Factoring and Algebraic Fractions

Factoring

In this section we dealt with finding the product of factors. We will now consider
the inverse problem of finding the factors of the products This process is called factoring
the product.

Prime Number

is a positive integer greater than 1 that has only itself and 1 as factors.

Example: The positive integers 2 3. 5, 7, 11, 13. 17, 19, 23 are some prime
numbers

Integers are often written in prime factored form, that is, as a product of prime
numbers.

Factoring the polynomial is writing a polynomial as the product of two or more

prime polynomials.

Irreducible or Prime Polynomial

A polynomial with integral coefficients is irreducible or prime if the numerical

coefficients have no common factors.

Example: The product of (3x + 4y) and (x-y) is 3x2 + x - 4y2 and 3x2 + x – 4y2 can
be factored, as the product of (3x + 4y) and (x-y).

METHOD 1

Greatest Common Factor

The largest term that is a factor of all the terms in the polynomial. We can also
define it as the greatest monomial that will evenly divide each term of the polynomial.
 ax +ay = a(x + y)

Steps:

To factor a polynomial whose terms have a common factor:

1. Find the largest factor common to all the terms of the polynomial.

2. Divide the polynomial by this factor. The quotient is the other factor.

Example: Factor out the greatest common factor

1) 8x3 – 12x2y

Solution:

Step 1: The largest common monomial to the two terms of the given polynomial is
4x2

Step 2: Divide the greatest common monomial in each term of the given binomial:

8𝑥 3 12𝑥 2 𝑦
− = 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 and this may serve as the other factor. Thus 8x3 – 12x2y
4𝑥 2 4𝑥 2
can be factored as 4x2(2x – 3y).

2) 4a2 + 8ab – 24a2x = 4a(a +2b -6ax)

3) xy(a +b) – zw (a + b) = (a + b) (xy – ZW)

4) 5ab2 (x-y) + 2b (y-x) = b(5ab-2) (x-y)

Learning Activity 2:
 Factor out the greatest common factor.

1. 12a + 3b 2. 2x3 – 7x2 +3x

3. 5(a + b) – a2(a + b) 4. x (3 + y) – z(3 + y)

5. 4(y - x) – 5a(x - y)

METHOD 2

Factoring A Difference of Two Squares

The factors of the difference of two squares are the sum of the difference of their
respective square roots

a2 – b2 = (a+ b)( a-b)

CONCEPT

(1st term)2 – (2nd term) =

(1st term + 2nd term) ∙ (1st term – 2nd term)

The procedure for factoring the difference of two squares is as follows:

1. identify that you have a perfect square minus another perfect square.

2. Rewrite the problem as a first base squared minus a second base

squared. (first base) - (second base)

3. Factor the problem into the first base plus the second base times the
second base minus the second base.

Example: Write in completely factored form:

a. 16a2 – 25b2
 1. Identify that you have a perfect square minus another perfect square.

16a2, 25b2 are perfect squares

2. Rewrite the problem as a first base squared minus a second base

squared. (first base - (second base)

(4a)2 - (5b)2

3. Factor the problem into the first base plus the second base times the
second base minus the second base.

(4a +5b) ∙ (4a - 5b)

b. 49x8y6 – 625z8

Solution:

Rewrite the binomial into:

(7x4y3)2 – (25z4)2

= (7x4y3 + 25z2) (7x4y3 – 25z2)

c. (16x4z8 – 81y12)

= (4x2z4)2 – (9y6)2

= (4x2z4 + 9y6) (4x2z4 – 9y6)

The second factor can be factored into sum and into sum and difference

= (4x2z4 + 9y6) (2xz2 + 3y3) (2xz2 – 3y3)

d. 5x4y8 – 45x2

There is a common monomial factor in each term.: 5x2

Thus 5x4y8 – 45x2 is equal to

= 5x2 (x2y8 - 9) by factor of sum and difference

= 5x2 (xy4 + 3) (xy4 -3)

 Observe that our first step in any factoring problem is to look for any common
factors. Often an expression that does not appear to be factorable becomes more
apparently so by taking out the greatest common factor.

Learning Activity 3:

Factor each of the following binomial

1. 49m2 – 121n2 2. 81x2 – 25a2

3. 144x2 – 121k2 4. 16a2 – 25y2

5. 36a2b2 - 25c2

METHOD 3

FACTORING TRINOMIALS

CONCEPT

For a trinomial in the form ax2 + bx + c or ax2 + bxy + cy2:

Step 1. Write all pairs of factors of the coefficient of the first term

Step 2. Write all pairs of factors of the last term

Step 3. Use various combinations of this factor until the necessary middle.
term is found.

Step 4. If the necessary combination does not exist, the polynomial is prime.

Example: Factor completely

a. x2 - 6x +8

By step 1:
 Factor of the 1st term 1 is 1 and 1

By step 2:

The factors of last term are 8 and 1 and 4 and 2

By step 3:

The sign of the middle term is negative and since the sign of the last
term is positive the sign of the possible factor of the last term are both
negative. The only combination of the factor of the last term to get a sum of

6 is 2 and 4, thus x2 - 6x +8 is (x-4) (x-2)

Alternative approach in determining whether a trinomial is factorable.

CONCEPT

1. Determine if the trinomial ax2 + bx + c is factorable by finding m and n

such that m ∙ n = a ∙ c and m + n = b. If m and n do not exist, we conclude that the
trinomial is not factorable.

2. Replace the middle term, bx by mx + nx.

3. Place parenthesis about the first and second terms and about the third
and fourth terms. Factor out what is common to each pair.

4. Factor out the common quantity of each term and place the remaining
factors from each term in a second parenthesis.

b. Determine whether a polynomial 6x 2 + x - 12 is factorable.

Solution:

Use the following procedure.

1. Make a table of two columns. The heading of the first column will be the
numerical value of the product of m and n and the heading of the second column
will be the sign of this product. Given that a = 6 and c = -12, then a ∙ c = - 72

72 -

2. Take a natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, ..., and divide them into this product. Those
numbers that divide in evenly we write as a factored form with quotient times the
divisor.

72
72 ∙ 1
36 ∙ 2
24 ∙ 3
18 ∙ 4
12 ∙ 6
9∙8

3. Using the sign in the second column as an operation symbol, perform this
operation on the factors in the first column.
 72 -
72 ∙ 1 71
36 ∙ 2 34
24 ∙ 3 21
18 ∙ 4 14
12 ∙ 6 6
9∙8 1

4. From the second column, find the value that is numerically equivalent to the

m + n = b or equal to the numerical value of the middle term.

5. Give the two numbers found in step 4 the proper signs that will yield the correct
product and sum. In this case m= 9 and n = -8, thus the given polynomial can be
factored.

c. 7x + 9x +4

Solution:

m ∙ n = 7 ∙ 4 = 28 and m + n = 9.

28 +
28 ∙ 1 29
14 ∙ 2 16
7∙4 11

Observe that in the second column, we never obtained a sum of 9, therefore the
given trinomial will not factor.
Learning Activity 4:

Determine whether the following trinomials are factorable or not.

1. x2 + 6x + 8 2. x2 + x - 56

3. x2 + 9x + 20 4. x2 - 8x - 9

5. x2 + 6x +9

METHOD 4

BOX METHOD

CONCEPT

1. Make a table of two columns and two rows. Place the possible pairs of factors
of the first term and second term in first row and second row respectively.

2. Multiply the numbers in the table diagonally

3. Consider the sign of the middle and last terms.

a. Case 1. If the sign of the last term is positive, get the sum of the product
of the numbers obtained in number 2.

b. Case 2. If the sign of the last term is negative, get the numerical difference
between the two products obtained in step 2.

4. The numerical coefficient of the middle term satisfies the two cases in step 3.

5. The numbers in the table vertically are the terms in the factored form of the given
trinomial.

Example 4.17. Factor the following trinomials completely

a. 3x2 + 2x – 8
Solution:

First, test whether the given trinomial can be factored, using the previous way, a ∙
c = 3(-8) = -24 m ∙ n and m + n = 2 by inspection m = 4 and n = -2.Then by step 1
and 2: and by trial and error, these are the possible combinations. Place the
diagonal product in the topmost level of the table, we have

3x 8x

3x x

8 1

24x x

3x x

1 8

6x 4x

3x x

4 2

12x 2x

3x x

2 4
Since the sign of the last term is negative, get the difference between the product
obtained. The sign of the middle term will be the sign of the lowest numerical value
in the second row of the table. Consider the 3 table because the difference of their
products are equal to the middle term.

6x -4x

3x x

-4 +2

Thus, the factored form is (3x - 4) (x + 2)

b. 2x2 + 13x + 18

Solution:

4x 9x

2x x

9 2

Since, 4x+9x = 13x then the factorization of 2x2 + 13x +18 = (2x+9) (x ∙ 2)
Learning Activity 5:

Factor each of the following polynomials

1. n2 - 19n + 88 2. x2 + 9x - 22

3. x2 +5x - 6 4. n2 - 10n - 24

5. x2 - 9x + 14

METHOD 5

Factoring Trinomial by Inspection

Example: Factor 4x - 4x - 3.

Solution:

Factoring by inspection is accomplished as follows:

1. Write the trinomial in standard form (ax2 + bx + c): 4x2 - 4x - 3.

2. Determine the possible combinations of the first-degree factors of

the first term. (4x ) (x ) and (2x ) (2x )

3. Combine with the factors of step 2 all the possible factors of the
last term.

(4x 3) (x 1)

(2x 1) (2x 3)

(4x 1) (x 3)

(2x 3) (2x 1)

4. Determine the possible symbol, (+ or -), between the terms in each

binomial.

a. Case 1: If the third term is preceded by a + sign and the middle

term is preceded by a +sign the symbol will be
 ( + )( + ).

b. Case 2: If the third term is preceded by a + sign and the middle

term is preceded by a - the symbol will be

( + )( + ).

c. If the third term is preceded by a - sign and the middle term is

preceded by a positive sign the symbol will be

( + )( - ) or ( - )( + )

(4x+ 3) (x - 1)

(4x - 1) (x + 3)

(2x + 1) (2x - 3)

(2x - 3) (2x + 1)

5. Determine which factors, if any, yield the correct middle term.

Using the FOIL Method, the third set of factors gives us the correct
middle term. Therefore (2x + 1)(2x - 3) is the factorization of 4x2 - 4x
-3.

Learning Activity 6:

Factor the following polynomial by inspection.

1. x2 + 6x +8 2. x2 + x - 56

3. x2 + 9x + 20 4. x2 - 8x - 9

5. x2 + 6x + 9

METHOD 6

Factoring a Trinomial in Two Variables

Example: Factor 54x2 - 57xy - 36y

 Solution:

There is common monomial factor of 3 in each term. Factor out 3. then by

any available method we have 3(18x2 - 19xy - 12y2).

-27xy 8xy

9x 2x

4y -3y

The factorization of 54x2 - 57xy – 36y2 = 3(18x2 - 19xy - 12y2) = 3 (9x + 4y)

(2x-3y).

Learning Activity 7:

Factor each polynomial completely

1. 2x2 - xy - 3y2 2. 9x-6xy + y2

3. 3y2 - 5yz - 4z2 4. 2x2 + 3xy - 5y2

5. 3y2 - 4yw -15w2

METHOD 7

Factoring Trinomial of the ax4 + bx2 + c

Example: Factor 6y4 + 17y2 +12.

 Solution:

We can rewrite 6y4 + 17y2 + 12 as 6(y2)2 +17y2 + 12 and by

inspection

= 6(y2)2 + 17y2 + 12

= (3y2 + 4) (2y + 3)

Learning Activity 8:

Factor the following polynomial completely.

1. m4 - 13m2 + 36 2. 16x4 + 15x2y2 + 9y2

3. 4a4 - 12a2b2 + 9b4 4. x4 + x2 - 12

5. x4 + 3x2 + 2

METHOD 8

Factoring A Trinomial Using Substitution

Example: Factor the following expressions completely.

a. Factor 3 (x-4)2 + 14 (x - 4) + 8.

Solution:

Let y= x - 4 substitute this in the given trinomial, we have

3y2 + 14y + 8

= (3y + 2) (y +4)

= [(3(x - 4) +2] [(x - 4) +4]

 = (3x - 12) (x). Factor out 3 in the first factor

= 3x (x - 4)

b. Factor a2(a + b)2 - ab(a + b)2 - 6b2(a + b)2

Solution:

Factor out (a + b)2

(a +b)2 (a2 – ab – 6b2)

= (a + b)2(a - 3b)(a + 2b)

Learning Activity 9:

Factor completely.

1. x2(x - y) + xy(x - y) -2y2 (x - y)

2. x2(x + y) - 5x(x + y) - 6(x + y)

3. x2(x + 2y)2 – xy(x +2y)2 - 6y2(x+2y)

4. 6(x + y)2 - 7(x + y) - 5

5. 6(x + 3)2 + 13(x + 3) + 5

METHOD 8.2

PERFECT SQUARE TRINOMIALS

The trinomial is said to be a perfect square trinomial if both the 1st and the last term
is a perfect square and whose middle term is twice the product of the 1st and 2nd terms.

CONCEPT
 (1st term)2 ± 2(1st term) (2nd term) + (2nd term)2 = (1st term ± 2nd term)2

Example: Factor each of the following trinomials

a. x2 + 2xy + y2

Solution:

Both x2 and y2 are perfect squares, x and y are the 1st and 2nd term respectively
and the middle term is twice the product. Therefore x2 + 2xy + y2 is a perfect square
trinomial

b. 4a2 - 4ab + b2 = (2a - b)2

c. 9x2 -12x + 4 = (3x - 2)2

d. 4a2(a + b)2 -12ab(a + b) + 9b2

= [ 2a(a + b)]2 - 2(2a(a + b)(3b) + (3b)2

= [2a(a + b) - 3b]2

= (2a2 + 2ab – 3b)2

Test whether 2a2 + 2ab - 3b can be factored. a ∙ c = 2(-3) = m ∙ n and m + n 2

6 -

6∙1 5

3∙2 1

From column two there is no combinations that will give us m + n 2, therefore 2a2 +2ab-

3b is prime. Then 4a2 (a + b) 2 - 6ab(a + b) +9b2 = (2a2 + 2ab – 3b) 2

Learning Activity 10:

Factor each of the following polynomials.

1. a2 – 6a + 9 2. x4 – 2x2y + y2

3. x2 + 2xy + y2 4. 9x2+ 30x + 25

5) 4x2 + 4x +1

METHOD 9

Factoring The Sum Or The Difference Of Two Cubes

CONCEPT

If we are able to write a two term polynomial as a first base cubed plus or
minus a second base cubed, then it will factor as the sum or difference of two
cubes.

(1st base)3 ± (2nd base)3

= (1st base ± 2nd base)[(1st base)2

± (1st base)(2nd base) + (2d base)2

Learning Activity 11:

Factor completely.

1. (p + q)3 - (p – q)3 2. (x + y)3 - 64

3. 3 + 3000a3b3 4. 64x3 - 27y3

5. 125x3 + 8y3
METHOD 10

Factoring By Grouping

Factoring can sometimes be made easier by grouping the terms in such a way that
each group has a common factor and then proceeding as in ordinary factoring.

Example: Factor completely the following:

a. 3bx - 6cx – by + 2cy

= (3bx - 6cx) – (by +2cy)

= 3x (b - 2c) - y(b - 2c), in two term there is a factor of b - 2c, factor this out,
we have

= (b - 2c)(3x - y)

b. 3a3 - a + 9a - 3

= (3a3 – a2) + (9a - 3)

= a2 (3a - 1) + 3(3a - 1)

= (3a - 1) (a2 + 3)

C. 4ac2 + bc2 - 16a - 4b

= (4ac2+bc2) + (-16a – 4b)

= c2(4a + b) - 4(4a + b)

= (4a + b) (c2 - 4)

= (4a + b) (c + 2) (c - 2)
Learning Activity 12:

Factor completely

1. x3 – xy +zx – z3 2. 2xy – 3zy +2xt – 3zt

3. 9m2 – 6mn + n2 – 25 4. x2 – 4xy + 4y2 – 4

5. x2 – y2 + 6y – 9

METHOD 11

Factoring the Sum and Difference of two Odd Powers

CONCEPT

Let a be equal to 1st base and b be the 2nd base

a2k + 1 + b2k +1 =

Also (a +b) (a2k - a2k – 1 + a2k – 2 b2 - a2k – 3b3 + ... ± ab2k - 1 ± b2k)

a2k + 1 - b2k +1 =

(a - b) (a2k + a2k - 1b + a2k – 2b2 + a2k – 3b3 + … + ab2k – 1 + b2k)

Example: Factor each of the following binomials.

a. x7 + y7 = (x + y) (x6 – x5y + x4y2 – x3y3 + x2y4 – xy5 + y6)

b. x5 – y5 = (x – y) (x4 + x3y + x2y2 + xy3 + y4)

c. 1024z5 + 243w5 = (4z + 3w) (256z4 – 192z3w + 144z2w2 – 108zw3 + 81w4)

Learning Activity 13:

Factor each the following binomial.

1) a5 - 32b5 2) x5 – y5

3) x7 - 128y7 4) a9 - 512 b9

5) 32x5 - 243

METHOD 12

Factoring The Difference Of Even Powers

CONCEPT

a2k - b2k =

(a - b) (a2k-1 + a2k-2b + a2k-3b2 + a2k-4b3 + …

Example: Factor completely

a. x6 – y6 = (x - y) (x5 + x4y + x3y2 + x2y3 +xy4 + y5)

also, this can be factored into

(x2)3 – (y2)3 = (x2 + y2) (x4 + x2y2 + y4)

= (x + y) (x - y) [(x4 + 2x2y2 + y4) – x2y2]

= (x + y) (x - y) [(x2 + y2)2 – x2y2]

= (x + y) (x - y) [(x2 + y2) + xy] [(x2 + y2) – xy]

= (x + y) (x - y) (x2 + xy +y2) (x2 – xy + y2)

METHOD 13

Factoring The Sum Of Even Powers

 Factor completely

a. x6 + y6 + (x2)3 + (y2)3 = (x2 + y2) (x4 – x2y2 + y4)

Take note that x4 – x2y2 + y4 is prime polynomial

Learning Activity 14:

Factor completely

1. 1 + (x - y)6

1
2. 𝑥 16 − 16

3. 64x6 + y12

4. (2x+5)6 - 27(x + 3)6

5. 64 + x6