Database System Concepts, 5th Ed.

©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan


See www.db-book.com for conditions on re-use

  SQL Data Types and Schemas

  Integrity Constraints
  Authorization
  Embedded SQL
  Dynamic SQL
  Functions and Procedural Constructs**
  Recursive Queries**
  Advanced SQL Features**

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5. 2006 4.2 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

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   date: Dates, containing a (4 digit) year, month and date
  Example: date ʻ2005-7-27ʼ
  time: Time of day, in hours, minutes and seconds.
  Example: time ʻ09:00:30ʼ time ʻ09:00:30.75ʼ
  timestamp: date plus time of day
  Example: timestamp ʻ2005-7-27 09:00:30.75ʼ
  interval: period of time
  Example: interval ʻ1ʼ day
  Subtracting a date/time/timestamp value from another gives an
interval value
  Interval values can be added to date/time/timestamp values

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5. 2006 4.3 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

  create type construct in SQL creates user-defined type

create type Dollars as numeric (12,2) final

  create domain construct in SQL-92 creates user-defined domain

types

create domain person_name char(20) not null

  Types and domains are similar. Domains can have constraints, such
as not null, specified on them.

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5. 2006 4.4 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

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   Domain constraints are the most elementary form of integrity
constraint. They test values inserted in the database, and test queries
to ensure that the comparisons make sense.
  New domains can be created from existing data types
  Example: create domain Dollars numeric(12, 2)

create domain Pounds numeric(12,2)
  We cannot assign or compare a value of type Dollars to a value of
type Pounds.
  However, we can convert type as below

(cast r.A as Pounds) 

(Should also multiply by the dollar-to-pound conversion-rate)

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5. 2006 4.5 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

  not null
  primary key
  unique
  check (P ), where P is a predicate

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5. 2006 4.6 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

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   Declare branch_name for branch is not null
branch_name char(15) not null

  Declare the domain Dollars to be not null

create domain Dollars numeric(12,2) not null

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5. 2006 4.7 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

  unique ( A1, A2, …, Am)

  The unique specification states that the attributes
A1, A2, … Am

form a candidate key.
  Candidate keys are permitted to be null (in contrast to primary keys).

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5. 2006 4.8 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

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   check (P ), where P is a predicate

Example: Declare branch_name as the primary key for

branch and ensure that the values of assets are non-
negative.
create table branch

(branch_name char(15),

branch_city char(30),

assets integer,

primary key (branch_name),

check (assets >= 0))

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5. 2006 4.9 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

  The check clause in SQL-92 permits domains to be restricted:

  Use check clause to ensure that an hourly_wage domain allows
only values greater than a specified value.
create domain hourly_wage numeric(5,2)

constraint value_test check(value > = 4.00)
  The domain has a constraint that ensures that the hourly_wage is
greater than 4.00
  The clause constraint value_test is optional; useful to indicate
which constraint an update violated.

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5. 2006 4.10 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

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   Ensures that a value that appears in one relation for a given set of
attributes also appears for a certain set of attributes in another relation.
  Example: If “Perryridge” is a branch name appearing in one of the
tuples in the account relation, then there exists a tuple in the branch
relation for branch “Perryridge”.
  Primary and candidate keys and foreign keys can be specified as part of
the SQL create table statement:
  The primary key clause lists attributes that comprise the primary key.
  The unique key clause lists attributes that comprise a candidate key.
  The foreign key clause lists the attributes that comprise the foreign
key and the name of the relation referenced by the foreign key. By
default, a foreign key references the primary key attributes of the
referenced table.

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5. 2006 4.11 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

create table customer


(customer_name char(20),

customer_street char(30),

customer_city char(30),

primary key (customer_name ))
create table branch

(branch_name char(15),

branch_city char(30),

assets numeric(12,2),

primary key (branch_name ))

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5. 2006 4.12 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

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 create table account

(account_number char(10),

branch_name char(15),

balance integer,

primary key (account_number), 

foreign key (branch_name) references branch )
create table depositor

(customer_name char(20),

account_number char(10),

primary key (customer_name, account_number),

foreign key (account_number ) references account,

foreign key (customer_name ) references customer )

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5. 2006 4.13 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

  An assertion is a predicate expressing a condition that we wish the

database always to satisfy.
  An assertion in SQL takes the form
create assertion <assertion-name> check <predicate>
  When an assertion is made, the system tests it for validity, and tests it
again on every update that may violate the assertion
  This testing may introduce a significant amount of overhead;
hence assertions should be used with great care.
  Asserting 

for all X, P(X) 

is achieved in a round-about fashion using 

not exists X such that not P(X)

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5. 2006 4.14 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

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   Every loan has at least one borrower who maintains an account with a
minimum balance or $1000.00
create assertion balance_constraint check

(not exists (

select *
from loan

where not exists ( 

select *

from borrower, depositor, account

where loan.loan_number = borrower.loan_number

and borrower.customer_name = depositor.customer_name

and depositor.account_number = account.account_number

and account.balance >= 1000)))

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5. 2006 4.15 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

  The sum of all loan amounts for each branch must be less than the
sum of all account balances at the branch.
create assertion sum_constraint check

(not exists (select * 

from branch

where (select sum(amount )

from loan

where loan.branch_name = 

branch.branch_name )

>= (select sum (amount ) 

from account

where loan.branch_name = 

branch.branch_name )))

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5. 2006 4.16 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

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   ???
  For that you need triggers …

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5. 2006 4.17 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Forms of authorization on parts of the database:

  Read - allows reading, but not modification of data.

  Insert - allows insertion of new data, but not modification of existing data.
  Update - allows modification, but not deletion of data.
  Delete - allows deletion of data.

Forms of authorization to modify the database schema (covered in Chapter 8):

  Index - allows creation and deletion of indices.
  Resources - allows creation of new relations.
  Alteration - allows addition or deletion of attributes in a relation.
  Drop - allows deletion of relations.

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5. 2006 4.18 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

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   The grant statement is used to confer authorization
grant <privilege list>
on <relation name or view name> to <user list>
  <user list> is:
  a user-id
  public, which allows all valid users the privilege granted
  A role (more on this in Chapter 8)
  Granting a privilege on a view does not imply granting any privileges
on the underlying relations.
  The grantor of the privilege must already hold the privilege on the
specified item (or be the database administrator).

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5. 2006 4.19 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

  The revoke statement is used to revoke authorization.

revoke <privilege list>
on <relation name or view name> from <user list>
  Example:
revoke select on branch from U1, U2, U3
  <privilege-list> may be all to revoke all privileges the revokee may
hold.
  If <revokee-list> includes public, all users lose the privilege except
those granted it explicitly.
  If the same privilege was granted twice to the same user by different
grantees, the user may retain the privilege after the revocation.
  All privileges that depend on the privilege being revoked are also
revoked.

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5. 2006 4.20 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

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   The SQL standard defines embeddings of SQL in a variety of
programming languages such as C, Java, and Cobol.
  A language to which SQL queries are embedded is referred to as a host
language, and the SQL structures permitted in the host language
comprise embedded SQL.
  The basic form of these languages follows that of the System R
embedding of SQL into PL/I.
  EXEC SQL statement is used to identify embedded SQL request to the
preprocessor
EXEC SQL <embedded SQL statement > END_EXEC
Note: this varies by language (for example, the Java embedding uses

# SQL { …. }; )

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5. 2006 4.21 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

  From within a host language, find the names and cities of

customers with more than the variable amount dollars in some
account.

  Specify the query in SQL and declare a cursor for it

EXEC SQL
declare c cursor for 

select depositor.customer_name, customer_city

from depositor, customer, account

where depositor.customer_name = customer.customer_name 

and depositor account_number = account.account_number

and account.balance > :amount
END_EXEC

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5. 2006 4.22 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

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   The open statement causes the query to be evaluated
EXEC SQL open c END_EXEC
  The fetch statement causes the values of one tuple in the query result
to be placed on host language variables.
EXEC SQL fetch c into :cn, :cc END_EXEC

Repeated calls to fetch get successive tuples in the query result
  A variable called SQLSTATE in the SQL communication area
(SQLCA) gets set to ʻ02000ʼ to indicate no more data is available
  The close statement causes the database system to delete the
temporary relation that holds the result of the query.
EXEC SQL close c END_EXEC
Note: above details vary with language. For example, the Java
embedding defines Java iterators to step through result tuples.

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5. 2006 4.23 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

  Can update tuples fetched by cursor by declaring that the cursor is for
update
declare c cursor for

select *

from account

where branch_name = ʻPerryridgeʼ

for update
  To update tuple at the current location of cursor c
update account

set balance = balance + 100

where current of c

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5. 2006 4.24 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

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   Allows programs to construct and submit SQL queries at run time.
  Example of the use of dynamic SQL from within a C program.


char * sqlprog = “update account 


set balance = balance * 1.05

where account_number = ?”

EXEC SQL prepare dynprog from :sqlprog;

char account [10] = “A-101”;

EXEC SQL execute dynprog using :account;
  The dynamic SQL program contains a ?, which is a place holder for a
value that is provided when the SQL program is executed.

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5. 2006 4.25 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

  API (application-program interface) for a program to interact with a

database server
  Application makes calls to
  Connect with the database server
  Send SQL commands to the database server
  Fetch tuples of result one-by-one into program variables
  ODBC (Open Database Connectivity) works with C, C++, C#, and
Visual Basic
  JDBC (Java Database Connectivity) works with Java

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5. 2006 4.26 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

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   JDBC is a Java API for communicating with database systems
supporting SQL
  JDBC supports a variety of features for querying and updating data, and
for retrieving query results
  JDBC also supports metadata retrieval, such as querying about
relations present in the database and the names and types of relation
attributes
  Model for communicating with the database:
  Open a connection
  Create a “statement” object
  Execute queries using the Statement object to send queries and
fetch results
  Exception mechanism to handle errors

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5. 2006 4.27 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

  SQL:1999 supports functions and procedures

  Functions/procedures can be written in SQL itself, or in an external
programming language
  Functions are particularly useful with specialized data types such as
images and geometric objects
  Example: functions to check if polygons overlap, or to compare
images for similarity
  Some database systems support table-valued functions, which
can return a relation as a result
  SQL:1999 also supports a rich set of imperative constructs, including
  Loops, if-then-else, assignment
  Many databases have proprietary procedural extensions to SQL that
differ from SQL:1999

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5. 2006 4.28 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

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   Define a function that, given the name of a customer, returns the
count of the number of accounts owned by the customer.
create function account_count (customer_name varchar(20))

returns integer

begin

declare a_count integer;

select count (* ) into a_count

from depositor

where depositor.customer_name = customer_name

return a_count;

end
  Find the name and address of each customer that has more than one
account.
select customer_name, customer_street, customer_city

from customer

where account_count (customer_name ) > 1

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5. 2006 4.29 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

  SQL:1999 permits the use of functions and procedures written in other

languages such as C or C++
  Declaring external language procedures and functions


create procedure account_count_proc(in customer_name varchar(20),


out count integer)

language C

external name ʼ /usr/avi/bin/account_count_procʼ


create function account_count(customer_name varchar(20))


returns integer

language C

external name ʻ/usr/avi/bin/author_countʼ

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5. 2006 4.30 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

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   Benefits of external language functions/procedures:
  more efficient for many operations, and more expressive power
  Drawbacks
  Code to implement function may need to be loaded into database
system and executed in the database systemʼs address space
  risk of accidental corruption of database structures
  security risk, allowing users access to unauthorized data
  There are alternatives, which give good security at the cost of
potentially worse performance
  Direct execution in the database systemʼs space is used when
efficiency is more important than security

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5. 2006 4.31 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed.

©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

See www.db-book.com for conditions on re-use

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