The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at

www.emeraldinsight.com/0262-1711.htm

Intentional
An overview of intentional change change
from a complexity perspective
Richard E. Boyatzis
Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA 607
Abstract
Purpose – Change, and in particular intentional or desired change, has not been understood nor
systematically studied. By applying concepts from complexity theory to intentional change theory, the
purpose of this paper is to provide a new level of insight into why and how sustainable desired change
can occur at all levels of human/social interaction, from individual to teams to organizations to
communities, countries and the globe.
Design/methodology/approach – Using research from over 30 years of longitudinal studies of
individual and organizational change, the concepts are explored and implications proposed.
Findings – Sustainable, intentional change is on the whole discontinuous. It occurs through a series
of five discoveries or emergence conditions. It is driven by the interplay of the positive and negative
emotional attractor. It follows the described process at all fractals of human organization.
Research limitations/implications – Extensive empirical research has been done at the
individual level, but only case studies at the organization and country levels.
Practical implications – Every person seeking to explore, understand, or facilitate sustainable,
desired change can be helped by the model and understanding how it functions.
Originality/value – The theory of intentional change is relatively new to the literature, as is the use
of complexity theory.
Keywords Change management, Complexity theory, Individual development
Paper type Conceptual paper

For all of the time, effort, and money invested in attempts to help individuals develop
through education, training, and coaching, there are few theories that help us to
understand the change process. Other than Prochaska et al. (1992) and McClelland
(1965), the actual process of change is left like a mysterious black box. Theories or
models of how teams, organizations, communities, countries or even global change
occur are more frequent but are often a post hoc description of how the consultants or
change agents went about the process. As a result they lack the depth and utility of
sound theory. Each new framework has the potential of being a new “change fad”, but
seldom are they put to the empirical test of demonstrating sustainable results.
One of the reasons for this paucity of good theory is that the underlying paradigm
on which they are conceptualized is lacking in credibility. The idea of smooth,
continuous change does not fit with the reality most of us experience. In this paper and
this entire Special Issue of this journal, we will describe a theory of change that has
produced demonstrable results at the individual level, and, we believe, explains change
at other levels of human and social organization. We also go on to explain that it
requires the use of complexity theory to understand the process of change. Once Journal of Management Development
Vol. 25 No. 7, 2006
concepts from complexity theory are applied, it then becomes a distinct possibility that pp. 607-623
this theory of change helps to explain sustainable change at all levels of human and q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0262-1711
social organization. DOI 10.1108/02621710610678445
JMD The three features of complex systems and complexity theory that will be explored
25,7 are:
(1) non-linear and discontinuous dynamical systems, including tipping points and
catastrophic change;
(2) self-organizing into patterns of equilibrium or disequilibrium in which
emergent events start a new dynamic process through the pull of specific
608 attractors; and
(3) fractals or “multileveledness” (the application of this theory at all levels of social
organization) and the interaction among these levels through leadership and
reference groups.

A complex system is a multi-level combination of systems that may behave in a way

independent of any one of the component systems (Complexity Forum, 2001-2003). It is
more than a simple system (at a single level) or a complicated system, such as
non-linear dynamics within a simple system (Complexity Forum, 2001-2003). When
different simple systems are combined or integrated, the result is typically a large and
complicated system. But to be a complex system it must have:
.
overall output that interacts (e.g. is emergent) or caused by a coordinator or agent
between the levels; and
.
the output is different then the output at other levels (Complexity Forum,
2001-2003).

Combining several linear systems may lead to a large linear system that is still not a
complex system, unless some non-linearity or discontinuity develops. In this sense,
complex systems are evolving and often described as adaptive.
Specifically, to be a complex system, it must have:
.
structure; and
.
function (Complexity Forum, 2001-2003).

The structure includes, at the minimum: scale, architecture, and interaction. Scale
refers to the multiple level of systems that are mirror images of or comparable to each
other. It is also referred to as fractals, hierarchy of scale, or stratification that is
something is visible and meaningful at different degrees of magnification or focal
points (each unit at one level is a system at the next level down). Architecture is a
model or description of how the components affect each other. Interaction is the
methods of merging, integrating, coordinating, or emerging that occurs between the
levels of the complex system.
Function includes, at the minimum: dynamics as descried by differential equations,
chaotic or periodic relationships, and such; the possible existence of various types of
attractors; and the possible ways the inputs relate to the outputs. It is a complex
system when the system description is simpler than the behavior or functioning of the
system. Now let us turn to how people and social systems change.

Intentional change
Intentional change theory (ICT) is a complex system. At the individual level, ICT
describes the essential components and process of desirable, sustainable change in
one’s behavior, thoughts, feelings, and perceptions. The “change” may be in a person’s Intentional
actions, habits or competencies. It may be in their dreams or aspirations. It may be in change
the way they feel in certain situations or around certain people. It may be a change in
how they look at events at work or in life. It is “desired” in that the person wishes it so
or would like it to occur. It is “sustainable” in that it endures – lasts a relatively long
time. In this sense, ICT may be said to describe and explain learning as a form of this
desired adaptation or evaluation. Indeed, the name of the theory was self-directed 609
learning for many years (Boyatzis, 1999, 2000; Goleman et al., 2002). Although it may
apply to younger people, the work cited here and the focus of its development over the
last 38 years has been on adults.
A “desirable, sustainable change” may also include the desire to maintain a current
desirable state, relationship, or habit. But knowing that things can atrophy or drift into
a less desired state, the desire to maintain the current state requires investment of
energy in this maintenance while external (or internal) forces may naturally provoke a
change.
Desired sustainable changes in an individual’s behavior, thoughts, feelings or
perceptions are, on the whole, discontinuous. That is, they appear as emergent or
catastrophic changes over time and effort, which is an essential component of complex
systems (Casti, 1994). The experience is one of an epiphany or discovery (Boyatzis,
1983). Self-awareness or mindfulness (of self and context, both social and natural)
(Boyatzis and McKee, 2005) is inversely proportionate to the degree of surprise or
discovery. When one is highly self-aware, he/she will experience the change process as
more of a set of smooth transitions.
The same forces result in the changes often being non-linear. So, this brings us to
the first feature of ICT as a complex system. The change process is often non-linear
and discontinuous, appearing or being experienced as a set of discoveries or
epiphanies. They are emergent phenomenon that used to be described as catastrophic
occurrences.
For example, in trying to predict performance from individual characteristics,
studies have overlooked the tipping point concept (Holland, 1995). Gladwell (2000)
popularized the idea and showed how it often can explain the sudden outbreak of a riot,
a run on a bank, surprising stock market drops, and such. This idea, taken from
complexity theory, is that up to a certain point, the relationship between a person’s
abilities and their performance may not appear to exist. But once a specific point is
reached, a discontinuity occurs and the effect of a small incremental increase in the
person’s behavior produces a dramatic increase in effectiveness (McClelland, 1998;
Boyatzis, n.d.). This relationship has also been referred to as “the butterfly effect” or
trigger point. We believe an analogous dynamic affects the process of change, which is
why its documentation may not have appeared in research using continuous statistical
methods or without sufficiently frequent measurement of effects to note a point of
discontinuity or tipping point.
What the studies reviewed in the next section of this paper show is that adults learn
what they want to learn. Other things, even if acquired temporarily (i.e. for a test), are
soon forgotten (Specht and Sandlin, 1991). Students, children, patients, clients, and
subordinates may act as if they care about learning something, go through the motions,
but they proceed to disregard it or forget it – unless, it is something which they want to
learn. This does not include changes induced, willingly or not, by chemical or hormonal
JMD changes in one’s body. But even in such situations, the interpretation of the changes
25,7 and behavioral comportment following it will be affected by the person’s will, values,
and motivations. In this way, it appears that most, if not all, sustainable behavioral
change is intentional.
The process of intentional change is graphically shown in Figure 1 (Boyatzis, 1999,
2001; Goleman et al., 2002). This is an enhancement of the earlier models developed by
610 Kolb et al. (1968), Boyatzis and Kolb (1969), Kolb and Boyatzis (1970a, b), and Kolb
(1971).
It is important to note that often an intentional change process must begin with a
person wanting to change. This desire may not be in their consciousness or even within
the scope of their self-awareness. Wake-up calls, or moments and events that awaken
the person to the need for consideration of a change, may be required to bring the
person to the process of desired, intentional change (Boyatzis et al., 2002). Before we get
into the details, let us step back and ask why we believe this is a sound theory of
change.

How do we know it works?

Decades of research on the effects of psychotherapy (Hubble et al., 1999), self-help
programs (Kanfer and Goldstein, 1991), cognitive behavior therapy (Barlow, 1988),
training programs (Morrow et al., 1997), and education (Pascarella and Terenzini, 1991;
Winter et al., 1981) have shown that people can change their behavior, moods, and
self-image. But most of the studies focused on a single characteristic, like maintenance
of sobriety, reduction in a specific anxiety, or a set of characteristics often determined
by the assessment instrument, such as the scales of the Minnesota Multiphasic
Personality Inventory (MMPI). For example, the impact of Achievement Motivation
Training was a dramatic increase in small business success, with people creating more

Figure 1.
Boyatzis’s theory of
self-directed learning
new jobs, starting more new businesses, and paying more taxes than comparison Intentional
groups (McClelland and Winter, 1969; Miron and McClelland, 1979). The impact of change
power motivation training was improved maintenance of sobriety (Cutter et al., 1977).
But there are few models or theories of how individuals change and develop in
sustainable ways (Prochaska et al., 1992; McClelland, 1965).
The “honeymoon effect” of typical training programs might start with improvement
immediately following the program, but within months it drops precipitously 611
(Campbell et al., 1970). Only 15 programs were found in a global search of the literature
by the Consortium on Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations to improve
emotional intelligence. Most of them showed impact on job outcomes, such as number
of new businesses started, or life outcomes, such as finding a job or satisfaction
(Cherniss and Adler, 2000), which are the ultimate purpose of development efforts. But
showing an impact on outcomes, while desired, may also blur how the change actually
occurs. Furthermore, when a change has been noted, a question about the
sustainability of the changes is raised because of the relatively short time periods
studied.
The few published studies examining improvement of more than one of these
competencies show an overall improvement of about 11 per cent in emotional
intelligence abilities three to 18 months following training (Noe and Schmitt, 1986;
Hand et al., 1973; Wexley and Memeroff, 1975; Latham and Saari, 1979; Young and
Dixon, 1996). More recent meta-analytic studies and utility analyses confirm that
significant changes can and do occur. But they do not have the impact that the level of
investment would lead us to expect, nor with many types of training (Morrow et al.,
1997; Baldwin and Ford, 1988; Burke and Day, 1986). There are, undoubtedly, other
studies which were not found and reviewed, or not available through journals and
books and therefore overlooked. This is not an exhaustive review, but suggestive of the
percentage improvement as a rough approximation of the real impact. This
approximation is offered to help in the comparison of relative impact of management
training, management education, and self-directed learning and change.
The results appear no better from standard MBA programs, where there is no
attempt to enhance emotional intelligence abilities. The best data here come from a
research project by the American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business. They
found that the behavior of graduating students from two highly-ranked business
schools, compared to their levels when they began their MBA training, showed only
improvements of 2 percent in the skills of emotional intelligence (Development
Dimensions International, 1985). In fact, when students from four other high-ranking
MBA programs were assessed on a range of tests and direct behavioral measures, they
showed a gain of 4 percent in self-awareness and self-management abilities, but a
decrease of 3 percent in social awareness and relationship management (Boyatzis and
Sokol, 1982; Boyatzis et al., 1995a).
The honeymoon effect is often the cause for practitioners and scholars overlooking
the “sleeper effect”. The sleeper effect is that a sustainable change in a person’s
behavior, thoughts patterns or emotional reactions to events does not appear until six
to 12 months following completion of the change effort (McClelland, 1970). Since it
appears disconnected to the timing of the intervention, it is a discontinuous effect and
easily overlooked or wrongly attributed to other factors. Here again, the use of concepts
from complexity theory help us notice effects that were overlooked.
JMD A series of longitudinal studies underway at the Weatherhead School of
25,7 Management of Case Western Reserve University have shown that people can
change on this complex set of competencies that we call emotional intelligence that
distinguish outstanding performers in management and professions – and the course
that provoked the changes was designed with a specific theory of how adults change.
And the improvement lasted for years. A visual comparison of the percentage
612 improvement in behavioral measures of emotional intelligence from different samples
is shown in Figure 2.
MBA students, averaging 27 years old at entry into the program, showed dramatic
changes on videotaped and audiotaped behavioral samples and questionnaire
measures of these competencies as a result of the competency-based, outcome-oriented
MBA program implemented in 1990 (Boyatzis et al., 1995b, 1996, 2002).
Four cadres of full-time MBA students graduating in 1992, 1993, 1994, and 1995
showed 47 percent improvement on self-awareness competencies like self-confidence
and on self-management competencies such as the drive to achieve and adaptability in
the one to two years to graduation compared to when they first entered. When it came
to social awareness and relationship management skills, improvements were even
greater: 75 percent on competencies such as empathy and team leadership.
Meanwhile with the part-time MBA students graduating in 1994, 1995, and 1996,
the dramatic improvement was found again, in these students who typically take three
to five years to graduate. These groups showed 67 percent improvement in
self-awareness and self-management competencies and 40 percent improvement in
social awareness and social skills competencies by the end of their MBA program.
That’s not all. Jane Wheeler tracked down groups of these part-timers two years
after they had graduated. Even after all that time, they still showed improvements in
the same range: 63 percent on the self-awareness and self-management competencies,
and 45 percent on the social awareness and relationship management competencies.
This is in contrast to MBA graduates of the WSOM of the 1988 and 1989 traditional
full-time and part-time program who showed improvement in substantially fewer of
the competencies.

Figure 2.
Percentage improvement
of emotional intelligence
competencies of different
groups of MBA graduates
taking the intentional
change course
The positive effects of this program were not limited to MBAs. In a longitudinal study Intentional
of four classes completing the Professional Fellows Program (i.e. an executive
education program at the Weatherhead School of Management), Ballou et al. (1999)
change
showed that these 45-55 year old professionals and executives improved on
self-confidence, leadership, helping, goal setting, and action skills. These were 67
percent of the emotional intelligence competencies assessed in this study.
The intervention, or course in this case, on which these dramatic results were based 613
was designed with intentional change theory. This describes the process as designed
into a required course and the elements of the MBA and executive programs
implemented in 1990 at the Weatherhead School of Management. Experimentation and
research into the various components have resulted in refinement of these components
and the theory as discussed in this paper and in this special issue of this journal. For a
detailed description of the course, read Boyatzis (1994, 1995). For now, let us return to
the discoveries that constitute ICT.

The five discoveries of intentional change theory

This brings us to the next feature of ICT as a complex system. The change process
actually involves a sequence of discontinuities, called discoveries, which function as an
iterative cycle in producing the sustainable change at the individual level. These are:
(1) the ideal self and a personal vision;
(2) the real self and its comparison to the ideal self resulting in an assessment of
one’s strengths and weaknesses, in a sense a personal balance sheet;
(3) a learning agenda and plan;
(4) experimentation and practice with the new behavior, thoughts, feelings, or
perceptions; and
(5) trusting, or resonant relationships that enable a person to experience and
process each discovery in the process.

The first discovery: catching your dreams, engaging your passion

The first discontinuity and potential starting point for the process of intentional
change is the discovery of who you want to be. Our ideal self is an image of the person
we want to be. It appears to have three major components that drive the development
of this image of the ideal self:
(1) an image of a desired future;
(2) hope that one can attain it; and
(3) aspects of one’s core identity, which includes enduring strengths, on which
builds for this desired future.
This is explained in detail in the paper in this issue by Boyatzis and Akrivou (2006). It
emerges from our ego ideal, dreams, and aspirations. The last 20 years have revealed
literature supporting the power of positive imaging or visioning in sports psychology,
meditation and biofeedback research, and other psycho-physiological research. It is
believed that the potency of focusing one’s thoughts on the desired end state of
condition is driven by the emotional components of the brain (Goleman, 1995).
This research indicates that we can access and engage deep emotional commitment
and psychic energy if we engage our passions and conceptually catch our dreams in
JMD our ideal self image. It is an anomaly that we know the importance of consideration of
25,7 the ideal self, and yet often, when engaged in a change or learning process we skip over
the clear formulation or articulation of our ideal self image. If a parent, spouse, boss, or
teacher, tells us something that should be different, they are telling us about the person
they want us to be. As adults, we often allow ourselves to be anesthetized to our dreams
and lose sight of our deeply felt ideal self.
614 It is also clear from this framework that “strengths-based” approaches to
development will probably work better than current methods but will fall short of what
the person can achieve (Roberts et al., n.d.). In focusing on the person’s established
strengths, such approaches develop the core identity component of the ideal self as a
driver of change, but fail to capture the energy inherent in dreams of the future and
new possibilities as well as the emotional driver of hope. Because they are based on
what the person has done in the past, they do not adequately engage a person’s dreams
of the future or consideration of possibilities.

The second discovery: am I a boiling frog?

The awareness of the current self, the person that others see and with whom they
interact, is elusive. For normal reasons, the human psyche protects itself from the
automatic “intake” and conscious realization of all information about ourself. These
ego-defense mechanisms serve to protect us. They also conspire to delude us into an
image of who we are that feeds on itself, becomes self-perpetuating, and eventually
may become dysfunctional (Goleman, 1985). The forces of self-awareness that enable
the real self to be explored are discussed and explained in more detail in the paper in
this issue by Taylor (2006).
The greatest challenge to an accurate current self-image (i.e. seeing yourself as
others see you and consistent with other internal states, beliefs, emotions, and so forth)
is the boiling frog syndrome. It is said that dropping a frog into a pot of boiling water
will result in it immediately jumping out. But place a frog in a pot of cool water, and
gradually raise the temperature to boiling, and the frog will remain in the water until it
is cooked.
Several factors contribute to us becoming boiling frogs. First, people around you
may not let you see a change. They may not give you feedback or information about
how they see it. Also, they may be victims of the boiling frog syndrome themselves, as
they adjust their perception on a daily basis. Second, enablers, those forgiving the
change, frightened of it, or who do not care, may allow it to pass unnoticed.
For a person to truly consider changing a part of himself or herself, you must have a
sense of what you value and want to keep. These areas in which your real self and ideal
self are consistent or congruent can be considered strengths. Likewise, to consider
what you want to preserve about yourself involves admitting aspects of yourself that
you wish to change or adapt in some manner. Areas where your real self and ideal self
are not consistent can be considered gaps, or weaknesses.
All too often, people explore growth or development by focusing on the “gaps” or
deficiencies. Organizational training programs and managers conducting annual
reviews often make the same mistake. There is an assumption that we can “leave well
enough alone” and get to the areas that need work. It is no wonder that many of these
programs or procedures intended to help a person develop result in the individual
feeling battered, beleaguered and bruised, not helped, encouraged, motivated, or Intentional
guided. change
The third discovery: mindfulness through a learning agenda
The third discontinuity in intentional change is development of an agenda and
focusing on the desired future. While performance at work or happiness in life may be
the eventual consequence of our efforts, a learning agenda focuses on development. A 615
learning orientation arouses a positive belief in one’s capability and the hope of
improvement. This results in people setting personal standards of performance, rather
than “normative” standards that merely mimic what others have done (Beaubien and
Payne, 1999). Meanwhile, a performance orientation evokes anxiety and doubts about
whether or not we can change (Chen et al., 2000).
As part of one of the longitudinal studies at the Weatherhead School of
Management, Leonard (1996) showed that MBAs who set goals desiring to change on
certain competencies changed significantly on those competencies as compared to
other MBAs. Previous goal-setting literature had shown how goals affected certain
changes on specific competencies (Locke and Latham, 1990), but had not established
evidence of behavioral change on a comprehensive set of competencies that constitute
emotional intelligence.

Self-organizing and the pull of two attractors

Intentional change produces sustainable, desirable changes as an iterative, cyclical
process. As a complex system it engages the cycle again through the self-organizing
properties of the human organism. Two attractors, the positive emotional and negative
emotional attractors, determine the context of the self-organizing process and whether
it is an adaptation to existing conditions or adaptation to new, emergent conditions. A
self-organizing system is inherently homeostatic with the possibility of some form of
deterioration if it is not perfectly efficient (which human organisms do not appear to
be). Just like the properties in a closed system moving toward maximum entropy over
time, as predicted from the Second Law of Thermodynamics, dissonance occurs in the
human and our social organizations unless there is intentional investment. Another
way to say this is that adaptations and adjustments based on Argyris’s (1985) concept
of single loop learning will result in a self-sustaining system of a person, their life and
performance. But over time, even with these properties of self-organization,
deterioration will occur.
This is because the human organism is not a fully closed system. Among other
things, we need social interaction to allow our “open loop” emotional system to
function (Goleman et al., 2002). Even more dramatic in its destabilizing effect is the
advent of one’s life and career cycles. Whether these are the traditional seven-year
“itch” cycles or those of varying periodicity described by Erikson (1988), Sheehy (1995),
or Levinson (1974), a person occasionally looks for a change. These are moments of
invitation for what Argyris (1985) called “double loop learning”. This helps to explain
why double loop learning is so difficult and so relatively infrequent. It is inherently
destabilizing and must fight against the self-organizing property inherent in a person.
Intentional change theory offers an explanation as to how the disequilibrium occurs
and then the force that drives a new self-organizing system. An attractor becomes the
destabilizing force. We call this the positive emotional attractor. It pulls the person
JMD toward their ideal self. In the process of focusing the person on future possibilities and
25,7 filling them with hope, it arouses the parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS)
(Boyatzis, Smith and Blaize, n.d.). Once the PSNS is aroused, the person has access to
more of their neural circuits, and finds themselves in a calmer, if not elated state in
which their immune system is functioning well and their body is sustained. They are
able, in this state, to experience neurogenesis (i.e. the conversion of hippocampal stem
616 cells into new neurons) and the new degrees and extent of learning that becomes
possible. It is even suggested that formation of learning goals or learning-oriented
goals builds from this attractor and results in more successful change. The papers by
Dyck et al. (2006) and Howard (2006) in this issue explain this dynamic more.
But another attractor is also at play in the system – the negative emotional attractor
(NEA). In an analogous manner, it aroused the sympathetic nervous system (SNS),
which helps the human to deal with stress and threat and protect itself. Within the
threatened environment and state, the NEA pulls a person toward defensive protection.
In this arousal, the body shunts blood to the large muscle groups, closes down
non-essential neural circuits, suspends the immune system, and produces cortisol –
important for protection under threat (Sapolsky, 2004). But cortisol inhibits or even
stops neurogenesis and overexcites older neurons, rendering them useless (Boyatzis,
Smith and Blaize, n.d.).
If a person’s adaptation is self-organizing, then desired change not already part of
this system is only possible when it is intentional. We would add because of the
difficulty in sustaining the effort, it also must be driven by a powerful force. This is
where the ideal self activates the energy of the PEA and the two attractors become “a
limit cycle” for the person (Casti, 1994). This also helps us to understand why there is
both a need for more positivity than negativity in change efforts, but there are upper
limits to the effectiveness of positivity as well (Losada and Heaphy, n.d.).
The process of desired, sustainable change requires behavioral freedom and
permission to try something new and see what happens. This “permission” comes from
interaction with others, as we will see in the fourth and fifth discoveries in the process.

The fourth discovery: metamorphosis

The fourth discovery is to experiment and practice desired changes. Acting on the plan
and toward the goals involves numerous activities. These are often made in the context
of experimenting with new behavior. Typically following a period of experimentation,
the person practises the new behaviors in actual settings within which they wish to use
them, such as at work or at home. During this part of the process, intentional change
looks like a “continuous improvement” process.
To develop or learn new behavior, the person must find ways to learn more from
current, or ongoing, experiences. That is, the experimentation and practice does not
always require attending “courses” or a new activity. It may involve trying something
different in a current setting, reflecting on what occurs, and experimenting further in
this setting. Sometimes, this part of the process requires finding and using
opportunities to learn and change. People may not even think they have changed until
they have tried new behavior in a work or “real world” setting.
Dreyfus (1990) studied managers of scientists and engineers who were considered
superior performers. Once she documented that they used considerably more of certain
abilities than their less effective counterparts, she pursued how they developed some of
those abilities. One of the distinguishing abilities was group management, also called Intentional
team building. She found that many of these middle-aged managers had first change
experimented with team-building skills in high school and college, in sports, clubs, and
living groups. Later, when they became “bench scientists and engineers” working on
problems in relative isolation, they still pursued the use and practice of this ability in
activities outside of work. They practised team building and group management in
social and community organizations, such as 4-H Clubs, and professional associations 617
in planning conferences and so forth.
The experimentation and practice are most effective when they occur in conditions
in which the person feels safe (Kolb and Boyatzis, 1970b). This sense of psychological
safety creates an atmosphere in which the person can try new behavior, perceptions,
and thoughts with relatively less risk of shame, embarrassment, or serious
consequences of failure.

The fifth discontinuity: relationships that enable us to learn

Our relationships are an essential part of our environment. The most crucial
relationships are often a part of groups that have particular importance to us. These
relationships and groups give us a sense of identity, guide us as to what is appropriate
and “good” behavior, and provide feedback on our behavior. In sociology, they are
called reference groups. These relationships create a “context” within which we
interpret our progress on desired changes, the utility of new learning, and even
contribute significant input to formulation of the Ideal (Kram, 1996).
In this sense, our relationships are mediators, moderators, interpreters, sources of
feedback, sources of support and permission of change and learning. They may also be
the most important source of protection from relapses or returning to our earlier forms
of behavior. Wheeler (1999) analyzed the extent to which the MBA graduates worked
on their goals in multiple “life spheres” (i.e. work, family, recreational groups, etc.). In a
two-year follow-up study of two of the graduating classes of part-time MBA students,
she found that those who worked on their goals and plans in multiple sets of
relationships improved the most and more than those working on goals in only one
setting, such as work or within one relationship.
In a study of the impact of the year-long executive development program for
doctors, lawyers, professors, engineers, and other professionals mentioned earlier,
Ballou et al. (1999) found that participants gained self-confidence during the program.
Even at the beginning of the program, others would say these participants were very
high in self-confidence. It was a curious finding. The best explanation came from
follow-up questions to the graduates of the program. They explained the evident
increase in self-confidence as an increase in the confidence to change. Their existing
reference groups (i.e. family, groups at work, professional groups, community groups)
all had an investment in them staying the same, meanwhile the person wanted to
change. The Professional Fellows Program allowed them to develop a new reference
group that encouraged change.
Based on social identity, reference group, and now relational theories, our
relationships both mediate and moderate our sense of who we are and who we want to
be. We develop or elaborate our ideal self from these contexts. We label and interpret
our real self from these contexts. We interpret and value strengths (i.e. aspects
considered our core that we wish to preserve) from these contexts. We interpret and
JMD value gaps (i.e. aspects considered weaknesses or things we wish to change) from these
25,7 contexts.

Fractals and interaction among the levels

Now we come to the aspect of ICT that makes it a truly complex system – its
“multileveledness”. According to the theory, sustainable change occurs at any level of
618 human and social organization through the same ICT. In this sense, these other levels
are fractals of ICT at the individual level. In other words, desired, sustainable change
within a family, team or small group occurs through the cyclical iteration of the group
through what can be called the “group level definition” of the five discoveries. In this
case, the ideal self becomes a shared vision of the future of the group. What does the
group want to be, what can they be in the future? Similarly, desired, sustainable
organizational change occurs through ICT’s five discoveries at the organizational level.
And so on at the community, country, and global level. If science fiction writers are to
be believed, desired sustainable change at the cosmic level will also follow ICT (see
Issac Azimov’s Foundation series for exploration of ICT at the cosmic level).
These other levels are, listed in order of increasing social size:
(1) individual;
(2) dyad or couple;
(3) team, group, family, coalition;
(4) organization;
(5) community;
(6) country/culture;
(7) global; and
(8) cosmic.

Akrivou et al. (2006) examine ICT at the group or team level. Van Oosten (2006)
examines ICT at the organization level. Smith (2006) examines ICT at the level of
formation and development of social capital. Howard and Coombe (2006) examine ICT
at the country or culture level (all in this issue).
But a primary feature of a complex system is that there is an interaction among the
levels and that interaction produces adaptive or emergent behavior. The first degree of
interaction between and among the individual, small group, and organization levels of
ICT is leadership. The second degree of interaction, which in addition to leadership,
allows interaction among all levels of ICT, is through the formation and use of
reference groups.
As can be seen in the articles in this Special Issue, without leadership there does not
seem to be the emergence of desired, sustainable change. Many of the organizational or
small group conditions may have been present for a long time, but when a capable or
effective leader appears, magic happens – or more accurately, ICT happens! Similarly,
a leader may enable individuals to find to consider intentional change while a small
group (or team or family) or their organizational undergoes intentional change.
But once the social organization gets larger than the number of people who can
comfortably sit around a table, campfire, or circle, coalitions begin to play a critical
role. The specific coalitions are those formed around a theme. This theme is often
defined in terms of values (what is good or bad) and becomes an identity forming Intentional
group. Literature since the 1980s has departed from calling these “reference groups” change
and now uses terms such as “social identity groups”, or “groups representing
anticipatory socialization”. In much the same way a coalition government brings
together ministers elected to represent a variety of political parties (each representing a
different issue) to join together and form a government and elect a Prime Minister,
reference groups enable large social organizations to engage in the discoveries of ICT. 619
It is then up to the leadership (again the first degree of interaction appears critical) to
synthesize these into the needed experience for most of the people in the social group at
that level.

Concluding thought
People change. People change in desired ways but not without intentional efforts.
Teams, organizations, communities, and even countries can change in desired ways.
But again, without intentional efforts, the changes are slow, result in worse
unintentional consequences to the original desire, and arouse a shared hopelessness
about the future and diminish the human spirit.
Through intentional change theory, we can understand how individuals, groups,
organizations, and whole communities can bring about desired changes in a
sustainable way. But to understand intentional change, we must use a variety of
concepts from complexity theory. It is through these at times elusive but enlightening
concepts that we can guide and reignite individual and collective will to make the
world a better place.

References
Akrivou, K., Boyatzis, R.E. and McLeod, P.L. (2006), “The evolving group: towards a
presscriptive theory of intentional group development”, Journal of Management
Development, Vol. 25 No. 7, pp. 689-706.
Argyris, C. (1985), Strategy, Change, and Defensive Routines, Pitman, Boston, MA.
Ballou, R., Bowers, D., Boyatzis, R.E. and Kolb, D.A. (1999), “Fellowship in lifelong learning: an
executive development program for advanced professionals”, Journal of Management
Education, Vol. 23 No. 4, pp. 338-54.
Baldwin, T. and Ford, J.K. (1988), “Transfer of training: a review and directions for future
research”, Personnel Psychology, Vol. 41, pp. 63-105.
Barlow, D.H. (1988), Anxiety and Disorders: The Nature and Treatment of Anxiety and Panic,
The Guilford Press, New York, NY.
Beaubien, J.M. and Payne, S.C. (1999), “Individual goal orientation as a predictor of job and
academic performance: a meta-analytic review and integration”, paper presented at the
Meeting of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Atlanta, GA, April.
Boyatzis, R.E. (1983), “Who would drink what, when and where if looking for a fight?”, in
Gottheil, E., Druley, K.A., Skolada, T.E. and Waxman, H.H. (Eds), Alcohol, Drug Abuse,
and Aggression, Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, (this was based on a presentation at
the 1979 American Psychological Association Annual Conference in Detroit, MI).
Boyatzis, R.E. (1994), “Stimulating self-directed change: a required MBA course called
‘Managerial Assessment and Development’”, Journal of Management Education, Vol. 18
No. 3, pp. 304-23.
JMD Boyatzis, R.E. (1995), “Cornerstones of change: building a path for self-directed learning”,
in Boyatzis, R.E., Cowen, S.C. and Kolb, D.A. (Eds), Innovation in Professional Education:
25,7 Steps on a Journey from Teaching to Learning, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA, pp. 50-94.
Boyatzis, R.E. (1999), “Self-directed change and learning as a necessary meta-competency for
success and effectiveness in the 21st century”, in Sims, R. and Veres, J.G. (Eds), Keys to
Employee Success in the Coming Decades, Greenwood Publishing, Westport, CT, pp. 15-32.
620 Boyatzis, R.E. (2001), “How and why individuals are able to develop emotional intelligence”, in
Cherniss, C. and Goleman, D. (Eds), The Emotionally Intelligent Workplace: How to Select
for, Measure, and Improve Emotional Intelligence in Individuals, Groups, and
Organizations, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA, pp. 234-53.
Boyatzis, R.E. (n.d.), “Using tipping points of emotional intelligence and cognitive competencies
to predict financial performance of leaders”, Psicothemia, Vol. 17, forthcoming.
Boyatzis, R.E. and Akrivou, K. (2006), “The ideal self as the driver of intentional change”, Journal
of Management Development, Vol. 25 No. 7, pp. 624-42.
Boyatzis, R.E. and Kolb, D.A. (1969), “Feedback and self-directed behavior change”, unpublished
working paper No. 394-69, Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Cambridge, MA.
Boyatzis, R.E. and McKee, A. (2005), Resonant Leadership: Renewing Yourself and Connecting
with Others Through Mindfulness, Hope, and Compassion, Harvard Business School
Press, Boston, MA.
Boyatzis, R.E. and Sokol, M. (1982), “A pilot project to assess the feasibility of assessing skills
and personal characteristics of students in collegiate business programs”, report to the
AACSB, St Louis, MO.
Boyatzis, R.E., Renio-McKee, A. and Thompson, L. (1995a), “Past accomplishments: establishing
the impact and baseline of earlier programs”, in Boyatzis, R.E., Cowen, S.S. and Kolb, D.A.
(Eds), Innovation in Professional Education: Steps on a Journey from Teaching to Learning,
Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA, pp. 95-119.
Boyatzis, R.E., Leonard, D., Rhee, K. and Wheeler, J.V. (1996), “Competencies can be developed,
but not the way we thought”, Capability, Vol. 2 No. 2, pp. 25-41.
Boyatzis, R.E., Baker, A., Leonard, D., Rhee, K. and Thompson, L. (1995b), “Will it make a
difference?: assessing a value-based, outcome oriented, competency-based professional
program”, in Boyatzis, R.E., Cowen, S.S. and Kolb, D.A. (Eds), Innovating in Professional
Education: Steps on a Journey from Teaching to Learning, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA,
pp. 167-202.
Burke, M.J. and Day, R.R. (1986), “A cumulative study of the effectiveness of managerial
training”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 71 No. 2, pp. 232-45.
Campbell, J.P., Dunnette, M.D., Lawler, E.E. III and Weick, K.E. (1970), Managerial Behavior,
Performance, and Effectiveness, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
Casti, J.L. (1994), Complexification: Explaining a Paradoxical World Through the Science of
Surprise, Harper Collins, New York, NY.
Chen, G., Gully, S.M., Whiteman, J.A. and Kilcullen, R.N. (2000), “Examination of relationships
among trait-like individual differences, state-like individual differences, and learning
performance”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 85 No. 6, pp. 835-47.
Cherniss, C. and Adler, M. (2000), Promoting Emotional Intelligence in Organizations: Make
Training in Emotional Intelligence Effective, American Society of Training and
Development, Washington, DC.
Complexity Forum (2001-2003), Faculty seminar at Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Intentional
OH, chaired by Professor Mihajlo D. Mesarovic, with Professors James Alexander, David
Aron, Eric Baer, Robert Barmish, Randolph Beer, Richard Boyatzis, Bo Carlsson, Meil change
Greenspan, Max Hutton, Eva Kahana, Joseph Koonce, Kenneth Loparo, Vincent McHale,
Shiva Satry, Kenneth Singer, Daniel Solow, Sree Sreenath, Kurt Strange, Masood
Tabib-Asar, Phillip Taylor, and Donal Voltz.
Cutter, H., Boyatzis, R.E. and Clancy, D. (1977), “The effectiveness of power motivation training 621
for rehabilitating alcoholics”, Journal of Studies on Alcohol, Vol. 38 No. 1, pp. 131-41.
Development Dimensions International (1985), “Final report: Phase III”, report to the AACSB,
St Louis, MO.
Dreyfus, C. (1990), “The characteristics of high performing managers of scientists and
engineers”, unpublished doctoral dissertation, Case Western Reserve University,
Cleveland, OH.
Dyck, L.R., Caron, A. and Aron, D. (2006), “Working on the positive emotional attractor through
training in health care”, Journal of Management Development, Vol. 25 No. 7, pp. 671-88.
Gladwell, M. (2000), The Tipping Point: How Little Things Can Make a Big Difference, Little
Brown and Company, New York, NY.
Goleman, D. (1985), Vital Lies, Simple Truths: The Psychology of Self-Deception, Simon and
Schuster, New York, NY.
Goleman, D. (1995), Emotional Intelligence, Bantam Books, New York, NY.
Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R.E. and McKee, A. (2002), Primal Leadership: Realizing the Power of
Emotional Intelligence, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, MA.
Hand, H.H., Richards, M.D. and Slocum, J.W. Jr (1973), “Organizational climate and the
effectiveness of a human relations training program”, Academy of Management Journal,
Vol. 16 No. 2, pp. 185-246.
Holland, J. (1995), Hidden Order: How Adaptation Builds Complexity, Helix Books, Reading, MA.
Howard, A. (2006), “Positive and negative emotional attractors and intentional change”, Journal
of Management Development, Vol. 25 No. 7, pp. 732-42.
Howard, A. and Coombe, D. (2006), “National level intentional change: a story of two countries”,
Journal of Management Development, Vol. 25 No. 7, pp. 732-42.
Hubble, M.A., Duncan, B.L. and Miller, S.D. (Eds) (1999), The Heart and Soul of Change: What
Works in Therapy, American Psychological Association, Washington, DC.
Kanfer, F.H. and Goldstein, A.P. (Eds) (1991), Helping People Change: A Textbook of Methods,
4th ed., Allyn & Bacon, Boston, MA.
Kolb, D.A. (1971), “A cybernetic model of human change and growth”, unpublished working
paper No. 526-71, Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge, MA.
Kolb, D.A. and Boyatzis, R.E. (1970a), “On the dynamics of the helping relationship”, Journal of
Applied Behavioral Science, Vol. 6 No. 3, pp. 267-89.
Kolb, D.A. and Boyatzis, R.E. (1970b), “Goal-setting and self-directed behavior change”, Human
Relations, Vol. 23 No. 5, pp. 439-57.
Kolb, D.A., Winter, S.K. and Berlew, D.E. (1968), “Self-directed change: two studies”, Journal of
Applied Behavioral Science, Vol. 6 No. 3, pp. 453-71.
Kram, K.E. (1996), “A relational approach to careers”, in Hall, D.T. (Ed.), The Career is Dead:
Long Live the Career, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA, pp. 132-57.
JMD Latham, G.P. and Saari, L.M. (1979), “Application of social-learning theory to training
supervisors through behavioral modeling”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 64 No. 3,
25,7 pp. 239-46.
Leonard, D. (1996), “The impact of learning goals on self-directed change in management
development and education”, doctoral dissertation, Case Western Reserve University,
Cleveland, OH.
622 Locke, E.A. and Latham, G.P. (1990), A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance,
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Losada, M. and Heaphy, E. (n.d.), “The role of positivity and connectivity in the performance of
business teams: a nonlinear dynamics model”, American Behavioral Scientist,
forthcoming.
McClelland, D.C. (1965), “Toward a theory of motive acquisition”, American Psychologist, Vol. 20
No. 5, pp. 321-33.
McClelland, D.C. and Winter, D.G. (1969), Motivating Economic Achievement, The Free Press,
New York, NY.
Miron, D. and McClelland, D.C. (1979), “The impact of achievement motivation training on small
business”, California Management Review, Vol. 21 No. 4, pp. 13-28.
Morrow, C.C., Jarrett, M.Q. and Rupinski, M.T. (1997), “An investigation of the effect and
economic utility of corporate-wide training”, Personnel Psychology, Vol. 50, pp. 91-119.
Noe, R.A. and Schmitt, N. (1986), “The influence of trainee attitudes on training effectiveness: test
of a model”, Personnel Psychology, Vol. 39, pp. 497-523.
Pascarella, E.T. and Terenzini, P.T. (1991), How College Affects Students: Findings and Insights
from Twenty Years of Research, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA.
Prochaska, J.O., DiClemente, C.C. and Norcross, J.C. (1992), “In search of how people change:
applications to addictive behaviors”, American Psychologist, Vol. 47 No. 9, pp. 1102-14.
Roberts, L., Dutton, J.E., Spreitzer, G., Heaphy, E. and Quinn, R.E. (n.d.), “Composing the reflect
best-self portrait: pathways for becoming extraordinary in work organizations”, Academy
of Management Review, forthcoming.
Smith, M.L. (2006), “Social capital and intentional change: exploring the role of social networks
on individual change efforts”, Journal of Management Development, Vol. 25 No. 7,
pp. 718-31.
Specht, L. and Sandlin, P. (1991), “The differential effects of experiential learning activities and
traditional lecture classes in accounting”, Simulations and Gaming, Vol. 22 No. 2,
pp. 196-210.
Taylor, S.N. (2006), “Why the real self is fundamental to intentional change”, Journal of
Management Development, Vol. 25 No. 7, pp. 643-56.
Van Oosten, E. (2006), “Intentional change theory at the organisational level: a case study”,
Journal of Management Development, Vol. 25 No. 7, pp. 707-17.
Wexley, K.N. and Memeroff, W.F. (1975), “Effectiveness of positive reinforcement and goal
setting as methods of management development”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 60
No. 4, pp. 446-50.
Wheeler, J.V. (1999), “The impact of social environments on self-directed change and learning”,
unpublished doctoral dissertation, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH.
Winter, D.G., McClelland, D.C. and Stewart, A.J. (1981), A New Case for the Liberal Arts:
Assessing Institutional Goals and Student Development, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA.
Young, D.P. and Dixon, N.M. (1996), Helping Leaders Take Effective Action: A Program Intentional
Evaluation, Center for Creative Leadership, Greensboro, NC.
change
Further reading
Boyatzis, R.E. (1982), The Competent Manager: A Model for Effective Performance, Wiley,
New York, NY.
Bray, D.W., Campbell, R.J. and Grant, D.L. (1974), Formative Years in Business: A Long-term 623
AT&T study of Managerial Lives, Wiley, New York, NY.
Goleman, D. (1998), Working With Emotional Intelligence, Bantam Books, New York, NY.
Howard, A. and Bray, D. (1988), Managerial Lives in Transition: Advancing Age and Changing
Times, Guilford Press, New York, NY.
Kolb, D.A. (1984), Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development,
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Kotter, J.P. (1982), The General Managers, The Free Press, New York, NY.
Luthans, F., Hodgetts, R.M. and Rosenkrantz, S.A. (1988), Real Managers, Ballinger, Boston, MA.
Sinatra, G.M. and Pintrich, P.R. (2003), “The role of intentions in conceptual change learning”,
in Sinatra, G.M. and Pintrich, P.R. (Eds), Intentional Conceptual Change, Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ, pp. 1-18.
Spencer, L.M. Jr and Spencer, S.M. (1993), Competence at Work: Models for Superior
Performance, Wiley, New York, NY.
Thornton, G.C. III and Byham, W.C. (1982), Assessment Centers and Managerial Performance,
Academic Press, New York, NY.

To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: [email protected]

Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.