PENNY

INTERNATIONAL
COLLEGE, BASIC
SCIENCE JSS THREE
FIRST TERM SCHEME OF WORK

WEEKS TOPICS
1. Revision
2. The nervous system: the CNS as centre of sensitivity.
The brain and spinal cord,simple reflex actions and examples.
3. Sense organs: sense organs and their uses, types of eye defects,correction of eye
defects, organ of hearing, structure and functions of the ear, diseases of the ear.
4. Sense organs 2:organs of smell, porgans of taste, the skin as a sense organ of
touch, pain, cold, heat, and pressure (experiments to demonstrate these
sensation should be carried out)
5. Reproduction : health ,meaning of reproductive health
Human :male/female reproductive system, fertilization: cloning, care/protection
of the reproduction system, implantation conception.
6. Resources from livingthings:plant sources e.g cash and food crops, dyes drugs.
Animal sources e.g hides and skin, diary products, stock, fishery, processing of
hides/skin. Beast of burden, timber and uses, chemical from plants, yeast and
fermentation, manure.
7. Genetics: definition, heredity, variation, traits in the family,skin, height, colour,
shape,albinism, meaning of dominant and recessive traits.
Importance of traits in the family, resemblance,intelligence,diseases.
8. Communication 1 : the media, meaning and definition, transfer of information
through information technology e.g Tv radio.
9. Communication 2: negative and positive use of media and internet portrayals,
transfer of information technology, qualities of good media programmes, how and
where information technology is used, barriers to information technology.
10-12 Revision and examination.
NERVOUS SYSTEM

Nervous system comprises complex part of the body that coordinates and controls activities in other
parts of the body to carry out responses to stimuli.
Stimuli are changes that happen inside the body or outside the environment. Some examples of
stimuli include pain caused pin prick, changes on temperature, light intensity, pressure,touch,
hunger etc
PARTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
The human nervous system is made up of two main parts:
1. The central nervous system (CNS);consisting of the brain and spinal cord.
2. The peripheral nervous system (PNS); which consist of the somatic and autonomic nervous
system.
The autonomic nervous system is further divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous
system.
The peripheral nervous system : the communication between the brain,spinal cord and the entire
body is provided by the peripheral nervous system. It consist of twelve pairs of cranial nerves and
thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves. The cranial nerves arise from the brain while the spinal nerves
arises from the spinal cord. Somatic nervous system transmit impulse (messages) from external
stimuli to the central nervous system and relays responses from the central nervous system to the
skeletal muscles of the body thus causing body movement.
Autonomic nervous system is the part of the nervous system which controls involuntary actions
inside the body such as the rate of heart beat,sweating, peristaltic, contraction of the intestines.
Sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for emergencies.
Parasympathetic nervous system returns the body to its normal state after it is been stimulated by
the sympathetic nervous system.

DIAGRAM
THE BRAIN
The brain is a specialized organ, well protected inside a section of the skull know as CRANIUM or
BRAIN BOX. It is composed of millions of nerve cells called neurons and surrounded by three
membranes collectively known as the meninges.
The meninges are :
1. Dura mater (outer membrane);it is thick and protective in function .
2. Arachnoid mater (middle membrane) is made up of elastic and fibrous tissue.
3. Pia mater (inner membrane) : well supplied with blood vessels that carry food oxygen to the
cells of the brain.
Between the pia mater is a space filled with cerebrospinal fluid which acts as a protective cushion.
PARTS OF THE BRAIN
The brain is divided into three parts namely; 1. Fore brain 2. Mid-brain 3. Hind brain
Parts of the Sub-parts of the Functions
brain brain
1. Fore-brain (i)Cerebrum (i)Controls all voluntary actions. (ii)it is the seat of
intelligence,intelligence,memory,judgement,learning,inter
preter of sensation and imagination.
(ii)Olfactory lobes (i)Receives sensory impulse of smell from the
environment.
(iii)Thalamus It is the centre for sensation of pain,touch and anger.
(iv)Hypothalamus (i)Regulates body temperature,water balance,sleep,and
blood pressure. (ii)it controls the pituitary gland. (iii)it
controls speed (iv)it is the centre of appetite.
2. Mid-brain (i)cerebellum (i)controls body balance and positioning of the body.
(connects (ii)controls voluntary actions of the muscles.
fore-brain
to hind-
brain)
(ii)Medulla oblongata Controls involuntary actions.
(iii)Pons varolli It carries impulse form one hemisphere of the cerebellum
to the other thereby coordinating muscular movements in
two sides of the body.
SPINAL CORD
The spinal cord is a soft tissue that projects from the base of the medulla oblongata and passes
through the neutral canal of the backbone (vertebral column) which protects it and end in the
sacrum. The spinal cord is protected by the three layers of the meninges.
In a cross section, it is divided into two portions, the outer and inner portions. The outer portion
contains white mater consisting of bundles of axons and dendrites. The inner portion, H-shaped,
contains grey mater is made up of intermediate neurons and cell bodies of motor neurons. The grey
mater is divided into anterior horn and posterior horn. At the centreof the grey mater is a central
canal containing fluid which help to transport food to the nerve cells.
FUNCTIONS OF THE SPINAL CORD
1. It is the seat of reflex (involuntary actions).
2. It sends impulses (messages to the brain and carries responses from the brain to the muscles.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Draw and label fully a cross section of the human brain.
2. Draw and label a cross section of the spinal cord then show how it is protected by the
meninges and backbone (vertebral column).
NERVE CELL (NEURONE)
Neurons are specialized cells that transmit impulses (messages) around the body in form of electric
charges. The nervous system consist of millions of neurons (nerve cell).
Parts of a neurone
1.Cell body (soma): made up of a nucleolus and cytoplasm, the cytoplasm contains nissl’s granules
which are rich in RNA and manufacture protein.
2.Dendrite : short hair-like structures they are either in close contact with other neurons or the
stimulus receptor cells. They conduct impulse (message to the body).
3.Axon: is a single long fibre arising from the cell body. Axon is covered with fatty myelin sheath;
and the myelin sheath covered with neurilemma which makes up another cell called SCHWAN CELL.
The myelin sheath insulate and protects the axon and helps to prevent impulse from spreading from
one neurone to another. At intervals, the myelin sheath is interrupted by constriction cells called
NODES RANVIER it assist in the transmission of impulses.
Axons with myelin sheaths are called myelinated axons while those without are called unmyelinated
axon.
TYPES OF NEURONES
1.Sensory neurone/afferent neurone: they receive stimuli and convert stimuli into impulses which
are carried from the receptors (sense organs) to the central nervous system.
2.Association neurone /intermediate neurone: they connect sensory and motor neurons with each
other. They have no myelin sheath .
3.Motor neurone/efferent neurone: they transmit impulse from the central nervous system to the
effectors eg muscles and gland.
MIXED NERVES are nerves composed of sensory and motor fibres. All the nerves connected to the
spinal cord are mixed nerves. They are 31 in man.

NERVOUS ACTIONS
Nervous actions are simple ways the body reacts or responds to stimuli. All actions are grouped into
two namely.
i.Involuntary actions (reflex actions)
ii.Voluntary actions.
REFLEX/INVOLUNTARY ACTIONS
A refex action is an involuntary or automatic response of the body to a stimulus involving the spinal
cord or the brain. After the reflex action is complete the impulse reaches the brain. Example; pulling
off your hand from a hot object when you accidentally touch it is an example of a reflex action.
When you pick up a hot object accidentally, the sensory cells (pain receptor) in the skin are
stimulated by the hot pain.
The stimulus (hot pain) then initiates nerve impulses which are sent through the sensory neurone
(afferent) in the spinal cord. The impulses are then transmitted through SYNAPSE into the
intermediate neurone in the spinal cord.
From the intermediate neurone, the impulses are transmitted into motor neurons which then
transmit impulse to the muscles. The impulse cause the stimulation of the biceps muscles (flexor) to
contract and the triceps muscles to relax. The hot object is immediately droped. This action takes a
fraction of a second to complete.
Examples of other reflex actions are knee jerk, sneezing, coughing, laughing,when tickled,jumpimg ,
when frightened,blinking of the eye, heartbeat and peristalsis.
REFLEX ARC
A reflex arc is the route which impulses have to pass through in other to bring about a reflex action.
VOLUNTARY ACTIONS
A voluntary action is an action initiated and controlled by the conscious part of the brian. We think
and reason before voluntary actions are carried out. Examples are writing, walking, running,
reading, talking, driving, swimming, typing, dancing and climbing.
Differences between Reflex action and voluntary actions
REFLEX ACTIONS INVOLUNTARY ACTIONS
1. Have their actions in the spinal cord Have their actions in the fore-brain.
or hind brain.
2. Response is unconscious and not It is under the control of will
under the control of will.
3. Most reflex are not learnt they are They are mostly learnt.
inborn

SENSE ORGANS
There are organs of the body that are specialized for the perception of changes in your
environment. We also use them to notice the presence of objects including our fellow human
beings.
Within the sense organs are specialized cells called RECEPTORS or sensory cells which receive and
transform stimuli into impulses before they are relayed to the central nervous system.
SENSE ORGAN STIMULUS FUNCTIONS
1. Skin Temperature (heat or cold), Detects temperature and pressure
pain, touch and pressure. changes, pain and touch.
2. Eye light Vision
3. Ear Sound and gravity Hearing and balancing
4. Tongue Chemicals Tasting
5. Nose Chemicals Smelling
EYE
The eye is a sense organ for sight or vision. It is spherical and located in the bony socket of the skull.
Each eye ball is attached to the socket by six muscles which enable the eye to move in several
directions inorder to widen the fields of vision. The six muscles are;
-superior and inferior recti (rectus-singular)
-superior and inferior obliques
-two lateral recti
Parts of the eye
The eye consists of three major layers 1. Sclerotic layer 2. Choroid 3. Retina
1.Sclerotic layer :this is the outermost tough layer of the eye. Its main function is to protect and
maintain the shape of the eye ball. It bulges out in front to form the transparent cornea. Which is
covered by another transparent membrane, conjunctiva.
2. Choroid: this is richly supplied with blood capillaries through which every part of the eye gets
oxygen and nutrients. In front, the choroid forms the muscular ciliary body and iris. The activities of
the ciliary body help the eye to see far and near objects clearly. The iris control opening of the eye
aperture called pupil which controls the passage of light into the eye. Suspensory ligament emerges
from the ciliary body helps to suspend and support the eye lens. The eye lens is transparent and
biconvex to bend or refract light rays entering the eye in order to bring the image of a sighted object
to a normal focus on the retina.
3.Retina : is the light sensitive innermost layer behind the eye lens. The two eye sensory cells (or
photoreceptors) Rods and Cones are lodging in the retina. The rods are responsible for dark or
dim-light vision, while the cones for bright and colour light vision. In otherwords, the rods enables
us to see at night while cones during the day.
Aqueous Humour is the watery fluid in front of the eye lens. It also helps to refract or bend light
rays.
Vitreous humour is the thick transparent liquid behind the eye lens. It also bends light rays . its
major function is to keep and maintain the spherical shape of the eye.
Tear glands (lacrimal glands) produce tears which helps to wash away dust particles thereby
preventing abrasion of the eye surface by dust particles. They help to keep the surface of the eye
moist. The tears also helps to destroy bacteria because it contains a substance called Lysozyme
which is harmful to bacteria.

Assignment
1.State the pigment present in rods.
2.State the photochemical substance in cones.
3.Why is it that a person in a dark room is dazzled for some seconds when suddenly exposed to
bright sunlight?

DIAGRAM (EYE)

Mechanism of seeing
Light rays from an object enter the eye through the cornea. The light rays are refracted (bent) by the
convex cornea and passes through the aqueous humour which further bends the light rays before
entering the lens through the pupil.
The lens further bends the light rays and focus them on the retina, especially on the yellow spot.
The light rays from the object are converted into electrical impulse on reaching the retina stimulate
the rods and cones to form an inverted image on the retina. The inverted image on the retina is
smaller than the actual size of the object. The electrical impulses are sent through the optic nerves
to the optic lobes, the image is sent to the visual centre of the cerebral hemisphere where the
actual size and colour of the image are interpreted correctly.
ACCOMODATION OF THE EYE LENS
Accommodation is the ability of the human eye to focus far and near objects on the retina. It is
brought by the contraction and relaxation of the ciliary muscles.
The ciliary muscles contains circular and radial muscles. Circular muscles contract while radial
muscles relax and pupil constrict for less light to go into the eye for bright light situations.

DIAGRAM

EYE DEFECTS
The common eye defects/disorder are:
1. Myopia(short sighted)
2. Astigmatism
3. Presbyopia
4. Cataract
5. Night blindness
6. Xerophthalmia
7. Conjunctivitis
8. Colour blindness

1. Shortsightedness (myopia): this occurs naturally in persons with a too-long eye ball or the
cornea is too curve. Parallel rays of light from a distant object are brought to a focus by the
cornea and lens at a point in front of the retina. A shortsighted person can only see objects
near him but cannot see distant object clearly. It can be corrected by recommending the
use of glasses with concave or diverging lens.

DIAGRAM
2. Hypermetropia(long sightedness): in longsight, the eyeball is too short or the cornea is not
sufficiently curved parallel rays of light from a nearby object are brought to focus at a
point behind the retina. A longsighted person cannot see near object clearly but can see
distant object clearly. This defect can be corrected using spectacles with convex or
converging lens.

DIAGRAM

3. Astigmatism: this eye defect is caused by uneven curvature of the cornea or lens or both.
Light rays are not focus on the retina evenly and therefore the person is unable to focus
object horizontally and vertically. This defect can be corrected by wearing glasses with
uneven curvature.
4. Cataract : in this condition, the eye lens becomes cloudy to prevent sufficient light to pass
through it ie, loses its power of transparency. It is common in old people and can be
corrected by removing the affected lens and replacing it with artificial type. Sometimes
suitable lenses can be recommended.
5. Night blindness: patients with night blindness cannot see in the dark due to lack of
vitaminA. This can be cured by introducing vitamin A in our diet.
6. Colour blindness is the inability of the eye to see or perceive colour differences under
normal lighting conditions. It is an inherited eye defect in the retina for a particular colour
vision. It is associated with the x-chromosome, hence called a sex-linked trait males are
more colour blind than females.
7. Presbyopia: is the difficulty of the eye to see or perceive objects that are close to the eye.
It is similar to long-sightedness but caused by old age when the eye lens loses its flexibility.
Symptoms include eyestrains, headache, and holding reading materials far from the eye. It
can be corrected by using bifocal lenses.
8. Xerophthalmia or dry eyes syndrome is a condition in which the eye becomes dry
abnormally cannot produce tears to clean the eye from dust and bacteria. It is usually
caused by lack of vitamin A, exposure of the eye to dry air, wind or working long hours in a
computer. Persistence of this condition may cause blindness.
9. Conjunctivitis: this is the inflammation or infection of the transparent membrane
conjunctiva that lines the eye lid and covers the white part of the eye. The affected part
becomes reddish due to destruction of blood capillaries. This is highly contagious and is
caused by bacteria, virus, wind and glare.
CARE OF THE EYE
1. Do not rub your eye with dirty fingers.
2. Reading materials should be with large prints to avoid straining of the eyes.
3. Read under correct lighting condition.
4. In case of eye infection, consult a doctor immediately.
5. Eat food containing vitamin A for clear vision.
6. Avoid swimming or bathing in fast flowing streams or rivers so as to prevent infected
black-flies, from biting you. Black-flies lay their eggs in fast flowing streams or rivers
and if you are bitten by them during bathing or swimming, they transmit microfilaria
worms into your blood. These microfilaria worms (onchocera) attack the eyes causing
river blindness.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Define : (a)Binocular vision (b)Stereoscopic vision
EAR
The ear is a sense organ responsible for hearing and maintenance of body balance. Structurally, the
mammalian ear has three major parts.
1.Outer ear 2. Middle ear 3. Inner ear

OUTER EAR
The external ear is made up of two parts; (i)pinna (ii)auditory canal
(i) Pinna: is composed of irregular elastic plate of cartilage and muscles covered by the
skin. It is well supplied with blood vessels to keep it warm. The pinnae of man are
immoveable hence he turns his head to detect the direction of sounds. The pinna
collects sound waves and direct it to the auditory canal. It also protects the internal
structures.
(ii) Auditory canal (acoustic Meatus):it extends inwards in an oblique direction so as to
prevent hard objects from hitting the tiny sheet of skin called the ear drum
(tympanic membrane). It is lined with hairs and contains glands that produces wax
which helps to trap dirts and prevents them from entering the middle and inner ear
to avoid causing damage to them. The ear drum receives sound waves and releases
vibrations that are transferred.
MIDDLE EAR(tympanum)
The middle ear is an air-filled chamber containing the three smallest bones in the body
called the ossicles, the ossicles are : malleus(hammer), incus(anvil), stapes(stirrup).
These three tiny bones magnify and transmit sound vibrations from the ear drum to the oval
window. The middle ear contains the Eustachian or pharyngeal tube which connects the throat.
The Eustachian tube allows air into the middle ear so as to keep the air pressure inside and outside
of the ear equal for hearing to occur.
INNER EAR
Contains a coiled tube called cochlea which is filled with two ear fluids: perilymph and endolymph.
Inside the cochlea are sensory receptors which captures the stimulus of vibrations and transform it
into electric impulse before sending it to the brain through the auditory nerve. The brain interpretes
the electric information before we can haer. It is the brain that tells us whether the sound is loud or
low. The semicircular canals have sensory cells otoliths which are concerned with balance and
maintaining the posture of the body.

QUESTION: why do you fill dizzy after you spin round for a while.
ANSWER: if you spin around rapidly, the endolymph is forced to move to one end and impulses are
quickly sent to the brain. On stopping, the endolymph still moves back and forth making you feel
that all things including the ground are turning round.
Care of the ear
1. Sharp objects should not be used to clean the ear as they may damage the ear drum.
2. Regular washing and cleaning of the ears to avoid accumulation of wax, dirts and growth of
microorganism which may cause diseases the ear.
3. Avoid places where there are loud noises or wear earplugs if you want to stay in such places.
4. Avoid listening to radio with ear phones.
5. See an ear specialist for any ear problem and possibly early treatement.
Assignment
1. Draw and label the human ear.
2. Find out the name of : (a)ear doctor only (b)doctor of the ear,nose and throat (ENT).

NOSE
Insisde the nasal cavity at the upper region are numerous sensory cells or receptors which
come together to form the olfactory organ. This organ represents the sense organs for
perceiving smell. Since the smell/odour stimulus is chemical,the sensory cells are called
chemoreceptors.
Process involved in perceiving smell
The smell/odour chemical substance on reaching the nasal cavity will dissolve in mucous
fluid linning and moistening the surface.
Subsequently, the chemical stimulus is received by the chemoreceptors which transform it
into electric impulses and send it to the brain that gives interpretation to us about the
nature of smell/odour that enters our nose.

TONGUE
The tongue serves as the sense organ for taste. Since taste flavors of food and drinks are
chemical substances therefore the tongue contains chemoreceptors which are enclosed
inside taste buds scattered on the tongue surface. The diagram below shows how the
tongue perceives the four different taste flavours of sweet, salt, bitter ,and sour.
SKIN
The skin as a sense organ .
The human skin has rich supply of four different types of receptors which include:
(i)Touch receptors or Meissner’s corpuscles which detects stimulus that enables us to feel
touch.
(ii)pressure receptors or pacinian corpuscles for detecting high pressure.
(iii)pain receptors or free nerve ending for feeling pain.
(iv)thermoreceptors for detecting cold and heat ie temperature changes in the
environment. These receptors are distributed unevenly in the skin. Each receptor may be
highly concentrated in a region where it has sensitivity for a particular stimulus. For
example touch receptors are commonly found on the face, neck,tip of fingers and other
parts that are sensitive to touch. The table below is a description of these receptors.

Receptors description Location

1. Touch receptors Appear as free nerve On the skin surface close
(meissner’s corpuscles) endings of sensory neurons to the epidermis and are
in the skin. They are attached to the hair
stimulated by any slightest follicle.
pressure and movement of
hairs.
2. Pressure receptors or Also appear as free nerve Found in the deeper part
(pacinian corpuscles) endings which are enclosed of the dermis. In the
within capsule. They are joints, tendons and
stimulated by big pressures. muscles.
3. Thermorecptors Seen as free dendrite They are found both in
endings. They are the epidermis and
stimulated by cold and heat dermis.
stimuli. They help in the
regulation of body
temperature.the nerve
endings may be enclosed
without capsules.
4. Pain receptors They are free nerve endings They are found in the
of sensory neurons. Pain epidermis close to the
receptors help tp provide skin surface. They are
 warning to damage of the also found in most
body tissues. Note :over internal organs.
stimulation of pressure Sensitivity to pain vary in
receptors and most internal organs.
thermoreceptor causes
sensation.

Importance of skin Receptors

1.Touch and pressure receptors protect us from injury. People suffering from leprosy who have their
sensory cells damaged cannot feel touch, pain or pressure. Therefore, they hurt themselves badly
without feeling it.
2.Touch receptors at the tip of fingers enables us to identify the shape and texture of objects. Blind
people use this ability to read. They use their fingers to decipher Braille characters. The Braille is a
device which the blind uses for drawing.
3.Thermoreceptors in the skin enables us to detect abnormal rise or fall in our body temperature
and send signals to appropriate parts that will help to regulate and bring the temperature to a
constant level at 370C.
Assignment
Draw a large labeled diagram 12cm-13cm long of the skin to show the distribution of the receptors
(use your basic science textbook page 35).
REPRODUCTION
Reproduction is the ability of living organism to produce young ones or offspring of their own kinds.
Types of reproduction
These are (i)Asexual reproduction (ii)Sexual reproduction
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION :in this type of reproduction, a single parent cell divides to produce
offspring. Such cell division is called mitosis. The young ones that are formed are usually identical as
the parent except when affected by mutation (changes in the structure of genes and chromosomes).
FORMS OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
1. Binary fission: this is when a mature parent cell divides into two young cells known as
daughter cells. This is common in unicellular animals such as amoeba, paramecium and even
bacteria.
2. Multiple fission: this happens when the parent cell divides into many young identical cells.
3. Budding :in this case, a mature parent develop outgrowth or protuberance called buds which
detach to become independent young ones. This is common in yeast.
4. Spore formation: involves formation of tiny reproduction units called spores eg moulds,
mushrooms and other fungi.
5. Fragmentation: here, a part of the parent organism breaks up and regenerate into a young
one e.g green algae (spirogyra) and spongues.
6. Vegetative reproduction in flowering plants e.g stem-cutting, grafting, budding,marcotting,
etc. This is useful in cultivating crops.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
On the other hand, sexual reproduction involves fusion of sex cells or gametes from two
different parent organisms. The cells are formed by another type of cell division known as
meiosis. The fusion of the two sex cells(gametes) is known as fertilization and it results in the
formation of a single fertilized cell called Zygote. The zygote then divides by mitosis and
develops in a young one/offspring.
Formation and fusion of Gametes
The body cells of the ovary and testis are called diploid cells because they have complete
number of chromosomes denoted as ‘2n’ which is 46 in humans. Each of these cells divides by
meiosis to form Haploid cells having half number of chromosomes denoted as ‘n’ or 23 in
humans. The haploid cells then develops into a sperm or an egg cell in male and female adults
respectively. During reproduction, the mature parents donate their respective gametes which
fuses or come together to form a zygote (fertilized cell) having 46 chromosomes ie 23+23.
Therefore, a zygote is diploid(2n).

Assignment
1.draw and label (a) the female reproductive system (b) the male reproductive system
2. state the functions of these parts of the male and female reproductive system
i.scrotum ii.testis iii.vas efferenta iv.epididymis v.vas deferens vi. Urethra vii.penis viii.
Accessory glands ix.ovaries x. oviduct xi. Uterus(womb) iv. Cervix v. vagina
GENETICS
Genetics is the scientific study of heredity and variation in livingthings. Heredity (inheritance)
is defined as the transmission and expression of characters or traits from parents to offspring.
The hereditary units responsible for the expression of the characters are called Genes which
are located on the chromosomes.
Variation refers to the differences between individuals of the same species in a given
population. Variation arise because each offspring inherits different combination of genes
from their parents especially during sexual reproduction.
How Characters are Transmitted
A diploid organism has two sets of chromosomes called homologues or homologous pair. The
organism is made to have two copies of each gene occupying identical locations or loci on the
homologous chromosomes. The diploid organism produces gametes by meiosis in his or her
reproductive organ. During meiosis, the number of chromosomes in the cell is halved, so
gametes are haploid (n), that is it contains one set of chromosomes and hence one copy of
the genes.
During sexual reproduction, the gametes of a male and female individuals fuse to form a
zygote which is diploid (2n) as it gets one set of chromosomes or one copy of gene from each
of the parent gametes.
Therefore, it is only characters or traits that are controlled by genes are transmittable.
Mendel’s work in Genetics
The father of genetics was Gregor Mendel. He was a monk in Augustinian Monastery in
Brunn, Austria. He began the study of genetics while in the monastery in the year 1866. The
work of Gregor Mendel has formed the foundation for scientific study of heredity and
variation.
In Mendel’s experiment, he used short and long stemmed varieties of garden pea plant. He
planted the seeds of these two varieties separately and allowed them to grow until they
develop flowers. He then cross-pollinated the flowers by transferring pollen grains (male
gametes) of short plant to the stigma of long stemmed plant and vice-versa. The pollinated
flowers produced seeds which he collected and stored. In the next planting season, he
planted the seeds of the crossed plant and observed that the new plant were all tall.
 In conclusion, he stated that the characteristics of tallness suppressed that of shortness in the
new generation of plants. The genetic diagram below illustrates Mendel’s experiment.

Definition of some terms used in Genetics

1. Dominant character: this is the character or trait that is expressed in the presence of another
character that is suppressed. Dominant character is controlled by dominant gene. In Mendel’s
experiment the dominant gene is denoted as ‘T’.
2. Recessive character: this is the trait or character that is not expressed in the presence of
another character. In other words, it is suppressed. Recessive characters are controlled by
recessive gene. Also in the Mendel’s experiment, the recessive gene is denoted as ‘t’.
3. Genotype : is the sum total genes which an individual inherits from his/her parents.
4. Phenotype: this is the observable features or characteristics of an organism. In other words, it
represents the physical appearance. Examples are height ,weight, eye color, skin colour,
blood group etc.
5. Homozygous: this is when the two copies of genes for a pair of characters are the same e.g
‘TT’ or ‘tt’ as in the Mendel’s experiment.
6. Heterozygous: refers to a situation when the copies of genes for a pair of contrasting
characters are different e.g Tt.
7. Haploid: this represents one set of chromosomes in specialized cells called gametes e.g sperm
and egg cell. It is denoted as ‘n’.Each set of chromosome always contain one copy of genes.
8. Diploid: is referring to two sets of chromosomes in the body cells e.g skin cell, testis, ovary,
etc. it is denoted as 2(n). The two sets of chromosomes have two copies of gene.
Importance of family traits
1. It enables us to trace family members.
2. To determine the paternity of a child whose fatherhood is being legally disputed.
3. It is applied in blood transfusion to determine compatible blood groups for a sick family
member. This is to prevent blood agglutination of red blood cells and death.
4. To reduce transmission of heredity diseases such as sickle cell anaemia, haemophilia etc.
This involves counseling of carriers of these diseases not to intermarry.
5. Knowledge of trait has helped us in the detection of crime.
Sex Determination
The sex of humans is determined by the X-chromosomes and Y-chromosomes. Females
have two copies of the X-chromosomes written as XX, while males have X-chromosomes
and Y-chromosomes which pair up as XY.
Therefore, females produce egg cells that have only X-chromosomes, while males produce
sperms that have X-chromosomes or Y-chromosomes.
The sex of a child depends on whether the egg cell is fertilized by a sperm that bears X-
chromosomes or Y-chromosomes.

Worked Examples
1. If two parents are sickle cell carriers their genotype would be AS
Genotype for sickle cell carriers is AS. Genotype for normal individual AA.
Genotype for people with sickle cell anaemia is SS.
2. What is the probability of giving birth to a sickle cell anaemic child when two carriers
marry?
 3. If a man that is normal of sickle cell anaemia marries a female carrier. What is the
probability of giving birth to a sickle cell anaemic child.

The probability of giving birth to an anaemic child is 0%.

4. A man heterozygous for albino gene marries a woman who is also heterozygous for the
gene. If they have normal skin colour, what is the probability that they will have an
albino child.
Note; the genotype of an albino contains two copies of recessive genes and is denoted
as ‘aa’. A normal person will be ‘AA’ , while carriers of albino gene are heterozygous,
hence their genotype is

Assignment
1. If a man is homozygous normal for albinism and marries a woman that is
heterozygous normal, what is the probability of the couples giving birth to albino.
2. If a normal heterozygous man for albino gene marries a woman who is heterozygous
for the gene, although with normal skin colour. What is the probability that they will
give birth to an albino.
3. What is the probability of a man of blood group AB married to a woman of blood
group O producing a child of blood group O.
RESOURCES FROM PLANTS
These are raw materials obtained from plants which are useful, they are processd
into finished products. Resources from plants can be split into: Food crops and Cash
crop.
Food crops are crops grown mainly for local consumption, some may be sold at the
local market e.g vegetables, yams , fruits etc.
Cash crops are grown mainly for sale and exported to other countries e.g coca,
rubber, cotton etc.
Plants also provide other useful products which are further processed into products
like textiles, paper, furniture, dyes etc
 Manufacturing paper: most paper comes from soft wood trees, such as pines.
First, machine or chemical breakdown the wood chips into fibers. This is
called pulping. The fibers are soaked in chemicals, then pressed by heavy
rollers into thin flat sheets. Before pressing, the fibers,may be bleached white
or dyed into different colours. Smoother paper is made by adding starch or
clay.
 Tapping rubber: the rubber tree grows naturally in south America, but there
are also plantations in Asia. If its bark is cut the tree produces a milky fluid
called Latex. People harvest the latex so that it can be turned into rubber, a
useful elastic material. Not all rubber comes from rubber trees, most is made
artificially from petroleum.
 Field of Lavender: Vast farms of lavender are found around the
Mediterranean, in Britain and in the united states. The plant is grown for its
scented oil, produced in oil glands on the stem, leaves, flowers. The harvested
flowers may be dried or pressed to extract the oil. Sometimes the oil is
distilled to create a purer oil. Lavender oil is used in aromatherapy and as as
ingredient for perfumes, soaps and other cosmetics.
 Timber for construction: Harvested wood is called timber. Its strength makes
it useful in the building trade, especially for creating supporting frame works.
Pines and other soft woods are the most widely used because they grow
straight. They also grow fast which makes their timber cheap and renewable
(easily replaced). Hardwood from flowering trees grow slowly. It is more
costly and is used for furniture.
  Henna: Henna is a shrub that grows in the middle East and North Africa. Its
leaves are harvested for their reddish brown pigment. This is used to dye
clothes, hair, and even people’s skin. Greenish henna paste, made from
powdered leaves is used to paint the skin when the paste dries and rub off,
the skin looked tattooed.
 Natural Fibres: plants produce long groups of cells called fibres. These can be
used to make textiles such as cotton, as well as other materials. All plant
fibres are strong because their cell walls contain a tough molecule called
Cellulose, but to be useful fibres also need other properties such as flexibility
and length. Flax and Hemp where two of the earliest fibres used by people.

How cotton is processed

The cellulose in the cotton is arranged as interlocking, coiled strands of fibres. These
can be spun into threads called Yarn. Yarn is produced on an industrial scale and
woven on looms to make textiles. Cotton textiles are hard wearing, breathable and
take dyes well. They range from light gauzy fabrics to tough denims.

Medicinal plants
Many of the powerful drugs used in modern medicine originated in plants. Plant-based
drugs treat a range of diseases from headache to cancer. Examples are :
i. Aloe vera: the juice contains a chemical called alonin, which has been used in
cosmetics and medicine; it is used as the most useful ingredient for lotions and
gels that soothe burns, including sunburn.it can also be used to repel bitting.
ii. Toothpick weed: its an herb which contains a chemical that opens up the blood
vessels improving blood flow to the heart and opens the breathing tubes of the
lungs.
iii. Quinine: the bark of this tropical tree contains a drug called quinine. Quinine is
used in the prevention and treatment of malaria, a deadly disease carried by
mosquito.
iv. Meadow Saffron: contains a chemical called Colchicine, which has been used to
treat rheumatism and gout. As it tends to prevent cells from dividing too quickly.
Colchicine has been used to suppress some types of cancer.
 v. Coca Plant: is grown naturally in south America and is a major source of the drug
cocaine. It is used medically by doctors as anesthetic and for pain relief.

Resources from Animals

Most animals are pets, they are raised as food and they provide products
important to everyday life. Below are some useful products from animals.
1. Diary Products: most animals such as cattle, goat, pigs etc provide milk, they are used to
produce yogurt,butter,ice cream etc. Diary products are used in cooking and baking. It also
contains calcium which helps to strengthen bones.
2. Tallow : tallow is a fat from cattle, and it is used in wax, paper, crayons, margarine, paints,
rubber, lubricants, candles, soaps, lipsticks, shaving, cream and other cosmetics.
3. Gelatin: gelatin is a protein obtained by boiling skin, tendons, ligaments and bones. It is used
in shampoos, face masks and other cosmetics. It is also used as thickners.
4. Leather : leather comes from the hides of animals, it is used to make wallet, purse, furniture,
shoes and car upholstery. Leather can be made from the skin of animals like pigs, cattle,
sheep,goats and alligators.
5. Eggs: eggs from chickens serves as a source of protein and are used in baking. Eggs are also
used for production of therapeutic vaccines and also production of antibodies and
pharmacological proteins.
6. Wool: wool is sheep hair that is shaved off during hot weather. After processing, wool can be
made into lots of different things such as shirts, socks, yarn, for knitting and tennis ball covers.
Wool is also used as oil absorbent in oil spills.
7. Honey: honey is gotten from bees they can be used as natural sweetners, hand lotions,
soaps, natural cough suppressant. Honey is a source of carbohydrate and provide energy to
the muscles. Bees also produce bees wax which is used to make candles, lipstick, lotions, shoe
polish, crayons, chewing gum and floor wax. When by-products from animals are used, we
reduce waste and be more environmental friendly.
Assignment
1. What is a media?
2. How can information technology be transferred through modern ways?
3. Mention 5positive use of the internet and 8negative use of the internet.
DERSERTIFICATION AND OZONE LAYER

A desert is a region rendered barren or partially barren by extreme environmental conditions,

particularly low rainfall. No part of Nigeria has been classified by geographers as a desert. The
sahara desert extends southwards only as far as the northern part of Nigeria, which is nigeria’s
northern neighbor. The closest type of vegetation to a desert in Nigeria is called sahel savanna
which exists at the northeastern tip of Nigeria (especially in Yobe and Borno states). Sahel savanna
contains scanty grasses and stunted trees. The sahel savanna lies in the main savanna vegetation
belt. It covers a wider area than any other type of vegetation. Grass species are dominant ( there
are more grasses than trees or shrubs). The sizes of grasses and trees or shrubs diminish as the
latitude increases (towards the north) in Nigeria. Also, the vegetation decreases in size progressively
from Guinea savanna, to sudan savanna to sahel savanna.

Desertification is a type of land degradation in which a relatively dry land region becomes
increasingly arid, typically losing its bodies of water as well as vegetation and wild life.

SECOND TERM SCHEME OF WORK BASIC SCIENCE JSS3

WEEKS TOICS SUB-TOICS

1. Endocrine system Meaning, example, location, functions

2. Drug Abuse 3 Meaning, prevention

3. Atomic Structure Meaning, simple atomic model, particles of an atom.

4. Chemical formula Definition, formular of comounds IUApAC nomenclature.

5. Simple chemical Balancing chemical equation

equation

6. Metals and Non-metals Meaning, characteristics and extraction of metals.

7. Activity series Activity of metals, non-metals and action of water on metals.

8. Acids, bases and salts Definition, acid in nature, test for acids and bases,
neutralization, prevention of simple salts.

9. Energy and application Light energy. Concept of reflection, refraction of light,

apparent depth, vision, dispersion of rainbow, colour prism
and production. Splitting of light , electrical concept of electron
flow. Circuit(series/parallel).

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

In the response to stimuli, the endocrine system plays major roles like the nervous system plays
major roles like the nervous system.
Endocrine coordination is chemical because it involves secretion of chemical substances called
hormones, while nervous coordination is electrical involving the transmission of electric impulse.
What are Hormones?
Hormones are chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands and transported through the
blood stream to target organs some distance away in which they bring about specific effects. Some
of the effects caused by hormones include, development of secondary sexual characteristics,
preparation of the body for emergency etc.
ENDOCRINE GLANDS
These are specific glands from where hormones are secreted. They are also referred to as ductless
glands because they do not have ducts. The hormones which they secrete entre the blood directly
by diffusion.
The other types of glands known as exocrine glands have ducts and they usually secrete body
fluids/juice containing enzymes eg salivary gland, gastric gland etc.
The endocrine glands and their locations in the human body are shown below

PITUITARY GLAND
This gland is referred to as a master gland because its secretion influence the activities of other
glands. However, secretions of other glands such as thyroid and adrenal influence the activities of
the pituary gland.

ENDOCRINE GLANDS HORMONE SECRETED FUNCTION

1. Pituitary gland i.Somatotropic (growth i.Regulates the growth of the
hormone) body.
ii.Stimulates the secretion of
milk from the mammary gland.
 iii.Promotes motherly love
(instinct) for the young.
ii.Gonadotropic i.Stimulates the development of
sex organs (ovaries and testis).
ii.Controls secretion of
hormones from the testis and
ovaries.
iii.Thyrotropic (thyroid Stimulates the secretion of
stimulating hormone TSH). thyroxin from the thyroid gland.
iv.Oxytocin i.Causes the contraction of
uterus muscles guring child birth.
ii.Regulates blood pressure.
iv.Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Increases the reabsorption of
water in the kidney tubles.
2. Thyroid i.Thyroxin (rich in iodine) i.Accelerate the rate of
metabolism in the cell.
ii.Controls growth.
ii.Calcitoin Lowers calcium level in the
blood.
3. Parathyroid gland Parathormone Helps to maintain the normal
level of calcium and phosphate
ions in the body.
4. Pancreas (islets of insulin Converts excess blood sugar to
langerhans) glycogen and therefore lowers
blood glucose.
5. Adrenal gland adrenaline i.increases blood sugar by
conversion of liver glycogen into
glucose.
ii.increase the rate of heart beat.
iii.prepares the body for
immediate actions in emergency
situations, hence, it is sometimes
called ‘Emergency hormone’
6. Ovaries i.Oestrogen i.Stimulates the development of
female secondary sex
characteristics eg breast
development,pubic hair etc.
 ii.Controls menstrual cycle and
development of the mammary
glands.
iii.Promotes sex urge.
ii.Progestrone i.Prepares and maintains the
lining of the uterus after
ovulation.
ii.Aids the implantation of the
fertilized eggs in the walls of the
uterus.
7. Tetes (in the scrotum) Testosterone and androsterone i.Stimulates the development of
male secondary sex
characteristics.
ii.promotes sex urge
iii.promotes cell respiration and
blood circulation.

EFFECT OF OVER SECRETION AND UNDER SECRETION OF HORMONES

HORMONE EFFECT OF OVER SECRETION EFFECT OF UNDER SECRETION

1. somatotropic i.In children gigantism occurs, Stunted growth or dwarfism in

in adult it results in acromegaly. children,that is the child will be
Hands and feet grow out of a midget.
proportion.

2. Prolactin Oversecretion of milk and Lack of milk production to feed

hypersensitivity the young

3. Thyroxine i.hyper thyroidism ie increased Hypothyroidism ie metabolic

metabolism, heartbeat. rate slows down, mental activity
ii.over anxiety,loss of weight slows down making a person
iii. excessive growth of tissues less alert.
behind the eyes ii.in infants cretinism occurs
(exophthalmos) leading to mental, physical and
sexual retardation.
iii.Goitre.
 4. Adrenalin i.over anxiety Lack of energy,weakness,and
ii.over excitement tiredness.

5. Insulin Blood sugar falls below normal Diabetes mellitus

6. Oestrogen Abnormal urge for sex i.poor development of

reproductive organ.
ii.decline of female secondary
sex characteristics.

7. Testosterone Abnormal urge for sex Same as above

DRUG ABUSE 3

Effects of drug Abuse

1. The abuse of drugs changes a person’s state of mind ie being in a state of hallucination.
2. Causes damages of the nervous system and the affected person becomes nervous.
3. Damages vital parts of the brain and spinal cord thereby affecting a person’s standing and
walking posture.
4. It damages the stomach lining leading to ulcer and even death.
5. Causes malfunctioning of the liver. The liver becomes stiff and loses its original soft
texture. This condition is known as liver cirrhosis.
6. Damages respiratory system and may lead to cancer of the nostrils, lungs and other
respiratory organs.
7. Sometimes may cause skin rashes and abscess especially when hard drugs are injected
through the skin.
8. Causes divorce in marriages which affects children’s upbringing.

Prevention of Drug Abuse

1. By educating and creating awareness of the evil effect of illicit drugs.
2. By counseling and rehabitating drug addicts. These are sufficiently achieved by
involving them with life coping skills.
3. By adopting positive social interactions that require youths and adults to be selective
in picking friends .
4. Avoid youths from honouring all invitations except those approved by parents or
guardians.
5. By adopting healthy life style that is devoid of drug addiction and eating good
nourishing food. This is because most drug dependent diseases are as a result of
prolonged bad feeding manner.

Drug Control Agencies

Drug control agencies are established health institutions that are responsible for
implementing general health policies of government in order to maintain good health
of the people.
In Nigeria, there are two major drug control agencies. These are :
i. NAFDAC – National Agency for Food, Drug, Administration ad Control.
ii. NDLEA - National Drug Law Enforcement Agencies
NDLEA monitors the transporting, trafficking and use of illegal or illicit drugs.
The officials of NDLEA operate at the airports where they usually arrest and
apprehend those attempting to smuggle illicit drugs out of the country. They
 also have offices nation wide and carryout frequent raids to farm settlement
where Indian hemp is grown.
NAFDAC on the other hand is mainly concerned about the sales and uses of fake
drugs which are prescribe to the people.
Apart from NAFDAC and NDLEA, other subsidiaries may include police, customs,
immigration and quarantine. They also assist in arresting hard drug sellers,
importers, users and traffickers.

ATOMS AND ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Experimental evidence has been given to show that matter is made up of very small discrete
particles. The main ones are atom, molecules and ions.
In 1808, an English chemist John Dalton put forward a theory to describe the nature of atom. Atom
is presently considered to be the basic unit of simple substances or element.
Definition of Atom
An atom is the smallest part of an element which can take part in a chemical reaction. In other
words, an atom is the smallest part of an element that can ever exist and still retain the chemical
properties of that element.
Dalton Atomic Theory
Dalton’s theory about the nature of atoms can be summarized as;
1. All elements are made up of small indivisible particles called atom.
2. Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed. This means that atoms cannot be made or
broken down.
3. The atoms of the same element are exactly alike and different from atoms of other elements.
4. During chemical reaction atoms are either combined or separated.
Constituents of an Atom
From the work of great scientists like J J Thompson, Ernest Rutherford and James Chardwick, it is
believed that atoms contains smaller particles which is a modification of Dalton’s atomic theory that
atoms are indivisible. These sub-atomic particles are protons, neutrons and electrons.
Atomic Structure
A typical atom has two parts:
i.the nucleus (at the centre) and
ii.the orbit which surrounds the nucleus.
The nucleus contains protons and neutrons. The electrons are located on the orbits round the
nucleus. Basically, an atom consist of three sub-particles;
(i)Electron (ii)Proton (iii)Neutron
The proton is positively charged while the electron is negatively charged. Neutrons are known to be
electrically neutral. The electron is very light such that it does not contribute significantly to the
weight or mass of the atom. The mass of a single proton is approximately the mass of 1480
electrons put together. The neutron is slightly heavier than the proton.
Conventionally, an atom is electrically neutral, this is because the number of electrons is equal to
the number of protons in that atom. The proton and electron have the same magnitude of charge
but opposite in sign. The positive charge of the nucleus cancels out the negative charge of the
electrons, making the atom neutral.

ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER

Atomic number of an element is the number of protons in the atom of that element. It is also the
number of electrons present in a neutral atom. Atomic number is denoted as ‘Z’ and written on the
left hand side of the symbol of an element as a subscript.

The mass number or atomic mass is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an atom. It is
symbolized as A. it is written on the left hand side of the symbol of an element as a superscript.
Mass number (A) = number of protons (P) + number of neutrons (N)
Therefore, A=P+N
Also, atomic number (Z) =number of protons(P)
Therefore Z=P=E
An element which contains 11 electrons, 11protons and 12neutrons will be written as
Example: calculate the number of neutrons and electrons in the following atoms.
(i)chlorine atom with mass number 35
(ii)carbon atom with mass number 12.
Solution
A=P+N, 35= 17 + N, N=35-17 N=18
Therefore chlorine atom contains 18Neutrons.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE/ ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE

Niel Bohr, the scientist who studied hydrogen atom explained that electrons moves in orbits round
the nucleus of the atom. These orbits are known as shells and are denoted as K L M N O P Q .
K-shell can take a maximum of two electrons. The other shells can accommodate maximum of eight
electrons each. Electronic structure is the Pictorial representation of electrons contained in an
atom.

The shells or orbits represents the different energy levels of the electrons in the atom.
Hydrogen is represented by

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
Electronic configuration is the arrangement of electrons in an atom according to their various
energy levels . electronic configuration of hydrogen (H)=1
Also, the atomic structure of nitrogen is given as

Therefore, the electronic configuration of nitrogen = 2,5

CLASS WORK
Write and show the electronic configuration of the first 20 elements.

ISOTOpES
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same atomic numbers (protons) but with different
mass number. Examples
1. Chlorine has two isotopes : 35
17 Cl
37
17 Cl

2. Carbon has three isotopes : 6C 6C 146C

12 13

3. Oxygen has three isotopes : 168O , 178O, 188O

VALENCY ELECTRONS AND VALENCY

Valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost shell of an atom. These are electrons
that participate in a chemical reaction (chemical bonding with other elements). We therefore,
refer the valence electrons that take part in the bonding as bonding electrons, while those
that do not participate as non-bonding electrons.
Valency is defined as the combining power of an element. It is actually defined as the number
of hydrogen atoms that will combine with one atom of hydrogen.
This means the number of electrons an atom must lose or gain in other to have two or eight
electrons in its outermost shell.
Elements Electronic valency
Configuration
Hydrogen (H) 1 +1
Helium(He) 2 Nill
Lithium (Li) 2,1 +1
Beryllium(Be) 2,2 +2
Boron (B) 2,3 +3
Carbon(C) 2,4 +2 or +4
Nitrogen(N) 2,5 +3 or -5
Oxygen(O) 2,6 -2
Fluorine(F) 2,7 -1
Neon(Ne) 2,8 Nill
Sodium(Na) 2,8,1 +1
Magnesium (Mg) 2,8,2 +2
Aluminium (Al) 2,8,3 +3
Silicon (Si) 2,8,4 +4
Phosphorus(p) 2,8,5 -3 or +5
Sulphur (S) 2,8,6 -2, +4 or +6
Chlorine (Cl) 2,8,7 -1
Argon (Ar) 2,8,8 Nill
Potassium (K) 2,8,8,1 +1
Calcium (Ca) 2,8,8,2 +2
 The elements with the positive valencies are called metallic elements or metals, while those
with the negative valencies are called non-metallic elements or non-metals.
Other elements and their valencies include:
Element symbol valency
Barium Ba +2
Bromine Br -2
Copper Cu +1 or +2
Gold Au +1
Iodine I -1
Iron Fe +2 or +3
Krypton Kr nil
Lead Pb +2 or +4
Mercury Hg +1 or +2
Silver Ag +1
Zinc Zn +2

IONS
An ion is an atom that posses electric charge. There are two types of ions, namely:
(i) Cation
(ii) Anion

Cations are positively charged ions and they are formed when metals loses electrons. Examples are :
K+, Mg2+, Na+, Al3+, Zn2+, Fe3+, Pb2+, Cu2+, Ag+, Au+, etc

Anions are negatively charged ions and they are formed from non-metallic atoms when they gain
electrons. Examples are: O2-, Cl-, F-, I-

RADICALS

A radical is a group of atoms that come together to act as a single unit. They may be positively or
negatively charged, that is they exist as ions in a solution. Some examples of radicals are stated
thus;
 Radicals Valency or Oxidation

Ammonium ion(NH4+) +1

Trioxonitrate (V) ion (NO-3) -1

Tetraoxosulphate (VI) ion(SO42-) -2

Trioxosulphate (IV) ion (SO-3) -2

Trioxocarbonate (VI) ion (CO2-3) -2

Trioxochlorate (V) (ClO-3) -1

Tetraoxomanganate (vii) ion (MnO4-) -1

Hydroxyl ion (OH-) -1

Hydrogen trioxocarbonate (vi) (HCO3-) -1

CHEMICAL FORMULAE

A formula is defined as a short hand representation which shows the number and kinds of atoms in
one molecule of a compound. The following rules are considered when writing formula.

1. The sum of the positive valency of a compound must be equal to the sum of the negative
valencies . it is usually achieved by exchanging valencies of the elements or radicals.
2. The number of atoms of the element in the compound must be written in numerical subscript
after the element. If radicals appear more than once, it must be enclosed within brackets or
parenthesis.
Example : write the formulae of the following
1. Iron (iii) oxide
Elements Iron oxygen
symbol Fe O
valency 3 2
formular Fe2O3
 2. Magnesium Chloride
Elements magnesium Chlorine
Symbol Mg Cl
Valency 2 1
Formula MgCl2
3. Iron (ii) Chloride
Element Iron Chlorine
Symbol Fe Cl
Valency 2 1
Formula FeCl2
Class work
Write the formulae of the following comounds
1. Sodium tetraoxosulphate (vi)
2. Carbon (ii) oxide
3. Iron (iii) oxide
4. Calcium hydroxide
5. Ammonium chloride
6. Sodium trioxocarbonate (vi)
7. Potassium trioxochlorate
8. Sulphur (iv) oxide
9. Potassium chloride
10.Hydrogen sulphide
11.Magnesium sulphide
12.Sodium hydroxide
13.Calcium chloride

BALANCING AND WRITING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

Chemical reactions are easily represented in prints (on paper) by using chemical equations which
involve only chemical formulae of compounds and symbols of elements in a free state.

Chemical equation has two sides which are: (a) the left hand side where the reacting substances or
reactants are written and (b) the right hand side where the products are spelt out.
Instead of the usual equality sign, an arrow symbol ( ) leads from the reactants to the
products. Consider the chemical equation

Zn +2HCl ZnCl2 + H2 it is the summary of the reaction between metallic zinc and hydrochloric
acid. It should be noted that :

1. The chemical equation shows a whole number ratio in terms of mole.

2. The reactants are usually written on the left hand side. They are the chemical substances
being mixed.
3. The products are written on the right hand side. Products are the result of the outcome of the
chemical reaction between the reactants.
4. The number of atoms of an element on the left hand side must be equal to the number on the
right hand side for the equation to be balanced.

RULES IN BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

1. Write a word equation.

2. Write an unbalanced formula equation.
3. Add numbers as coefficient to balanced the formula equation.
4. Do not alter or change the formula of the compounds given in the equation.
5. Donot add number as subscript or superscripts to balance the equation.

EXAMPLES

Balance these chemical equations

1. Mg(s) + HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Ans : Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

2. NaOH + CO2 Na2CO3 + H2O(l)

Ans : NaOH + CO2 Na2CO3 + H2O

Assignment

1. Fe + HCl FeCl3 + H2
METALS AND NON-METALS

METALS

Metals are elements whose atoms loses electron(s) during chemical reaction. Hence, metals are
ELECTROPOSITIVE . They usually have less than four (4) electrons on their outermost shells. When
they loose electrons they usually form positive ions (cation). Examples are : Na +, Ca2+,K+, Mg2+, Zn2+,
Pb2+, Cu2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Al3+ etc

NON-METALS

Non-metals are elements whose atoms gain electron(s) during chemical reactions, hence they are
ELECTRONEGATIVE. When no-metals gain electrons(s) they usually form negative ions (anions).
Examples are: Cl-, Br-,O2-,S2- etc.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES /COMAPRISM OF METALS AND NON-METALS

METALS NON-METALS

1. They are solids except mercury They may be solid, liquid or gas
which is liquid at room
temeprature.

2. They are good conductors of heat They are poor conducts of heat and electricity
and electricity. except graphite from carbon.

3. They are malleable and ductile, They are not malleable nor ductile.
they can be beaten and drawn into
wires.

4. They are sonorous ie they produce They are not sonorous.

sound when hit.

5. They are lustrous ie they are shinny They are not lustrous.
and can be polished.

6. They have high melting and boiling They have low melting and boiling point except
point except sodium and carbon and sulphur.
potassium.
 7. They have high tensile strength and They have low tensile strength and are brittle ie
can withstand stress and strain they can break easily.
except mercury.

8. They are generally hard. They are generally soft.

Note : carbon and silicon are known as metalloids because they posses some metallic properties.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

METALS NON-METALS

1. Some metals can displace hydrogen Non-metals cannot displace hydrogen.

from dilute acids to form salts. E.g
Zn + 2HCl ZnCl + H2

2. Metals react with oxygen to form Non-metals react with oxygen to form acidic
basic oxides. 4Na + O2 2Na2O oxides which dissolves in water to form acids.

Na2O + H2O NaOH S + O2 SO2

SO2 + H2O H2SO4

3. Metals donot combine easily with Non-metals combine easily with hydrogen to
hydrogen. form many stable compounds.

ASSIGNMENT

In a tabular form, divide the first 20elements into metals and non-metals.

EXTRACTION OF METALS

Metals are usually extracted from their ores.

ORES: an ore is the naturally occurring compound of a metal. It is usually deposited in the earth
crust along with other impurities.

SOME COMMON ORES OF METALS

1. Tin Ore: cassiterite (tin stone) and tin (iv) oxide (SnO2). It is found in jos and Kano.
 2. Iron Ore:Haematite (oxide of iron) Fe2O3.
3. Aluminium Ore: bauxite (Al2O3).
4. Columbite Ore : contains Tin and manganese.

EXTRACTION OF TIN (Sn)

OCCURRENCE: Tin occur as cassiterite (or Tinstone) and Tin(iv) oxide (SnO2) in gravels and alluvial
deposits.

PROCESS OF EXTRACTION

1. Concentration of the ore: Tin Ore is crushed and washed with water mechanically to remove
impurities such as sand.
2. Smelting of the Ore: the concentrated tin ore is heated with coke on anthracite (contains 94%
of carbon) in a reverbatory furnace and a temperature of between 1200 oC and 13000C to
reduce the oxide. SnO2 + 2C Sn + 2CO
The molten tin collected at the bottom of the furnace is tapped off.
3. Purification of metals : the crude tin contains some impurities such as Arsenic and Lead. It is
then remelted on a slopping surface where the impurities are exposed to air and become
converted to oxide. The tin is then run off into moulds.

USES OF TIN

1. It is used in alloys together with lead and copper.

2. It is used in making glass sheet due to its low melting point and resistance to atmospheric
corrosion.
3. It is used in electroplating (tin plating) of metals.

ALLOYS OF TIN

1. Solder : contains 50% of tin and 50% of lead. It is used for soldering.
2. Type metal: contains 75% of Tin and 25% Lead. Used in printing machines.
3. Bronze: contains Tin and Copper.
4. Fused wire: contains Lead and Tin.
5. Ball Bearing metals are used in machines and contains 82% Tin and 14% Lead and 4% copper.
EXTRACTION OF IRON (Fe)

Occurrence:

The main ores of Iron are: Haematite (Fe2O3) and Magnetite (Fe3O4)

Large deposits of iron ore can be found in Itakpe hills near Okene in Kogi state.

STEPS IN EXTRACTION PROCESS

The extraction of Iron is carried out in a BLAST FURNACE.

1. The Iron ore is first heated in air to obtain iron(iii) oxide.

2. Iron (iii) oxide is then mixed with coke and lime stone (CaCO3) and fed into the blast furnace
from the top while hot air at about 8000C is blown into the furnace from the bottom through
tuyers.

Chemistry of the Reaction

1. At the bottom of the furnace: Red hot coke reacts with hot air to form carbon (ii) oxide.

2C + O2(g) 2CO(g)

2. At the upper and middle: Carbon (ii) oxide produced reacts with iron ore and reduces it to
molten iron.
Fe3O4 + 4CO(g) 3Fe(s) + 4CO2(g).
3. Limestone decomposes to form calcium oxide. CaCO3(s) CaO + CO2(g)
4. The impurities in molten iron react with calcium oxide to form slag which is mainly calcium
trioxosilicate (iv) CaSiO3. CaO + SiO2(s) CaSiO3.
Slag is lighter than molten iron and floats on top of the iron and can easily run off.
5. The molten iron is then tapped off from the bottom of the blast furnace. Molten iron from the
blast furnace contains a high proportion of carbon and is called PIG IRON. It is impure.

TYPES OF IRON

1. Pig Iron: this is the iron obtained directly from the blast furnace. It is impure and contains
about 5% carbon.
2. Cast Iron: this is the iron obtained by remelting ig iron and mixing it with some scrap iron to
remove carbon impurities and then run into moulds.
3. Wrought Iron: this is the purest form of iron obtained by heating cast iron and haematite
together in a reverberatory furnace.
USES OF IRON
It is used for iron gates, nails,chains, windows, protectors etc.