Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

Introduction to Software Project Management:

Software Project Management (SPM) is a proper way of planning and leading

software projects. It is a part of project management in which software projects
are planned, implemented, monitored, and controlled. Need for Software
Project Management: Software is a non-physical product. Software
development is a new stream in business and there is very little experience in
building software products. Most of the software products are made to fit clients’
requirements. The most important is that the basic technology changes and
advances so frequently and rapidly that experience of one product may not be
applied to the other one. Such type of business and environmental constraints
increase risk in software development hence it is essential to manage software
projects efficiently. It is necessary for an organization to deliver quality
products, keep the cost within the client’s budget constrain and deliver the
project as per schedule. Hence in order, software project management is
necessary to incorporate user requirements along with budget and time
constraints.
Software Project Management consists of Several Different Types of
Management:
1. Conflict Management: Conflict management is the process to restrict the
negative features of conflict while increasing the positive features of conflict.
The goal of conflict management is to improve learning and group results
including efficacy or performance in an organizational setting. Properly
managed conflict can enhance group results.
2. Risk Management: Risk management is the analysis and identification of
risks that is followed by synchronized and economical implementation of
resources to minimize, operate and control the possibility or effect of
unfortunate events or to maximize the realization of opportunities.
3. Requirement Management: It is the process of analyzing, prioritizing,
tracking, and documenting requirements and then supervising change and
communicating to pertinent stakeholders. It is a continuous process during a
project.
4. Change Management: Change management is a systematic approach for
dealing with the transition or transformation of an organization’s goals,
processes, or technologies. The purpose of change management is to
execute strategies for effecting change, controlling change, and helping
people to adapt to change.
5. Software Configuration Management: Software configuration
management is the process of controlling and tracking changes in the
software, part of the larger cross-disciplinary field of configuration
management. Software configuration management includes revision control
and the inauguration of baselines.
Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

6. Release Management: Release Management is the task of planning,

controlling, and scheduling the build-in deploying releases. Release
management ensures that the organization delivers new and enhanced
services required by the customer while protecting the integrity of existing
services.
Aspects of Software Project Management: 
The list of focus areas it can tackle and the broad upsides of the Software
Project. Management are:
1. Planning: The software project manager lays out the complete project’s
blueprint. The project plan will outline the scope, resources, timelines,
techniques, strategy, communication,  testing, and maintenance steps. SPM
can aid greatly here.
2. Leading: A software project manager brings together and leads a team of
engineers, strategists, programmers, designers, and data scientists. Leading
a team necessitates exceptional communication, interpersonal, and
leadership abilities. One can only hope to do this effectively if one sticks with
the core SPM principles. 
3. Execution: SPM comes to the rescue here also as the person in charge of
software projects (if well versed with SPM/Agile methodologies) will ensure
that each stage of the project is completed successfully. measuring
progress, monitoring to check how teams function, and  generating status
reports are all part of this process.
4. Time management: Abiding by a timeline is crucial to completing
deliverables successfully. This is especially difficult when managing software
projects because changes to the original project charter are unavoidable
over time. To assure progress in the face of blockages or changes, software
project managers ought to be specialists in managing risk and emergency
preparedness. This Risk Mitigation and 
management is one of the core tents of the philosophy of SPM. 
5. Budget: Software project managers, like conventional project managers, are
responsible for generating a project budget and adhering to it as closely as
feasible, regulating spending and reassigning funds as needed. SPM
teaches us how to effectively manage the monetary aspect  of projects to
avoid running into a financial crunch later on in the project.
6. Maintenance: Software project management emphasizes continuous
product testing to find and repair defects early, tailor the end product to the
needs of the client, and keep the project on track. The software project
manager makes ensuring that the product is thoroughly tested, analyzed,
and adjusted as needed. Another point in favour of SPM.
Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

Downsides of Software Project Management:

Numerous issues can develop if a Software project manager lacks the
necessary expertise or knowledge. Software Project management has several
drawbacks, including resource loss, scheduling difficulty, data protection
concerns, and interpersonal conflicts between
Developers/Engineers/Stakeholders. Furthermore, outsourcing work or
recruiting additional personnel to complete the project may result in hefty costs
for one’s company.
1. Costs are high: Consider spending money on various kinds of project
management tools, software, & services if ones engage in Software Project
Management strategies. These initiatives can be expensive and time-
consuming to put in place. Because your team will be using them as well,
they may require training. One may need to recruit subject matter experts or
specialists to assist with a project, depending on the circumstances.
Stakeholders will frequently press for the inclusion of features that were not
Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

originally envisioned. All of these factors can quickly drive up a project’s

cost.
2. Complexity will be increased: Software Project management is a multi-
stage, complex process. Unfortunately, some specialists might have a
propensity to overcomplicate everything, which can lead to confusion among
teams and lead to delays in project completion. They may also 
become dogmatic and specific in their ideas, resulting in a difficult work
atmosphere. Projects having a larger scope are typically more arduous to
complete, especially if there isn’t a dedicated team committed completely to
the project. Members of cross-functional teams may lag far behind their daily
tasks, adding to the overall complexity of the project being worked on.
3. Overhead in Communication: Recruits enter your organisation when we
hire software project management personnel. This provides a steady flow of
communication that may or may not match a company’s culture. As a result,
it is advised that you maintain your crew as 
small as feasible. The communication overhead tends to skyrocket when a
team becomes large enough. When a large team is needed for a project, it’s
critical to identify software project managers who can conduct effective
communication with a variety of people.
4. Lack of originality: Software Project managers can sometimes provide little
or no space for creativity. Team leaders either place an excessive amount of
emphasis on management processes or impose hard deadlines on their
employees, requiring them to develop and operate code within stringent
guidelines. This can stifle innovative thought and innovation that could be
beneficial to the project. When it comes to Software project management,
knowing when to encourage creativity and when to stick to the project plan
is crucial. Without Software project management personnel, an organization
can perhaps build and ship code more quickly. However, employing a
trained specialist to handle these areas, on the other hand, can open up new
doors and help the organisation achieve its objectives more 
quickly and more thoroughly.

Why is Software Project Management important?

Software project management focuses on developing a product that will have a

positive effect on an organization. Without project management, a software
development team may begin working on a project without any clear vision or
guidance, resulting in more frequent errors and confusion.

Part of software project management involves making everyone involved aware

of the purpose of the project and what steps are required to meet the end goal.
Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

Learn more about project management for software development and what it
entails.

What is a Project?

A project is defined as a sequence of tasks that must be completed to attain a

certain outcome. According to the Project Management Institute (PMI), the term

Project refers to ” to any temporary endeavor with a definite beginning and end”.

Depending on its complexity, it can be managed by a single person or

hundreds.

Characteristics of a project
A project is a set of interdependent tasks that have a common goal. Projects

have the following characteristics:

 Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

1. A clear start and end date – There are projects that last several years but a

project cannot go on forever. It needs to have a clear beginning, a definite end,

and an overview of what happens in between.

2. A project creates something new – Every project is unique, producing

something that did not previously exist. A project is a one-time, once-off activity,

never to be repeated exactly the same way again.

3. A project has boundaries – A project operates within certain constraints of

time, money, quality, and functionality. We’ll see more about this in later

sections.
4. A project is not business as usual – Projects are often confused with

processes. A Process is a series of routine, predefined steps to perform a

 Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

particular function, say, expense reimbursement approvals. It’s not a one-off

activity. It determines how a specific function is performed every single time.

The diverse nature of projects

Projects come in a wide range of shapes and sizes.

A project can:

 Be big: Like the construction of the Hoover Dam, take years to complete, and

have a humongous budget.

 Be small: Like your weekend project of installing a pathway in your lawn

 Involve many people: Like planning a wedding

 Just yourself: rearranging the photos in your wedding album

Types of projects
Projects can be diverse in the ways in which they are implemented. Here are

some examples of projects:

 Traditional projects: These are run sequentially in phases. These phases are

typically initiation, planning, execution, monitoring, and closure. Most high-cost

infrastructure projects make use of traditional project management.

 Agile projects: These are used mainly in software development. They are

people-focused and adaptive. They also typically have short turnaround times.
 Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

 Remote projects: Remote project management is usually used by distributed

teams that seldom meet in person. Handling freelance contributors is an

example of a remote project.

 Agency projects: Agency projects are outsourced to an agency that is likely to

have projects with multiple clients. Marketing and design projects are commonly

outsourced to agencies.

The boundaries of a project

Every project operates within certain boundaries called constraints:

 Project scope

 Project schedule

 People

 Resources.

All of these project constraints depend on what the project aims to achieve and

when. The outcome of a project results in deliverables. Anything that’s produced

during the project’s development such as documents, plans, and project

Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

reports is considered a deliverable. A deliverable may also be the result of the

project itself.

Having a final deliverable, as well as a finite timespan, distinguishes project

management from business-as-usual operations. Since projects are unlike

routine operations, most people involved are those who usually don’t work

together. Sometimes, the professionals involved will come from different

organizations and geographies. If the desired outcome is achieved on time and

within budget, a project is considered to be a success.

Project life cycle – 5 stages

Often, projects are divided into five project phases each of which comes with a

distinct set of tasks, objectives, and a particular deadline. Dividing a project into

different phases enables teams to stay on track throughout their entire life cycle.

1. Initiation

The first phase in a project’s life cycle is called project initiation. Here, a project

officially launches. It is named, and a broad plan is defined. Goals are identified,

along with the project’s constraints, risks, and shareholders. At this point,

shareholders decide if they want to commit to the project.

Depending on the project, studies may be conducted to identify its feasibility.

For IT projects, requirements are usually gathered and analyzed during the

initiation phase.
Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

2. Planning

A roadmap that will guide teams from creating a project plan throughout the

project’s execution and closure phases is developed comprehensively during

the planning stage. Deadlines must be set, and resources must be allotted.

Breaking down tasks into smaller, manageable activities makes it easier

to manage project risks, costs, quality, time, and so on.

Learn more about how to implement an effective project roadmap.

At the same time, breaking down tasks into digestible pieces will empower

everyone involved to accomplish the project on time and stay within budget.

3. Execution

The project plan is implemented during the project execution phase. At this

point, teams will work on the deliverables to ensure that the project meets the

necessary requirements.

Everyone usually gathers for a meeting to mark the official start of the project,

where teams can get acquainted with each other and discuss their roles in the

success of the project. Modes of communication and project management

tools are identified before the project plan is executed.

Learn how kickoff meetings can help you steer your projects toward success

right from the start.

Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

In addition, team members familiarize themselves with the necessary status

meetings and reports that will be conducted throughout this phase to collect

project metrics. The project execution phase is a critical point in a project’s life

cycle as it will help everyone determine if their efforts will ultimately be fruitful or

not.

4. Monitoring and Controlling

The project monitoring and controlling phase happen at the same time as the

execution phase. It’s the job of the project manager to oversee operations and

make sure that everything is headed in the right direction, according to plan.

Aside from overseeing the project’s performance, project managers have to

monitor resources, manage risks, head status meetings, and reports, etc. If

unforeseen issues arise, the project manager may have to make adjustments to

the plans, as well as the project schedule.

5. Closing

The final phase of the project management life cycle known as the project

closure phase isn’t as simple as delivering the output itself. Project managers

have to record all deliverables, organize documents in a centralized location,

and hand over the project to the client or the team responsible for overseeing its

operations during the project closure phase.

 Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

Not only that, but teams come together for a final meeting to discuss the insights

they’ve learned and to reward the hard work of each member.

When is a project considered a success?

The short of it is that a project that is completed on time and on a budget can be

considered a success. However, a project can be evaluated on many criteria:

 Does it meet business requirements?

 Is it delivered on schedule and on a budget?

 Does it deliver the expected value and ROI?

What defines a successful project is likely to change based on the type of

project. This is why it is important to define what project success means during

the initiation and planning phases of a project.

How to implement a project

Project implementation can vary based on the methodology used. In traditional

project management, implementation is done in 5 phases.

1. Initiation: This phase involves making the case for the project to convince

the project stakeholders. A Project Initiation Document (PID) is created with

basic information about the project including probable resource use and

feasibility.
 Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

2. Planning: This phase occurs once a project has received approval from

stakeholders. This is a critical phase that involves a myriad of tasks including

contingency planning, allocating tasks, and planning resource sharing.

3. Execution: This is the phase when the actual work happens. Periodical reviews

are conducted to ensure that execution happens within schedule.

4. Monitoring: Monitoring happens in tandem with execution. Constant monitoring

by the project manager is required to ensure that work goes on minus hiccups.
5. Closure: This phase involves the important final tasks in the project including

project delivery to the client and documenting the learnings from the project.

Once these steps are complete, a project can be said to be implemented well.

How project management helps you manage

projects
Projects can be very complex undertakings that require a huge amount of effort

and resources. No matter what the goal is, using project management

principles will help the initiative run smoothly. Without proper project

management principles, projects will be handled haphazardly and are at a much

higher risk of

 project failure,

 delay in the project, and

 being over budget.

Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

Knowing the fundamentals of project management improves one’s chances of

completing a project successfully. No matter what industry or niche an

organization is in, project management methodologies and frameworks enable

them to steer the project in the right direction.

Contract Management:
Contract management is an intricate oversight process that follows contracts from pre-
award to completion, including execution, vendor selection, issue detection and control,
tracking and processing. When implemented properly, contract management processes
ensure that budgets and abilities are in alignment with project objectives.

The best contract management flows seamlessly through the organization and
integrates with project management and control, always involving the team members for
input and outcomes, and carefully monitoring contractors for performance and
deadlines.

While contract management can be beneficial in any industry, it is vital for industrial and
construction projects. In fact, contracts in these industries ensure that operations and
financial goals are met and risk is reduced. Supervision, quality control and the ability to
manage numerous professionals at a time can all be handled by a contract
management program specifically implemented for these types of projects.

The Stages of Contract Management

Contract management is not solely about creating agreements and getting them
approved. It includes a series of stages that follow the process through to a successful
conclusion. Any missed steps can cause delays and mistakes down the line. Here’s an
outline of five fundamental areas of importance:

1. Create: The contract management system must have the ability to incorporate

standardized procedures with details specific to the goals of the organization. First steps
include identifying the type of contract and who will be responsible for each task. The
planning process should consider company resources, objectives and team member
strengths and weaknesses, while developing an overview of potential challenges and
risks.
2. Negotiate: The contract should be written in a manner that reflects the organizational
needs and values, helping to establish trust between the two parties. Once the initial
contract has been designed, negotiation is the obvious next step. Line items can be
discussed, changed or removed, as part of the negotiation process.
3. Approve: Approval usually includes multiple sign-offs. Numerous managers,
departments and even contractors, may have to sign off on the specifics before the final
deal is made.
Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

4. Finalize: The contract signing process between enterprises is the final step before
getting the project underway. Obtaining signatures from numerous parties and entities
quickly—even when distance is a factor—is crucial to avoiding postponements to the
process.
5. Manage: Once the project begins, changes can still occur. Revisions need to be
carefully managed and communicated to the appropriate parties. Deadlines, audits,
revenue, and expenditures need to be tracked, completed and shared with the rest of
the team.

A standardized program that is customizable to an organization’s specific needs helps a

contract run smoothly. When these five areas are carefully managed, the odds of a
successful relationship and a closed deal go up exponentially.

Why is Contract Management Important?

A contract provides parameters for key aspects of a project including business strategy
and relationships. Competing in today’s global marketplace means team members can
be located all over the world, adding challenges concerning time-zone, cultural needs
and understanding.

Contracts include payment terms, negotiations, workflow, service expectations, and

compliance obligations. Contract management helps reduce risk by ensuring
compliance when necessary, as well as providing monitoring and tracking to prove it. It
also augments the bottom line by comparing prices and reducing spending. Real-time
visibility of all aspects of a contract over time enables management to make data-driven
decisions and necessary course corrections before it’s too late.

When a contract is initiated, it should reflect goals, timelines, budgets, resources, risks,
regulations, and specifications. Each phase of the process requires specific elements,
purpose and management in order to proceed to the next step.

Technicians, engineers, and other skilled professionals must be carefully chosen to

complete the contract and execute the project. Technology provides an active thread
connecting all aspects of the project, helping to fill in the holes during revisions, and
ensure communication with the right team members, at the right time.

Many construction companies are faced with re-thinking how business processes like
productivity, performance, labor, and inventory are affecting growth and profitability.
Communication, tracking, managing revisions and a variety of other tasks can add to an
already complicated process. Good contract management and operational efficiency go
hand-in-hand. 

Contract Management Challenges

Tracking and managing the array of moving parts of a contract can present a variety of
challenges. In the engineering and construction industry, projects are often large and
Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

complex, involving joint ventures, numerous sub-contractors and complications related

to global execution.

The processes of contract management can present serious challenges, especially

when handled manually. Specific challenges include:

 Execution: Without proper management, files are easily lost, and final approvals and
signatures take much longer than necessary.
 Tracking: It can be difficult to track and audit contracts once they have been signed and
are passed on to other staff who may not understand the details that must be monitored.
Budget information, e-mails, information from important meetings, and changes are
stuck in transit before being addressed. Time is money, and project delays decrease
profitability.
 Revisions: Managing change before a contract is approved and after it has been
executed is equally important. Larger projects frequently include national or global teams
and create obstacles to deadlines and cohesiveness. Updates to original documentation
can take days, or even weeks. What’s more, if teams are working from different
versions, the wrong decisions could be implemented. Any of those scenarios could lead
to increased risk, missed deadlines, mistakes and even litigation.
 Compliance: Details laid out in the contract are non-negotiable obligations. From a legal
standpoint there may be regulatory or compliance issues that must be followed to the
letter. Failure to comply can have serious legal and/or financial consequences.

Benefits of Contract Management

Contract management improves communication, response time, goal alignment,

transparency and accountability. These and other project performance metrics can be
tracked and improved with good contract management:

 Efficiency: Contract management streamlines adherence to the contract and can lower

business costs. All necessary documents can be found and accounted for in one place,
offering increased transparency for team members from different departments, as well
as contractors working offsite. The addition of automation makes documents and
changes more accessible, which can, in turn, reduce response time to changes,
additions or challenges. Positive experiences relating to contractual agreements may
lock in better raw material pricing and availability as well as service costs down the line.
 Risk reduction: Important business objectives and goals are identified when a contract
is written. A good contract management process sets expectations around those
priorities and ensures commitments in the contract are met. The benefit works all
around, holding organizations to performance clauses, and providing vendor
compliance. Regulations are in a continual state of change, and staying on top of them
means constant oversight to ensure your projects stay in compliance. Tracking assets,
obligations and provisions is a must to mitigate the risk of financial loss. The tracking
element provided by a contract management tool constantly gauges performance and
compliance in real-time.
 Relationship building: A positive contract experience creates lasting business partners
with vendors and subcontractors. Particularly in the construction industry, finding good
help is paramount for future projects.
 Tracking and documentation: Contract management tools organize and centralize
documents and processes making business insight and analytics more accessible.
Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

Standardized reporting and record-keeping results in accuracy and visibility, which, in

turn, creates actionable insights. When contracts are managed with transparency,
projects are less likely to get stuck because of an unknown challenge or compliance
issues.

Benefits of Contract Management Software

From contract development to project completion, full project lifecycle oversight is a

clear choice to maximize performance and revenue. Contract management software
takes the process a step further, providing automation, a single source of truth and a
real-time view of day-to-day activity.

Once a contract is approved, it needs to be accepted and signed by numerous parties.

Signatures get complicated when more than one is needed, potentially from all around
the country, or even the world. Contract management software provides an electronic
signature tool that solves this tedious problem, expediting execution.

Following contract execution, efficient management of the contract can significantly

enhance the results of the project. Software solutions can build the terms of the contract
into business rules that assure compliance — whether adhering to required timing,
payment terms, change management processes or even providing visibility to
performance en route to achieving predetermined incentives.

In order to truly leverage the benefits, contract management software would include:

 Procurement planning: Tools to evaluate and manage potential clients and vendors

should be intuitive. Software must offer parameters to choose opportunities that are in
line with your company’s values and services.
 Vendor and bid management: Individual contracts inside the umbrella contract are
equally important. Software offers the ability to choose and review vendors and
contractors based on predetermined qualities and previous work experience.
 Budget and cost control: Staying within a predetermined budget is a must-have of a
contract management program. Software adds evaluation of value, progress,
completion, and forecasts for the future.
 Change management: If things change over time within the contract, revisions should
be noted, approved and shared with the team quickly. Contract management software
can also calculate effects on cost and scheduling.
 Field progress management: Contract management software goes beyond the
contract, tracking what’s happening in the field, communicating change and progress,
and reporting issues instantly. This real-time access helps the team determine
alternative actions and make decisions proactively.
 Administration: Communication and collaboration are key elements of a successful
contract and project. Clients, customers and contractors can stay on the same page
regarding all documentation and change around meetings, action items, responsibilities,
progress and status.
 Compliance: A contract management software solution notes important information and
tracks it along the lifecycle of the project, creating alerts to the appropriate people when
Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

a breach is suspected. A real-time overview allows you to be proactive before a problem

presents itself.
 Documentation and audit trails: Contract management software allows all team
members to literally be on the same page as changes are made. Budgets, timelines,
goals, audits, and other documentation are all updated and accessible in real-time.
Having access to all aspects of project changes as they are happening in a single-
source-view means timely reactions, positive outcomes, reduced risk and fewer
complications that could result in missed deadlines, mistakes and even litigation.

Data solutions clear the way for improvements to overall contract and project
organization with automated procedures and notifications. A solution that can effectively
head off problems provides a competitive advantage and improves overall project
performance.

A contract management solution should seamlessly integrate with other project

management systems, like project portfolio management and project controls. Software
that manages the entire lifecycle of your project can provide resources for all team
members, no matter their specific roles. The benefit of that unified view is invaluable to
the team, the process, and the bottom line.

Activities Covered by Software Project Management,

Software Management Activities

Software project management comprises of a number of activities, which contains
planning of project, deciding scope of software product, estimation of cost in various
terms, scheduling of tasks and events, and resource management. Project
management activities may include:

 Project Planning
 Scope Management
 Project Estimation

Project Planning
Software project planning is task, which is performed before the production of software
actually starts. It is there for the software production but involves no concrete activity
that has any direction connection with software production; rather it is a set of multiple
processes, which facilitates software production. Project planning may include the
following:

Scope Management
It defines the scope of project; this includes all the activities, process need to be done in
order to make a deliverable software product. Scope management is essential because
it creates boundaries of the project by clearly defining what would be done in the project
Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

and what would not be done. This makes project to contain limited and quantifiable
tasks, which can easily be documented and in turn avoids cost and time overrun.
During Project Scope management, it is necessary to -

 Define the scope

 Decide its verification and control
 Divide the project into various smaller parts for ease of management.
 Verify the scope
 Control the scope by incorporating changes to the scope

Project Estimation
For an effective management accurate estimation of various measures is a must. With
correct estimation managers can manage and control the project more efficiently and
effectively.
Project estimation may involve the following:

 Software size estimation

Software size may be estimated either in terms of KLOC (Kilo Line of Code) or by
calculating number of function points in the software. Lines of code depend upon
coding practices and Function points vary according to the user or software
requirement.
 Effort estimation
The managers estimate efforts in terms of personnel requirement and man-hour
required to produce the software. For effort estimation software size should be
known. This can either be derived by managers’ experience, organization’s
historical data or software size can be converted into efforts by using some
standard formulae.
 Time estimation
Once size and efforts are estimated, the time required to produce the software
can be estimated. Efforts required is segregated into sub categories as per the
requirement specifications and interdependency of various components of
software. Software tasks are divided into smaller tasks, activities or events by
Work Breakthrough Structure (WBS). The tasks are scheduled on day-to-day
basis or in calendar months.
The sum of time required to complete all tasks in hours or days is the total time
invested to complete the project.
 Cost estimation
This might be considered as the most difficult of all because it depends on more
elements than any of the previous ones. For estimating project cost, it is required
to consider -
o Size of software
o Software quality
Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

o Hardware
o Additional software or tools, licenses etc.
o Skilled personnel with task-specific skills
o Travel involved
o Communication
o Training and support

Project Estimation Techniques

We discussed various parameters involving project estimation such as size, effort, time
and cost.
Project manager can estimate the listed factors using two broadly recognized
techniques –
Decomposition Technique
This technique assumes the software as a product of various compositions.
There are two main models -

 Line of Code Estimation is done on behalf of number of line of codes in the software

product.
 Function Points Estimation is done on behalf of number of function points in the
software product.
Empirical Estimation Technique
This technique uses empirically derived formulae to make estimation.These formulae
are based on LOC or FPs.

 Putnam Model
This model is made by Lawrence H. Putnam, which is based on Norden’s
frequency distribution (Rayleigh curve). Putnam model maps time and efforts
required with software size.
 COCOMO
COCOMO stands for COnstructive COst MOdel, developed by Barry W. Boehm.
It divides the software product into three categories of software: organic, semi-
detached and embedded.

Project Scheduling
Project Scheduling in a project refers to roadmap of all activities to be done with
specified order and within time slot allotted to each activity. Project managers tend to
define various tasks, and project milestones and arrange them keeping various factors
in mind. They look for tasks lie in critical path in the schedule, which are necessary to
complete in specific manner (because of task interdependency) and strictly within the
Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

time allocated. Arrangement of tasks which lies out of critical path are less likely to
impact over all schedule of the project.
For scheduling a project, it is necessary to -

 Break down the project tasks into smaller, manageable form

 Find out various tasks and correlate them
 Estimate time frame required for each task
 Divide time into work-units
 Assign adequate number of work-units for each task
 Calculate total time required for the project from start to finish

Resource management
All elements used to develop a software product may be assumed as resource for that
project. This may include human resource, productive tools and software libraries.
The resources are available in limited quantity and stay in the organization as a pool of
assets. The shortage of resources hampers the development of project and it can lag
behind the schedule. Allocating extra resources increases development cost in the end.
It is therefore necessary to estimate and allocate adequate resources for the project.
Resource management includes -

 Defining proper organization project by creating a project team and allocating

responsibilities to each team member
 Determining resources required at a particular stage and their availability
 Manage Resources by generating resource request when they are required and de-
allocating them when they are no more needed.

Project Risk Management

Risk management involves all activities pertaining to identification, analyzing and
making provision for predictable and non-predictable risks in the project. Risk may
include the following:

 Experienced staff leaving the project and new staff coming in.
 Change in organizational management.
 Requirement change or misinterpreting requirement.
 Under-estimation of required time and resources.
 Technological changes, environmental changes, business competition.

Risk Management Process

There are following activities involved in risk management process:
Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

 Identification - Make note of all possible risks, which may occur in the project.
 Categorize - Categorize known risks into high, medium and low risk intensity as per their
possible impact on the project.
 Manage - Analyze the probability of occurrence of risks at various phases. Make plan to
avoid or face risks. Attempt to minimize their side-effects.
 Monitor - Closely monitor the potential risks and their early symptoms. Also monitor the
effects of steps taken to mitigate or avoid them.

Project Execution & Monitoring

In this phase, the tasks described in project plans are executed according to their
schedules.
Execution needs monitoring in order to check whether everything is going according to
the plan. Monitoring is observing to check the probability of risk and taking measures to
address the risk or report the status of various tasks.
These measures include -

 Activity Monitoring - All activities scheduled within some task can be monitored on day-
to-day basis. When all activities in a task are completed, it is considered as complete.
 Status Reports - The reports contain status of activities and tasks completed within a
given time frame, generally a week. Status can be marked as finished, pending or work-
in-progress etc.
 Milestones Checklist - Every project is divided into multiple phases where major tasks
are performed (milestones) based on the phases of SDLC. This milestone checklist is
prepared once every few weeks and reports the status of milestones.

Project Communication Management

Effective communication plays vital role in the success of a project. It bridges gaps
between client and the organization, among the team members as well as other stake
holders in the project such as hardware suppliers.
Communication can be oral or written. Communication management process may have
the following steps:

 Planning - This step includes the identifications of all the stakeholders in the project and
the mode of communication among them. It also considers if any additional
communication facilities are required.
 Sharing - After determining various aspects of planning, manager focuses on sharing
correct information with the correct person on correct time. This keeps every one
involved the project up to date with project progress and its status.
Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

 Feedback - Project managers use various measures and feedback mechanism and
create status and performance reports. This mechanism ensures that input from various
stakeholders is coming to the project manager as their feedback.
 Closure - At the end of each major event, end of a phase of SDLC or end of the project
itself, administrative closure is formally announced to update every stakeholder by
sending email, by distributing a hardcopy of document or by other mean of effective
communication.
After closure, the team moves to next phase or project.

Configuration Management
Configuration management is a process of tracking and controlling the changes in
software in terms of the requirements, design, functions and development of the
product.
IEEE defines it as “the process of identifying and defining the items in the system,
controlling the change of these items throughout their life cycle, recording and reporting
the status of items and change requests, and verifying the completeness and
correctness of items”.
Generally, once the SRS is finalized there is less chance of requirement of changes
from user. If they occur, the changes are addressed only with prior approval of higher
management, as there is a possibility of cost and time overrun.
Baseline
A phase of SDLC is assumed over if it baselined, i.e. baseline is a measurement that
defines completeness of a phase. A phase is baselined when all activities pertaining to
it are finished and well documented. If it was not the final phase, its output would be
used in next immediate phase.
Configuration management is a discipline of organization administration, which takes
care of occurrence of any change (process, requirement, technological, strategical etc.)
after a phase is baselined. CM keeps check on any changes done in software.
Change Control
Change control is function of configuration management, which ensures that all
changes made to software system are consistent and made as per organizational rules
and regulations.
A change in the configuration of product goes through following steps -
 Identification - A change request arrives from either internal or external source.
When change request is identified formally, it is properly documented.
 Validation - Validity of the change request is checked and its handling procedure
is confirmed.
Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

 Analysis - The impact of change request is analyzed in terms of schedule, cost

and required efforts. Overall impact of the prospective change on system is
analyzed.
 Control - If the prospective change either impacts too many entities in the system
or it is unavoidable, it is mandatory to take approval of high authorities before
change is incorporated into the system. It is decided if the change is worth
incorporation or not. If it is not, change request is refused formally.
 Execution - If the previous phase determines to execute the change request, this
phase take appropriate actions to execute the change, does a thorough revision if
necessary.
 Close request - The change is verified for correct implementation and merging
with the rest of the system. This newly incorporated change in the software is
documented properly and the request is formally is closed.
Plans, Methods and Methodologies:
A plan for an activity must be based on some idea of a method of work. To take a simple example, if you
were asked to test some software, even though you do not know anything about the software to be
tested, you could assume that you would need to:

 analyse the requirements for the software;

 devise and write test cases that will check that each requirement has been satisfied;
 create test scripts and expected results for each test case;
 compare the actual results and the expected results and identify discrepancies.

While a method relates to a type of activity in general, a plan takes that method (and perhaps others)
and converts it to real activities, identifying for each activity:

 its start and end dates;

 who will carry it out;
 what tools and materials will be used.

‘Material’ in this context could be information, for example, a requirements

document. With complex procedures, several methods may be deployed, in sequence or in parallel. The
output from one method might be the input to another. Groups of methods or techniques are often
Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

referred to as methodologies. Object oriented design, for example, can be seen as a methodology made
up of several component methods

Some ways of categorizing software project

It is important to distinguish between the main types of software project because what is
appropriate in one context may not be so in another. For example, some have suggested that the
object-oriented approach, while useful in many contexts, might not be ideal for designing
applications to be built around relational databases.

1. Information systems versus embedded systems

A distinction may be made between information systems and embedded systems. Very crudely, the
difference is that in the former case the system interfaces with the organization, whereas in the latter
case the system interfaces with a machine. A stock control system would be an information system that
controls when the organization reorders stock. An embedded, or process control, system might control
the air-conditioning equipment in a building. Some systems may have elements of both so that the stock
control system might also control an automated warehouse.

2. Objectives versus products

Projects may be distinguished by whether their aim is to produce a product or to meet certain
objectives. A project might be to create a product the details of which have been specified by the client.
The client has the responsibility for justifying the product. On the other hand, the project may be
required to meet certain objectives. There could be several ways of achieving these objectives. A new
information system might be implemented to improve some service to users inside or outside an
organization. The level of service that is the target would be the subject of an

agreement rather than the characteristics of a particular information system. Service level agreements
are becoming increasingly important as organizations contract out functions to external service
suppliers.
Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

Stakeholders:

What Is a Stakeholder in Project

Management?
Stakeholders are those with an interest in your project's outcome. They are typically
the members of a project team, project managers, executives, project sponsors,
customers, and users. Stakeholders are people who will be affected by your project at
any point in its life cycle, and their input can directly impact the outcome. It's
essential to practice good stakeholder management and continuously communicate to
collaborate on the project.

Stakeholders vs. key project stakeholders

Project stakeholders, in general, can be single individuals or entire organizations who
are affected by the execution or outcome of a project. It doesn't matter whether the
project affects them negatively or positively — if they're affected, they're a
stakeholder. Key project stakeholders, however, are stakeholders who have the
influence and authority to dictate whether a project is a success or not. These are the
people and groups whose objectives must be satisfied, as they have the power to make
or break the project. Even if all deliverables are in and budgets are met, if the
stakeholders aren't happy, the project cannot be considered a success.

Typical key stakeholders in a project

Some of the typical key project stakeholders you'll find in a project include:

 Customers: The direct user of a product or service, often both internal and

external to the company executing the project
Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

 Project manager: The project's leader

 Project team members: The group executing the project under the project
manager's leadership

 Project sponsor: The project's financier

 Steering committee: An advisory group providing guidance on key decisions,

which includes the sponsor, executives, and key stakeholders from the
organization

 Executives: The top management in the company executing the project; those

who direct the organization's strategy

 Resource managers: Other managers who control resources needed for

executing the project
There are many more examples of project stakeholders, including: sellers/suppliers,
contractors, owners, government agencies, media outlets, and even society at large.
Setting Objectives:

Setting Objectives
Effective objectives in project management are specific. A specific objective
increases the chances of leading to a specific outcome. Therefore objectives
shouldn't be vague, such as "to improve customer relations," because they
are not measurable. Objectives should show how successful a project has
been, for example "to reduce customer complaints by 50%" would be a good
objective. The measure can be, in some cases, a simple yes or no answer, for
example, "did we reduce the number of customer complaints by 50%?"

While there may be one major project objective, in pursuing it there may be
interim project objectives. In lots of instances, project teams are tasked with
achieving a series of objectives in pursuit of the final objective. In many cases,
teams can only proceed in a stair step fashion to achieve the desired
outcome. If they were to proceed in any other manner, they may not be able
Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

to develop the skills or insights along the way that will enable them to
progress in a productive manner.

Objectives can often be set under three headings:

1. Performance and Quality

The end result of a project must fit the purpose for which it was intended. At
one time, quality was seen as the responsibility of the quality control
department. In more recent years the concept of total quality management
has come to the fore, with the responsibility for quality shared by all staff from
top management downwards.

2. Budget

The project must be completed without exceeding the authorised expenditure.

Financial sources are not always inexhaustible and a project might be
abandoned altogether if funds run out before completion. If that was to
happen, the money and effort invested in the project would be forfeited and
written off. In extreme cases the project contractor could face ruin. There are
many projects where there is no direct profit motive, however it is still
important to pay proper attention to the cost budgets, and financial
management remains essential.

3. Time to Completion

Actual progress has to match or beat planned progress. All significant stages
of the project must take place no later than their specified dates, to result in
total completion on or before the planned finish date. The timescale objective
is extremely important because late completion of a project is not very likely to
please the project purchaser or the sponsors

Project Success, and Failure:

Project failure can be defined as a “project that fails to perform a duty or an expected action, non-
occurrence or non-performance” Whereas Project success can be defined as the achievement of
something desired, planned or attempted . It is also said that success is an event that accomplishes its
intended purpose . Anything short of that is failure.

What is Project Failure and Project Success

Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

Only 2.5% of companies in South Africa successfully completed 100% of their projects in the last 2 years.
• The average cost overrun of a Project is 27%

• 57% of projects fail due to “breakdown in communications.” ( No 2 cause of Project Failure at the
moment) • 39% of projects fail due to lack of planning, resources, and activities ….simply saying that If
you don’t plan, you don’t succeed • 60% of failed projects have a duration of less than one year.
STARTLING FACTS • 31% of Development Programmes are cancelled • 53% of Projects have a cost
overrun over 180 % over their Original Budget. • By 2020 , 40% of existing infrastructure programmes
will be stopped due to poor execution • By 2025 , 45% of firms appointed as Consultant Project
Managers will have failed their Clients.

STARTLING FACTS • Practice Relentless Risk Analysis (RRA) - Every time you have a meeting, use the top
ten risks as your agenda. If you practice management by walking around (even if you do it virtually) you
should always be asking your team and stakeholders questions about the future. For example: What
risks do you see in the near term? What would we do if the top engineer left for another position?
What's the Plan B if we don't receive the materials on time? After all, risk is a future phenomenon. The
more we ask our team about risks, the more we encourage them to think about the future. Project
management is a team sport; use everyone and anyone you can to help.

How can you predict the future of your project?

Here are 2 ways that can help. 2. Identify your project's “Leading” indicators and track them - Many of
the progress and performance metrics used on projects are lagging indicators. They tell us what
happened in the past, and, as we know, we can't change the past, we can only react to it. What metrics
could you employ to help tell you about the future? One client used the number of tasks added to the
schedule every two weeks as a possible indication that the scope was increasing, thus impacting cost
and schedule negatively. If the world's top economists believe in lagging indicators, then you should too!
In order to reliably assess what the future holds for your project, you need to gather relevant data on a
regular basis at frequent intervals. This not only instills a discipline in reporting but it enables you, the
project manager, and others, to detect trends. If you are keeping track of trends, then you'll be in a
better position to see where those trends lead. However, the key to such reporting is to ensure that the
information we receive is credible. That means it is being provided by people who are trustworthy and
telling the truth. It does you no good whatsoever to have your team members providing overly
optimistic reports. You want the unvarnished truth. As a project manager, you simply cannot be the last
Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

to know critical information that's affecting your project. Predicting the future isn't easy. But with the
right techniques and the right folks on the team, we can provide credible information to our
stakeholders. After all, that's what we're paid to do, isn't it? • Lack of Senior management support-
happens when “Junior” or “ Candidate PMs” are thrown into the Project and left unattended. • Poor
communication- causes delay or even failure since team members do not have the information they
needed, issues or changes do not get escalated, project reporting is sluggish • Inadequate resources-
Task take longer than expected to complete, deadlines and milestones get missed, and project
completion date comes into jeopardy, one end of working more than necessary (double shift) to get the
work done • No one is in control not even the project manager, who is assigned to the project but not
given the free hand to manage the project • Poor definition of Scope- Project changes from its original
objective and goals. This can occur due to additional requirement from the client.

SOME CAUSES OF PROJECT FAILURES • Project lacks structure - caused by things such as critical tasks
being under rated • Inaccurate estimates - A top- down plan causes constraints on the prediction of the
cost of the project • Poor risk management - The project planning stages ( Stage 1 – 3) is not properly
planned • Unrealistic Milestones - it is not possible for a project to succeed if unrealistic timeframes and
milestones are made available for that project • Incompetent project management skill - procedures
and policies are not adhered to from inception continued 1 Command authority naturally. In other
words, they don’t need borrowed power to enlist the help of others – they just know how to do it. They
are optimistic leaders who are viewed in a favorable light and are valued by the organization. 2 Possess
quick sifting abilities, knowing what to note and what to ignore. The latter is more important since
there’s almost always too much data, and rarely too little. Ignoring the right things is better than trying
to master extraneous data. 3 Set, observe, and re-evaluate project priorities frequently. They focus and
prioritize by handling fewer emails, attending fewer meetings, and generally limiting their data input. 10
Characteristic of Good Project Manager 4 Do not use information as a weapon or a means of control.
They communicate clearly, completely, and concisely. All the while giving others real information
without fear of what they’ll do with it. 5. Set, observe, and re-evaluate project priorities frequently. They
focus and prioritize by handling fewer emails, attending fewer meetings, and generally limiting their data
input. 6. Adhere to predictable communication schedules Recognizing that it’s the only deliverable early
in a project cycle. All this takes place after very thorough pre-execution planning to eliminate as many
variables as possible. 7. Possess domain expertise in project management as applied to a particular field.
It’s not just that they have generic project management skills; they have a deep familiarity with one or
Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

multiple fields that gives them a natural authority and solid strategic insight. continued 8 Exercise
independent and fair consensus-building skills when conflict arises. But they embrace only as much
conflict as is absolutely necessary, neither avoiding nor seeking grounds for control of a particular
project segment 9 Cultivate and rely on extensive informal networks inside and outside the firm to solve
problems that arise. They identify any critical issues that threaten projects and handle them resolutely
(vs. ignoring them). 10 Look forward to going to work! They believe that project management is an
exciting challenge that’s critical to success. The truly great ones view project management as a career
and not a job, and they treat it like so by seeking additional training and education.

what is Management? Management Control?

Management control is the process of evaluating, monitoring and controlling the various sub-

units of the organization so that there is effective and efficient allocation and utilization of
resources in achieving the predetermine goals. Thus, the focus of management control is on

the managers of organizational sub-units and hence its focus is on line managers responsible
for the performance of their departments.

Project management is the application of processes, methods, skills, knowledge and

experience to achieve specific project objectives according to the project acceptance
criteria within agreed parameters. Project management has final deliverables that
are constrained to a finite timescale and budget.
A key factor that distinguishes project management from just 'management' is that it
has this final deliverable and a finite timespan, unlike management which is an
ongoing process. Because of this a project professional needs a wide range of skills;
often technical skills, and certainly people management skills and good business
awareness.

What is a project?

A project is a unique, transient endeavour, undertaken to achieve planned

objectives, which could be defined in terms of outputs, outcomes or benefits. A
project is usually deemed to be a success if it achieves the objectives according to
their acceptance criteria, within an agreed timescale and budget. Time, cost and
quality are the building blocks of every project.
Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

Time: scheduling is a collection of techniques used to develop and present schedules

that show when work will be performed.

Cost: how are necessary funds acquired and finances managed?

Quality: how will fitness for purpose of the deliverables and management processes
be assured?

Traditional versus Modern Project Management Practices.:

What is traditional project management?

Frequently referred to as the "Waterfall" method, this project management style requires
one task to be completed before the next one can begin. Plans are constructed prior to
the start of the project date and the sequential phases are mapped out early to provide
clarity on the work that needs to be completed to reach the end goal. It's still used by
many businesses today and works well for projects with a fixed budget or deadline. 

3 advantages of traditional project management

are:
1. No surprises
2. Smooth knowledge transfer
3. Sets expectations internally and externally

1. No surprises

This strategy allows little room for flexibility or changes once the project begins. The
plan is laid out and agreed upon early on, meaning there is little need to readjust and
the chance of scope creep is decreased. Both parties agree on the project timeline and
Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

tasks, which provides clarity on the process and assigns responsibilities early on
everyone knows how they are contributing. 

2. Smooth knowledge transfer

Extensive documentation is key with the waterfall methodology. With information readily
available at any given time, it's easier for new team members to catch up quickly.
Additionally, information won't be lost when an employee chooses to move on to
another company. 

3. Sets expectations internally and externally

A lot of time is spent putting together a detailed project timeline for the client to review.
A major benefit is that the client knows early on what to expect and can plan
accordingly. There is also very little involvement needed from then after this initial
phase, and they have ample time to gather the assets you need for a particular phase.
Internally, team members can plan their time better - which comes in handy when
working on multiple projects at once. 

What is modern project management? 

Modern project management leverages automated tools to help plan, execute, and
organize work. It's also viewed as the more flexible method of the two. More
professional service businesses are taking on short-term or even one-time projects, so
businesses are looking for alternative to the traditional project management method.
This is where the modern project management method flourishes - in a fast-paced
environment that can handle mid-project changes swiftly and efficiently. 
Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

3 advantages to modern project management are:

1. Juggle more projects at once
2. Minimize risk and human error
3. Be more flexible with your time

Juggle more projects at once

Instead of having all of your tasks fully outlined at the start of each project (as they are
in true, waterfall fashion), use smart technology to create a more flexible method that
allows you to start a project without having a complete idea of the end result. This way,
you can easily make adjustments to your project as the vision or needs of a client
change (without having to go back to the start every time).

Minimize risk and human error

With a smart platform that offers increased visibility over your team and projects, you’ll
be able to see when a certain task in your project is going over budget and address it
before any real damage is done to your bottom line or client relationships.
Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management

The right smart platform will also automatically save client data, calculate billable hours
and budgets, and update timelines for you automatically - so that you don’t have to do
any manual busywork at the end of the day when you’re exhausted, short on time, and
more likely to make mistakes. Just imagine how much more time you’ll have to work on
projects when you no longer need to add up your timesheets at the end of every month
- the beauty of smart automation!

Be more flexible with your time

With a traditional approach to project management, you’d usually be allocated a fixed

amount of days or hours to complete a task. But - what happens when you suddenly get
assigned a high priority project, or when you have to work from home for personal
reasons?

If you’re working with smart automated software that logs time and tracks utilization, this
won’t be an issue. Why? Because you’ll be able to see (in real-time) who is available on
your team to take on more work and reassign tasks to them. Or better yet, work
remotely on your projects with a true cloud-based platform that lets you share files with
your team and communicate with your clients from one interactive dashboard and
integrated system- so that you never have to extend a deadline just because you can't
make it into the office.

Choosing the right project management style is crucial to your business. Understanding
the differences and benefits of both traditional and modern project management is key
before determining which is the better fit for you and your team. At Accelo, our all-in-one
system helps you manage business operations so you can get back to the work you
love. Manage client projects with ease and get the information you when you need it
with our platform.
Unit 1 : Introduction to Software Project Management