everyone knows that radioactivity can be dangerous to health. The cell of the body affected
by exposure of radioactivity .what is the safety measure for nuclear radiation.
Q2. Name nuclear reactors are used to generate electric power,can produce radioactive isotopes
Name the example of isotopes produce in nuclear reactor which are used in medical science,
agriculture and industry.
Q3. A nuclear reactor is a device in which controlled chain reaction takes place. The ability of
neutrons to be captured by U235 nuclei depend upon the speed of neutron. Slow neutrons
are helpful to cause fission than the fast neutron. A substance known as moderator is used to
slow the fission neutron. Why lighter elements are better moderators for nuclear reactor than
heavier elements.
Q4. What is the power output of a 92U235 reactor if it takes 30 days to end 3 kg fuel? Given that
energy emitted in per fission is 150 MeV and N= 6.023 * 1026 (kilomole)-1
Q5. Energy is conserved in aa nuclear reaction. What is meaning of positive Q value of nuclear
reaction and negative value of nuclear reaction? Consider the following reaction
8O +1H –Q
14 4 17 1
7N + 2He
m(7N ) =14.003074 u ,m(2He )= 4.002604u,m(8O17)=16.999133u, m(1H1)=1.007825 u
14 4
Q6. A nuclear reaction involves the bombarding of a target nucleus by sone incident particle and
produce a product nucleus and out particle. The target nucleus is written initial position
ofbracket and final product nucleus at final.inside the bracket,the incident and outgoing
particle together, p,d,n,α has their usual meaning. Write a nuclear reaction for
(p,d) reaction
(n,α) reaction
(d,α) reaction
(p,n) reaction
Photo nuclear reaction
Q9. Make a comparison between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion in terms of
Process
Energy Per Gram
Material Used
Availability Of Material
Radioactive Isotopes
Reaction
Q10. The fission of 1 nucleolus of U23592 releases 200 MeV energy. How much fission should
occur per second for producing a power of 1M?
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p-type Semiconductor
An Extrinsic Semiconductor
The process in which some atoms of a pure or intrinsic
semiconductor are replaced by impurity atoms from
their lattice-sites is called doping and the impurity so
added is called dopant.
A p-n JUNCTION
When a n-type material is placed in contact with a p-
type material . The formation is known as p-n
junction.
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(i) The terminals of the junction are reversed. I–V Characteristics of Zener diode
(ii) (ii) Instead of milliammeter, microammeter
(μ A) is used Zener diode is fabricated by heavily doping both the p-
(iii) The unidirectional conducting property of and n-sides of the junction. Hence depletion layer
a diode is used to convert ac voltage into dc formed is very thin 6 (< 10 m) − . And the electric field
voltage as a rectifier. across the depletion layer is extremely high 6 –1 ( 5×
(iv) Diodes are also used in adaptors to 10 N C ) ∼ even for a small reverse bias voltage of 5 V.
recharge batteries of cell phones,
CDplayers, laptops, etc.
(v) A device that uses batteries often contains a
diode as it simply blocks any current from
leaving the battery, if it is reverse biased.
This protects the sensitive electronics in the
device.
TYPES OF DIODES
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A np-n Transistor
𝐼 𝐼 𝛼
𝛼 = 𝑐 ,𝛽 = 𝐼 𝑐 ,𝛽 = 1−𝛼
𝐼𝐸 𝐵
A p-n-p Transistor
Transistor Configurations
A transistor is a two-port device; it can take an input
and deliever an output. For both input and output, two
terminals are needed. This can be done in a transistor
by making one of the three terminals common
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Check Yourself
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1C 2C 3B 4D 5D
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Lesson 28 – Semiconductors and Semiconducting Devices
Worksheet No- 28
Q1. In a matter we have solid, liquid and gas. Further solids are classified into three parts on the
basis of energy bands i.e, (∆E=0, ∆E≤3 eV, ∆E> 3 eV). Explain these types of solid with
suitable diagram.
Q2. Diode is a semiconductor device which plays an important role in Electronic appliances.
Find some diodes in your surroundings and draw the symbol of different types of diodes and
what is the principle mechanism of those diodes.
Q3. What are majority carrier and minority carrier in N – type and P-type.How biasing affect the
Majority carrier and minority carrier?
Q4. The resistivity of N-type germanium is 0.01 ohm meter at room temperature. Find the donor
concentration if the mobility of electron is 0.39 m2/volt sec.
Q5. Semiconductors are classified on the basis of purity and impurityHowyou make compare
these two types of semiconductors Explain briefly with diagram showing flow t of electron
and holes.Is semiconductor obey ohm’s law?
Q6. n-type and p-type semiconductors have electrons and holes respectively.What you observe
when n-type material is placed near with p-type material? Shall we find some useful device?
If so, How? Explain p-n type diode with diagram.
Q7. A crystal of certain pure material becomes an electric conductor when EM radiation with
lambda shorter than 180nm is incident on it. What is the value of energy gap for this
material?
Q8. The potential difference across a PN junction can be applied in two ways forward and
reverse. Explain forward and reverse bias with suitable diagram.
Q9. An pure Ge has a resistivity of 0.47 Ω m. if the mobility of electron is 0.39 m2(volt-sec)-1 and
mobility of holes is 0.19 m2(volt-sec)-1. Find intrinsic carrier concentration.
Q10. Draw a circuit diagram representing the biasing of a Light Emitting Diode. Explain the
factors wave length of light, Intensity of light .Give two advantages of LED over the lamp.
Q11. Carbon (C) and Silicon (Si) both have tetra valancy in their outermost shell. Comment how
both Carbon (C) and Silicon (Si) differ with each other. Also give reasons why Silicon is
used in Semiconductor devices?
Q12. A common base connection Ie=1ma and Ic=0.95ma. Calculate the value of Iv.
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Half-Wave Rectification
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𝐼𝑧 = 𝐼𝑠 − 𝐼𝐿
𝑃𝑑 = 𝑉𝑧 × 𝐼𝑍
TRANSISTOR APPLICATIONS
Transistor as an Amplifier
Filtering
𝑉
Voltage gain, 𝐴𝑣 = 𝑉𝑜
𝑖
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𝑖𝑜
Current gain, 𝐴𝑖 =
𝐼𝑖
𝑃𝑜
Power gain, 𝐴𝑝 = 𝑃𝑖
Transistor as a switch
AND Gate
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NAND Gate
Y = A + B and read as A or B
NOR Gate
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Lesson 29 – Applications of Semiconductor Devices
WORKSHEET – 29
Q1. In order to charge a laptop or a cell phone, we require dc current. The current received at
homes is ac current at 50 Hz. Explain in your own words how use of a simple p-n
junction diode can help in achieving this. What is this process known as?
Q2. Consider the circuit diagram as shown in the figure below and answer the following in
your own words -
Q3.You are familiar with voltage regulators found in devices such as computer, automobile
alternators and central power station generator plants, designed to automatically
maintain a constant voltage. Explain in your own words how a Zener diode works as a
voltage regulator.
a. Suggest advantages of using Zener diode in place of a rectifier with filter circuit for
voltage regulation.
b. What would happen to the quality of sound in an amplifier if the voltage supplied is
fluctuating?
Q4. List two devices in your home which require a constant power supply. Draw an
appropriate circuit diagram showing the working of these devices.
Q5. Observe the electrical appliances available at your home. List 4 different devices using
transistors in their basic circuitry. Look out the use of transistors in those devices as
switch, amplifier or oscillator. Make a table suggesting the use of transistor in that
device.
Name of Electrical Appliance Use of Transistor As
Q6. Identify the Logic Gate on the basis of the truth table mentioned below and write its
Boolean expression.
A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
Design the circuit diagram using the basic Logic Gates to realize the above truth table.
Q7. Look out for a loudspeaker available in your vicinity. Identify how a transistor is being
used in CE configuration to get amplification. Draw the input and output characteristics
of a transistor in CE configuration.
Q8. Look at the circuit diagram shown below. Complete the truth table based on the Logic
Gate shown below and identifies the Boolean expression and the Logic Gate formed.
A B A B Q Q
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
Q9. In our modern society, extensive use of electricity has enabled various uses of transistors
in every electronic circuit. Transistors are used in our day to day lives in many forms.
Observe and write what are the various applications and uses of transistor in daily life?
Q10. Explain in your own words how to realize a NOT Gate using transistors. Explain
working of a Colpitt’s oscillator using the circuit diagram.
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30
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
A MODEL COMMUNICATION
SYSTEM
– energy and power signals; and –
Communication systems endeavour deterministic and random signal.
to transmit information from –
BAND WIDTH OF SIGNALS
one to one, i.e., point-to-point
The most crucial parameter in
communication; – one to many,
communication systems is the
i.e., broadcast communication;
signal bandwidth, which refers to
– many to many, i.e., telephone the frequency range in which the
conference call or a chat room. signal varies. However, it has
different meaning in analog and
digital signals.
While analog bandwidth measures
the range of spectrum each signal
occupies, digital bandwidth gives
Elements of a Communication System the quantity of information
a source of signal, a sensor contained in a digital signal.
transducer and a transmitter, which Electromagnetic Waves in
launches the signal carrying Communication
information.
an intervening medium/channel to
guide and carry the signal over
long distances, and
a signal receiver and an actuator
transducer to intercept the signal
and retrieve the information.
TYPES OF SIGNALS – ANALOGUE
AND DIGITAL
continuous time (analog) and discrete time COMMUNICATION MEDIA
(digital) signals;
There are two types of
– coded and uncoded signals; – communication channels:
periodic and aperiodic signals; wireline (using guided media) or
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MODULATION – ANALOGUE AM
AND FM, DIGITAL (PCM)
The process of processing a signal to make
it suitable for transmission is called
modulation
In space wave propagation, some of the Amplitude modulation,
VHF radio waves (30 MHz – 300MHz)
radiated by an antenna can reach the The amplitude of a high-frequency
receiver travelling either directly through carrier wave is modified in
space or after reflection by the curvature of accordance with the strength of a
the earth. low-frequency audio or video
modulating signal . When the
Satellite Communication amplitude of the modulating wave
increases, the amplitude of the
The modulated carrier waves are beamed
modulated carrier also increases
by a transmitter directly towards the
and vice versa — the envelope of
satellite.
the modulated wave takes the form
The satellite receiver amplifies the depending on the amplitude and
received signal and retransmits it to earth frequency of modulating signal
at a different frequency to avoid
interference. These stages are called
uplinking and down-linking.
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d) Second
Stretch Yourself
1. Calculate the wavelength of a radio
wave of frequency of 20 MHz
propagating in space.
2. What is the frequency range of X-
ray and infrared ray
3. The core of an optical fibre is made
of glass with a refractive index of
1.51 and the cladding has a
refractive index of 1.49. Calculate
the critical angle for total internal
reflection
4. What is demodulation?
5. Distinguish between the terms
analogue and digital signals.
Define a ‘bit’
1B 2C 3C 4B 5A
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Lesson 30 – Communication Systems
WORKSHEET – 30
Q.2 Continue to Q.1, you know that communication of information involves use of signals,
which are classified on the basis of their origin and nature. Explain in your own words
Model, Elements and Types of Communication System.
Q.3 In communication, we use different ways to transport the electrical signal from the
transmitter to the receiver. Explain the mechanism of these transmissions and working of
some common communication devices. For the following radio frequency bands,
identify the wavelength range and the mode of propagation -
Radio Waves Wavelength Range (m) Mode of propagation
Short Wave
Medium Wave
Long Wave
Q.4 An optical fiber is used to propagate light from one end to the other end of the fiber. If
the refractive index of the core is 1.575 and the refractive index of the cladding is 1.515,
at what max angle should light be launched inside the optical fiber so that it gets totally
internally reflected. How would this launching angle be affected if the refractive index of
the core is reduced to 1.56?
Q.5 At your homes you observe the cable TV networks. Find out the frequency range used
for operating the following networks -
TV Network Frequency Range
Tata Sky
Dish TV
Sun Direct
Videocon D2H
Hathway
Den Networks
Q.6 You want to make a call using your mobile phone to your friend staying in New York,
USA from the place you are staying. Explain schematically how signal transmission will
take place from your end to your friend.
Figure - a
Figure - b
Figure – c
Q.9 The wireless communication between a transmitting and a receiving station utilizing the
space around the earth, i.e. atmosphere is called space communication. The essential
feature of space communication is that a signal emitted from anantenna of the transmitter
has to reach the antenna of the receiver. Explain different ways of space communication;
depending on the frequency of radio wave.
Q.10 From the radio station you are receiving AM signals. These signals are received by the
radio set at your home. Explain in your own words with the help of block diagram how
the signal is retrieved at your end by the process of demodulation.