Secondary

PHYSICS
Student’s Book One
(Fourth Edition)
KENYA LITERATURE BUREAU
P.O. Box 30022-00100, Nairobi
Website: www.kenyaliteraturebureau.com
E-mail: [email protected]

© Ministry of Education

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transcribed, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording
or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

ISBN 978-9966-10-142-6

First published 1988

Second Edition 1995
Third Edition 2004
Reprinted 2006, 2007, 2008 (twice), 2010, 2011
Fourth Edition 2013

KLB 10821 10m 2013

Published and printed by Kenya Literature Bureau

 Contents
Prologue
Acknowledgements
1. Introduction to Physics
Physics as a science
Meaning of physics
Branches of physics
Relationship between physics and other subjects
Career opportunities in physics
Basic laboratory rules
2. Measurement (I)
Length
Area
Volume
Mass
Density
Time
Revision Exercise 2
3. Force
Type of forces
Gravitational force
Tension
Upthrust
Cohensive and adhesive forces
Frictional force
Magnetic force
Electrostatic force
Centripetal force
Surface tension
Action and reaction
Mass and weight
 Scalar and vector quantities
Revision Exercise 3
4. Pressure
Units of pressure
Pressure in liquids
Liquid levels
Derivation of fluid pressure formula
Transmission of pressure in liquids
Hydraulic machines
Atmospheric pressure
Mercury barometer
Fortin barometer
Aneroid barometer
Pressure gauges
Application of pressure in gases and liquids
Revision Exercise 4
5. The particulate nature of matter
Investigating matter
The smoke cell experiment
Diffusion
Revision Exercise 5
6. Thermal expansion
Temperature
Expansion and contraction of solids
Exercise 6.1
Expansion and contraction of liquids
Expansion of gases
Measuring temperature
Revision Exercise 6
7. Heat transfer
Heat and temperature
Modes of heat transfer
Factors affecting thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity in liquids
Thermal conductivity in gases
 Some applications of good and poor conductors of heat
Convection
Radiation
Applications of thermal radiation
Revision Exercise 7
8. Rectilinear propagation and reflection at plane surfaces
Sources of light
Rays and beams of light
Types of beams of light
Rectilinear propagation of light
Shadows
Eclipse
The pinhole camera
Magnification
Reflection of light
Rotation of a mirror through an angle
Formation of images by plane mirrors
Images formed by mirrors at an angle
Applications of plane mirrors
Revision Exercise 8
9. Electrostatics (I)
Origin of charge
The electroscope
Charges in air
Applications of electrostatic charges
Dangers of electrostatics
Revision Exercise 9
10. Cells and simple circuits
A simple electric circuit
Connecting cells in series and parallel
Conductors and insulators
Sources of electricity
Revision Exercise 10
 Prologue
This book is primarily meant to cover exhaustively the Form One Physics
syllabus as per the new 8-4-4 curriculum. It is by design also a versatile
companion for those students taking related courses in technical colleges and
other institutions.
The book has been made more elaborate and the in-depth theoretical
coverage boosted with numerous experiments to enhance a better understanding
of concepts under study.
Any student making full use of the title and by extension the KLB
Secondary Physics series, will certainly acquire scientific knowledge and skills
useful in answering the challenges of daily life.
I am grateful to the panel of writers and everybody who took part in the
preparation and production of this edition.

THE MANAGING DIRECTOR

Kenya Literature Bureau
 Acknowledgements
The Managing Director, Kenya Literature Bureau, would like to thank the
following writers who participated in the revision of this book:

Oliver Minishi
Erastus Muni
Hesborne Omolo
Grace Mwangasha
 Introduction to Physics
Physics as a Science
One of the subjects offered in primary school is Science. At secondary school
level and beyond, this subject is split into three main areas namely, Biology,
Chemistry and Physics.
The three, however, are interrelated since they are all human attempts to
explore the universe and its contents by establishing facts through observation
and experiment.
The primary school science syllabus covers topics such as Matter and its
Properties, Energy in its various forms, e.g., heat, light, sound and their
corresponding sources, Machines and the way they make work easier, Balancing
and Weighing of various Shapes of objects, Electricity and Magnetism. All these
topics form the basic foundation for Physics at secondary school level.

Meaning of Physics
Physics is defined as the study of matter and its relation to energy. The subject is
applied in explaining phenomena like eclipse, lightning, rainbow, mirage and
many other wonders of nature. Physics explains the how and why behind the:
• falling of bodies towards the ground.
• daily occurrence of tides in the sea.
• rising up of a liquid through a drinking straw.
• cracking sound produced when removing a nylon cloth from the body, and
many more.
• rapid technological developments in communication, transport, medicine,
among other disciplines.
Boeing 787, tablet, smart phone, I-pad and plasma TV.

Through the study of Physics, the various forms of energy available can be
harnessed for a more easily manageable and fulfilling life. Thus, a waterfall or a
hot spring is seen as a source of electrical energy. On the other hand, radio
waves and microwaves as a means of energy propagation, have been put into use
in the working of radio, television, satellites, computers and the telephone.
As a subject, the study of Physics involves measurement of quantities and
collection of data. Through experimentation and observations, hypotheses are
drawn, tested and consequently laws and principles established.

Branches of Physics
Physics as a study may be divided into the following key areas:

Mechanics
This involves the study of motion of bodies under the influence of forces. In
mechanics, the characteristics of linear, circular and oscillatory motion are
explained. The equilibria of forces of bodies and fluids at rest and when in
motion are also explored.

Electricity and Magnetism

This deals with the relationship between electric currents and magnetic fields
and their extensive applications in the working of the electric motor, magnetic
relay and telephone receiver, among others.

Thermodynamics
This is the study of transformation of heat to and from other forms of energy. A
major reference is made to gas behaviour in which thermal exchanges and the
accompanying changes of pressure and volume are explained in line with the
Kinetic Theory of Matter.

Geometrical Optics
Under this title, the behaviour of light as it traverses various media is studied.
Optical instruments such as telescopes, microscopes, periscopes and laws
governing their working form a major part of this branch of physics.

Waves
In this area, the propagation of energy through space is discussed. In addition,
effects such as reflection, refraction and diffraction of light and sound are
explained using the wave theory.

Atomic Physics
This involves the study of the behaviour of particles constituting the nucleus and
the accompanying energy changes. It is within this area that radioactivity,
nuclear fission and fusion are dealt with.

Relationship between Physics, other Subjects and Technology

Physics and Religion

Systems in the universe reveal great orderliness which can be traced back to the
creator. The study of Physics comes up with findings that are in total agreement
with this orderliness. The earth faithfully maintains its rotation so that the sun
will always rise from the East and never from the West. Among the many
wonders of creation in Physics is the anomalous expansion of water and its
implications on aquatic life.

Physics and History

Carbon dating, an application of radioactivity, serves as a crucial tool to
historians in establishing fossil ages and hence past patterns of life. Early
explorers like Vasco da Gama made use of the magnetic properties of lodestone
to determine direction.

Physics and Geography

Establishment of weather patterns relies on the accurate use of instruments like
the thermometer, wind-vane and hygrometer. Heat transfer by convection
explains the formation of convectional rainfall and pressure variations that
determine wind patterns. All these are concepts in Physics.

Physics and Home Science

Physics knowledge has been applied in the design and manufacture of domestic
equipment. Examples are pressure cookers, microwave ovens, refrigerators and
the energy saving jiko and light bulb.

Physics and Biology

Knowledge of lenses has helped in the making of the microscope which has
assisted in the study of the cell, the basic unit of life. Similarly, the knowledge of
levers helps to explain locomotion in Biology.

Physics and Chemistry

Physics has helped in explaining forces within atoms and therefore, atomic
structure. It is this structure of the atom that then determines the reactivity of the
atom as explained in Chemistry.

Physics and Mathematics

Physics relates strongly to Mathematics. Many concepts in Physics are expressed
mathematically. In manipulations involving extreme quantities like the mass of
the earth or the charge on an electron, a good grasp of mathematical skills is
essential.
Physics and Technology
In the field of medicine, X-rays, body scanners and lasers are applications of
Physics used in diagnosis and treatment of diseases. Even in the continuing
research necessitated by the challenge posed by such diseases as Ebola and
HIV/AIDS, the development of high precision equipment employing the
principles of Physics remains necessary.
Information technology has reduced the world to a global village through
the use of satellites and microwave dishes which relay information over
extremely long distances in fractions of a second.
The wide range of applications of Physics is used in industrial development
for the improvement of material well-being of the human race.
In the entertainment industry, Physics has contributed to the refinement of
sound and colour mixing techniques to create special effects in stage
presentations.
The defence industry has also become highly technological. Wars can now
be fought using laser-guided bombs of extremely high precision.
However, if technology is not used responsibly, it can lead to social and
environmental problems. Notable cases are the Chernobyl nuclear disaster in
Ukraine of 1986 and the Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bomb attacks during
the Second World War.

Career Opportunities in Physics

There is a wide range of opportunities involving Physics. The following is a list
of courses offered at university level that require sound knowledge of Physics:
1. Bachelor of Arts (Buiding Economics).
2. Bachelor of Science (Construction management).
3. Bachelor of Architecture.
4. Bachelor of Medicine.
5. Bachelor of Dental Surgery.
6. Bachelor of Pharmacy.
7. Bachelor of Science (Nursing).
8. Bachelor of Science (Environmental Health).
9. Bachelor of Science (Bio-medical Science Technology).
10. Bachelor of Education (Home Science and Technology).
11. Bachelor of
 Science (Agricultural Education).
12. Bachelor of Science (Agricultural and Home Economics).
13. Bachelor of Science (Animal Production).
14. Bachelor of Science (Dairy and Food Technology).
15. Bachelor of Science (Fisheries).
16. Bachelor of Science (Food Technology).
17. Bachelor of Science (Food Science and Technology).
18. Bachelor of Science (Horticulture).
19. Bachelor of Science (Natural Resources).
20. Bachelor of Science (Range Management).
21. Bachelor of Science (Tourism).
22. Bachelor of Science (Wildlife and Management).
23. Bachelor of Science (Wood Science Technology).
24. Bachelor of Veterinary Medicine.
25. Bachelor of Science (Hotel and Institution Management).
26. Bachelor of Science (Environmental Studies).
27. Bachelor of Science (Textiles Design and Merchandising).
28. Bachelor of Science (Applied Aquatic Science).
29. Bachelor of Science (Food Nutrition and Dietetics).
30. Bachelor of Education (Agriculture and Home Economics).
31. Bachelor of Science (Agricultural Engineering).
32. Bachelor of Science (Civil Engineering).
33. Bachelor of Science (Electrical Engineering).
34. Bachelor of Science (Surveying).
35. Bachelor of Science (Electrical and Electronic Engineering).
36. Bachelor of Science (Electrical and Communication Engineering).
37. Bachelor of Technology (Electrical and Communication Engineering).
38. Bachelor of Technology (Production Engineering).
39. Bachelor of Technology (Chemical and Process Engineering).
40. Bachelor of Technology (Civil and Structural Engineering).
41. Bachelor of Technology (Textile Engineering).
42. Bachelor of Science (Water and Environmental Engineering).
43. Bachelor of Science (Manufacturing and Engineering Technology).
44. Bachelor of Science (Instrumentation and Control Engineering).
45. Bachelor of Science (Computer Science).
46. Bachelor of Education (Technology).
47 Bachelor of Science (Computer Electronics, Science and Technology).
48. Bachelor of Home Economics (Food, Nutrition and Dietetics).
The above courses are also offered at diploma and certificate levels.

Basic Laboratory Rules

The laboratory is a facility designed and equipped for conducting scientific
research, experiments and measurements.
An average laboratory has electrical energy supply, water and gas piping
systems, workbenches and cabinets for storage of equipment and chemicals.
Some of the chemicals and equipment are particularly dangerous. An individual
working in a typical laboratory will be exposed to a number of dangers including
poisons, flammable materials, explosive materials, extreme temperature, moving
machinery and high voltage electricity. The following precautions must,
therefore, be taken when working in the laboratory:
(i) Proper dressing must be put on. Shirts and blouses must be tucked in and
long hair tied up. Closed shoes must be worn. This is to avoid loose
clothing or body parts such as hair getting accidentally tangled up in
moving machinery. In addition, safety glasses or face shields must be worn
when working with hazardous or poisonous materials. Shorts and sandals
must never be worn in the laboratory, and lab coats, if in use should always
be buttoned.
(ii) The locations of electricity switches, fire-fighting equipment, First Aid kit,
gas supply and water supply systems must be noted. These will be
extremely useful in case of any emergency within the laboratory. Access to
all these facilities must remain unobstructed, this includes emergency
showers and eye washes, where these are available in the laboratory.
(iii) While working in the laboratory, windows and doors should be kept open.
This is to prevent inhalation of dangerous materials or gases and also to
allow for easy escape/evacuation in case of an emergency. Similarly,
corridors or pathways within the laboratory should not be used as working
or storage areas.
(iv) Any instructions given must be followed carefully. Never attempt anything
while in doubt. In case of any doubt or queries, consult your teacher or the
 laboratory assistant. Additionally, if any equipment fails to function, this
should be reported immediately to the teacher or the laboratory technician.
Never try to fix a problem on your own as this could cause a serious
accident or damage to the equipment
(v) Never taste, eat or drink anything in the laboratory. Food should also never
be stored in the laboratory. This is to avoid the risk of consuming
dangerous or poisonous materials or substances. Related to this, never
pipette anything by mouth (a bulb should be used instead). Smelling of
gases is also highly discouraged.
(vi) Ensure that all electrical switches, gas and water taps are turned off when
not in use. This is to avoid wastage in addition to averting the risk of fire or
other hazards.
(vii) When handling electrical apparatus, hands must be dry. Do not splash
water where electrical sockets are located. Water to some extent is an
electrical conductor and when in contact with exposed power cables, can
cause severe electric shock.
(viii) Never plug foreign objects into electrical sockets. Apart from damaging the
socket, this can also cause an electric shock.
(ix) Keep floors and working surfaces dry. Any spillage should be wiped off
immediately. Liquid on the floor surface can cause skidding, resulting in
serious injuries. Some corrosive liquids will damage the floor or working
surfaces.
(x) All apparatus must be cleaned and returned to the correct location of
storage after use. This facilitates easy re-use of the apparatus, apart from
ensuring good order in the laboratory.
(xi) Laboratory equipment should not be taken out of the lab. This is to
minimise the risk of damage to the equipment, or even loss.
(xii) Any waste after an experiment must be disposed of appropriately. This is
because waste from certain experiments can be quite hazardous to the body
and to the environment.
(xiii) Hands must be washed before leaving the laboratory.
Experiments should never be left unattended. Similarly, the bunsen burner
should be adjusted to give a luminous flame, or turned off, when not in use.
Never should an open flame be left unattended. This is to minimise the risk
of fire or other serious accidents.
Volatile and flammable compounds should only be used in the fume
 cupboard. The same applies to procedures that should result in hazardous
fumes or any inhalable material.
One should never look directly down into the liquid being heated in a test-
tube. The tube should also not be pointed towards anyone nearby.
Corrosive chemicals should be kept separately. This is to prevent damage
to other laboratory appliances especially the metallic type.

First Aid Measures

Accidents or emergencies are prone to occur any time and it is, therefore, the
user’s responsibility to be conversant with the safety and fire alarm posters
strategically positioned within the laboratory premises. These must be followed
strictly during an emergency. The locations of vital emergency equipment such
as fire extinguisher must be known and easily accessible to all, and users must
be continually reminded of building evacuation procedures.
In case of injuries in the laboratory, the teacher in charge or the laboratory
technician must be immediately informed and necessary action taken without
delay. Common laboratory injuries include burns, cuts and bruises (sometimes
resulting in bleeding), poisoning and foreign matter in the eyes. These cases
should be handled in the following way. (Those offering first aid should ensure
they are in the first place safe from the danger).

Cuts
These may result from poor handling of glass apparatus or cutting tools like
razors and scalpels.
In case the cut results in bleeding, pressure or direct compression should be
applied directly to the wound and proper dressing applied as medical assistance
is sought.

Burns
Burns may result from naked flames or even splashes of concentrated acids and
bases.
Burns should generally be treated by flushing cold water over the affected
area. Acid burns could alternatively be treated with sodium hydrogen carbonate
(baking soda), and base burns with boric acid or vinegar.

Poisoning
This may result from inhaling poisonous fumes or swallowing of poisonous
chemicals or materials. In case this happens, the poisoning agent should be noted
while urgent medical assistance is sought. For a poison ingested through the
mouth, the recommended antidote should be given to the victim, and vomiting
should not be induced unless recommended by a medical practitioner.
If the poison is in form of a gas, the first step should be to remove the
victim from the area and take him/her to an area with fresher air. If the poison is
corrosive to the skin, the victim’s clothing should be removed from the affected
area, and cold water run over the area for at least 30 minutes. If the poison gets
to the eye, the same should be flushed with clean water for at least 15 minutes,
and the patient advised not to rub the eyes.

Electric Shock
This may result from touching exposed wires or using faulty electrical
appliances.
Without getting in contact with the victim, the first thing to do is to cut off the
current causing the shock by:
(i) Turning off the current at the main switch, or,
(ii) Using a non-conducting object, such as wooden rod, to move the victim
away from the conductor.
In the meantime, urgently seek medical assistance. If the victim has a pulse but
is not breathing, offer mouth to mouth resuscitation as you await assistance.
If for some reason a laboratory user faints or loses consciousness, he/she should
be promptly and gently moved to an area with fresh air and placed in a recovery
position (with the head slightly lower than the rest of the body). If necessary,
mouth to mouth resuscitation should be offered.
 Measurement (I)
Up to 1960, scientists were using different units of measurement depending on
the immediate environment. Some of the common units were the inch (2.54 cm),
the mile (1.61 km), acre (0.41 Ha), pint (0.57 litres), gallon (4.55 litres), pound
(0.45 kg) and tonne (1 000 kg). Others used grams, centimetres and seconds.
There was need to harmonise the units of measurement. The metric system is a
decimalised system expressing quantities in larger or smaller multiples of the
unit, e.g, milligramme/grammes/kilogrammes or millimetre/centimetre/metre.
Consenquently, scientists agreed on one international system of units to be used,
the Systeme Internationale d’Unites (International System of Units), shortened to
SI units, in all languages. This system has seven basic physical quantities and
units as shown in table 2.1.
Table 2.1: The seven basic physical quantities and units

Basic physical quantity SI unit Symbol of units

Length Metre m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Electric current Ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin K
Luminous intensity Candela Cd
Amount of substance Mole mol

These quantities cannot be obtained from any other physical quantities. On the
other hand, there are quantities obtained by multiplication or division of basic
physical quantities. These are called derived quantities, for example, area,
volume and density. This chapter will deal with the measurements of length,
mass, time and their derived physical quantities.

Length
Length is a measure of distance between two points. Breadth, width, height,
radius, depth and diameter are all lengths.
The SI unit of length is the metre (m). One metre is the distance between two
marks on a standard platinum-iridium bar kept at a constant temperature of 0ºC.
The bar is kept at Sevres, near Paris, France.
Table 2.2 shows the multiples and sub-multiples of the metre.
Table 2.2: Multiples and sub-multiples of the metre

Unit Symbol Equivalence in metres

Kilometre km 1 000
Hectometre Hm 100
Dekametre Dm 10
Decimetre dm 0.1
Centimetre cm 0.01
Millimetre mm 0.001
Micrometre m 0.000001

Measurement of Length
Length can be determined by estimation or accurately by using a measuring
instrument. There are various instruments for measuring length. The choice of
the instrument is determined by the level of the accuracy desired and the size of
the object to be measured.
Some instruments used to measure length are meter rule and tape-measure.

Metre Rules
For day-to-day work in Physics, metre rules and half-metre rules are used. They
are graduated in centimetres and millimetres.
The following procedure should always be followed when using a metre
rule:
(i) Place the metre rule in contact with the object.
(ii) Place the end of the object against the zero mark on the scale.
(iii) Position your eye perpendicularly above the scale, as shown in figure 2.1
(a).
Fig. 2.1: (a) Accurate use of a meter rule

Fig. 2.1: (b) Inaccurate positioning of the eye

Figure 2.2 shows other ways of inaccurate use of the metre rule. In figure 2.2 (a),
arrangement will not give a fair result because, the rule is not in contact with the
object. While in (b) the object is not aligned to the zero mark on the scale.

Fig. 2.2: (a) Rule not in contact

(b) Rule not aligned

Figure 2.2 shows the inaccurate use of the rule. The arrangement will not give an
accurate result because:
(i) the rule is not in contact with the object.
(ii) the object is not aligned with the zero mark on the scale.
(iii) the position of the eye is not perpendicular to the scale.
Note that when the eye is not perpendicular to the scale, there is an error
due to parallax.

Reading a metre rule

Consider the reading shown by the arrow in figure 2.3 (rule not to scale).
The reading is more than 1.6 cm but less than 1.7 cm. The second decimal
place is approximated. It is 1.67 cm. It could even be 1.66 cm.

Fig: 2.3: The reading on a metre rule

The second decimal place cannot be accurately determined. However, it is

important to note that the readings from a metre rule may be written up to the
second decimal place of a centimetre.
A reading like 3.675 cm cannot be taken by a metre rule. However, if the
readings 5.6 cm and 6 cm are taken with a metre rule, then they should be
written as 5.60 cm and 6.00 cm respectively.

Example 1
What are the readings indicated by arrows P1, P2 and P3 on the metre rule in
figure 2.4? (Diagram not to scale)
Fig 2.4

Solution
P1 = 69.50 cm
P2 = 71.00 cm
P3 = 71.50 cm

Exercise 2.1
1. What are the readings indicated by the arrows in the figures (a) to (c) below?
(Diagrams not to scale)

Care should be taken to avoid damage to the ends of metre rules as most of them
do not have the short ungraduated portion at the ends to cater for wear.

Tape-Measure
There are several types of tape-measures, for example, tailor’s, carpenter’s and
surveyor’s types. The choice of a tape-measure is determined by the nature of
the distance to be measured. For example, to measure the length and breadth of a
plot of land, or the distance covered by a discus or javelin throw, a surveyor’s
tape-measure would be the most convenient.
Always ensure that the tape-measure is taut when measuring.

Measurement of Curved Length

Curved lengths such as roads and railway lines on a map or dimensions of some
containers can be measured using a thread. The thread is placed along the
required lengths and the length is then found by placing the thread on a
millimetre scale. For curved surfaces such as a cylinder, a thread is closely
wrapped around the surface a number of times.
Experiment 2.1: To measure the circumference of a cylinder using a thread
Apparatus
A cylinder, a thread, a metre rule.

Fig. 2.5: Estimating the circumference of a cylinder

Procedure
• Closely wrap a thin thread 10 times around a cylinder, as shown in figure 2.5.
• Mark with ink the beginning and end of the turns.
• Remove the thread.
• Measure the length between the ink marks and call it a1.
Repeat three times recording the readings as a2 and a3 to ensure accuracy of
your measurement. Find the average length a:

Divide the average length by 10 to find the length of one turn. This gives the
circumference of the cylinder. Thus;
Circumference of the cylinder
Note:
The diameter of the cylinder is obtained by using the formula;
Circumference = πD (where D is the diameter)

But D = 2r, where r is the radius.

Other instruments for measuring length, like the micrometer screw gauge and the
vernier callipers will be dealt with at a later stage.

Estimation of Length
One may wish to know which of the several objects is the largest. This could be
established by comparing the sizes of the objects directly. At times, it is better to
compare them with that of a chosen basic length called a standard length.
The following activities will make the estimation of sizes of various objects
such as the height of a tree, flagpost or the length of a rope possible by
comparing with standard lengths.
Experiment 2.2: To estimate the height of a tree
Apparatus
A rod about 2 m long, a tape-measure.
Procedure
• Hold the rod upright and measure its length using the tape-measure.
• Measure the length of its shadow, see figure 2.6 (a).
• Measure the length of the shadow of a tree in the school compound as in
figure 2.6 (b).
(a) A rod and its shadow

(b) A tree and its shadow

Fig. 2.6: Estimation of height using shadow

Results
The height of the tree is estimated from the relation:

Consider a certain experiment in which the following measurements were

recorded:
Height of the rod = 180 cm
Length of the shadow of the rod = 116 cm
Length of the shadow of the tree = 840 cm
Height of the tree would be given by;
Height of tree =

Therefore, the height of the tree is approximately 13 m.

Experiment 2.3: To compare the lengths of ropes
Apparatus
Three pieces of rope and a metre rule.

Fig. 2.7: Comparing lengths

Figure 2.7 (a), (b) and (c) shows three pieces of rope. Look at them closely.
Which of the ropes appears longest?
One way of finding out which rope is longest is to stretch them out from the
same point and adjacent to one another. Try this and state which of the ropes is
the longest. Which one is shortest?

Example 2
Atieno found that the width of her desk was approximately 10 palm-lengths. If
her palm was 15.0 cm long, what was the width of her desk in centimetres?
Solution
1 palm-length is 15.0 cm long.
Therefore, 10 palm-lengths
= (15.0 × 10) cm
= 150.0 cm
Hence, width of her desk was approximately 150.0 cm.

Exercise 2.2
1. Charo found that the perimeter of his farming plot was approximately 200
strides. His stride was 0.9 m long. What was the perimeter of the plot?
2. Use the method in Experiment 2.2 to estimate the height of a flag post and a
goal post in your school.
3. Estimate the width of your desk, classroom door and the classroom by
counting how many of your palm-lengths or foot-lengths and strides there
are in each length.
4. Suggest a method you can use to estimate the width of a page of your book.
(text-book or notebook).
5. Devise a method that should be used to estimate the thickness of a razor
blade.
6. How would you measure the length of the curve of an athletics field?

Area
Area is the quantity that expresses the extent of a given surface on a plane. It is a
derived quantity of length. The SI unit of area is the square metre, written as m2.
It can also be measured in multiples and sub-multiples of m2, for example, cm2
and km2.
The following examples show the conversion of units of area.

Example 3
Express each of the following in cm2:
(a) 7.5 m2
(b) 4.2 m2
(c) 0.09 m2
(d) 0.0000007 km2
Solution
(a) 1 m = 100 cm
1 m2 = 1 m × 1m
= 100 cm × 100 cm
= 10 000 cm2
7.5 × 10 000 cm2 = 75 000 cm2
(b) 4.2 m2 = 4.2 × 100 × 100 cm2
= 42 000 cm2
(c) 0.09 m2 = 0.09 × 100 × 100 cm2
= 900 cm2
(d) 0.0000007 km2 = 0.0000007 × 1 000 × 1 000 × 100 × 100 cm2
= 7 000 cm2
Example 4
Express the following areas in m2:
(a) 9 000 cm2
(b) 0.05 cm2
Solution

Measurement of Area
Area of regularly-shaped objects
The area of regularly-shaped surfaces such as rectangles, triangles and circles
can be obtained by applying appropriate formulae.
Table 2.3 shows some regular shapes and their corresponding formulae for area.
Table 2.3: Shapes and their areas

Shape Area

Area of irregularly-shaped surfaces

An estimate of the area of an irregular shape can be made by dividing it up into
squares, each of area 1 cm2.
Figure 2.8 shows an irregular shape drawn on a squared paper. By counting
the number of small squares, the area can be estimated.

Example 5
Estimate the area of the irregular surface shown in figure 2.8 by counting the
small squares.
Solution
The number of complete squares = 39
Number of incomplete squares = 30
These are equal to = 15 complete squares

Therefore, the number of complete squares = 39 + 15 = 54

Hence, the estimated area of the surface
= 54 × 1 cm2
= 54 cm2

Fig. 2.8: Estimating area of irregular shapes

Exercise 2.3
1. Determine the area of each of the following:
(a) The floor of your classroom.
(b) The walls of your classroom.
(c) The top of your desk.
2. (a) Calculate the area of a circle of radius 7.0 cm.
(b) Calculate:
 (i) the area of the triangle shown in the figure below:

(ii) the area of the trapezium below:

(iii) the area of the figure below:

3. Trace an outline of your palm and foot on a graph paper and estimate the
area of each shape obtained.
4. Trace the shape of a leaf on a graph paper and estimate its area.
5. The diameter of the bore of capillary tube is 1.0 mm. Calculate the cross-
section area of the bore in cm2.
 (Take π = 3.142)
6. A sheet of paper measures 25 cm by 15 cm. Calculate its area in mm2.

Volume
Volume is the amount of space occupied by matter.
The SI unit of volume is cubic metre (m3). However, sub-multiples of m3,
for example, cm3 and mm3, are commonly used since the m3 is very large.
1 m3 = 1 m × 1 m × 1 m
= 100 cm × 100 cm × 100 cm
= 1 000 000 cm3
Other units like litres (l) and millilitres (ml) are also used.
1 ml = 1 cm3
1 000 ml = 1 litre
1 m3 = 1 000 000 cm3

Example 6
Express each of the following volumes in cm3:
(a) 27 mm3
(b) 0.0005 m3
Solution
Example 7
Express each of the following volumes in m3 .
(a) 9 000 cm3
(b) 27 cm3

Solution

Volume of Regularly-Shaped Solids

The volume of regularly-shaped solids can be obtained by applying the
appropriate formula. Table 2.4 shows some regular objects and their
corresponding formulae for volume.
Table 2.4: Regular objects and their volumes

Object Volume (V)

Example 8
A block of glass is 5.0 cm long, 4.0 cm thick and 2.5 cm high. Calculate its
volume.
Solution
Volume of the glass block = area of cross-section × height
= 5.0 × 4.0 × 2.5
= 50.0 cm3

Example 9
Find the volume of cylindrical tin of radius 7.0 cm and height 3.0 cm.
Solution
Volume of the tin = area of cross-section × height
Example 10
Find the volume of a triangular prism shown in table 2.4 if b = 6.0 cm, h = 5.0
cm and l = 12.0 cm.
Solution
Volume = area of cross-section × height

Example 11
Find the volume of a sphere whose radius is 3.0 cm.
Solution

Example 12
A sphere of diameter 6.0 cm is moulded into a thin uniform wire of diameter 0.2
mm. Calculate the length of the wire in

Solution
The volume of the sphere and the wire are equal.
Example 13
The volume of mercury thread in a capillary tube is 1 cm3. If the length of the
mercury thread is 1 m, calculate the radius of the bore of the capillary tube.

Solution
Volume of mercury = πr2h
Exercise 2.4
1. Determine the volumes of the following items:
(a) A glass block from your laboratory.
(b) A triangular prism from your laboratory.
(c) The volume of a football or a netball.
(d) The volume of a cylindrical tin in your school.
2. (a) Obtain some plasticine and mould it to form a sphere. Find the radius of
the sphere and calculate its volume.
(b) Mould the same plasticine into a cylinder. Determine the volume of the
cylinder.
(c) Comment on the answers you obtain in (a) and (b) above.

Measurement of Volume of Liquids

Liquids have no definite shape, but assume the shape of the containers in which
they are put.
One of the methods which can be used to measure the volume of a liquid is
to pour the liquid into a container with a uniform cross-section, as shown in
figure 2.9.

Fig. 2.9: A container with a regular base

The height of the liquid, h, is measured. The volume of the liquid is then
obtained by applying the formula;
V = area of cross-section × height
V = Ah, where A = l × b and h is the height.
Therefore, V = l bh
Experiment 2.4: To investigate the relationship between volume and height
Apparatus
Rectangular container and a cylinder.

Fig. 2.10: Relationship between volume and height

Procedure
• Take two containers P and Q with rectangular base and cylindrical base
respectively. Container Q is calibrated, see figure 2.10 (a) and (b).
• Pour some water into P and find its volume V.
• Transfer the water from P to Q and record the height h of water in Q.
• Repeat the experiment for different values of volume V, and each time record
the corresponding value of h as in table 2.5.
Table 2.5

Draw a graph of V against h.

Results and conclusion
The graph of V against h is a straight line, indicating that height increases
uniformly with the increase in volume V.
In practice, it is convenient to make measuring vessels in cylindrical form,
marked in such a way that volumes can be read off directly.
Measuring devices which are marked off like this are called measuring
cylinders. They are used to measure the volumes of liquids.
Measuring cylinders are made of glass or transparent plastic and graduated
in cm3 or ml. Measuring flasks, pipettes, burettes and beakers [figure 2.11 (a),
(b), (c), (d) and (e)] can also be used to measure volumes of liquids. Measuring
flasks and pipettes are used to transfer known volumes of liquids. The burette
delivers volumes of up to 50 cm3.

Fig. 2.11: Instruments for measuring volumes of liquids

Note:
(i) The scale of the burette begins from zero at the top and increases
 downwards to the maximum value. For example, a reading of 31.0 ml on
the burette means that the volume of the liquid poured from the burette is
31.0 ml and the volume left in the burette is (50 – 31) ml, i.e., 19.0 ml.
(ii) While using the measuring vessels shown in figure 2.11, the reading of
volume is taken with the eye positioned level with the bottom of the
meniscus, see figure 2.12. In the figure, the volume of the liquid is 24.0
cm3.

Fig. 2.12: Reading the measuring cylinder

Measuring the Volume of an Irregularly-Shaped Solid

Volumes of irregular solids are measured using the displacement method. The
method works with solids that are not soluble in water, do not absorb water, do
not react with water or sink in water.
Experiment 2.5: To determine the volume of an irregularly-shaped object
(a) Using a measuring cylinder
Apparatus
Measuring cylinder, stone, thread and Eureka can.
Fig. 2.13: Volume of irregular shapes

Procedure
• Partly fill a measuring cylinder with water. Note the volume V1 of the water,
see figure 2.13 (a).
• Tie a stone (that can be fitted into the measuring cylinder) with a thread and
lower it gently into the cylinder until it is wholly submerged. Ensure that
there are no air bubbles surrounding the stone.
• Record the new volume V2.
Result
The volume of the stone
V = V2 – V1.
(b) Using a Eureka can
A Eureka or displacement can is a container with a spout from the side. It
is used to measure volumes by displacement method. It is also known as an
overflow can.

Fig. 2.14: Use of Eureka can for measuring volume

Procedure
• Fill the Eureka can with water until it flows out of the spout, see figure 2.14
(a). Once the flow has stopped, place a measuring cylinder under the spout of
the can.
• Tie the solid whose volume you want to determine with a thread and lower it
gently into the can until it is completely submerged.
Result
 The volume of water collected in the measuring cylinder is the volume of the
object.
Experiment 2.6: To determine the volume of an object that floats on water
using the displacement can
Apparatus
Eureka can, measuring cylinder, floating object and a sinker (small metal block).
When finding the volume of an object that floats on water, e.g., a cork,
another object that sinks in water is attached to it so that both are totally
submerged. This object is known as a sinker.
• Fill the Eureka can with water and allow excess water to flow out through the
spout, see figure 2.15 (a).
• After it has ceased to flow, place a measuring cylinder under the spout.
• Lower the sinker, tied with a thread, gently into the can.
• Measure the volume V1 of the water that overflows into the measuring
cylinder.
• Remove the sinker and tie it to the cork, see figure 2.15 (b).
Fig. 2.15: Volume of an object that floats on water

• Fill the Eureka can again and allow excess water to flow out.
• When water ceases to flow from the spout, place a clean dry measuring
cylinder under the spout.
• Lower the sinker and cork tied together into the Eureka can gently.
• Measure the volume V2 that overflows into the measuring cylinder.
Results
The water collected in the measuring cylinder is the volume of sinker and cork.
Call it V2.
Therefore, the volume of the cork
V = V2 – V1.

Exercise 2.5
1. Describe how you would measure the volume of a cork using a sinker, a
thread, a measuring cylinder and water only.
2. Describe how you would calibrate the cylinder Q in figure 2.10.
3. Describe how you would measure 30 cm3 of a liquid using a burette.
4. Explain why displacement method is unsuitable for determining the volume
of solids such as charcoal, ice, wooden blocks and bricks.
5. A wire of radius 3.0 mm and length 200 m is melted into a sphere. Calculate
the radius of the sphere in metres.
6. A sphere of radius 10.0 cm is moulded into a uniform cylindrical wire of
same radius r. Calculate the length of the wire in millimetres.
7. Convert each of the following volumes to m3:
(a) 1 500 000 000 cm3
(b) 20.0 l
(c) 1.0 ml
(d) 9 000 000 000 mm3
(e) 1 000 000 l

Mass
The mass of an object is the quantity of matter in it. Matter is anything that
occupies space. The mass of an object depends on its size and the number of
particles it contains.
The SI unit of mass is the kilogram (symbol kg). A kilogram is the mass of
a piece of metal (platinum-iridium) kept at Sevres, near Paris, in France at the
International Office of Weights and Measurements.
The commonly used sub-multiples and multiples of the kilogram are given in the
table below.
Table 2.6: Multiples and sub-multiples of the kilogram

Unit Symbol Equivalence in kilogram

 1 tonne t 1 000
1 gram g 0.001
1 milligram mg 0.000001

The mass of an object is the same everywhere because the number of particles in
an object remains constant. An object will have the same mass on the earth as on
the moon. For example, an astronaut who has a mass of 90 kg on earth will have
the same mass on the moon.

Measurement of Mass
There are two common balances for measuring mass, namely, the electrical and
the mechanical types.
Figure 2.16 (a) shows the top pan balance (electrical type). The object
whose mass is to be measured is placed on the pan. The mass of the object is
read on the display. This type of a balance is very accurate.
Fig. 2.16: Types of balances

Figure 2.16 (b) shows a simple form of a beam balance (mechanical type).
The object whose mass is to be measured is balanced against a known standard
mass on an equal arm lever as shown. The beam balances when the mass of the
object is equal to the known standard mass.
Figure 2.16 (c) shows a lever balance in which a combination of levers
moves the pointer around a scale when the mass is placed on the pan.

Exercise 2.6
1. Define mass and state its SI unit.
2. Convert each of the following as indicated:
(a) 10 tonnes into kg.
(b) 200 000 mg into kg.
(c) 256 000 g into tonnes.
(d) 0.000342 tonne into mg.
(e) 1.25 g into mg.

Density
The density of a substance is its mass per unit volume. Its symbol is rho(ρ) and
its SI unit is kilogram per cubic metre (kgm–3).
Another commonly used unit is gram per cubic centimetre (gcm–3). From
the definition, the density of a substance is given by;

Example 14
The density of water is 1 gcm–3. Express this density in kgm–3.
Solution

Example 15
The density of a material is 22.5 gcm–3. Express this in SI units.
Solution
1 gcm–3 = 1 000 kgm–3
22.5 gcm–3 = 22.5 × 1 000 kgm–3

= 22 500 kgm–3

Example 16
A block of glass of mass 187.5 g is 5.0 cm long, 2.0 cm thick and 7.5 cm high.
Calculate the density of the glass in kgm–3.
Solution

Example 17
The density of mercury is 13.6 gcm–3. Find the volume of 2 720 g of mercury in
m3.
Solution
Example 18
The mass of 25 cm3 of ivory was found to be 0.045 kg. Calculate the density of
ivory (in SI units) giving your answer in Kg/m3.
Solution

Example 19
The density of concentrated sulphuric acid is 1.8 gcm–3. Calculate the volume of
3.1 kg of the acid.
Solution
Density = 1.8 gcm–3
Mass = 3 100 g

Measurement of Density

To Measure the Density of a Solid

The mass and the volume of the object is found by the method described above.
The density of the object is then calculated from the formula:

Table 2.7: Densities of some common substances

 Substance Density

gcm–3 kgm–3
Platinum 21.4 21 400
Gold 19.3 19 300
Lead 11.3 11 300
Silver 10.5 10 500
Copper 8.93 8 930
Iron 7.86 7 860
Aluminium 2.7 2 700
Glass 2.5 2 500
Ice 0.92 920
Mercury 13.6 13 600
Sea water 1.03 1 030
Water 1.0 1 000
Kerosene 0.80 800
Alcohol 0.79 790
Carbon dioxide 0.00197 1.97
Air 0.00131 1.31
Hydrogen 0.000089 0.089

Experiment 2.7: To find the density of a liquid

Apparatus
Clean dry beaker, balance, measuring cylinder, a burette or a pipette.
Procedure
• Find the mass m1 of a clean dry beaker using a balance.
• Measure a known volume V of the liquid using either a measuring cylinder, a
burette or a pipette.
• Transfer the liquid into the beaker.
• Find the mass m2 of the beaker with the liquid.
Result
Mass of the liquid = m2 – m1
Example 20
A rectangular tank measures 12.5 m long, 10.0 m wide and 2.0 m high. Calculate
the mass of water in the tank when it is full. Density of water is 1 000 kgm–3.
(Assume the measurements are internal)
Solution
Volume of water in tank = 12.5×10×2
= 250 m3
Mass = density × volume
= 1 000 × 250
= 250 000 kg

Density Bottle
A density bottle is a small glass bottle fitted with glass stopper which has a hole
through which excess liquid can flow out.
Normally, the density bottle has its capacity indicated on the side.

Fig. 2.17: A density bottle

Experiment 2.8: To find the density of a liquid using a density bottle

Measure the mass m1 of a clean dry density bottle with its stopper.
Fill the bottle with liquid and replace the stopper. Dry the bottle on the outside
(excess liquid overflows through the hole in the stopper).
Measure the mass m2 of the bottle plus the liquid.
If the capacity of the bottle is V, then;
Precautions
(i) The bottle is held by the neck when wiping it dry. This is because when
held in the hands, it may expand due to body warmth.
(ii) The outside of the bottle must be wiped carefully.
(iii) It must be ensured that there are no air bubbles when the bottle is filled
with liquid.
Experiment 2.9: To measure the density of a solid using a density bottle
This method is used for solids in form of grains, beads or turnings.
Apparatus
Density bottle and lead shot, beam balance.
Procedure
• Measure the mass m1 of a clean dry empty density bottle, see figure 2.18 (a).
• Fill the bottle partly with lead shot and measure the mass m2.
• Fill up the bottle with water up to the neck and measure its mass m3, see
figure 2.18 (c).
• Empty the bottle and rinse it.
• Fill it with water and replace the stopper. Wipe the outside dry and measure
the mass m4 of the bottle filled with water, see figure 2.18 (d).
Fig. 2.18: Use of density bottle

Results
Mass of water = (m4 – m1) g
Volume of water = m4 – m1 (since density of water is 1 gcm–3)
Therefore, volume of bottle
= (m4 – m1) cm3
Mass of lead shot = (m2 –m1) g
Mass of water present when bottle is filled with lead shot and water = (m3 – m2)
g
Volume of water = (m3 – m2) cm3
Volume of lead shot
= (m4 – m1) – (m3 – m2)
Therefore, density of lead shot
It should be noted that this method is unsuitable for solids which are either
soluble in water or react with it.

Example 21
The mass of a density bottle is 20 g when empty and 45 g when full of water.
When full of mercury, its mass is 360 g. Calculate the density of mercury.
Solution
Mass of water = 45 – 20
= 25 g
Volume of water = 25 cm3 (density of water is 1 gcm–3)
Therefore, volume of bottle = 25 cm3
Mass of mercury = 360 – 20
= 340 g
Volume of mercury = 25cm3 (volume of the density bottle)

= 13.6 gcm–3
= 13 600 kgm–3

Example 22
The mass of an empty density bottle is 20 g. Its mass when filled with water is
40.0 g and 50.0 g when filled with liquid X. Calculate the density of liquid X if
the density of water is 1 000 kgm–3.
Solution
Densities of Mixtures
A mixture is obtained by putting together two or more substances such that they
do not react with one another. The density of the mixture lies between the
densities of its constituent substances and depends on their proportions. It is
assumed that the volume of the mixture is equal to the sum of the volumes of the
individual constituents.
Density of the mixture

Example 23
100 cm3 of fresh water of density 1 000 kgm–3 is mixed with 100 cm3 of sea
water of density 1 030 kgm–3. Calculate the density of the mixture.
Solution
Mass of fresh water = density × volume
Mass of sea water

Mass of the mixture = mass of fresh water + mass of sea water

= (0.1 + 0.103) kg
= 0.203 kg
Volume of mixture = volume of fresh water + volume of sea water
= 100 cm3 + 100 cm3
= 200 cm3

Therefore, density of mixture

Example 24
Bronze is made by mixing molten copper and tin. If 100 kg of the mixture
contains 80% by mass of copper and 20% by mass of tin, calculate the density of
bronze. (Density of copper is 8 900 kgm–3 and density of tin 7 000 kgm–3)
Solution
Exercise 2.7
1. Explain how you would determine the density of solid common salt.
2. Fill the following table:
3. A density bottle has a mass of 17.5 g when empty. When full of water, its
mass is 37.5 g. When full of liquid X, its mass is 35 g. If the density of water
is 1 000 kgm–3, find the density of liquid X.
4. Describe the experiment to find the density of air.

Time
Time is a measure of duration of an event. Some ancient time-measuring
instruments were the sundial and the hourglass.
In modern measurement of time, it has been found necessary to obtain
reference of time from an atomic clock.
The SI unit to time is second(s). Multiple and sub-multiple units of the
second are shown in table 2.8.
Table 2.8: Multiple and sub-multiple units of the second

Time Symbol Equivalent Seconds

Microsecond μs 0.000001
Millisecond ms 0.001
Minute min 60
Hour hr 3 600
Day day 86 400
Week wk 604 800

Measurement of Time
In laboratories, intervals of time are measured using either a stopwatch or stop-
clock, depending on the accuracy required.
 Modern stopwatches are digital. They are preferred due to their ease of
handling and reading. Stop-clocks are used when high precision is not required.

Fig. 2.18: Digital stopwatch

Activity
Time some activities in your school using a stopwatch and stop-clock.

Revision Exercise 2
1. Outline how you would measure the circumference of a beaker and test-tube
using a thread.
2. Describe how you would measure the diameter of a tennis ball.
3. Define mass and show how it can be measured.
4. The mass of a lump of gold remains constant wherever it may be shifted to.
Explain.
5. A length 550 cm of thin thread wraps around a cylinder exactly 25 times.
Calculate the circumference and the radius of the cylinder.

6. The water level in a burette is 30 cm3. If 55 drops of water fall from the
burette and the average volume of one drop is 0.12 cm3, what is the final
water level in the burette?
7. Convert the following:
(a) 1 000 kg into g.
(b) 1 000 000 m into km.
(c) 0.0000037 kg to mg.
(d) 0.00000125 m to mm.
8. If a ream of 500 papers weighs 2.5 kg, find the mass of single sheet in:
(a) kg.
(b) mg.
9. Water has a density of 1 000 kgm–3. What does this mean? What is its
density in gcm–3?
10. In finding the density of liquid, why is the method of using a density bottle
more accurate than the one of using a measuring cylinder?
11. What mass of lead has the same volume as 1 600 kg of alcohol? (Use the
values of densities given in table 2.7)
12. An empty density bottle has a mass of 25 g. Its mass is 50 g when full of
water and 45 g when full of another liquid. What is the density of the liquid
in kgm–3?
13. Describe an experiment to find the density of copper turnings using a density
bottle and kerosene.
14. The mass of a density bottle is 20.0 g when empty, 70.0 g when full of water
and 55.0 g when full of a second liquid. Calculate the density of the liquid.
15. The mass of a density bottle of volume 50 cm3 is 10.0 g when empty.
Aluminium turnings are poured into the bottle and the total mass is 60.0 g.
Water is then added into the turnings till the bottle is full. If the total mass of
the bottle and its contents is 90.0 g, calculate the density of the aluminium
turnings.
16. 1 800 cm3 of fresh water of density 1000 kgm–3 is mixed with 2 200 kgm–3
of sea water of density 1 025 kgm–3. Calculate the density of the mixture.
 Force
You may have observed a person kicking a ball in the field or a group of people
participating in a tug of war. You may also have seen a mason lifting a stone at a
construction site or people pushing a car stuck in mud. These activities, some of
which are shown in figure 3.1, involve either pushing or pulling.

Fig. 3.1: Pull and push

A force is a push or pull. The SI unit of force is the newton (N). A force acts in a
particular direction and may have any of the following effects on an object:
(i) Make a stationary object start moving or increase the speed of a moving
object.
(ii) Slow down or stop a moving object.
(iii) Change the direction of a moving object.
(iv) Distort (change the shape of) an object.
Force is, therefore, that which changes a body’s state of motion or shape. Some
forces are small while others are large. Forces, therefore, have size (magnitude).
A force is represented by a line with an arrow showing the direction in which it
acts, thus:

Types of Forces
There are many types of forces some of which are listed below:
• Gravitational force.
• Tension.
• Upthrust force.
• Frictional force.
• Magnetic force.
• Centripetal force.
• Cohesive and adhesive forces.
• Surface tension.
• Molecular force.
• Electric force.
• Nuclear force.
• Electrostatic force.

Gravitational Force
This is the force of attraction between two bodies of given masses (m1 and m2),
see figure 3.2.
Fig. 3.2: Force of attraction between two bodies

When two objects are thrown up from or near the earth’s surface, they always
fall downwards towards the ground. This is because of the force of attraction
which the earth exerts on any body near its surface. This force which pulls the
body towards the centre of the earth is called the gravitational force of the
earth.
An object near or on the surface of the moon also experiences the
gravitational force of the moon. Each planet exerts its own gravitational pull on
an object on it.
On the earth’s surface, gravitational force is the force of attraction between
a body and the earth. The pull of gravity on the body towards the centre of the
earth is called weight. The weight of an object varies on different planets
because planets have different gravitational pull.

Tension
Tension is the quantity of the pulling force exerted by a string, spring or cable on
an object. Some materials can withstand greater tension than others. Steel can
withstand very high tension and is difficult to break. Similarly, nylon can
withstand more tension than cotton. Tension is as a result of two opposing forces
applied, one at each end of a body, see figure 3.3.

Fig. 3.3: Tension on a spring

Fig. 3.4: A loaded steel spring

Experiment 3.1: To study the relationship between mass and extension of a

spring
Apparatus
Spring with a pointer, metre rule, two retort stands and six 50 g masses.
Procedure
• Set up the apparatus as shown in figure 3.4.
• Record the position of the pointer when there is no mass.
P0 =___________cm
• Add 50 g masses, one at a time, and record the position of the pointer P every
time a 50 g mass is added. Do not overstretch the spring.
• Obtain the extension, e = P – P0.
• Record the results as in table 3.1.
Table 3.1

Mass added (g) Pointer position (cm) when loading Extension

0
50
100
250
200
250
 250
300

What happens to the spring each time a load is added?

• Draw a graph of extension (y-axis) against mass added (x-axis).
Conclusion
The length of a spring increases when loaded since the weight of the load acts on
the spring, forcing it to stretch. The graph of extension against mass is a straight
line, see figure 3.5.

Fig. 3.5
Stretch resulting from tension is made using bows and catapults as shown in
figure 3.6.
Fig. 3.6: Application of stretching forces

Some forces compress bodies and are called compressive forces. A compressed
or stretched object will tend to regain its original shape when the stretching or
compressing force is removed. Materials that can be compressed or extended
without breaking are called elastic materials.

Upthrust
There is always an upward force acting on an object immersed in a fluid (liquid
or gas). This upward force is called upthrust. An object in a vacuum will not
experience upthrust.
Experiment 3.2: To illustrate upthrust in liquids
Apparatus
Spring balance, metal cube, water, paraffin, beaker.
Fig. 3.7: Upthrust in liquids

Procedure
• Set up the apparatus as shown in figure 3.7 (a). Record the reading of the
spring balance.
• Lower the metal cube into the beaker of water as in figure 3.7 (b) and record
the reading on the spring balance.
• Remove the metal cube from the water and dry it. Repeat with paraffin and
other liquids.
• Compare the readings.
Explanation
The reading of the spring balance is determined by the medium in which the
object is. If the medium is air, the reading is larger than when the medium is a
liquid. The reading also varies from one liquid to another. The reading of the
balance is highest when the object is in air and lowest when the object is
completely submerged in water.
The difference in the readings when the object is immersed in liquid and
when the object is in air is due to upthrust force.

Example 1
A body weighs 100 N in air and 80 N when submerged in water. Calculate the
upthrust acting on the body.
Solution
Weight in air = 100 N
Weight in water = 80 N
Upthrust = weight in air – weight in water
= (100 – 80) N
= 20 N

Cohesive and Adhesive Forces

The force of attraction between molecules of the same kind is known as
cohesive force, e.g., between a water molecule and another water molecule,
while force of attraction between molecules of different kinds is called adhesive
forces, e.g., between water molecules and glass molecules.
Experiment 3.3: To investigate the behaviour of water on different surfaces
Apparatus
Clean glass slide, waxed glass slide, dropper, water.
Fig. 3.8: Water drops on glass slides

Procedure
• Using a dropper, place a few drops of water onto a clean glass slide.
• Similarly, place a few drops of water on the waxed glass slide.
• Observe the shapes of the drops on the glass slides. What do you notice?
Observation
Water on the clean glass slide spreads on the glass surface (wets the surface).
However, small drops of water collect into small spherical balls on the waxed
surface.
If mercury is used, small mercury drops in a clean glass dish surface collect
into spherical balls. Larger mercury drops form oval balls as in figure 3.9.

Fig. 3.9: Mercury drops on a glass slide

Note:
Mercury is poisonous and should not be handled in an ordinary laboratory.
Explanation
Water wets the glass surface because the adhesive forces between the water
molecules and the glass molecules are greater than the cohesive forces between
water molecules. Water does not wet the waxed glass surface because the
cohesive force is greater than the adhesive force. The stronger cohesive forces in
mercury form spherical drops of mercury even on clean glass surface. The weak
adhesive force between mercury and glass makes mercury not to wet the glass.
Experiment 3.4: To demonstrate cohesive and adhesive forces of liquids in
narrow tubes
Apparatus
Narrow tubes with different sizes of bore, beaker, water, glycerol, kerosene and
methylated spirit.

Fig. 3.10: Cohesion and adhesion in mercury and water

Procedure
• Dip the length of clean narrow tube into water.
• Look at the shape of water inside the narrow tube.
• Compare the water level inside the tube with that outside it.
• Try another narrow tube with a different bore, i.e., a different diameter, see
figure 3.10.
• Repeat the experiment with other liquids, e.g., glycerol, kerosene or
methylated spirit.
Observation
The level of water inside the tubes is higher than outside the tubes.
A meniscus is formed at top of water level. The water curves upwards from
the reading level (a concave meniscus). The rise in the tube with a smaller bore
is higher than in the tube with a larger bore.
Different liquids rise by different heights, depending on the diameter of the glass
tube. If mercury is used, the level of mercury inside the tubes goes lower than
that outside the tubes. The surface of the mercury in the tubes will curve
downwards, i.e., the meniscus curves downwards from the reading level (a
convex meniscus).
The level of mercury in the tube with the smaller bore will be lower than
that in the tube with a larger bore.
Explanation
Since the adhesive force between the water and glass molecules is greater than
the cohesive force between the water molecules, the water rises up the tube so
that more water molecules can be in contact with the glass. This ‘wets’ the glass.
Liquids such as glycerol, kerosene and methylated spirit wet the glass (or the
vessel) and will rise in a narrow tube.
On the other hand, the force of cohesion within the mercury is greater than
the force of adhesion between the mercury and glass. The mercury, therefore,
sinks down the tube to enable mercury molecules to keep together. Liquids
which do not ‘wet’ the container will be depressed inside the tube.

Frictional Force
Friction is a force that opposes relative motion between two surfaces in contact.
Practical applications of friction in our daily lives include walking and braking.
Friction is caused by the interlocking of the surfaces and attractive force
between the surface molecules.
Experiment 3.5: To investigate frictional force
Apparatus
Wooden block, spring balance, rollers.

Fig. 3.11

Procedure
• Place a wooden block on a horizontal surface, such as a bench.
• Using a spring balance, pull the block gently as shown in the figure 3.11 (a),
gradually increasing the force. What finally happens to the block?
• Repeat the experiment, this time with the block resting on rollers as shown in
figure 3.11 (b). In which case do you require less force for the block to start
moving? How else, apart from using rollers, can you reduce the force needed
to make the block start moving?
Conclusion
In figure 3.11 (a), the wooden block starts moving when the applied force is just
greater than a frictional force between the block and the surface of the bench.
Frictional force can be reduced by using rollers, oiling or smoothening.
Experiment 3.6: To investigate friction in liquids
Apparatus
Two measuring cylinders, two ball bearings, water, glycerine.
Fig. 3.12: Frictional force in liquids

Procedure
• Fill two glass jars or measuring cylinders, one with water and the other with
glycerine, to the same level.
• Hold two small identical ball bearings, just above the jar.
• Release them at the same time and observe their motion through the liquids,
see figure 3.12. Which ball bearing reaches the bottom of the jar first?
Conclusion
When the ball bearing is introduced into the liquid, a layer of the liquid forms on
the surface of the bearing. As it moves through the liquid, it rubs against the
liquid molecules. Due to the movement of the body, there is an opposing force
between the layer of the liquid molecules on the body and the layer of the liquid
molecules in the measuring cylinder. The opposing force (frictional force)
involving a fluid is called viscous drag (viscosity). Viscous drag limits the
speed with which a body can move in a liquid.

Magnetic Force
The force which causes attraction or repulsion by a magnet is called magnetic
force. A magnet has two types of poles, a north pole and a south pole. Like poles
repel while unlike poles attract. Some materials are attracted by a magnet while
others are not. Those which are attracted are called magnetic materials while
those not attracted are called non-magnetic materials.
Experiment 3.7: To investigate magnetic force
Apparatus
Two pieces of magnet, string, iron bar, iron fillings.
Procedure
• Suspend a bar magnet as shown in figure 3.13.

Fig. 3.13 (a): Attraction and repulsion forces of a magnet

• Bring one end of another magnet near the poles of the suspended magnet in
turns. Observe what happens in both cases.
• Bring the unsuspended magnet near an iron bar or iron fillings and observe
 again what happens.

Fig. 3.13 (b): Iron fillings concentrate more at the ends of a bar magnet

Observation
There is attraction on one end and repulsion on the other. The iron fillings or
iron bar are attracted by magnetic force.

Electrostatic Force
A plastic pen or ruler rubbed on dry hair or fur picks up small pieces of paper
lying on a table when it is brought near them. The same pen or ruler attracts a
thin stream of water from a tap.
The rubbing creates static charges. The force of attraction or repulsion due
to these changes is called electrostatic force.
When a glass window is wiped with a dry cloth on a dry day, dust particles
are attracted on it. Also, when shoes are brushed, they tend to attract dust
particles. This is because electrostatic charges formed on the rubbed surface
attract dust.

Centripetal Force
Centripetal Force is a force which constrains a body to move in a circular path or
orbit. This force is directed towards the centre of the orbit. Examples of where
centripetal forces is applied include a stone tied on a string (sling), separation of
ghee from milk and the merry-go-round, see figure 3.14.
Fig. 3.14: Children enjoying a merry-go-round

Surface Tension
It is commonly observed that liquids form drops, water wets some surfaces but
runs off others, some insects like the pond skater manage to rest on the surface
of the water without sinking, water rises up a narrow glass tube but mercury is
pushed down to a lower level in the same tube and a steel razor blade floats on
water, even though steel is denser than water.
The above observations will be explained by the following experiment.
Experiment 3.8: To investigate the behaviour of a liquid surface
Apparatus
Beaker, steel needle or razor blade, water, kerosene or soap solution.
Procedure
• Fill a beaker with clean water to the brim.
Fig. 3.15: Surface tension

• Place a dry steel needle or razor blade at the edge of the beaker and carefully
introduce it on the surface of the water. Take care not to break the surface of
the water. Observe what happens to the needle.
• Put a few drops of kerosene or soap solution on the surface of the water near
the needle (not directly on the needle). Note what happens.
• Depress the tip of the needle into the water and note what happens.
Observation
The needle floats on the surface of the water and remains floating so long as the
water surface is not broken, see figure 3.15. When the surface of the water where
the needle lies is observed carefully (a magnifying lens would help), the water
surface is found to be slightly depressed and stretched like an elastic skin.
When drops of paraffin or soap solution are put on the surface of the water
around the needle, the needle sinks on its own after a few seconds. If,
alternatively, the tip of the needle is depressed lightly into the water, the needle
sinks very quickly to the bottom of the water.
Explanation
The steel needle or the razor blade floats because the surface of the water
behaves like a fully stretched, thin, elastic skin. This skin always has a tendency
to shrink, i.e., to have a minimum surface area or elastic membrane. The force
which causes the surface of a liquid to behave like a stretched elastic skin is
called surface tension. This force is due to the force of attraction between
individual molecules of the liquid (cohesion).
The needle or the blade sinks when a drop of kerosene or soap solution is
put in the liquid near the needle because the kerosene or soap solution reduces
the surface tension of the water. When the tip of the needle is pressed into the
water, it pierces the surface skin and sinks.
Molecular Explanation of Surface Tension

Fig. 3.16: Molecular force in liquid

A molecule, say C, deep in the liquid is surrounded by molecules on all sides so

that the net force on it is zero. However, molecules of the surface, say A and B,
will have fewer molecules on the vapour side and hence will experience a
resultant inward force, causing the surface of the liquid to be in tension.
Experiment 3.9: To study the behaviour of soap bubbles
Apparatus
Glass funnel, soap or detergent solution.
Fig. 3.17

Procedure
• Take a glass funnel and dip it in liquid soap or detergent solution.
• Take it out and blow a soap bubble to the wide end, see figure 3.17 (a).
• Hold the funnel with the bubble downward and leave the top open. Observe
what happens.
Observation
The bubble flattens to a film and the film slowly rises up the funnel.
Explanation
The soap bubble behaves as if its surface is tightly stretched. As it tries to make
its surface as small as possible, it rises up the funnel.
Experiment 3.10: To study the behaviour of soap films
Apparatus
Copper wire, thread, soap solution and needle.
Procedure
• Make a rectangular loop of copper wire.
• Tie a thread loosely across it, as in figure 3.18 (a).
• Dip the loop in a soap solution and bring it out so that the loop is filled with a
soap film, see figure 3.18 (b).
• Break the soap film on one side of the thread by touching it with a hot needle.
• Note the new shape of the thread.
Observation
When the film is broken on one side, the thread assumes a perfect curve, see
figure 3.18 (c).
Fig. 3.18

Explanation
In figure 3.18 (b), the thread lies in any position in the soap film because the
thread is being pulled on both sides by equal forces of surface tension. However,
when one side of the film is broken, the surface tension acts only on one side of
the thread. As the water tries to make its surface as small as possible, it pulls the
thread in such a way that it forms a perfect curve. The soap film exhibits surface
tension.
Experiment 3.11: To examine the appearance of water drops coming out of
a tube
Apparatus
Burette, clamp, stand.

Fig. 3.19

Procedure
• Fill a burette with water.
• Clamp it on a stand and turn the tap slowly so that a drop of water forms on
its mouth. Observe how each drop grows and eventually drops.
Observation
The growth of the water drop appears as if the mouth of the burette is covered
with an elastic membrane which stretches as more and more water gets into it.
When it can hold no more water, it falls.
The following observations are also due to surface tension of water:
(i) A glass tumbler can be filled with water above the brim, see figure 3.20 (a).
(ii) When a soft brush such as an artists brush is placed in water, the bristles
spread out but when it is taken out, they cling together, see figure 3.20 (b).
Fig. 3.20: Effects of surface tension

Surface Tension of Different Liquids

The difference in surface tension of different liquids can be visualised in the
following demonstrations.

The surface tension of soap is less than that of water

A match stick or a small toy boat rubbed at one end with soap and placed on the
surface of water starts moving immediately. It moves in one direction only and
in such a way that the end that is not rubbed with soap is always in front. Any
attempt to make it move in the opposite direction will fail, see figure 3.21 (a).
Fig. 3.21: Effects of surface tension

Explanation
The soap at the end of the stick immediately dissolves in water, thereby lowering
the surface tension at the end of the stick. The surface tension at the other end
which is now greater pulls the stick and makes it move in that direction. The
movement gradually weakens and ultimately ceases. This happens when the
whole surface of water is covered with soap solution.
The camphor has the same effect as that of soap.

Oil Spreads on Water

A few drops of oil from a fine tube form a circular patch when they fall on a
clean water surface.
Explanation
The forces along the surface of oil are weaker than those of the water surface.
The oil is thus pulled outwards into a thin film.

Factors Affecting Surface Tension

1. Impurities
Impurities reduce the surface tension of a liquid. Detergents, for instance,
weaken the cohesive forces between liquid molecules.
2. Temperature
With rise in temperature, the kinetic energy of the molecules of a liquid is
increased. The inter-molecular distance increases and the force of cohesion is
decreased. Hence, the surface tension is lowered.

Consequences of Surface Tension

1. Water insects can rest on the surface of water without breaking the surface.
The insects also skate across the surface of water at high speed.
2. Mosquito larvae float on water surface. Oiling the water surface using
kerosene lowers surface tension, thus making the larvae sink. Oiling still
water, therefore, controls the breeding of mosquitoes.

Action and Reaction

Examine carefully the following cases in which forces are applied:
1. When a block of wood is placed on a table, its weight (action) acts on the
table. It is pressed on the surface downwards. The reaction (force in the
opposite direction) of the table acts on the block, see figure 3.22 (a).
2. When you hold a hose-pipe which is projecting a powerful jet of water, you
notice that there is a steady force of reaction from the jet. This is the force
which is harnessed in some garden sprinklers, see figure 3.22 (b).
In both cases, there are two forces acting in opposite directions.
One of the forces is called action and the other reaction. Action and
reaction are equal and opposite, i.e., when one force acts on a body, an equal and
opposite force acts on the body.
Fig. 3.22: Action and reaction

Exercise 3.1
Table 3.2 shows types of forces and the nature of work to be done. Match the
type of force with the type of work it can do.
Table 3.2

Work to be done Type of force

Separate a mixture of iron Elastic tension.
fillings and sand.
Fire a gun. Magnetic force.
Cause tides in the seas Gravitational force of attraction between the
(oceans). earth and the moon.
Absorb shock in vehicles. Upthrust force.
Swim. Action and reaction.
Water rising a narrow tube. Centripetal force.
Toy boat moving on water Cohesive and adhesive force.
surface.

Mass and Weight

Mass and Weight
While mass is the quantity of matter present in an object, weight is a measure of
the pull of gravity on the object. This pull of gravity is always directed towards
the centre of the earth. Thus, weight has both direction and size.
The SI unit of weight is the newton (symbol N). Weight is measured by a spring
balance calibrated in newtons.
Due to the shape and rotation of the earth, the weight of an object varies
from place to place. The earth is not a perfect sphere, it is flattened at the poles
such that the distance between the centre of the earth and the poles is shorter
than that between the centre of the earth and the equator. Thus, a body weighs
more at the poles than at the equator.

Relationship between Mass and Weight

Experiment 3.12: To determine the gravitational field strength ‘g’ of a place
Apparatus
Six 20 g masses, spring balance calibrated in newtons, retort stand.
Procedure
• Take a 20 g mass and obtain the corresponding weight by use of the spring
balance.
• Repeat each time adding a 20 g mass.
• Tabulate the results as in table 3.2.
Table 3.3: To determine the gravitational strength ‘g’

• Plot a graph of weight in newtons (y-axis) against mass in kilograms (x-axis).

• Find the slope of the graph.
The value of the slope is called the gravitational field strength (intensity). This
is the gravitational force on a unit mass at that place on the earth.
 On the earth’s surface, an object of mass m has a gravitational pull of mg
on it, where g is acceleration due to gravity (free fall). Thus, the weight W = mg.
The earth pulls each kilogram of mass on its surface with a force of about
9.8 N, which is approximately 10 Nkg–1. Compare this with the value of W/m
from the experiment.
For example, the weight W of an object whose mass is 50 kg is given by:
W = mg
= 50 × 10
= 500 N
Similarly, the mass m of an object whose weight is 900 N is given by:

Example 2
Calculate the weight of each of the following:
(a) A cat of mass 1.5 kg.
(b) A pencil of mass 5.0 g.
(c) A lorry of 8 tonnes.
(Use g = 10 Nkg–1)
Solution

(c) Weight of lorry = 8 × 1 000 × 10

= 80 000 N
Example 3
An astronaut weighs 900 N on earth. On the moon, he weighs 150 N. Calculate
the moon’s gravitational strength.
(Take g = 10 Nkg–1)
Solution
The mass of astronaut

Weight of the astronaut on the moon = mass of the astronaut × moon’s

gravitational strength

Table 3.4

Differences between Mass and Weight

Mass Weight
It is the quantity of matter in the body. It is the pull of gravity on a body.
It is measured in kilograms. It is measured in newtons.
It is the same everywhere. It changes from place to place.
It is measured using a beam balance. Measured using a spring balance.
Has magnitude only. Has both magnitude and direction.

Exercise 3.2
(Take g = 10 Nkg–1)
1. Calculate the weights of the following masses: 2 kg, 450 g, 0.75 kg, 3 000
000 mg.
2. A body weighs 75 N. Calculate its mass.
3. The mass of an object is 50 kg. If its weight is 1 000 N on a certain planet,
calculate the gravitational field strength of the planet.

Scalar and Vector Quantities

A scalar quantity is a quantity which has magnitude (size) only but no
direction. It can be specified by a number and a unit. If the mass of a car is 800
kg or the area of a circle is 314 cm3, then the values represent the magnitude of
mass and area respectively. Mass and area are scalar quantities. Other examples
of scalar quantities are density, volume, energy, time, pressure, temperature and
length. Scalar quantities are added by the normal rules of arithmetic. For
example, 3 kg added to 2 kg make 5 kg and 4 hours added to 2 hours make 6
hours.
A vector quantity is a quantity which has direction as well as magnitude. It
can be specified by a number, unit and direction. If the weight of a car is 8 000
N, 8 000 gives the number, N is its unit and it is directed towards the centre of
the earth. Other examples of vector quantities are force, velocity, displacement,
acceleration, momentum and magnetic field strength.
All vector quantities obey a special rule for addition and subtraction, which
takes account of direction as well as magnitude (size). A vector quantity is
represented on a diagram by a straight line with an arrow.

Fig. 3.26: Vector quantities

Figure 3.26 shows different vector quantities. The length of the line represents
the magnitude of the vector quantity (when drawn to scale) and the arrow shows
the direction and line of action of the vector.
The sum of two or more vectors is the resultant vector. Parallel forces
which act on the same object can be added arithmetically, taking account of their
directions. Figure 3.27 gives examples of addition of parallel forces acting on a
body.
Fig. 3.27: Adding parallel forces

Note that when forces are acting in opposite directions, the resultant is their
difference.
To specify resultant force, both magnitude and direction are given. For
example, the resultant force on figure 3.27 (b) is 3 N, acting in the same
direction as the 5 N force.

Revision Exercise 3
1. Define force and give its SI unit.
2. Name all the forces acting on the following bodies:
(a) A box placed on a table.
(b) A mass suspended from a spring balance.
(c) A moving car negotiating a bend.
3. Define cohesive force and adhesive force.
4. Explain why a man using a parachute falls through air slowly while a stone
falls through air very fast.
5. Explain each of the following using the behaviour of molecules where
 possible:
(a) A steel needle placed carefully on the surface of water does not sink.
(b) When a small drop of detergent is placed on water, the needle moves
rapidly away from it and sinks when more detergent is added. (Assume
that the detergent does not affect the density of water)
(c) A match-stick rubbed at one end with soap starts moving immediately in
one direction when placed on the surface of water.
(d) When it is raining, it is advisable not to touch a canvas tent from inside.
(e) Bristles of a paint brush spread when the brush is in water and cling
together when it is taken out of the water.
(f) Water wets clean surfaces of glass but not waxed ones.
(g) Water rises up in narrow tubes but mercury, which is also a liquid, falls
in narrow tubes to a level below that of the liquid surface.
7. (a) Define surface tension.
(b) How does temperature rise and impurities affect the surface tension of
water?
(c) How can the surface tension of water be increased?
8. Define the terms:
(a) mass.
(b) weight.
9. The mass of a lump of gold is constant everywhere, but its weight is not.
Explain this.
10. A man has a mass of 70 kg. Calculate:
(a) his weight on earth, where the gravitational field strength is 10 N/kg.
(b) his weight on the moon, where the gravitational field strength is 1.7
N/kg.
11. A mass of 7.5 kg has weight of 30 N on a certain planet. Calculate the
acceleration due to gravity on this planet.
12. Define the following terms, giving examples:
(a) Vector quantity.
(b) Scalar quantity.
13. (a) Define a resultant vector.
(b) Find the resultant of a force of 4 N and a force of 8 N acting on the same
 point on an object if:
(i) the forces act in the same direction in the same straight line.
(ii) the forces act in opposite directions but in the same straight line.
14. Show diagramatically how forces of 7 N and 9 N can be combined to give a
resultant force of:
(a) 16 N
(b) 2 N
 Pressure
The term pressure is used in day-to-day life. To understand its meaning, consider
the following examples of experiences with force on solids.
(i) A person makes deeper marks while walking on soft ground in high-heeled
shoes than in flat shoes.

Fig. 4.1: High and flat-heeled shoes

(ii) It is easier to push a sharp pin through a cardboard than it is to push a

blunt one through the same material using the same force, see figure 4.2 (a)
and (b).
Fig. 4.2: Effect of force on an area

In all the above cases, a given force acting on an area causes a penetration,
depression or distortion. The effect is greater when the force acts on a smaller
area than when it acts on a larger area.
In general, when a force is applied on a given area, pressure is exerted on
the surface.
Pressure is defined as the force acting normally (perpendicularly) per
unit area.

Units of Pressure
From the definition,

Therefore, the SI unit of pressure

The SI unit of pressure is thus newton per square metre (Nm–2), which is also
called the Pascal (Pa).
1 Nm–2 = 1 Pa
Other units include the mmHg, the cmHg and an atmosphere (atm).

Example 1
A man of mass 84 kg stands upright on a floor. If the area of contact of his shoes
and floor is 420 cm2, determine the average pressure he exerts on the floor.
(Take g = 10 Nkg–1)
Solution

Example 2
A metallic block of mass 40 kg exerts a pressure of 20 Nm–2 on a flat surface.
Determine the area of contact between the block and the surface.
(Take g = 10 Nkg–1)
Solution
Example 3
A brick 20 cm long, 10 cm wide and 5 cm thick has a mass of 500 g. Determine
the:
(a) greatest pressure that can be exerted by the brick on a flat surface.
(b) least pressure that can be exerted by the brick on a flat surface. (Take g = 10
Nkg–1)
Solution
(a) Dimensions of the brick are 0.20 m, 0.10 m and 0.05 m.

P is greatest when area A is smallest.

Area of the smallest face of the brick
= 0.10 × 0.05
= 0.005 m2

(b) Pressure is least when area A is greatest.

From the above examples, it is clear that:

(i) If area is held constant, the higher the force, the higher the pressure and the
 lower the force, the lower the pressure.
(ii) If force is kept constant, the smaller the area, the greater the pressure and
the larger the area, the smaller the pressure.

Exercise 4.1
1. A force of 100 N is applied to an area of 100 mm2. Determine the pressure
exerted on the area in Nm–2.
2. A girl standing upright exerts a pressure of 13 600 Nm–2 on the floor. Given
that the total area of contact of shoes and the floor is 0.0368 m2, determine:
(a) the mass of the girl.
(b) the pressure she would exert on the floor if she stood on one foot.
3. Trucks which carry heavy loads have many wheels. Explain.
4. A block of copper of density 8.9 g/cm3 measures 5 cm × 3 cm × 2 cm. Given
that the force of gravity is 10 Nkg–1, determine:
(a) the maximum pressure.
(b) the minimum pressure that it can exert on a horizontal surface.
5. Calculate the amount of force that must be applied on a blade of length 4 cm
and thickness of 0.1 mm to exert a pressure of 5 000 000 Pa.

Pressure in Liquids
Pressure is also exerted in liquids. This varies with depth among other factors.

Experiment 4.1: To show variation of pressure in liquid

Apparatus
A tall tin, a small nail, water.
Fig. 4.3: Pressure and depth

Procedure
• Using the nail, make three holes, A, B and C, of the same diameter along a
vertical line on one side of the tin.
• Fill the tin with water as shown in figure 4.3.
• With the tin full of water, observe the jets of water from the holes A, B and C.
Observation
The lower hole, A, throws water the farthest distance z, followed by B distance y
and lastly C distance x.
Conclusion
Pressure of water at A is greater than pressure at B and pressure at B is greater
than at C. Hence, pressure increases with depth.
Increase in pressure with depth explains why dam walls are constructed
thicker at the bottom than at the top. See figure 4.4 below.
Fig. 4.4: Curved wall and section of a dam

Additionally, the walls of the dam are curved to increase the surface area, hence
reduce the pressure.

Liquid Levels
When a liquid is poured into a set of open and connected vessels with different
shapes (and area of cross-section), it flows until the levels are the same in all the
vessels, as shown in figure 4.5.

Fig. 4.5: A liquid finds its own level

This shows that the liquid flows to find its own height regardless of the shape of
the vessel.

Liquid Levels in a U-tube

When water is poured into one arm of a U-tube, it will flow into the other arm.
The water will settle in the tube with the levels on both arms being the same, see
figure 4.6 (a).

Fig. 4.6: Effect of pressure on liquid levels

When one arm of the U-tube is blown into with the mouth, the level moves
downwards, while in the other arm it rises, see figure between 4.6 (b). This is
caused by the pressure difference between the two arms. The pressure increases
on the arm that is blown into and causes water to rise on the other arm.
Experiment 4.2 (a): To investigate the variation of liquid pressure with
depth and density
Apparatus
A tall jar, liquids of different densities, thistle funnel, U-tube, rubber tubing.
Fig. 4.7: Pressure variation in a liquid

Procedure
• Fill the glass vessel with water.
• Connect the thistle funnel to a U-tube filled to some level with water.
• Lower the funnel to different depths from the surface and notice the
difference in levels, h, of water in the U-tube, see figure 4.7.
• Replace the water in the glass vessel with a denser liquid, such as sodium
chloride solution (brine).
• Lower the funnels to the same depths as above and compare the heights
obtained.
Observations
(i) The deeper the funnel goes below the surface, the greater the difference in
levels, h.
(ii) The differences in levels, h, obtained with brine at a particular depth is
greater than that obtained with water at that depth.
Conclusion
Pressure in a liquid increases with the density of the liquid and with depth.
Experiment 4.2 (b): To show the distribution of pressure at a point in a
liquid
Apparatus
A tall jar, water, thistle funnels, U-tube, rubber tubing.

Fig. 4.8: Pressure distribution

Procedure
• Fill the glass vessel with water.
• Connect one of the thistle funnels to a U-tube filled to some level with water.
• Lower the funnel P to a depth from the surface of the water and notice the
difference in levels, h, of the water in the U-tube.
• Replace the funnel with Q whose mouth is pointing in a different direction.
• Lower the funnel Q into the water so that the mouth of the funnel is at the
same point as the straight one P. Observe the difference in the levels of the
water in the U-tube.
Observations
At the same depth in a given liquid, difference in levels obtained is the same
regardless of the direction which the funnel faces.
Conclusion
Pressure in liquids increases with density and depth.
In summary:
(i) pressure in a liquid increases with depth below its surface.
(ii) pressure in a liquid increases with the density of the liquid.
(iii) the distribution of pressure in a liquid at a particular depth is the same in
all directions.

Derivation of Fluid Pressure Formula P = hρg

Fig. 4.9: Liquid column

If A is the cross-section area of the column, h the height of the column and ρ the
density of the liquid, then;
Volume of the liquid
= cross-section × height = Ah
Mass of the liquid
= volume of the liquid × density
= Ahρ
Therefore, weight of the liquid column
= mass of the liquid × gravitational force per unit mass
= Ahρg
Therefore, pressure P exerted by the column on A is given by, p = hρg
From the formula P = hρg, it can be seen that the pressure due to a liquid column
is directly proportional to:
(i) height h of the column.
(ii) the density ρ of the liquid.
Pressure does not depend on the cross-section area of the container which holds
the liquid.
The formula is also used to determine pressure due to a column of gas.

Example 4
A diver is 10 m below the surface of the water in a dam. If the density of water is
1 000 kgm–3, determine the pressure due to the water on the diver. (Take g = 10
Nkg–1)
Solution
Pressure on the diver is given by;
P = hρg
= 10 × 1 000 × 10
= 100 000 Nm–2

Example 5
The density of mercury is 13 600 kgm–3. Determine the liquid pressure at a point
76 cm below the surface of mercury. (Take g = 10 Nkg–1)
Solution
Pressure is given by P = hρg
= 0.76 × 13 600 × 10
= 103 360 Nm–2

Transmission of Pressure in Liquids

Consider:
Fig. 4.10 shows a round bottomed flask fitted with a piston and holes of same
diameter drilled along the same level.
Fig. 4.10

Initially, the water squirts out at the same rate with some force. When the
plunger is pushed in, the liquid squirts out at the same rate but with increased
force. If the plunger exerts a force F and the piston area is A, then the additional
pressure P = , developed is transmitted equally to all parts of the liquid forcing
the liquid out of the holes with the same increased force.
Experiment 4.3: To investigate how pressure is transmitted in liquids
(Pascal’s principle)

Using Identical Syringes

Apparatus
Two identical syringes, rubber tubing, water, pairs of different masses, two
stands and clamps.
Fig. 4.11: Transmission of pressure in liquids

Procedure
• Set up the apparatus as shown in figure 4.11.
• Place a mass m on one of the plungers and observe what happens.
• Place an identical mass on the other plunger and observe what happens.
• Repeat with the other pairs of identical masses.
Observation
(i) When the first mass is placed on the plunger, the plunger moves
downwards and the second plunger moves up.
(ii) When an identical mass is placed on the second plunger, the first plunger
with the mass on it moves upwards and stops when their levels are the
same.
The pressure in the two syringes is the same. This is because the masses and the
diameters of the syringes are the same.

Using Syringes of Different Diameters

Apparatus
Syringes of different diameters, two stands and clamps, different masses, water,
rubber tubing.

Fig. 4.12: Effects of transmitted pressure

Procedure
• Replace one of the syringes in Experiment 4.3 (a) with syringe of different
diameter, and set up the apparatus as shown in figure 4.12.
• Starting with a large mass on syringe Q, put masses on syringe P until Q just
starts to move upwards. Note the mass on P and Q as in table 4.1.
Table 4.1

Syringe P Syringe Q
Area A of piston (m2)

Weight F on piston (N)

From the table, compare the value of in P and Q.

Conclusion
At balance, the pressure due to the mass in P is equal to the pressure due to the
other mass in Q.
From the foregoing experiment, pressure applied at one part of an enclosed
liquid is transmitted equally to all other parts of the enclosed liquid. This is
called the principle of transmission of pressure in liquids (Pascal’s
Principle). Gases may transmit pressure in a similar way when they are confined
and incompressible.

Hydraulic Machines
The principle of transmission of pressure in liquids is made use of in hydraulic
machines where a small force applied at one point of a liquid produces a much
larger force at some other point of the liquid.

Hydraulic Lift
The hydraulic lift consists of a small piston S of cross-section area A1 and a
large piston L of cross-section area A2. When a force is applied on piston S, the
pressure generated by the force is transmitted throughout the liquid to piston L,
see figure 4.13.

Fig. 4.13: Hydraulic lift

Consider a force F1 applied on the small piston of cross-section area A1. Then,
pressure P1 generated on the liquid by the piston S due to F1 is given by;

This pressure is transmitted by the liquid to the larger piston L. Therefore,

pressure of liquid acting on the area A2 of the large piston is equal to P1. Thus,
the force F2 produced on the large piston is given by;
F2 = pressure × area
= P1 × A2
Hydraulic lifts are used to hoist cars in garages. Hydraulic presses on the other
hand are used to compress certain materials such as cotton bales into the
required shapes and sizes.

Example 6
A small force of 100 N applied on the small piston of area A1 equal to 0.25 m2
produces a bigger force F2 on a larger piston of area A2 equal to 10 m2. See
figure 4.14 below. Calculate F2.

Fig.4.14

Note:
A small force applied on the small piston produces a much bigger force on the
larger piston.

Hydraulic Brake System

Fig. 4.15: Vehicle hydraulic brake system

A vehicle hydraulic brake system is shown in figure 4.15.

The force applied on the brake pedal exerts pressure on the master cylinder.
The pressure is transmitted by the brake fluid to the slave cylinder. This causes
the pistons of slave cylinder to open the brake shoe and hence the brake lining
presses on the drum. The rotation of the wheel is thus resisted.
When the force on the foot pedal is withdrawn, the return spring pulls back
the brake shoe which then pushes the slave cylinder piston back.
The advantage of this system is that the pressure exerted in master cylinder
is transmitted equally to all the four wheel cylinders. Hence, the braking force
obtained is uniform.
The liquid to be used as a brake fluid should have the following properties:
(i) Be incompressible, to ensure pressure exerted at one point is transmitted
equally to all other parts in the liquid.
(ii) Have low freezing point and high boiling point.
(iii) Should not corrode the parts of the brake system.

Exercise 4.2
1. Calculate the pressure due to water experienced by a diver working 15 m
below the surface of the sea. (Take g = 10 Nkg–1 and density of sea water =
1.03 gcm– 3)
2. An outlet of diameter 1 m is made 20 m below the surface of water in a dam.
Determine the force with which the water spews out when it is fully opened
due to water pressure (Take g = 10 Nkg–1 and density of water = 1 gcm– 3)
3. Explain why water storage tanks in houses are erected as high as possible.
4. Describe a simple experiment to demonstrate that the pressure in a liquid
 increases with depth.
5. The figure below shows a simple hydraulic press used to compress a bale.
The cross-section areas of A and B are 0.002 m2 and 0.30 m2 respectively.

Determine the:
(a) pressure exerted on the oil by the force applied at A.
(b) pressure exerted on B by the oil.
(c) force produced on B compressing the bale.

Atmospheric Pressure
The term atmosphere means the air surrounding the earth. The air is bound
around the earth by the earth’s gravity.
Fig. 4.16: Atmosphere

Figure 4.16 (a) shows the earth’s atmosphere. The atmosphere thins outwards,
indicating the density of air decreases with the distance from the surface of the
earth.
Consider a column of air as in figure 4.16 (b), extending vertically into
space to the end of the atmosphere. This column of air stands on the earth’s
surface like a liquid in a tube and exerts pressure on the surface of the earth. The
pressure exerted on the surface of the earth by the weight of the air column is
called atmospheric pressure.
The existence of atmospheric pressure is demonstrated by the experiment
below.
Experiment 4.4: To demonstrate the existence of the atmospheric pressure
Apparatus
Tin container with a tight-fitting cork, water, tripod stand, Bunsen burner.

Fig. 4.17: Crushing can experiment

Procedure
• Remove the cork from the container and pour in some little water.
• Boil the water for several minutes.
• Replace the cork and allow the container to cool. You may pour cold water on
it to cool it faster. Observe what happens to the container.
Observation
During cooling, the container is crushed in.
Explanation
Steam from boiling water drives out most of the air inside the container, see
figure 4.17 (a). When the cork is first replaced, the steam pressure inside the
container balances the atmospheric pressure outside. On cooling, the steam
condenses.
A partial vacuum is therefore created in the container. Since pressure inside
the container is less than atmospheric pressure outside, the container is crushed,
see figure 4.17 (b).

Maximum Column of Liquid that can be Supported by Atmospheric

Pressure
When water is sucked up a straw as in figure 4.18, the air pressure inside the
straw reduces.

Fig. 4.18: The working of the drinking straw

The atmospheric pressure acting on the water surface is now greater than
the pressure inside the straw. Water is thus pushed up the straw by the
atmospheric pressure.
If the straw was long enough and sealed at the top, it would be possible to
estimate the height of water in the straw that would be supported by atmospheric
pressure.
A more convenient method is to use a glass tube sealed at one end, as in
figure 4.19 (a).
Fig. 4.19: Water and mercury columns supported by atmospheric pressure

Fill glass tubes of different lengths completely with water and invert them in a
water reservoir. You will realise that the water column can be very large, in fact
too large for your available apparatus to accommodate.
However, if mercury, which is much denser than water is used, the column
supported is found to be much shorter, see figure 4.19 (b). In this figure, the
mercury column in the tube exerts pressure at point B. For the height of this
column to remain constant, there must be a counter pressure to hold it up. This
counter pressure is provided by the atmosphere. At sea level, the atmospheric
pressure supports approximately 76 cm of mercury column or approximately 10
m of water column.

Example 7
A girl in a school situated in the coast region (sea level) plans to make a
barometer using sea-water of density 1 030 kgm–3. If the atmospheric pressure is
103 000 Nm–2, Determine the minimum length of the tube that she will require.
Solution
Pressure in liquid is given by P = hρg
But P = atmospheric pressure
Therefore, hρg = atmospheric pressure
h × 1 030 × 10 = 103 000

Example 8
A sea diver is 35 m below the surface of sea-water. If density of the sea-water is
1.03 g/cm3 and g is 10 Nkg–1, determine the total pressure on him. Take
atmospheric pressure to be 103,00 N/m–2
Solution
Pressure in liquid is given by P = hρg
But total pressure = atmospheric pressure, Pa + liquid pressure
= Pa + hρg
= 103 000 + (35 × 1 030 × 10) Nm–2
= 463 500 Nm–2

Example 9
The air pressure at the base of a mountain is 75.0 cm of mercury while at the top
it is 60.0 cm of mercury. Given that the average density of air is 1.25 kgm–3 and
the density of mercury is 13 600 kgm–3, calculate the height of the mountain.
Solution
Pressure difference due to column of air (height of mountain)
= Pressure difference due to mercury column
Pressure at the top of the mountain
= 0.60 × 13 600 × 10
= 81 600 Nm–2
Pressure at the base of the mountain
= 0.75 × 13 600 × 10
= 102 000 Nm–2
Pressure difference
= 102 000 – 81 600
 = 20 400 Nm–2
Pressure due column of air

The height of the mountain is 1 632 m

Exercise 4.3
1. Explain why there is a big difference between heights of water and mercury
column that can be supported by atmospheric pressure.
2. The barometric height at sea level is 76 cm of mercury while that at a point
on a highland is 74 cm of mercury. Determine the altitude of the point. (Take
g as 10 N/kg, the density of mercury as 13 600 kgm–3 and density of air is
1.25 kgm–3)
3. The figure below shows a rubber sucker. Explain why the sucker sticks on a
clean flat surface.

4. A sucker stuck on a flat surface was pulled by means of a spring balance as

shown in figure below. When the sucker was just about to be pulled off the
surface, the spring balance reading was 40 N. Given that the area of the
sucker was 4.4 cm2, determine the air pressure in Nm–2.

5. Explain what is meant by a barometric liquid. Give an example of one such

liquid, stating its properties.
6. A student in a place where the mercury barometer reads 75 cm wanted to
make an alcohol barometer. If alcohol has a density of 800 kgm–3. Find the
minimum length of the tube that could be used.
7. The diagram below shows a U-tube filled with two liquids X and Y. If the
density of liquid Y is 1.26 gcm–3, determine the density of liquid X. Explain
the effect of increasing the diameter of one arm of the U-tube on the height
of the liquid column?

8. Two liquids were sucked up in two identical tubes as shown in the figure
below. Given that the liquid in beaker B2 is water (density 1 gcm–3),
determine the density of liquid in beaker B1.

Measurement of Pressure

U-tube Manometer
Fig. 4.20: Measurement of gas pressure

A manometer is an instrument that can measure fluid pressure. It consists of a U-

tube filled with water or any other suitable liquid, see figure 4.20.
Suppose one limb of the manometer is connected to a gas supply. Due to
the pressure of the gas Pg, the water level in the other limb rises to, say, Y. This
difference in water levels is the difference between gas pressure Pg and the
atmospheric pressure Pa.
Since X and Z are at the same horizontal level, pressure at X equals
pressure at Z. Pressure at X is pressure of gas Pg.
Pressure at Z = atmospheric pressure + pressure due to the column of water
Therefore, Pg = Pa + hρg
Since density of water, ρ, and g are known, we can determine pressure of gas if
the atmospheric pressure is known.
Suppose
h = 20.0 cm and Pa = 103 000 Nm–2. Then, taking the density of water as 1 000
kgm–3,
Pg = 103 000 + 0.20 × 1 000 × 10
= 105 000 Nm–2

Mercury Barometer
It has been shown that atmospheric pressure supports a liquid column in a tube.
When this arrangement is used to measure pressure, it is called a barometer.
At sea level, a column of mercury and water supported by atmospheric
pressure is approximately 76 cm and 10 m respectively. Mercury, which is about
14 times denser than water, is chosen for atmospheric pressure measurements
since it gives a much shorter and measurable column.

Simple Mercury Barometer

The simple mercury barometer comprises a thick-walled glass tube of about one
metre long and sealed at one end.
It is carefully filled with mercury to the top and any bubbles of air in the
tube removed by closing the open end and inverting it severally. It is necessary
to remove the bubbles because they make the barometer defective.
The tube is refilled and the open end closed tightly. It is then inverted into a
dish filled with mercury and supported upright with a stand and clamp, see
figure 4.21. The tightly closed end is then opened while under the surface of the
mercury. The column of mercury in the tube drops to create a vacuum in the
space above the column.

Fig. 4.21: Simple mercury barometer

The height h of the column (barometric height) is a measure of the atmospheric

pressure.
At sea level, h = 76 cmHg.
Since density ρ of mercury is 13 600 kgm–3,
Pa = hρg
= 0.76 × 13 600 × 10
= 103 360 Nm–2
This is the standard atmospheric pressure, and is sometimes referred to as
one atmosphere.
Testing the Vacuum Barometer
If the barometer has air at the top, then it is faulty. The value of pressure
indicated by such a barometer is less than the actual value since the trapped air
also exerts pressure on the mercury column.
To test for the vacuum, the tube is tilted as shown in figure 4.22 (a) so that the
topmost part of the tube is below the height that is supported by atmospheric
pressure.

Fig. 4.22

If there is air in the tube, the mercury will not fill the tube completely. However,
if the space is a vacuum, the mercury fills the tube completely.
The space above the mercury in the tube when upright is called Toricellian
vacuum and contains a little mercury vapour.

Fortin Barometer
The simple mercury barometer cannot be used for accurate measurements of
atmospheric pressure. An improved version called the Fortin barometer is used
where high precision is required.
It was designed by Fortin, a French instrument maker. Figure 4.23 shows
main parts of the barometer.
Fig. 4.23: Fortin barometer

The Fortin barometer has a:

(i) vertical glass tube containing mercury.
(ii) leather bag as the reservoir of mercury.
(iii) short fixed main scale and a movable vernier scale which facilitates
accurate reading of the mercury height.
(iv) fixed ivory index with a sharp point at the bottom, which acts as the ‘zero’
mark of the main scale.
Before taking the reading, the level of mercury surface in the reservoir is
adjusted by turning the adjusting screw until the surface of the mercury just
touches the tip of the ivory index. The mirror-like mercury surface produces an
image of the tip which helps to make the adjustment very accurate. The height of
mercury is then read from the main scale and the vernier scale. Any change in air
pressure makes the surface of mercury in the reservoir move up and down and
therefore this adjustment is necessary before the barometer is read. The height of
mercury is read from the top part of the meniscus.
The readings obtained from the barometer are in terms of the height of
mercury column and are written as mmHg or cmHg (Hg is the chemical symbol
for mercury). Therefore, the atmospheric pressure at sea level is expressed as
760 mmHg. It is important however to note that pressure is force per unit area,
but not a length.
The atmospheric pressure Pa when the mercury column is 760 mm long is
given by;
Pa = hρg
= 0.76 × 13 600 × 10 (density of mercury is 13 600 kgm–3 and g is 10 Nkg-1)
= 103 360 Nm–2

Aneroid Barometer
The mercury barometer is the most reliable type of barometer, but is not readily
portable.

Fig. 4.24: Aneroid barometer

The aneroid barometer is a portable type of barometer consisting of a

sealed, corrugated metal box, as shown in figure 4.24. This metal box expands a
little if pressure outside is reduced, and reduces in volume a little if subjected to
higher pressure from outside. The motion due to the changes in shape of the
metal box is magnified by the corresponding movements of the spring strips,
lever arm, chain and finally the pointer on the scale.
Normally, the pointer would indicate a particular value of the atmospheric
pressure of the surrounding so that any changes in pressure would be noticeable
by the movement of the pointer to either side of this atmospheric value on the
scale.
The aneroid barometer movements make it adaptable to measure heights.
Altimeters are basically aneroid barometers, and are used in aircrafts to measure
heights.
The aneroid barometer is normally calibrated in millibars. 1 bar is a
pressure of 100 000 Nm–2 (standard atmospheric pressure)
1 millibar (mbar) = = 100 Nm–2
Pressure Gauges
Pressure gauges are portable and are used mostly for measuring gas pressure,
tyre pressure, pressure of compressed air in compressors and steam pressure.
They are basically made of coiled flexible metal tubes which uncoil when
the pressure inside increases. The movement of the tube is made to drive a
pointer across a scale, through a combined system of levers and gears, see figure
4.25.

Fig. 4.25: Pressure gauge

Example 10
The pressure of a car tyre, measured with a pressure gauge, is 40 N/cm2.
Determine the total pressure of the tyre in Nm–2 given that atmospheric pressure
is 103 360 N/m2.
Solution
Total pressure = atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure
= 103 360 + (40 × 10 000)
= 103 360 + 400 000 = 503 360 N/m2

Applications of Pressure in Gases and Liquids

The Bicycle Pump

A bicycle pump is a simple form of a compression pump. Figure 4.26 shows the
main parts of the pump.
Fig. 4.26: Bicycle pump

It has a flexible leather washer which works both as a valve and a piston inside
the pump barrel. Before the pump is used, it is connected to the tyre which has a
rubber valve in it.
When the pump handle is drawn out as shown, the volume of air below the
washer increases and its pressure is reduced below the atmospheric pressure. Air
from outside the pump then flows past the leather washer into the barrel. At the
same time, the higher air pressure in the tube closes the tyre valve.
When the pump handle is pushed in, the air in the pump barrel is
compressed. The high pressure in the barrel presses the leather washer against
the sides of the barrel. When the pressure of the compressed air becomes greater
than that of air in the tyre, air is forced into the tyre through the tyre valve which
now opens.
Note that there is an increase in temperature of the pump barrel during
pumping. This is because of the work done in compressing air.

The Lift Pump

A lift pump is used to raise water from wells. It consists of a cylindrical metal
barrel with a spout. It has two valves, P and Q, as shown in figure 4.27.
To start the pump, water is poured on top of the piston (priming) so that a
good air-tight seal is made round the piston and valve P. The pump is operated
by means of a lever as shown in the figure.
Upstroke
When the plunger moves up during the upstroke, valve P closes due to its weight
and pressure of water above it. At the same time, air above valve Q expands and
its pressure reduces below atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric pressure on
water in the well below thus pushes water up past valve Q into the barrel, as
shown in figure 4.27 (a).
The plunger is moved up and down until the space between P and Q is
filled with water.
Fig. 4.27: Lift pump

Downstroke
During downstroke, valve Q closes due to its weight and pressure of water
above, see figure 4.27 (b).
Water is forced out through valve P and thus flows out of the spout.
Limitations of this pump
The atmospheric pressure can only support a column of water of about 10 m.
This is, therefore, the theoretical maximum height to which water can be raised
by the pump at normal atmospheric pressure.
In practice, the possible height of water can be raised by this pump is less
than 10 m because of:
(i) reduced atmospheric pressure in places high above sea level.
(ii) leakages at the valves and pistons.

The Force Pump

This pump can be used to raise water to heights of more than 10 m.
Upstroke
During upstroke, air above the valve S expands and its pressure reduces below
atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric pressure on the water in the well below
pushes water up valve S into the barrel. Note that pressure above valve T is
atmospheric. Hence, this valve does not open in this stroke, see figure 4.28 (a).
Downstroke
During the downstroke, the valve S closes, see figure 4.28 (b). Increase in
pressure in the water in the barrel opens valve T and forces water into chamber
C so that as water fills the chamber, air is trapped and compressed at the upper
part.
Fig. 4.28: Force pump

During the next upstroke, valve T closes and the compressed air expands,
ensuring a continuous flow through P.
This pump has an advantage over the lift pump in that it enables a
continuous flow of water and the height to which water can be raised by this
pump does not depend on atmospheric pressure, but on the following:
(i) Amount of force applied during the downstroke.
(ii) Ability of the pump and its working parts to withstand pressure of the long
column of water in chamber C.

The Siphon
A tube (usually plastic or rubber) can be used to empty tanks or draw petrol from
petrol tanks of cars, as in figure 4.29. When used in this way, it is referred to as a
siphon.

Fig. 4.29: The siphon

The pressure at the surface of the liquid is atmospheric. The tube is first filled
with the liquid and end C held below the surface. Pressure at C is greater than
that at the surface by an amount hρg.
The liquid will continue to run out so long as the end C is below the liquid
surface. Pressure at A and B is atmospheric pressure since they are at the same
horizontal level. Pressure at C is equal to atmospheric pressure plus pressure due
to column h of the liquid. That is;
Pressure at C
Pc = Pa + hρg, where Pa is atmospheric pressure and ρ the density of water. The
excess presure hρg thus causes the liquid to flow out of the tube at C.
The siphon will only work if:
(i) the end C of the tube is below the surface of A of the liquid to be emptied.
(ii) the tube is first filled with the liquid, without any bubbles in it.
(iii) the tube does not rise above the height of the liquid surface A.
(iv) one end of the tube is inside the liquid to be emptied.
Note:
A siphon can operate in a vacuum. To understand this, consider a chain or thick
rope coiled into a bucket, raised above the ground and one end of it over a
pulley, see figure 4.30. The loose end A, when it is below the bucket will have a
net weight on it. This net weight resulting from the pull of gravity pulls down the
chain completely out of the bucket.

Fig. 4.30

This is how the siphon works in a vacuum.

An application of the siphon is the automatic flushing unit, shown in figure 4.31.
Fig. 4.31: An automatic water flushing unit

It is used where constant cleaning is necessary, like urinals. When the water in
the tank fills above the top of the inverted U-tube, a pressure difference between
the two arms is created. This causes the water to flow out of the tank. The tap
can be adjusted to enable the flushing unit to flush at pre-determined intervals.
The ordinary lavatory flusher is set to work by mechanically filling the tube with
water to create the necessary pressure difference.

Revision Exercise 4
1. Define pressure and state its SI unit.
2. Explain how a fountain pen is filled up with ink.
3. The atmospheric pressure on a particular day was measured as 750 mmHg.
Express this in Nm–2. (Assume density of mercury is 13 600 kgm–3 and g =
10 Nkg–1)
4. In a hydraulic press, a force of 200 N is applied to a master piston of area 25
cm2. If the press is designed to produce a force of 5 000 N, determine:
(a) the area of the slave piston.
(b) the radius of the slave piston.
5. The barometric height of a town is 70 cmHg. Given that the standard
atmospheric pressure is 76 cmHg and the density of mercury is 13 600 kgm–
3, determine the altitude of the town. (Density of air is 125 kgm–3)

6. The height h of a water manometer is 20 cm when used to measure the

pressure of a gas. Calculate the height of a manometer whose liquid is
glycerine of density 1.26 g/cm3 (Take g = 10 Nkg–1)
7. Explain how the pressure of a gas can be examined using the apparatus
shown in the figure below:
8. The figure below shows how to empty water from a large tank into a low-
lying container using rubber tubing:

(a) Explain why the tube must be filled with water before the emptying
process starts.
(b) Soon after the tank begins to empty, the lower end is momentarily
blocked by placing a finger at end D. Determine the pressure difference
between points A and D. (Take density of water to be (1000 kgm–3)
9. The diagram below shows a mercury manometer. Some dry gas is present in
the closed space in limb A, while limb B is open. If atmospheric pressure Pa
= 100 000 Nm–2, h = 20 mm and density of mercury is 13 600 kgm–3,
determine pressure Pg of the gas in mmHg. (Take g = 10 Nkg–1)
10. (a) Explain briefly the working of a simple mercury barometer.
(b) Explain the test that would be made to find out whether such a
barometer has any gas in the space above the mercury.
(c) Figure (i) below shows a simple mercury barometer, while figure (ii)
shows the same barometer with the tube tilted from the vertical:

Mark the level of mercury in tube (ii).

11. The figure below shows a U-tube filled with water, mercury and another
liquid:

(a) Determine the density of the liquid.

(b) State a possible reason why mercury is used.
12. The figure below shows a liquid in a pail.
(a) If the liquid has a density of 1.20 gcm–3, determine the pressure exerted
at the bottom of the container by the liquid.
(b) Suggest a reason why pail manufacturers prefer the shape shown to
other shapes.
13. The figure below shows columns of different liquids in a tube. Determine the
height of liquid A if its density is 1.20 g/cm3.

14. A roof has a surface area of 20 000 cm2. If the atmospheric pressure exerted
on the roof is 100 000 Pa, determine the force on it. (Take g = 10 Nkg–1)
15. Explain how a syringe draws;
(a) injectable drug from a bottle.
(b) blood from a patient’s body.
 The Particulate Nature
of Matter
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. Matter commonly exists as
solid, liquid or gas. The physical objects and materials around us like glass,
water and the air manifest the existence of matter in its three states.
The process of subdividing matter into smaller and smaller units continues
indefinitely, suggesting that matter is not continuous, but is made up of even
smaller parts.

Investigating Matter
There are several experiments that can be performed to show that matter is made
up of tiny particles. Some are considered below.
Experiment 5.1: To demonstrate that matter is made of tiny particles
Apparatus
A sheet of paper and a pair of scissors.
Procedure
• Cut the piece of paper into two parts.
• Take one part and cut it again into two parts and continue the process.
Figure 5.1 shows that the piece of paper can be cut into very many tiny pieces.

Fig. 5.1: Paper cut into smaller pieces

Observation
The process of cutting can continue until further subdivision becomes
impracticable.
Conclusion
The fact that the piece of paper can be subdivided into tiny pieces suggests that
matter is made up of tiny particles.
Experiment 5.2: To demonstrate dilution
Apparatus
Beaker, potassium permanganate crystals, water.
Procedure
• Pour water into the beaker till it is a quarter full.
• Dissolve a few crystals of potassium permanganate in the water until the
colour is deep purple.
• Add water to top up the volume to about half full as you observe the change
in colour intensity.
• Gradually add more water as you observe the change in colour intensity.
Continue the process until the beaker is full.
Fig. 5.2

Observation
The process of dilution can continue until the solution appears colourless. This
suggests that the particles of potassium permanganate are spread out evenly on
the water. Through each dilution process, the particles spread out further. As
water particles increase, the particles of potassium permanganate are spread
further, making the purple colour less and less deep until it appears colourless.
Conclusion
Potassium permanganate is made up of tiny particles.
Experiment 5.3: Dissolving a solid in a solvent
Apparatus
Flask with a stopper, common salt, pipette.
Procedure
• Put 100 g of salt into the flask and add water carefully using a pipette without
shaking the salt, until the flask is full, see figure 5.3 (a).
• Insert the stopper to the mouth of the flask and shake to dissolve the salt.

Fig. 5.3: Dissolving

Observation
From figure 5.3 (b), the volume of the solution of salt is less than the volume in
figure 5.3 (a).
Conclusion
Particles of salt are able to occupy some spaces between the water particles. This
suggests that the particles of water and the particles of salt differ in size. The
particles of the solution pack more closely in the available space, thus reducing
the volume. This further suggests that particles of salt are broken down to fit into
the spaces between the water particles.
Explain the purpose of shaking the flask. State the difference, if any, that would
be observed when you use warm water as a solvent.
Experiment 5.4: To demonstrate the Brownian motion in liquids
Apparatus
Beaker, hand lens, pollen grains or chalk dust, transparent lid.
Procedure
• Pour water into the beaker, about three quarters full, as shown in figure 5.4.

Fig. 5.4: Brownian motion

• Sprinkle pollen grains or chalk dust on the surface of the water (it is important
that the grains be very small in size, light and evenly sprinkled on the water
surface for good results).
• Cover the beaker with a transparent lid.
• With the help of a hand lens, observe what happens to the pollen grains on the
water surface.
Observation
It is observed that the pollen grains are in constant random motion, see figure
5.5.
Fig. 5.5: Random motion

Conclusion
The grains are being continually hit by small invisible particles of water. The
movement is random, suggesting that the particles of water are in constant
random movement. This kind of motion is called Brownian motion, a tribute to
the scientist by the name Robert Brown, who first observed the effect in 1827.

The Smoke Cell Experiment

Experiment 5.5: To demonstrate Brownian motion in air
Apparatus
Drinking straw, smoke cell, microscope and a bright light source.

Fig. 5.6: Smoke cell

Procedure
• Burn one end of a straw and let the smoke fill the smoke cell from the other
end of the straw as shown in figure 5.6. Remove the straw.
• Put a cover plate on top to seal the smoke and air in the cell.
• Now, set up the apparatus as shown in figure 5.7.
Fig. 5.7: Smoke cell experiment

• Illuminate the cell with a bright light. Use a converging lens to focus the light
on the smoke cell.
• Adjust the microscope until you can see very bright specks against the grey
background.
Observation
Bright specks in continuous random motion are seen in the smoke cell.
Explanation
The bright specks are particles of smoke which scatter the light shining on them
and so appear as bright points. They move about in a continuous random
movement because of uneven bombardment by the invisible particles or
molecules in air. This suggests that air is made up of very small particles which
are in continuous random motion.
Conclusion
From the experiment above, it can be deduced that matter is made up of very
small particles which are in constant random motion. This is called the kinetic
Theory of Matter.

Arrangement of Particles in the States of Matter

Fig. 5.8: States of matter

A – Melting
B – Vaporisation
C – Condensation
D – Solidification
E – Sublimation
F – Deposition

Solids
Particles of solids are closely packed together in an organised way, see figure
5.8. The closely knit structure is due to strong attractive forces between the
particles.
The force of attraction between particles of the same kind is called cohesive
force. In their fixed positions, the particles vibrate to and fro such that increasing
the temperature of the solid increases this vibratory motion. At a certain
temperature for a particular solid, the particles break away from this knit
structure and the solid is said to have melted.

Liquids
The particles are further apart as shown in the figure.
They are not fixed as in solids but move about in Brownian motion and can
do some work like breaking down a solute put in the liquid. It is easier to
dissolve a solute in hot water because the particles have increased energy. The
fact that a solid dissolves in water suggests that a solid is made up of small
particles and that a liquid has randomly moving particles.
The cohesive forces between particles in liquids are weaker compared to
those in solids. Because of this, liquids can flow and take up the shape of a
container in which they are put. When a liquid is heated, it changes into a
gaseous state by a process called vaporisation.

Gases
The particles are further apart and have increased random motion compared to
those in the liquid state. The cohesive force between the particles is extremely
small and as the particles move, they collide with each other and with the walls
of the container in which they are trapped. This produces gas pressure.
The fact that it is easier to compress gas than liquids indicates that there are
large inter-molecular distance in gases than in liquids. Gas molecules or particles
can lose some of their energy and fall back into the liquid state by a process
known as condensation.
Some solids directly change to gas. This process is called sublimation and
the reverse process is called deposition.
Figure 5.8 summarises the processes above.
Related to the gaseous state is another state of matter called plasma.
Plasma is a state of matter in which a certain portion of the particles in the
gas are in the form of ions, i.e., molecules or atoms in which the number of
positively charged particles is not equal to the number of negative electrons.
Heating a gas to very high temperatures may ionise it thus turning it into a
plasma. Common forms of plasmas include lightning and some extremely hot
flames. Plasma can also be artificially produced, e.g., inside fluorescent tubes
and in plasma television set displays, see figure 5.9.

Fig. 5.9 : Plasma TV and fluorescent tubes

Diffusion
How would you explain the observation that if a perfume is placed at one corner
of a room, it can be detected by the sense of smell throughout the room?
The process by which particles spread from regions of high concentration to
those of low concentration is called diffusion.

Diffusion in Liquids
Experiment 5.6: To investigate diffusion in liquids
Apparatus
Funnel, beaker, copper sulphate solution.

Fig. 5.10: Diffusion in liquids

Procedure
• Pour water into the beaker until it is half full.
• Pour saturated copper(II) sulphate solution down the funnel slowly and notice
how the two liquids settle.
• Remove the funnel carefully so that the liquids are not disturbed.
• Repeat the same steps with another set of apparatus, but using warm liquids.
Make observations several times over a period of, say, two days.
Observation and Explanation
Initially, the water layer floats on top of the saturated copper(II) sulphate
solution because it is less dense. After sometime, the boundary disappears and
the two liquids form a homogeneous pale blue mixture.
Formation of the mixture is faster with hot liquids because the movement of
particles is faster due to increased energy. There is greater movement of water
particles (molecules) from the water layer into the copper(II) sulphate layer
because it has greater concentration of water molecules than copper(II) sulphate
particles.
Similarly, there is greater movement of particles from copper(II) sulphate
layer into the water layer because of greater concentration of copper(II) sulphate
particles than water molecules.

Diffusion in Gases
Experiment 5.7: To demonstrate diffusion in gases
Note:
This experiment should be done in a fume cupboard or fume chamber because of
the poisonous nature of bromine.
Apparatus
Two gas jars, bromine gas.
Procedure
• A gas jar containing brown bromine gas and covered with a sheet of
cardboard is placed in contact with an open end of a gas jar of the same
diameter with the mouth smeared with grease.
• The cardboard is removed and the jars pressed together tightly, see figure 5.11
(b).

Fig. 5.11: Diffusion in gases

Observation and Explanation

The bromine gas spreads into the gas jar B at a greater speed than it returns to
gas jar A because of high concentration of bromine particles.
Likewise, air spreads into gas jar A at greater rate than it returns to B
because of high concentration of air particles in B. As shown in figure 5.11 (b), a
homogeneous pale brown mixture forms in the two jars and because this happens
in a very short time, it suggests that the random moverment of the particles is
more rapid in gases than diffusion in liquids. Performing the same experiment
with the jars held vertically instead of horizontally slows down the rate of
diffusion because of the different densities of the gases. The less dense gas
diffuses much faster into the more dense gas.
The characteristic smell of cooking gas used in laboratories can be detected
when there is a leakage. This is because the gas diffuses into the air.

Diffusion in Solids
Diffusion in solids is exceedingly slow, but occurs when two metals are placed
in contact with each other, e.g., lead and gold metal blocks.
Vibrating atoms break away from the substance to which they belong and
enter the other substance to be trapped by its attractive forces. This process is
speeded up by high temperatures.
Diffusion in liquids occurs at a faster rate than in solids. Diffusion in gases
is faster due to their low density, high kinetic energy of their molecules and low
cohesive forces.

Rates of Diffusion
Experiment 5.8: To investigate the rates of diffusion of ammonia gas and
hydrochloric acid gas
Apparatus
Long glass tube with fitting corks, cotton wool, concentrated solution of
hydrochloric acid and concentrated ammonia solution.
Procedure
• Clamp a long glass tube horizontally as shown in figure 5.12. Soak a piece of
cotton wool in concentrated solution of hydrochloric acid and another in
concentrated ammonia solution. Care should be taken while handling the two
solutions because of their burning effect on the skin.
Fig. 5.12

• Simultaneously insert the soaked cotton wool pieces at the opposite ends of
the horizontal glass tube and cork it. Observe what happens.
Observation and Explanation
A white deposit of ammonium chloride forms on the walls of the glass tube in
the region nearer end B. This suggests that although both gases diffused,
ammonia gas did so at a higher rate than the hydrochloric acid gas.
Conclusion
Different gases have different rates of diffusion. A gas of high density has
heavier particles or molecules, hence moves more slowly than a lighter one.

Diffusion through Porous Materials

Figure 5.13 shows diffusion through a porous pot.
Fig. 5.13: Diffusion through porous pot

The porous pot has very fine holes through which the hydrogen gas diffuses into
the pot and air diffuses out. The hydrogen gas bubbles out of the glass tube as
shown in the diagram. When the gas supply is stopped, the hydrogen gas
diffuses out of the pot through the fine hole at a faster rate than air gets back in
the pot. This decreases the gas pressure in the pot, compelling the atmospheric
pressure acting on the water surface in the beaker to push water up the tube.
Note:
The beaker in 5.13 (a) is for confining the hydrogen gas around the porous pot.

Revision Exercise 5
1. Using pollen grains placed on water, explain how their motion supports the
idea that matter is not continuous.
2. Describe the smoke cell experiment and explain how you can deduce from
observations that particles of air are in constant and random motion.
 3. Explain how temperature affects Brownian motion?
4. State the kinetic theory of matter.
5. Explain why it is possible to compress gases but not solids or liquids.
6. (a) In terms of cohesive forces and inter-particle distances of particles in
matter, distinguish between the three states of matter.
(b) Using a block diagram and correct terminology, show how one state of
matter changes to the other when the temperature is changed. Define all
the terminologies used.
7. (a) Explain how diffusion supports the idea that matter is made up of
particles.
(b) Describe an experiment that would demonstrate diffusion in liquids.
8. In the figure below, ammonia gas and an acid gas diffuse and react to form a
white deposit on the walls of the glass tube. The deposit forms nearer end B.

(a) State which gas diffused faster.

(b) Explain how the rate of diffusion depends on the density of a gas.
(c) If the experiment was performed at a higher temperature, would you
expect it to take longer or shorter time to form the white deposits?
Explain.
9. A small potassium permanganate crystal is dropped into clean water. It
dissolves and the colour eventually fills the whole beaker, but this takes a
long time. Use the idea of particles to explain this.
10. Compare diffusion of chlorine gas into air and into vacuum. Explain your
comparison.
11. Describe an experiment that gives evidence that matter is made of small
particles in random motion.
12. The figure below shows a gas jar Q containing nitrogen oxide gas which is
brown in colour and is denser than air and a jar P which contains air. When
the cover R is removed, nothing visible happens in the first few minutes
(about 10 minutes):
 (a) Explain why nothing visible happens in the first few minutes.
(b) Explain what you would observe after, say 30 minutes? What do you
think will have happened.
13. A glass-sided box containing a mixture of smoke and air is illuminated and
viewed through a microscope. It is observed that small bright specks are
seen to be moving randomly.
(a) Explain what the bright specks are.
(b) State why they move?
(c) If the mixture of smoke and air was warmed. Explain the change or
changes there would be in the motion of the specks.
14. Describe the difference between solids, liquids and gases in terms of:
(a) the arrangement of molecules.
(b) distance separating the molecules.
(c) the movement of molecules.
15. (a) Indicate the processes through which the state of substances can be
changed.
(b) Explain why the smell of rotten eggs broken at one end of the room
soon spreads throughout the room.
 Thermal Expansion
Temperature
Suppose you are given two bodies, one cold and the other hot. The sense of
touch will enable you to differentiate between the cold body and the hot one.
However, this method is subjective and will not give an accurate
comparison. A standard scale is, therefore, necessary for the purpose.
The degree (extent) of coldness or hotness of a body on some chosen scale
is called the temperature of the body. The temperature of a body is measured
by an instrument called a thermometer.
Temperature is a basic quantity and is measured in degrees Celsius (°C) or
Kelvin (K). The Kelvin is the SI unit of temperature, which is a scalar quantity.

Expansion and Contraction of solids

Metals and other solids expand (increase in size) when heated and contract
(decrease in size) when cooled.
Experiment 6.1: To demonstrate expansion of solids using the ball and ring
experiment
Apparatus
Ball and ring apparatus. The ball should be such that it just passes through the
ring when both are at room temperature.

Fig. 6.1: Ball and ring

Procedure
• Heat the ball and try to pass it through the ring. Observe what happens.
• Leave it there for some time. Observe what happens.
Observation
When both the ball and the ring are at room temperature, the ball just passes
through the ring. When the ball is heated, it does not go through the ring but
when left there for sometime, it goes through.
Explanation
When heated, the ball expands so that it cannot go through the ring.
When left on the ring for sometime, the temperature of the ball decreases
and it contracts. At the same time, the temperature of the ring increases and it
expands so that the ball goes through.
Experiment 6.2: To demonstrate expansion in solids using the bar and
gauge apparatus
Apparatus
Bar and gauge apparatus, Bunsen burner.

Fig. 6.2: Bar and gauge

Procedure
• Fit a metal bar in the gauge when cold as shown in figure 6.2 and note what
happens.
• Heat the metal bar and try to fit in the gauge. Note the observations.
Observation
When the bar is cold, it just fits into the gauge. When heated, the bar does not fit
into the gauge.
Explanation
The bar expands when heated.

To compare the Expansion of Different Metals

Figure 6.3 shows apparatus that can be used to compare the expansions of
different metals. In this apparatus, a small expansion of the metal bar is
magnified using a long pivoted pointer.

Fig. 6.3

One end of the metal bar is fixed while the other end is in contact with the
pointer.
To compare expansions of different materials, rods of same length and
diameter are used. Each is fixed at a time and heated from room temperature
with the same burner for 5 minutes.
If the rods are allowed to cool to room temperature, the pointer will record
the original scale reading. The set-up can be used to show that metals expand
differently when heated through the same length of time.

Force Due to Expansion and Contraction

Experiment 6.3: To investigate the force due to expansion and contraction
Apparatus
Bar-breaking apparatus with at least two cast iron pins, Bunsen burner.
Procedure
• Fit the tensioning nut and cast iron pin on the inside position of a bar-breaking
apparatus, as shown in figure 6.4 (a).

Fig. 6.4: Force due to expansion and contraction

• Tighten the tensioning nut until there is no room for expansion of the steel
rod.
• Heat the steel rod strongly and note what happens to the cast iron pin. Allow
the apparatus to cool and repeat the experiment with the other cast iron pin
and the tensioning nut on the outside, as shown in figure 6.4 (b).
• Withdraw the flame and allow the steel rod to cool.
• You may pour cold water on it to cool it faster. Observe what happens to the
pin.
Observation
The cast iron pin breaks in both cases.
Conclusion
The experiment shows that very strong forces are generated when metals expand
and contract due to heating or cooling.
When expansion occurs in a material, there is an increase in volume with no
change in mass, hence a decrease in density.

Linear Expansivity
When a steel rod is heated, it expands. The change in length (increase in length)
of the rod is called its linear expansion.
The measure of the tendency of a particular material to expand is called its
expansivity. Aluminium expands more than iron, thus aluminium has higher
expansivity than iron. Table 6.1 shows linear expansivity values of some
materials.
Table 6.1

Material Linear expansivity (K–1) × 10–6

Aluminium 26
Brass 19
Copper 16.8
Iron 12
Concrete 11
Steel 11
Glass 9
Platinum alloy 9
Silica 4.2
Pyrex 3.2
Invar 1
The knowledge of linear expansivity values is applied in the designing of
materials to ensure that they are able to operate well under varying thermal
conditions.
Ordinary glass expands at a higher rate than Pyrex glass. When hot water is
poured into a tumbler made of ordinary glass, it breaks. However, when Pyrex
tumbler is used, there is no danger of it cracking. Pyrex glass with its low value
of expansivity will not suffer very large forces of expansion as it undergoes
temperature change.
In building construction, beams can be made out of concrete reinforced
with steel because they expand at the same rate. Similarly, platinum wires are
encased in glass for electrical insulation.

The Bimetallic Strip

When two metals of different linear expansivity are riveted together, they form a
bimetallic strip. Brass and iron are used to make the bimetallic strip shown in
figure 6.5.

Fig. 6.5: Behaviour of bimetallic strip

On heating the bimetallic strip, brass expands more than iron. The brass
thus becomes longer than the iron for the same temperature range. Hence, the
bimetallic strip bends with brass on the outside of the curve.
On cooling however, the brass contracts more than the iron. It, therefore,
becomes shorter than the iron and thus ends up being on the inner side of the
curve.

Applications of Expansion and Contraction in Solids

Railway lines
Railway lines are constructed in sections held together by fishplates. The bolt
holes in the rail are oval to allow free expansion and contraction of the rails with
changes in temperature, see figure 6.6.
Fig. 6.6: Allowing for expansion and contraction on a railway line

This rail construction design is known as the jointed track. Some space
known as expansion joint is left between the railway lines to allow for
expansion. The jointed track does not offer high quality train ride and has largely
been discarded in the developed world, but is still common in the developing
world since it is relatively cheaper to install and maintain compared to other
designs.
A more modern method of allowing for expansion in railway lines is to
taper the ends of the rails so that they overlap, as shown in figure 6.7.

Fig. 6.7: Rails overlapping

Steam Pipes
Pipes carrying steam from boilers are fitted with loops or expansion joints, see
figure 6.8. These allow the pipes to expand and contract easily when steam
passes through, and when the pipe cools down.
Fig. 6.8: Expansion joint

Without the loop, the forces of expansion and contraction produced would cause
the pipe to fracture. Oil companies make this allowance when constructing fuel
pipelines.

Telephone Wires
Telephone wires are loosely fixed to allow for contraction. During cold weather,
they contract and when it is warm, they expand.
Telephone or electricity wires appear to be shorter and taunt in the morning,
see figure 6.9(a). However in the hot afternoon, the wires appear longer and
slack, see figure 6.9(b).

Fig. 6.9 (a): Wires in the morning

Fig. 6.9 (b): Wires on a hot afternoon

Steel Bridges
In bridges made of steel girders, one end is fixed and the other end placed on
rollers to allow for expansion, see figure 6.10.

Fig. 6.10

Rivets
Thick metal plates, sheets and girders in ships are joined together by means of
rivets. The rivet is fitted when hot and then hammered flat. On cooling, it
contracts, pulling the two plates firmly together, see figure 6.11.
Fig. 6.11: Metals joined by rivets

The Bimetallic Strip

Bimetallic strips have several applications such as in the thermostat.
A thermostat is a device for maintaining a steady temperature. Figure 6.12
shows a thermostat used for controlling the temperature of a room warmed up by
an electric heater.

Fig. 6.12: A thermostat

A heater circuit is connected through the electric terminals shown. If the room
becomes warm, the bimetallic strip bends, curving away from the lower contacts.
This breaks the circuit and switches off the heater. On cooling, the bimetallic
strips bends back, closing up the gap between the contacts and the heater is
switched on again. The temperature at which the thermostat switches the heater
on and off is adjusted by the setting knob.
For high temperatures, the setting knob is adjusted to push the metal strip M
such that the contacts are tight together. The temperatures must then rise to quite
high values before the bimetallic strip can bend away sufficiently to break the
circuit. A slight drop in the temperatures will result the bimetallic strip bending
back to close the contacts again.
 For low temperature range, the adjusting knob is released so that the
position of M is lowered. The temperature then has to drop to a much lower
value before the bimetallic strip bends to make contact. Thermostats are also
used to control the temperature of electric irons, cookers and fridges.
Modern digital thermostats have no moving parts and are instead made up
of thermistors (temperature-sensitive resistors) or semiconductors. They have a
digital screen showing the temperature reading currently and the temperature
that has been set as the threshold.

Exercise 6.1
1. (a) Describe how an iron tyre is fitted onto the wheel of a train.
(b) In the laboratory, boiling tubes made of glass are subjected to strong
flames for heating without cracking. Explain.
2. The figure below represents a simple fire alarm. Explain how it works.

3. State and explain the disadvantages of thermal expansion in solids.

Expansion and Contraction of Liquids

Experiment 6.5: To demonstrate the expansion of water
Apparatus
A round-bottomed flask filled with coloured water, Bunsen burner.
Fig. 6.13: Expansion of water

Procedure
• Fill a flask with coloured water and arrange the apparatus as shown in figure
6.13.
• Mark the level of the water in the glass tube.
• Heat the flask with the burner flame as you observe the level of water in the
tube.
Observation
The level of the water in the glass tube falls slightly at first and then starts rising.
Explanation
The initial fall of the level of the water is due to the expansion of the glass flask
which gets heated first. The water starts expanding when the heat finally reaches
it, and it rises up the tube.
Note:
The water expands faster than glass.
Experiment 6.6: To compare the expansion of different liquids
Apparatus
Three identical glass flasks, one filled with water, another with alcohol and the
third with methylated spirit, a water bath.
Procedure
• Place the flasks in a water bath in such a way that they are all covered to the
same depth, as shown in figure 6.14 Ensure that the liquid levels in all the
tubes are the same.
Fig. 6.14: Liquids before heating the water

• Heat the water bath while stirring and observe the liquid levels.
Observations and Conclusion
The levels of the liquids in the tubes rise by different amounts as the heating
continues. This shows that some liquids expand more than others for a given rise
in temperature. Of the three liquids used, methylated spirit expands most,
followed by alcohol and finally water, see figure 6.15.

Fig. 6.15: Liquids after heating the water bath

Stirring is necessary to ensure that the temperature of water in the bath is

uniform.

The Anomalous Expansion of Water

From the foregoing, solids and liquids expand when heated and contract when
cooled. Water however shows an anomalous (unusual) behaviour in that it
contracts when its temperature is raised from 0°C.
When ice is heated from, say, –20°C, it expands until its temperature
reaches 0°C and melts with no change in temperature. The melting is
accompanied by contraction. The water formed will still contract as its
temperature rises from 0°C, as shown in figure 6.16.
Fig. 6.16: Variation of volume of water with temperature

Above 4°C, the water expands with increase in temperature. Since volume of a
given mass of water is a minimum at 4°C, water at this temperature has
maximum density, slightly higher than 1 g/cm3.
A sketch of the variation of density with temperature is shown in figure
6.17.

Fig. 6.17: Variation of density with temperature

At the melting point of water (0° C), there is a drastic increase in the
volume, resulting in a large decrease in density as the ice forms.

Some Effects of Anomalous Expansion of Water

Freezing of lakes and ponds

In temperature latitudes, water in lakes and ponds usually freezes in winter. Ice,
being less dense than water, floats on the water. Since ice is a bad conductor of
heat, it insulates the water below against heat losses to the cold air above. Water
at 4°C, being the most dense, remains at the bottom of lake while ice, being less
dense than water, floats on the layers of water at different temperatures, as
shown in figure 6.18.
Fish and other aquatic animals and plants can, therefore, survive by living
in the liquid layers below the ice.

Fig. 6.18: Variation of temperature in a frozen lake

Icebergs
Since the density of ice (0.92 gcm–3) is slightly less than that of water, it floats
with only a small portion above the water surface. The rest and the bigger
portion remains under water. A big mass of such submerged ice is known as an
iceberg. It poses a great danger to ships as navigators cannot see the submerged
part.

Weathering of Rocks
When water in a crack in rock freezes, it expands. This expansion breaks the
rock into small pieces.

Water Pipes
Water pipes burst when the water flowing through the pipes freeze.

Expansion of Gases
Experiment 6.7: To show the expansion of gases
Apparatus
A round-bottomed flask with a glass tube in a tight-fitting rubber cork, a basin of
water.
Procedure
• Invert the flask with the glass tube dipped into the water, as shown in figure
6.19 (a).
Fig. 6.19 (a)

• Warm the flask with your hands for some time and note what happens.
• Remove your hands and let the flask cool while the tube is still inserted in
water. Observe what happens.
Observation
When the flask is warmed, the level of the water column inside the glass tube
drops. When the flask is warmed further, bubbles are seen as in figure 6.19 (b).
On cooling, the air inside the flask contracts and water rises up the glass tube.

Fig. 6.19 (b)

Explanation
The level of water in the column drops, indicating that air expands. On further
expansion of the air bubbles are seen at the end of the tube as air escapes from
the flask.

Molecular Explanation of Expansion

The particulate nature of matter can be used to explain expansion of solids,
liquids and gases.

Solids
Molecules in solids are closely packed and held together by forces of attraction.
These forces are so strong that molecules do not change positions, but vibrate
about their mean positions.
When a solid is heated, the vibrations of the molecules increase, resulting in
increasing distance from their mean position. This leads to an increase in the size
of the solid.

Liquids
In liquids, the forces of attraction between molecules are weaker than in solids,
hence liquid molecules are farther apart than in solids.
When a liquid is heated in a container, the vibrations of its molecules
become more vigorous. The liquid will then occupy more space.

Gases
In gases, the molecules are much farther apart than in solids and liquids. This is
because the attractive forces between gas molecules are very weak. When
heated, gas molecules gain more energy and move farther apart, occupying more
space.

Measuring Temperature
Thermometers
A thermometer is an instrument used for measuring temperature. There are many
types of thermometers each being designed for a specific purpose.

Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer
In this thermometer, the liquid in the bulb expands up a capillary tube when the
bulb is heated. The liquid in the bulb must:
(i) expand or contract uniformly and by a large amount over a small range of
temperature.
(ii) be seen easily (visible).
(iii) not stick to the inside of the tube (should not wet the inside of the tube).
(iv) have a wide range of temperature between boiling and freezing.
The most common liquids for use in thermometers are mercury and alcohol.
Mercury freezes at –39°C and boils at 357°C while alcohol freezes at –115°C
and boils at 78°C. Alcohol is, therefore, suitable for measurements of
temperatures below –39°C.
The properties of the two thermometric liquids are compared in table 6.1.
Table 6.1

Alcohol Mercury
Low boiling point, 78°C. High boiling point, 357 °C.
Low melting point, –115°C Relatively higher melting
point, –39°C.
Poor thermal conductor. Good thermal conductor
Expansion slightly irregular. Expands regularly.
Wets glass. Does not wet glass.
Transparent, and has to be coloured to make it Opaque and silvery.
easily visible.

Exercise 6.2
1. State the advantages of mercury over alcohol as a thermometric liquid.
2. Explain why water is never used as a thermometric liquid.

Temperature Scale
A scale of temperature is obtained by selecting two temperatures known as fixed
points. The range between these two fixed points is divided into a number of
equal divisions.
On the Celsius scale, the lower fixed point is the temperature of pure
melting ice and is taken as 0°C. Impurities in the ice would lower its melting
point.
The upper fixed point is the temperature of steam above water boiling at
normal atmospheric pressure of 760 mmHg, and is taken as 100°C.
 The temperature of boiling water itself is not used because any impurities in
water would raise its boiling point. The temperature of the steam on the other
hand is not affected by impurities in water.
Methods of finding the fixed points are shown in figure 6.20. When these
points have been marked, the range between them is divided into 100 equal
divisions, see figure 6.20 (c). Each division is then called a degree.

Fig. 6.20: Marking the lower fixed points

Features of a Common Thermometer

The basic features of a common laboratory thermometer are shown in figure
6.21.
Fig. 6.21

Bulb
The bulb carries the liquid in the thermometer. It has a thin glass wall for
effective heat transmission between the liquid inside and the body whose
temperature is to be taken.

Capillary Bore
The liquid expands and contracts along the capillary bore. The capillary bore is
narrow for high degree of accuracy.

Glass Stem
This is a thick glass wall surrounding the capillary bore. It also serves as
magnifying glass for easy reading of the scale.

Celsius and Kelvin Scale

The two most commonly used temperature scales are the Celsius and Kelvin
scales.
The Celsius scale has the fixed points at 0°C and 100°C. It is also referred
to as Centigrade scale.
In the Kelvin scale, the temperature of pure melting ice is 273 K while that
of pure boiling water at normal atmospheric pressure is 373 K.
The lowest temperature in the Kelvin scale, the zero K, is also referred to as
absolute zero. This is the temperature at which the energy of the particles in a
material is zero.
To change °C to Kelvin, add 273 and to change temperature in Kelvin to
degrees Celsius, subtract 273, i.e., T = θ + 273, where T is the temperature in the
Kelvin scale and θ the temperature on the Celsius scale.

Example 1
Convert each of the following temperatures into Kelvin:
(a) 25°C
(b) 100°C
(c) 0°C
(d) –123°C
Solution
(a) T = θ + 273
25°C = 25 + 273
= 298 K
(b) 100°C = 100 + 273
= 373 K
(c) 0°C = 0 + 273
= 273 K
(d) T = –123 + 273
= 150 K

Example 2
Convert the following from Kelvin to °C:
(a) 350 K
(b) 100 K
(c) 1 K
(d) 0 K
Solution
θ = T – 273
(a) θ = 350 – 273
= 77°C
(b) θ = 100 – 273
= –173°C
(c) θ = 1 – 273
= –272°C
(d) θ = 0 – 273
= –273°C
Note:
Temperature in the Kelvin scale cannot have a negative value because the
absolute zero, 0 K, is the lowest temperature attainable.

Clinical Thermometer
This thermometer is a special type used for measuring human body temperature.
Its temperature range is about 35°C – 43°C, which makes it suitable since the
temperature of a healthy person is about 37°C.

Fig. 6.22: A clinical thermometer

The tube has a constriction just beyond the bulb. When the thermometer is
used to take the temperature of a patient, the mercury expands, forcing its way
past the constriction. When the thermometer is withdrawn, the mercury in the
bulb cools and contracts, breaking the mercury thread at the constriction. The
mercury beyond the constriction stays in the tube, showing the body
temperature. After the thermometer has been read, the mercury is returned to the
bulb by a simple flick.
Methylated spirit may be used to sterilise the thermometer after use.
A more recent technology in the measurement of temperature is the use of
the non-contact infra-red thermometer, also known as the laser thermometer.
The thermometer operates by making use of thermal radiation emitted by the
body whose temperature is being measured. The thermometer is useful in
measuring temperatures of inaccessible areas, moving objects, very hot objects,
rotating objects or those whose temperatures are rapidly changing. It is also
useful when a fast response is required.

Six’s Maximum and Minimum Thermometer

This is a special thermometer that is used to record the maximum and minimum
temperatures reached in an area during a specified period, e.g., a day.
Fig. 6.23: Six’s maximum and minimum thermometer

When it becomes hot, the alcohol in bulb P expands to push the mercury up
the right side of the U-tube. The mercury, therefore, pushes the steel index A
upwards. The steel index has a spring which holds it in position in the glass tube.
When the temperature falls, the alcohol in bulb P contracts and the mercury is
pulled back, rising up the left side of the U-tube. The index B is, therefore,
pushed up. During contraction of the alcohol, index A is left behind (in the
alcohol) by the falling mercury. The lower end of this index indicates the
maximum temperature reached during the specific period. The minimum
temperature is read from the lower end of index B.
To reset the thermometer, a magnet is used to return the steel indices to the
mercury surfaces.

The Bimetallic Thermometer

This type of thermometer consists of a coiled bimetallic strip as shown in figure
6.24. One end of the spiral is fixed while a pointer is attached to the other end.
An increase in temperature causes the spiral to curl in a clockwise direction,
forcing the pointer to move over a calibrated scale. The curling is due to the
unequal expansion of the metals in the bimetallic strip.
Fig. 6.24: Bimetallic thermometer

There are other special thermometers which include the constant volume gas
thermometer, electronic thermometer, the resistance thermometer and the
thermocouple thermometer.

Revision Exercise 6
1. State two advantages of thermal expansion.
2. Describe a method that can be used to open a tight lid of a bottle without
damaging it.
3. A man wants to fit a brass ring tightly onto a steel rod of diameter equal to
the inner diameter of the ring. Explain how this can be achieved.
4. State and explain the disadvantages of anomalous expansion of water.
5. State three properties of a liquid that is suitable for use in a thermometer.
6. Sketch a clinical thermometer and explain its special features.
7. Convert each of the following from Kelvin to °C:
(a) 0 K
(b) 167 K
(c) 283 K
(d) 3 450 K
8. A faulty mercury thermometer reads 10°C when dipped into melting ice and
90°C when in steam at normal atmospheric pressure. Determine the reading
of this thermometer when dipped into a liquid at 20°C.
9. When marking the fixed points on a thermometer, it is observed that at 0°C,
the mercury thread is of length 1 cm and 6 cm at 100°C. Find the
temperature that would correspond to a length of 4 cm.
 Heat Transfer
Heat and Temperature
Heat is a form of energy which passes from a body at a higher temperature to a
body at a lower temperature. If a body receives heat energy, its temperature
increases whereas the temperature of a body that gives away heat energy
decreases, see figure 7.1. If two bodies at the same temperature are in contact,
there is no net heat flow from one body to the other.

Fig. 7.1: Heat flow between bodies in contact

The SI unit of heat is the joule (J). Heat cannot be measured directly by an
instrument as temperature is by a thermometer.

Modes of Heat Transfer

Heat can travel through a medium and also through a vacuum. There are three
modes of heat transfer, namely, conduction, convection and radiation. Both
conduction and convection require a material medium, but radiation can take
place in a vacuum. Conduction of heat takes place in solids while convection
takes place in fluids (liquids and gases).

Conduction
If you stir hot tea using a metal spoon, you will observe that the handle of the
spoon becomes warm. The mechanism by which heat is transferred through the
spoon can be explained in two ways:
(i) Heat energy entering the spoon from the hot end increases the vibrations of
the atoms in the spoon at this end. These atoms in turn collide with
neighbouring atoms, increasing their vibrations and hence passing the heat
 energy along.
(ii) Metals have free electrons which travel throughout the body of the metal.
Heat energy injected at the hot end of the metal spoon increases the
vibrations of the particles at the end. The free electrons in that region, gain
more kinetic energy and because they are free to move, spread heat energy
to the other parts of the spoon.
Experiment 7.1: Comparing thermal conductivities of various conductors
Apparatus
Rods of aluminium, iron, copper, rubber, glass, wood (all must be of same length
and cross-section) and with a waxed on the surface, thermal conductivity tank,
source of heat.

Fig. 7.2: Comparing thermal conductivities

Procedure
• Set the apparatus as shown. Ensure that the rods are held firmly. Pour boiling
water into the container.
• The hot water bath is used for the uniform heating of the rods.
• Observe the order in which the wax (or vaseline) melts off the rods. The best
conductor is one whose wax melts off first.
• List the rods in order of decreasing conductivity.
Observation
Different materials have different thermal conductivities. Metals are generally
good conductors of heat. Non-metals are poor conductors of heat (insulators).
From the foregoing, solids that are good conductors of heat (metals) use
both vibration of the atoms and free electrons to conduct heat. Solids that are
poor conductors of heat like glass, wood and rubber make use of vibration of
atoms as a mechanism to conduct heat because they have no free or mobile
electrons.
Table 7.1 shows some of the good and poor conductors in decreasing order of
thermal conductivity.
Table 7.1: Good and poor conductors of heat

Good conductors Poor conductors

Silver Concrete
Copper Glass
Aluminium Brick
Brass Asbestos paper
Zinc Rubber
Iron Wood
Lead Water
Mercury Air

Note:
During thermal conduction, heat flows through the materials without the
material shifting or flowing. Conduction is, therefore, the transfer of heat as a
result of vibration of particles.
Experiment 7.2: Comparison of conductivities of wood and iron rods
Apparatus
Iron rod and wooden rod of the same diameter joined end to end, Bunsen burner,
a piece of paper.
Fig. 7.3: Comparison of conductivities

Procedure
• The piece of paper is wrapped round the joint so that some of the paper is
over the iron rod and some over the wooden rod.
• A flame is passed over the paper several times.
Observation and Explanation
The paper gets charred (blackened) on the region covering the wooden rod. This
is because the wood does not conduct heat from the paper. Wood is said to be a
bad conductor of heat while iron is a good conductor.

Factors Affecting Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity in materials depends on the following factors:
(i) The temperature difference (Δθ) between the ends of the conductor.
(ii) The length of the conductor.
(iii) The cross-section area (A) of the conductor.
(iv) The nature of the material (k).
The experiments below illustrate how these factors affect thermal conduction.
Experiment 7.3: To demonstrate how temperature difference (Aθ) affects
thermal conduction
Apparatus
Two metal rods of same material, length and cross-section area, water bath,
Bunsen burner.
Fig. 7.4: Conduction depends on temperature differences

Procedure
• Hold one end of each rod in your hand.
• Put the other end of one of the rods in boiling water (about 100 °C) and the
other rod in the bluish part of the Bunsen burner flame (about 500 °C) see
figure 7.4. Note how long it takes before the rods are too hot to hold.
Observation
The rod placed in the flame becomes too hot earlier than the one placed in the
boiling water.
Conclusion
The rate of heat flow (thermal conduction) increases with increase in
temperature difference
Explanation
As stated earlier, thermal conduction in metals is by two mechanisms, namely,
vibration of the atoms and by free (mobile) electrons. A high temperature
difference (∆θ) between the ends of the conductor sets the atoms into vibration
more vigorously and since the atoms are joined by spring-like bonds, the
vibrations are passed on more quickly to the cool end. The electrons in a similar
way gain a lot of kinetic energy, causing them to spread the heat energy to cooler
parts of the metal within a short time.
Experiment 7.4: To demonstrate how the length (l) of a conductor affects
thermal conduction
Apparatus
Two metal rods A and B of the same material and cross-sectional area, the
length of rod A being twice that of rod B, Bunsen burner.

Fig. 7.5

Procedure
• Hold one end of rod A in one hand and rod B in the other hand.
• Put the other ends in the burner flame. Note how long it takes before each rod
becomes too hot to hold.
Observation
The end of rod B held in the hand becomes too hot to hold earlier than A.
Conclusion
Thermal conductivity increases with decrease in length.
Explanation
Heat travels within a conductor along imaginary lines called lines of heat flow.
These lines diverge from the hot end, as shown in figure 7.6

Fig.7.6
As can be seen from figure 7.6, the lines of heat flow passing through the cross
sectional area of the metal rod at X are more than those passing through the
same cross sectional area at Y which is a point farther away from the hot end.
This indicates that the shorter the length of material, the higher the amount
of heat energy reaching the end. When the conductor is lagged, the lines of heat
are uniform.

Lagging
This is the covering of good conductors of heat with insulating materials to
reduce heat loss through the surface by conduction. Figure 7.7 shows lines of
heat flow in a lagged metal rod.

Fig. 7.7: Effects of lagging on heat flow

Experiment 7.5: To demonstrate how cross-section area of a material affects

thermal conductivity
Apparatus
Two metal rods A and B of the same material and same length, the diameter of
metal A being twice that of B, Bunsen burner.

Fig. 7.8: Comparing rate of heat flow by cross-section area

Procedure
• Hold one end of rod A in one hand and one end of rod B in the other.
• Put the other ends in the Bunsen burner flame.
• Note how long it takes you to hold each of the metal flame.
Observation
The end of rod A held in the hand becomes too hot earlier than rod B.
Conclusion
Thermal conductivity increases with increase in area of cross-section of the
conducting material.
Explanation
The number of free electrons per unit length of the thicker metal rod (A) is more
than those in metal rod (B).
Experiment 7.6: To demonstrate how the type of material (k) affects
thermal conductivity
Apparatus
Copper rod and iron rod of the same diameter and length, Bunsen burner.

Fig. 7.9: Comparing rate of heat flow in different materials

Procedure
• Hold the two metal rods in the Bunsen burner.
• Note how long it takes you to hold each of the two metals in the flame.
Observation
The end of the copper rod held in the hand becomes too hot earlier that the iron
rod.
Conclusion
Thermal conductivity depends on the nature of the material.
Explanation
Different materials have different strengths of force bonding the atoms within
the material. The number of free electrons also differs from material to material.
Materials with many free electrons are better conductors of heat. Copper has
more free electrons than iron.
In summary, the rate of heat flow (thermal conductivity):
(i) increases with increase in temperature difference, i.e., the rate of heat
flow is directly proportional to the temperature difference.
(ii) increases with decrease in length l, i.e., the rate of heat flow is inversely
proportional to the length of a conductor.
(iii) increases with increase in cross-sectional area (A) of the material, i.e., the
rate of heat flow is directly proportional to the area of cross-section of
a material.
(iv) increases with the thermal conductivity value (k) of the material.

Thermal Conductivity in Liquids

Experiment 7.7: To demonstrate that water is a poor conductor of heat
Apparatus
Boiling tube containing water, ice wrapped in a wire-gauze, Bunsen burner.

Fig. 7.10: Demonstrating thermal conductivity of water

Procedure
• Set up the apparatus as shown in figure 7.10.
• Heat the water at the top until it starts boiling.
• Note the changes, if any, in the ice.
Observation
Water at the top of the test tube boils while the ice remains unmelted.
Conclusion
Water is a poor conductor of heat.
Note:
(i) The test tube is made of glass (a poor conductor of heat), which limits
possible conduction of heat down the tube.
(ii) The ice is wrapped in wire gauze to ensure that it does not float.
(iii) The fact that the wire gauze is a good conductor of heat and yet the ice
remained unmelted shows that there is very little heat transfer in the water,
unable to melt the ice.
(iv) Water is heated at the top to eliminate possibility of heat transfer to the ice
by convection.
Although liquids are in general poor conductors of heat, the experimental set-up
shown in figure 7.11 can be used to show that some liquids are better heat
conductors than others.

Fig. 7.11: Comparing thermal conductivities of mercury and water

The test-tubes are coated with a uniform layer of candle wax. When region A of
the copper rod, which is midway from the centres of the test-tubes is heated for
some time, the wax on the test-tube with mercury begins to melt. Later, the wax
near the top of the test-tube with water melts while the wax lower down the test-
tube does not melt. This shows that mercury is a better conductor of heat than
water. It is important to note that mercury vapour is poisonous.

Why Liquids are Poor Conductors of Heat

Pure liquids have molecules further apart from each other. Although molecules
move about within the liquid bulk, they are slow to pass heat to other regions
compared to the free electrons in metals. This is because there are large inter-
molecular distances between liquid molecules. There are also fewer collisions
between the molecules. Electrolytes, e.g., salt solution, are better conductors of
heat than pure liquids because of an increased compactness of the particles.
Mercury is a metal existing as a liquid at room temperature. Bromine, the only
non-metalic element existing as a liquid at room temperature, is a poor
conductor of heat.

Thermal Conductivity in Gases

Since thermal conduction is by means of vibration of atoms and the presence of
free electrons, gases are worst conductors of heat because of large inter-
molecular distance between the atoms.

Fig. 7.12: Demonstrating poor thermal conductivity in gases

In figure 7.12, a match-stick held within the unburnt gas region of a Bunsen
burner flame is not ignited by the heat from the hot part of the flame. This is
because gas is a poor conductor of heat.

Some Applications of Good and Poor Conductors of Heat

1. Cooking utensils, soldering irons and boilers are made of metals which
conduct heat rapidly. For cooking utensils, the handles are made of insulators
such as wood or plastic. Metal pipes carrying water from boilers are lagged
with cloth soaked in plaster of Paris to prevent heat losses.
2. Overheating of integrated circuits (ICs) and transistors in electronic devices
can drastically affect their performance. Such components are fixed to a heat
sink (a metal plate) to conduct away undesired heat, see figure 7.13.

Fig. 7.13: Heat sink

The fins increase the surface area of the heat sink. This increases the rate of
heat loss to the surroundings.
3. Fire-fighters put on suits made of asbestos material to keep safe while
putting out fires. Film directors cloth their characters in similar suits as the
latter act in stunts involving burning.
4. Birds flap their wings after getting wet as a means of introducing air pockets
in their feathers. Air, being a poor conductor, reduces heat loss from their
bodies. Wool, fur and thatch on roofs make use of the same concept. A soft-
board ceiling is better than a concrete ceiling because it has many air
pockets. Concrete is a better conductor of heat than air.
5. In modern buildings where the desired inside temperature is to be stabilised,
double walls are constructed. Materials that are good insulators of heat and
can trap air and are put between the walls. Examples of such materials are
glass wool (fibre glass) and foam plastic, see figure 7.14.
Fig. 7.14: Double wall insulation

Air on its own may not effectively give the desired insulation because it
undergoes convection.
Double-glazed windows used for the same purpose have air trapped between
two glass sheets.
8. In experiments involving heating water or liquid in a glass beaker, the beaker
is placed on wire gauze. The gauze is heated and spreads the heat to a large
area of the beaker. If a Bunsen burner flame is used to heat the beaker
without the gauze, the heat from the flame may concentrate on a small area
and this can make the beaker crack.

Convection
Convection is the process by which heat is transferred through fluids (liquids and
gases). The heat transfer is by the actual movement of the fluid, called
convection currents, which arise out of the following:
(i) Natural convection: Involves change in density of the fluid with
temperature.
(ii) Forced convection: Mixing of hot and cold parts of the fluid through some
external stirring, like a fan or pump.
Experiment 7.8: To demonstrate convection in liquids
There are various methods of demonstrating convection in liquids, depending on
the kind of apparatus available. However, the basic principle of operation is the
same.
Method 1
Apparatus
A beaker containing water, potassium permanganate crystals, Bunsen burner and
tripod stand.
Procedure
• Half fill the beaker with water.
• Put some crystals of potassium permanganate in one corner of a large beaker,
as shown in figure 7.15.
• Put the beaker on a stand and heat the corner of beaker containing potassium
permanganate. Observe what happens.

Fig. 7.15: Convection in water

Observation
A purple colouration rises up from the potassium permanganate, forming a loop.
Method 2
Apparatus
A rectangular tube filled with water up to the neck, potassium permanganate
crystals in a porous material, Bunsen burner.
Fig. 7.16: Convection in water

Procedure
• Heat the water in the tube at point A, as shown in figure 7.16.
• Introduce potassium permanganate through the neck of the tube.
• Observe what happens to the potassium permanganate.
Observation
The colouration from the potassium permanganate flows in a clockwise
direction.
Conclusion
From the two experiments, it is clear that when a liquid is heated, it rises while
cooler liquid replaces it.
Explanation
Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance. When the volume of the
substance increases with the mass remaining constant, its density decreases.
When a liquid is heated, it expands and this lowers its density. The less dense
liquid rises and its place is taken by more dense colder liquid. This movement of
liquid forms convection currents.

Convection Currents in Gases

Experiment 7.9: To demonstrate convection currents in gases
Apparatus
A box with two chimneys and a transparent front, a candle, a smouldering straw,
piece of cloth or paper.
Procedure
• Light the candle beneath chimney B, as shown in figure 7.17.

Fig. 7.17: Convection in gases

• Place a smouldering straw at the mouth of chimney A and leave it for some
time. Observe what happens to the smoke that is produced by the burning
straw.
• Put off the candle and repeat the experiment.
Observation
Smoke is sucked into the box through chimney A and exits through chimney B.
When the candle is put off, the smoke is not drawn into the box.
Conclusion
Convection currents are set up when air or gas is heated.
Explanation
The candle heats up the air above it, which expands and rises up because of its
lower density. Cold heavier air is drawn in through chimney A, carrying along
the smoke which replaces the air that is escaping through chimney B.

Molecular Explanation of Convection in Fluids

Molecules in fluids are further apart and have negligible cohesive force. Heating
a fluid increases the kinetic energy of the vibrating molecules and their random
movement. As the fluid rises, these molecules pass energy to the molecules in
the colder regions which have less energy. Because the molecules are further
away from the heating source, their temperature is reduced. Meanwhile, the
pressure near the heating source decreases because of depletion of molecules as
they rise. Colder molecules move into the low pressure zone to fill the void
being created.
Cumulatively, this movement of molecules constitutes the convection
current. Convection currents are set up much faster in gases than in liquids
because of the extremely low cohesive forces existing between the molecules of
the gases.

Some Applications of Convection in Fluids

Domestic Hot Water System

Figure 7.18 is a model of domestic hot water system.

Fig. 7.18: Model of a domestic hot water supply

Initially, the two beakers A and B contain cold water. Water in beaker A is
coloured to distinguish it from that in beaker B. When the water in beaker A is
heated, it is observed to rise up through tube X and emerges on top of cold water
in beaker B. The cold water flows down from beaker B to beaker A. As long as
the heating continues, there will be movement of hot water into beaker B and
cold water will flow down into beaker A. A thermometer in beaker B will show
increase in temperature of the water contained in B.
Fig. 7.19: Domestic hot water supply

The commercial domestic hot water system, shown in figure 7.19, utilises
the same principle of operation. The hot water rises up because of the effective
lowering of its density. The force of gravity helps the cold water to flow down
from the cold water tank to the boiler. Notice that the top part of the cylinder
contains hot water while the lower part contains cold water. The hot water tap
and expansion pipe are connected to the upper region of the cylinder. The
expansion pipe is an outlet for excess water that could have resulted from
overheating. Once the cold water flows down the cylinder, the main pipe allows
more cold water to flow into the cold water tank. When filled to capacity, the
ball cock lever floating on the water closes a valve in the main pipe, stopping
further inflow of cold water. An overflow pipe lets out water from the cold water
tank if the valve fails.
The piping that conveys the hot water and the cylinder is lagged to minimise
heat losses.

Ventilation
This is the supply of fresh air to a room. Figure 7.20 shows a room with large
windows close to the floor and ventilation holes or openings high up in the
walls.
Fig. 7.20: Ventilation in a room

Air expelled by the room occupants is warm and less dense. It rises up and
escapes through the ventilation holes. Cool fresh air flows into the room to
replace the risen warm air. The room thus gets a continuous flow of fresh air.
Some houses are fitted with air conditioning devices which cause forced
convection of air, giving out cold dry air and absorbing warm moist air.

Car Engine Cooling System

Heat conduction and convection play a very crucial role of taking away heat
from a car engine that would otherwise reduce its efficiency. In figure 7.21, the
engine is surrounded by a metal water jacket that is connected to the radiator.

Fig. 7.21: Cooling system of a car engine

The metal surface conducts away heat from engine. This heats up the water,
setting up convection currents. The hot water is pumped into the radiator which
has thin copper fins that conduct away heat from the water. Air flowing past the
fins speeds up the cooling process.

Land and Sea Breeze

This is a natural convection mechanism, and occurs especially at sea shores
because of temperature differences between the mass of water and the land. The
mass of water takes much longer time than the nearby land to be heated to the
same temperature by the sun. Water also takes a longer time to cool than the land
after being raised to the same temperature.
During the day, the land heats up much faster than the sea. The air just above the
land gets heated up and rises because of reduced density. Cold air above the sea
blows towards the land to replace the void being created by the warm rising air,
see figure 7.22 (a). This is called sea breeze.

Fig. 7.22: Formation of land and sea breeze

In the evening, the temperature of the sea water is higher than that of the land.
The air above the sea gets heated up and rises. Cold air from the land blows to
the sea in what is called land breeze, see figure 7.22 (b).

Radiation
Heat from the sun to the earth is not transferred by either conduction or
convection because of the vast expanse of the vacuum (absence of medium) that
exists between the earth and the sun. Heat transfer through vacuum is called
thermal radiation. All bodies absorb and emit radiation.
Fig. 7.23: Emission and absorption of radiant heat

The higher the temperature of an object, the greater the amount of radiation. A
body emitting thermal radiation can also emit visible light when it is hot enough.
An electric bulb in a room produces both light and radiant heat. The radiant heat
is absorbed by the materials in the room, which in turn give out radiant heat of
lower energy, see figure 7.23.
The material must have received the heat through radiation only. This is
because air is a bad conductor of heat and if convection currents are set up, they
will transfer heat upwards.

Nature of Radiant Heat

Experiment 7.8: To demonstrate the nature of radiant heat
Apparatus
Hand lens (convex), piece of paper.
Procedure
• Hold the hand lens above a piece of paper such that light from the sun is
focused onto the paper. Note what happens to the paper.
Fig. 7.24: Concentration of radiant heat

Observation
The paper catches fire.
Explanation
Radiant heat, like light, can be concentrated to a point using a lens. Thermal
radiation is a wave, like light and can, therefore, be refracted. Because of the
nature of its production, radiant heat is an electromagnetic wave that causes a
heating effect in objects that absorb it.
Radiation is also described as the flow of heat from one place to another by
means of electromagnetic waves.

Emission and Absorption of Radiation

Experiment 7.9: To compare the rate of absorption of radiation from
different surfaces
Method 1
Apparatus
U-tube containing coloured water, two boiling tubes A and B painted black, a
hollow cube painted black on one side and polished (shiny) on the opposite side,
connecting tubes.
Procedure
• Set up the apparatus as shown in figure 7.25 and ensure that:
Fig. 7.25: Comparing emission of radiant heat

(i) The metal cube is centralized between the two boiling tubes, i.e .,
distance x = distance y.
(ii) The level of coloured water in the U-tube is at the same height in both
arms of the tube.
• Pour hot water into the metal cube. Observe what happens to the coloured
water levels in the U-tube.
• Repeat the experiment with the sides of the metal cube exchanged.
Observation
The water level in limb A rises while the level in B falls.
Explanation
The boiling tube B receives more heat than boiling tube A, warming the air
inside it. The air expands, increasing air pressure that pushes down the coloured
water in limb B. When the sides of the metal cube are exchanged, the level of the
water in limb A falls while the level in B rises. This experiment suggests that
black surfaces are better heat emitters than polished (shiny) ones.
Method 2
Apparatus
Two similar tins with equal amounts of water, tin A blackened and tin B shiny,
two thermometers, two lids and corks, two blocks of wood, source of heat.
Fig.7.26: Emission of radiant heat from different surfaces

• On the same axis, draw two graphs of temperature against time for the
temperature recorded by each thermometer.
Table 7.2

Observation
After sometime, it is noted that the temperature recorded by TB is lower than that
recorded by TS. The shape of the graph expected is shown in figure 7.27.

Fig.7.27: Rate of emission from different surfaces

The graph shows that water in a shiny (polished) tin lost heat less rapidly than
the blackened tin.
Conclusion
From the experiments above, black surfaces are better emitters of heat than shiny
surfaces.
Experiment 7.12: To compare absorption of radiant heat by different
surfaces
Method 1
Apparatus
Two similar sheets of aluminium plates, one polished and the other painted
black(dull), source of heat.
Procedure
• Using wax, fix a cork on the reverse side of each plate, as shown in figure
7.28.
• Set the plates vertically at a reasonable distance apart.

Fig. 7.28: Absorption of radiation

• Place the Bunsen burner midway between the plates and away from draught.
Observe the corks fixed on the plates.
Observation
The cork fixed on the dull plate falls off after the wax melts, while the cork on
the polished plate remains fixed for a longer time.
Method 2
Apparatus
Two tins A and B, each carrying the same amount of water, tin A blackened
(dull), tin B shiny (polished), stop watch, two thermometers, two lids and corks.

Fig. 7.29: Absorption of radiant heat

Procedure
• Set the apparatus as shown in figure 7.29.
• Place the heater midway between tin A and tin B.
• Read and record the temperatures of TB and TS at two minute intervals for
about 20 minutes.
• Plot graphs of temperature (°C) against time (minutes) on the same axis.
Observation
The thermometer TB immersed in water in the blackened tin records a higher
reading than that of thermometer Ts.
Fig. 7.30: Rates of absorption of radiant heat for different surfaces

From the sketch of graph in figure 7.30, the temperature of water in the polished
tin does not increase as fast as the temperature of water in the blackened tin.
Conclusion
Black surfaces are better absorbers of radiant heat than polished surfaces.
Generally, good absorbers of radiant heat are also good emitters, while poor
absorbers of radiant heat are also poor emitters. In addition, poor emitters of
radiant heat are also good reflectors.

Applications of Thermal Radiation

1. Kettles, cooking pans and iron boxes have polished surfaces to reduce heat
loss through thermal radiation.
2. Petrol tanks are painted silvery bright to reflect away as much heat as
possible.
3. Houses in hot areas have their walls and roofs painted with bright colours to
reflect away heat, while those in cold regions have walls and roofs painted
with dull colours.
4. In solar concentrators, electromagnetic waves in the form of radiant heat are
reflected to a common point (focus) by a concave reflector. The temperature
at this point can be sufficiently high to boil water see figure 7.31.
Fig. 7.31: Solar concentrator

5. The Greenhouse Effect (Heat Trap)

A greenhouse has a transparent (glass or plastic) roof through which radiant
heat energy from the sun passes, see figure 7.32. This heat is absorbed by
objects in the green house, which then emit radiation of lower energy that
cannot penetrate the glass. The cumulative effect is that the temperature of
the houses increases substantially. Greenhouses are used in providing
appropriate conditions for plants in cold regions.
It is feared that carbon dioxide and other air pollutants in the lower layers of
the atmosphere are having the same effects as glass, raising the temperature
on earth to dangerous levels. This is known as The Greenhouse Effect.

Fig. 7.32: A greenhouse

6. Solar Heater
The solar heater uses solar energy to heat water, see figure 7.33(a).
Fig 7.33: Solar water heater

It consists of coiled blackened copper pipe on a blackened insulating surface.

Figure 7.33(b) shows the cross-section of the heater. Radiant heat from the
sun passes through the glass and is absorbed by blackened copper pipes that
contain water, which is heated up. Copper pipes and copper collectors are
used because copper is a good conductor of heat. They are however painted
black to increase their absorbing power.
Lower energy emitted after absorption of radiant energy does not escape
because it cannot penetrate the glass. The temperature of the air above the
pipe thus increases, boosting the heating of the water. A good insulating
material is used as a base.
7. Thermos Flask (Vacuum Flask)
A thermos is designed to keep its contents at a fairly constant temperature by
minimising transfer of heat between the contents of the flask and the
surroundings. Figure 7.34 shows the main parts of a vacuum flask.
Fig. 7.34: A vacuum flask

The flask is made of high quality glass, blown in such a way that it is double-
walled. The air between the walls is pumped out to create a vacuum. This
vacuum is an excellent insulator, minimising heat transfer by conduction and
convection
Heat transfer by radiation, which might be relatively large, is reduced by a
silver coating on the inside surfaces, so that each wall is a poor emitter and poor
absorber of heat. Heat loss by evaporation from the liquid surface is prevented
by a well-fitting cork. The metal or plastic case is necessary as a protection for
the glass envelope. The soft padding holds the glass flask firmly in the case.

Revision Exercise 7
1. (a) Distinguish between natural and forced convection currents.
(b) The paddle wheel in the figure below is made of a light material and is
well-oiled. State the direction in which it will rotate.

2. (a) Explain why the feet feel colder when a person stands on a cemented
floor than on a wooden floor.
(b) While heating water in a beaker, a wire gauze is placed below the
beaker. Explain.
3. (a) Explain why many houses in hot areas like Mombasa should be painted
in white while those in colder places like Timboroa should be painted
with dull colours.
(b) The ventilators for a room are put near the roof and not near the floor.
Explain why.
4. Suggest:
(a) how the thermal conductivity of a metal depends on its temperature.
(b) why the rate of heat flow through a pane of glass is greater on a windy
day.
5. The diagram below shows a vacuum flask with an enlarged view of the part
circled:

(a) State the material parts A and C are made of.

(b) State what types of heat energy are reduced by or prevented by the parts
marked B, C and D.
(c) Explain how A is effective in reducing heat transfer.
6. (a) Draw the cross-section of a basic solar heating panel that uses heat from
the sun to warm water which flows through pipes.
(b) Explain the following as regards the solar heater:
(i) Why the pipe is fixed to a dark-coloured collector plate.
(ii) Why the pipe is made of copper.
(iii) Why the pipe is coiled several times.
(iv) Why the collector plate is fixed to an insulator.
(v) Why the panel front is covered with glass.
7. Explain the following:
(a) Two thin blankets are warmer than a single thick one.
 (b) Flames go upwards.
(c) A person should crawl close to the floor in a smoke-filled room.
(d) A chimney and a fire help to ventilate a room.
8. Explain the greenhouse effect and how it affects the earth.
9. (a) Explain how you would use a concave reflector to heat some water in a
black container on a sunny day. State the difference expected when the
container is made shiny?
(b) Explain why a swimmer would prefer to put on wet clothes before
diving into cold water?
10. The diagram below shows a cross-section through a house:

(a) Explain why houses in tropical areas should have overhanging eaves.
(b) Explain why the walls and ceiling boards are painted white.
(c) Explain how heat loss through the three modes of heat transfer is
minimised.
(d) Explain the use of fibre glass and foam plastic.
(e) If the air between two glasses is replaced by plastic foam, the rate of
heat transfer across the window would be reduced. Explain.
(f) It is not advisable to have a vacuum between the glasses, though the
vacuum is an even poorer conductor of heat than air. Explain.
 Rectilinear Propagation
and Reflection at Plane
Surfaces
Light is a form of energy that makes visual perception possible. For a person to
see an object, light energy from the object must enter the eye. This energy is
converted into a ‘picture’ and interpreted in the mind.
Besides helping us to see our surroundings, light is also very essential as a
source of energy for the process by which plants manufacture their food
(photosynthesis).

Sources of Light
Some objects produce their own light and are known as luminous sources.
Examples of such objects are the sun, stars, burning candles, a wood or charcoal
fire, a red-hot heating element, electric light bulbs, television screens and glow
worms, to mention a few.
Most objects do not, however, produce light of their own. They are seen
when light falling on them from luminous sources is reflected (bounces off their
surfaces). Examples of such objects include the moon, planets, plants, people,
books, walls, clothes and wall charts. Such objects are referred to as non-
luminous.

Rays and Beams of Light

A source of light produces pulses of energy which spread out in all directions.
The path along which light energy travels is referred to as a ray of light. In
diagrams, rays are represented by lines with arrows on them to show the
direction of travel. A beam is a stream of light energy which is considered to be
a bundle of rays of light, as shown in figure 8.1. Beams of light are readily seen:
Fig. 8.1: Obtaining beams and rays of light

(i) in the morning as the sunlight breaks through the clouds.

(ii) when a spotlight is shone in a smoky room or a car drives along a dusty
road at night with its headlamps on.
(iii) when sunlight streams into a smoky dark room through a small opening.

Types of Light Beams

A source of light may give rise to an infinite number of rays, all spreading out
from the source as shown in figure 8.2.

Fig. 8.2

Beams of light that appear to spread out (diverge) are referred to as divergent
beams, for example, beam of light from a spotlight. Parallel beams are those that
appear to be perfectly parallel to each other, e.g., beam of light from the sun
reaching the earth’s surface.
Fig. 8.3: Types of beams

Beams may also appear to collect (converge) to a point, in which case they
are referred to as convergent beam. These are shown in figure 8.3 (a), (b) and
(c).

Opaque, Translucent and Transparent Objects

Some objects do not allow light to pass through them at all, e.g., brick walls,
metals, wood and stone. Such objects are said to be opaque. Other objects allow
light to pass through, but we cannot see through them, e.g., some glass panes
used in toilet and bathroom windows (frosted glass) and greased paper. Such
materials are said to be translucent.
There are still other types of objects which allow light to pass through and
we see clearly through them, e.g., car windscreens and ordinary window panes.
These objects are said to be transparent.

Rectilinear Propagation of Light

Unlike some other forms of energy, light does not need a material medium to
carry it. In a vacuum, the speed of light is 3 × 108 ms–1 (300 000 000m/s). Light
from the sun reaches the earth having travelled mostly through the vacuum of
space.
When light from a source falls on an opaque object, it casts a shadow of the
object with sharp edges on a screen placed behind it. This suggests that light
travels in straight lines in a uniform transparent medium.
Experiment 8.1: To investigate how light travels
Apparatus
Three identical cardboard sheets, source of light, piece of thread.

Fig. 8.4: Light travels in a straight line

Procedure
• Take the three cardboard screens and bore a pinhole through the middle of
each.
• Arrange the sheets such that the holes are exactly in line. This is done by
pulling a piece of cotton thread through the holes tightly.
• Place a lamp behind the first cardboard and view through the hole in the last
cardboard sheet at the other side, as shown in figure 8.4. Observe what
happens.
• Displace the middle cardboard sheet to the side and look through again.
Observe what happens.
Observation
When the holes in the three cardboard sheet are in line, the eye sees the lamp.
However, when the middle cardboard is displaced, the eye can no longer see the
lamp.
Explanation
When the holes in the cardboards are in a straight line, light travels through the
holes and the lamp is seen from the other side. When one of the cardboards is
displaced, the beam of light is cut and since light cannot bend to follow the
displaced hole, the lamp cannot be seen.
Conclusion
Light travels in a straight line. This property of light is known as the rectilinear
propagation of light.

Shadows
Shadows are formed when an opaque object is in the path of a beam of light. The
type of shadow formed depends on:
(i) the size of source of light.
(ii) the size of opaque object.
(iii) the distance between the object and the light source.
Experiment 8.2: To study the formation of shadows by a point source of
light
Apparatus
Bulb (source of light), pin, screen, wooden or tin box.
Procedure
• Place a light bulb inside a ray box with a small hole in it.
• Place an obstacle (pin) in the path of light coming from the small hole. The
hole acts as a point source.
• Place a white screen behind the obstacle as in figure 8.5. Observe what
happens.

Fig. 8.5: Shadow formation by a point source

Observation
A uniformly and totally dark shadow is seen on the screen. This shadow is called
the umbra (Latin for shade).
The shadow has a sharp edge, supporting the idea that light travels in
straight lines.
Experiment 8.3: To study the formation of shadows by extended sources of
light
Apparatus
Bulb, raybox, pin, screen.
Procedure
• Using a raybox with a large hole to act as an extended source of light, repeat
experiment 8.2, as shown in figure 8.6.

Fig. 8.6: Shadow formation by an extended light source

Observation
The centre of the shadow remains uniformly dark as before, but smaller in size.
The shadow is edged with a border of a partial shadow called penumbra.
Explanation
The centre of the shadow still receives no light at all from the light source. Light
from some parts of the extended source of light reaches the centre parts of the
shadow on the screen, but light from other parts is cut off by the opaque object,
resulting in a partial shadow at the edges.
Conclusion
Extended light sources produce shadows that is much softer and without sharp
edges.
An application of this is the use of frosted light bulbs and lamp shades to
provide a more pleasant lighting with less sharp shadows. Fluorescent tubes are
usually surrounded by a frosted diffuser to scatter the light and reduce the
sharpness of shadows.
Experiment 8.4: To study the formation of shadows by extended sources of
light when the object distance is changed
Apparatus
Extended source, small obstacle (ball), screen.
Procedure
• Using a raybox with large hole and a small obstacle moved closer to the
source, repeat experiment 8.2 as shown in figure 8.7 (a).

Fig. 8.7 (a): Shadow formation by an extended light source when the object is moved closer

• Move the obstacle away and repeat the experiment as shown in figure 8.7 (b).

Fig. 8.7 (b): Shadow formation by an extended light source when the object is moved away

Observations
When the ball is moved closer to the source, a ring of penumbra is formed. No
umbra is seen.
 When the ball is far away, there is umbra surrounded by penumbra as in
experiment 8.3.
Explanation
The centre of the shadow now receives light from the extended source. Since the
ball is smaller than the source of light, its umbra does not reach the screen
because of the distance.
However, when the ball is moved closer to the screen, the tip of the umbra
reaches the screen.

Eclipse
An eclipse is a phenomenon of shadow formation which occurs once in a while.
It is the total or partial disappearance of the sun or moon as seen from the earth.
Eclipses are explained in terms of the relative positions of the earth, the moon
and the sun.

Solar Eclipse
The sun is eclipsed when the moon passes between the sun and the earth. When
this happens, the moon intercepts light from the sun, thereby casting a shadow
on the earth and causing darkness during the day.
When a solar eclipse does occur, the path of the moon’s umbra across the
surface of the earth is very narrow (never wider than 272 km), so that most
people on the earth see mainly a partial eclipse. In the umbra, the sun is
completely covered, giving rise to a total eclipse (point Y in figure 8.9). In the
penumbra, the sun is only partially covered, giving rise to partial eclipse of the
sun (points X and Z).
Fig. 8.9: Total and partial eclipses of the sun

The total eclipse, which never lasts more than about 8 minutes, allows us to
see the sun’s atmosphere which is normally not visible because of the brightness
of the sun’s disc itself. Red prominences and the rim of the sun’s disc called the
corona, which now surrounds the circumference of the moon, can be seen at the
same time as the stars in the sky.

Annular Eclipse
Sometimes the umbra of the moon is not long enough to reach the earth because
the distance between the moon and the earth varies (the moon’s orbit is
elliptical). When the moon is farther away from the earth, its disc is slightly
smaller than the sun’s disc. So, when a solar eclipse occurs, the moon is not
large enough to cover the sun totally. A bright ring of sunlight can be seen round
the edge of the dark disc of the moon as shown in figure 8.10. This is an
annular or ring eclipse.
Fig. 8.10: Annular eclipse of the sun

Lunar Eclipse or Eclipse of the Moon

The moon does not emit light, but only reflects light from the sun. Thus, when it
passes into the earth’s shadow from direct sunlight, it is obscured.
A lunar eclipse occurs when the moon passes through the earth’s umbra, as
shown in figure 8.11.

Fig. 8.11: Eclipse of the moon

A lunar eclipse only happens occasionally when the moon is full. It can last for
as long as 1 hour 45 minutes, because the moon is much smaller than the earth
and takes sometime to pass through the earth’s umbra.
During a total lunar eclipse, it is still possible to see the moon because a
small amount of sunlight reaches it. The sunlight is bent or refracted by the
earth’s atmosphere giving the moon a dim a coppery colour.

The Pinhole Camera

This is a simple camera with a small aperture but no lens. It is a light proof box
with a small hole on one side.

How to make a pinhole camera

Make a small box (about 15 cm × 10 cm) of cardboard and paint its inside
black. Cut out a square hole (about 6 cm × 6 cm) at the back.
 Cover this hole with a translucent tracing paper (or greased white paper).
The paper should be fixed tightly with glue or cellotape. This makes the screen
onto which the camera projects the picture, see figure 8.12.

Fig. 8.12: The pinhole camera

Make a hole with a nail at the front end of the box and cover it with a black
paper. Make a small pinhole with a pin or a needle on the black paper directly in
front of the hole made with the nail.

Images in a pinhole camera

Experiment 8.5: To form an image in a pinhole camera
Apparatus
Pinhole camera, an object.
Procedure
• Set up the camera in a darkened or dimly-lit room with the pinhole facing a
brightly-lit object. The object may be outdoors and viewed through an open
window or may be an electric lamp, a candle or an illuminated pin, as in
figure 8.13.
Fig. 8.13: Formation of an image in a pinhole camera

• Observe the image formed on the translucent paper.

• Move the camera closer to the object and observe the effect on the screen.
• Move the camera away from the object. Observe the effect on the image
formed on the screen.
• Make a second pinhole beside the one in the black paper. What do you
observe?
• Make more pinholes around the original pinhole in the black paper. What do
you observe on the screen?
• Increase the size of the pinhole (by joining the many adjacent pinholes to
form one large hole). Observe the effect on the image once again.
Observation
When the camera is set up with the pinhole facing the brightly-lit object pin, a
sharp inverted image of the illuminated pin is seen on the screen, as in figure
8.13.
When the camera is moved near to the object, the size (height) of the image
formed on the screen increases, i.e, the image becomes larger, as shown in figure
8.14 (a). Conversely, when the camera is moved farther away from the object,
the image becomes smaller as shown in figure 8.14 (b).
Fig. 8.14: Effect of changing the distance of the object from the pinhole

When more holes are added close to the first main pinhole, images of each
point are seen overlapping on the screen, see figure 8.15.

Fig. 8.15

When the pinhole is enlarged, a brighter but very blurred image is seen on
the screen.
Explanation
Each point on the object acts as a source of light, emitting rays in all directions.
The pinhole admits narrow cones of light from all points of the object facing the
hole. When these cones of light fall on the screen they produce bright spots on
every part of the object, hence the formation of the image.
The image is real as it is formed on a screen. The image is inverted (upside
down) because light from the top of the object forms the lower portion of the
image while light from the bottom of the object forms the upper section of the
image. This further confirms the rectilinear propagation of light.
If the camera was made in such a way that it could be elongated by moving
the screen farther away from the pinhole but keeping the distance between the
object and the pinhole fixed, it would be observed that the image enlarges when
the length of the camera is increased and diminishes when the length of the
camera is reduced, see figure 8.16.

Fig. 8.16: Effect of changing the length of camera

Enlarging the pinhole is equivalent to adding an infinite number of other

small holes close to the original pinhole. Each of the imaginary pinhole allows a
narrow cone of light to reach the screen from each point on the object. Hence,
several images of each point are formed overlapping on the screen. The
additional brightness of the resultant image is due to more light which now gets
into the camera through the enlarged hole. The image appears blurred due to the
overlapping of different images falling on the same area of the screen.

Magnification
The change in the size of an image relative to that of the object is called the
magnification, m.

Fig. 8.17: Object and image distances in a pinhole camera

Thus, magnification, m
It can be proved from the geometry of similar triangles that:
Magnification, m

Example 1
The distance between the pinhole and screen of a pinhole camera is 10 cm. The
height of the screen is 20 cm. At what minimum distance from the pinhole must
a man 1.6 m tall stand if a full length image is required?
Solution
The information can be represented as in figure 8.18.

Fig. 8.18

But hi = 20
cm
= 0.2
m
ho = 1.6
m
And v = 10
cm
= 0.1
m
 m

Example 2
An object of height 5 m is placed 10 m away from a pinhole camera.
Calculate:
(a) the size of the image if its magnification is 0.01.
(b) the length of the pinhole camera.
Solution

Taking Photographs with a Pinhole Camera

The pinhole camera can be used to take still photographs if it is modified as
follows:
(a) The box should be painted black on the inside to eliminate reflection of
light.
(b) The translucent screen should be replaced by a light-tight lid with a
photographic film fitted on the inside. The film should be fitted in a dark
 room.
(c) The pinhole should be covered with a thin black card which acts as a
shutter, see figure 8.19.

Fig. 8.19: Pinhole camera modified to take photographs

A photograph may be taken by facing the camera towards the scene to be

photographed, which should be well lit. The camera is then supported firmly and
the shutter pulled up for a suitable duration to expose the film to the light from
the scene. Since the pinhole is very small, it allows very little light to reach the
film. The exposure time, therefore, needs to be long enough to allow sufficient
light to pass through.
There is no standard exposure time for the camera, as this depends on
several factors, including size of the pinhole, lighting conditions, sensitivity of
the film and length of the camera. The suitable time can only be determined by
trial and error.
When the best time is found and photograph taken, the film is removed and
the negative developed and printed.
The pinhole camera has one main advantage. It is able to form focused
images on the film of objects both far and near the camera. The camera is said to
possess a large depth of field because of the small aperture.
However, this small aperture is also the source of its major weakness as a
camera. The exposure time has to be long in order to get clearer pictures. During
this long exposure, there is every likelihood of movement which would produce
blurred pictures. The exposure time could be reduced by enlarging the pinhole,
but as observed, this will also produce blurred photographs. Although the small
hole produces sharp photographs due to rectilinear propagation of light, there is
a size limit below which photographs are not sharp. It is found that pinholes of
diameter about 1.0 mm produce the sharpest images. Holes with smaller
diameters produce blurred photographs due to an effect known as diffraction.
Example 3
The photographic film of a pinhole camera is 20 cm away from the pinhole. A
student of height 1.6 m stands 8 m from the opening of the pinhole. Find the
height of the student’s image.
Solution

Therefore hi = 0.04 m
The student’s image height is 4 cm.

Reflection of Light
Bodies like the sun, stars, lamps and fires can be seen because they are
luminous. Non-luminous objects are seen when light from one of these sources,
like the sun, bounces off their surface into our eyes. This bouncing off of light is
called reflection.
The amount of light energy reflected by a body depends on the nature of the
surface of the body (smooth or rough). The smoother the surface, the greater the
fraction of light reflected from the body and the brighter the body appears to our
eyes.

Regular and Diffuse Reflection

A white sheet of paper, a highly polished silvery metal surface and a mirror
reflect all the light that falls on them. The effect is however different due to the
nature of the surfaces of the materials. The surface of a polished sheet of metal
or a mirror is very smooth and reflects all the parallel rays of light from a
particular source in one direction only, see figure 8.20.

Fig. 8.20: Regular and irregular (diffuse) reflection

This is called regular or specular reflection. The irregular reflection of the light
rays in different directions by a rough surface is called diffuse reflection.

Reflection by Plane Mirrors

A plane mirror is a flat smooth reflecting surface which forms images by regular
reflection. It is often made by bonding a thin polished metal surface to the back
of a flat sheet of glass or silvering the back side of the flat sheet of glass. The
silvered side is normally coated with some paint to protect the silver coating.
The silvered side of the mirror is shown by the shading behind the reflecting
surface. When using a glass plane mirror in an experiment, the silvered surface
should be placed on the reflecting line drawn for the experiment, as shown in
figure 8.21.
Fig. 8.21: Reflection by a plane mirror

Definition of Terms used in the Reflection of Light

Figure 8.22 shows the incident ray, reflected ray, the normal, the angle of
incidence and the angle of reflection.

Fig. 8.22: Terms used

The incident ray is the ray that travels from the source to the reflecting surface.
The angle of incidence is the angle between the incident ray and the
normal.
The normal is the line drawn perpendicularly at the point where the
incident ray strikes the reflecting surface.
The reflected ray is the ray that bounces from the reflecting surface.
The angle of reflection is the angle between the reflected ray and the
normal.

Laws of Reflection
Experiment 8.6: To investigate the relationship between the angle of
incidence and the angle of reflection
Apparatus
Soft board, drawing pins, mounted plane mirror, sheet of paper (plain).
Fig. 8.23: Relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection.

Procedure
• Fix a sheet of paper on softboard using drawing pins.
• Draw a straight line, M, on which the mirror is placed.
• Mark a point O on M and draw a normal ON from O.
• Measure an angle of 40° from the normal and draw a line at that angle.
• Fix two pins P1 and P2 on this line, see figure 8.23.
• Observe the pins from the opposite side of the normal and place two searching
pins P3 and P4 such that they appear to be in line with the images of P1 and P2
in the mirror.
• Fix these pins and mark their positions with a cross (x).
• Remove the searching pins and draw the line joining them to point O.
• Measure the angle r.
• Repeat for other angles of incidence 20°, 30°, 60°, 70° and 80°.
• Record your results in the table below:

The experiment may also be done using the raybox in place of the pins P1 and
P2, see figure 8.24.
Fig. 8.24: Investigating the laws of reflection

• The ray from the raybox is directed along the line 40° to the normal. Mark a
point X on the reflected ray. The line OX represents the reflected ray.
• The angle r is then measured and recorded.
Observation
(i) The angle of incidence, i, equals the angle of reflection, r.
(ii) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence
all lie on the same plane.
The above observations are referred to as the laws of reflection and they
hold true for all reflecting surfaces.

Rotation of a Mirror Through an Angle

Experiment 8.7: To investigate the relationship between angle of rotation of
a mirror and the angle of rotation of the reflected ray
Apparatus
Soft board, drawing pins, sheet of paper (plain), raybox, mounted mirror.
Procedure
• Fix a plain sheet of paper on soft board using drawing pins.
• Draw a straight line XY on the paper.
• Draw another line X’Y’ at an angle of 10° to XY such that the two lines
intersect point O, see figure 8.25 (b).
Fig. 8.25: Rotating the mirror

• Place the plane mirror with its reflecting surface vertical to the plane of the
paper along XY, such that O is approximately at the middle of the mirror line.
• Direct a ray from a raybox (along the plane of the paper) to the mirror at an
angle of 40° to the mirror line at O.
• Mark the paths of the incident and the reflected rays.
• Keeping the direction of the incident ray constant, rotate the mirror to lie
along the line X’Y’. Mark the path of the reflected ray again.
• Withdraw raybox and the mirror and draw the incident ray and the two
positions of reflected rays, producing them to meet at O.
• Measure the angle between the two mirror positions and the angle between
the two positions of the reflected rays.
• Repeat the experiment for different angles of the mirror, e.g., 10°, 15°, 20°,
25°, 30° and 50° for a fixed direction of the incident ray.
• Record your results in the table shown below.
Observation
If the direction of the incident ray remains constant, the angle of rotation of the
reflected ray is twice the angle of rotation of the mirror, see figure 8.25 (b).
This property is used in instruments where a beam of light is used as a
pointer. For example, it is used in the mirror galvanometer (used for measuring
very small electric currents) and the sextant (used in navigation for measuring
the angle of elevation of the sun or stars).
Example 4
A plane mirror lying with its face up makes an angle of 10° with the horizontal.
A ray of light shines down vertically on the mirror as shown in figure 8.26.

Fig. 8.26

(a) What is the angle of incidence?

(b) What angle will the reflected ray make with:
(i) the vertical?
(ii) the horizontal?
Solution
(a) The incident ray is perpendicular to the horizontal. A normal drawn to the
inclined mirror through the point of incidence makes an angle i with the
incident ray. Using the property of vertically opposite angles, the angle i is
10°.
(b) Since i = r, angle of reflection is also 10°.
Therefore, the reflected ray makes:
 (i) angle of 20° with the vertical.
(ii) angle of (90 – 20) = 70° with the horizontal.
Example 5
Figure 8.27 shows a ray incident at an angle of 25° at position 1. The mirror is
turned through 6° to position 2. Through what angle is the reflected ray rotated.

Fig. 8.27

Solution

Fig. 8.28

The incoming ray is fixed.

Rotation changes the angle of incidence from 25° to (25 + 6) = 31°. Hence, the
angle of reflection is 31° from the new normal. Since this angle is measured off
the normal to the mirror which itself has rotated through 6°, the total change in
the angle of reflected ray is 12°.
Example 6
A suspended plane mirror makes an angle of 20° with a wall. Light from a
window strikes the mirror horizontally. Find:
(a) the angle of incidence.
(b) the angle between the horizontal and reflected ray.
Solution
Fig. 8.29

(a) From figure 8.29, the light makes an angle 70° with the mirror. Hence, the
angle of incidence equals 20°.
(b) Since i = r = 20°, the reflected ray makes an angle of 40° with the
horizontal.

Formation of Images by Plane Mirrors

Experiment 8.8: To locate the image in a plane mirror
Apparatus
Softboard, plain sheet of paper, pins, mounted mirror.
Procedure
• Arrange the mirror on softboard, as in figure 8.30.
• Fix an object pin, O, in front of the mirror.
• View the image of the object pin, O, in the mirror by placing the eye on one
side of the normal.
• Fix a search pin P1 into the soft board in front of the eye such that it covers
the image I of the object pin.
Fig. 8.30: Locating an image in a plane mirror

• Fix another search pin P2 behind P1 such that P2, P1 and the image I are in a
straight line.
• Shift the eye to another position on the other side of the normal ON and repeat
the steps above with pins P3 and P4, as shown in the diagram.
• Remove the mirror and pins.
• Draw a line through P1 and P2 to cut the mirror line at Q.
• Draw another line through P3 and P4 to cut the mirror line at R. Extend the
two lines to meet at I as shown in figure 8.30.
• Join O to I and mark the intersection of OI with MM′ as N.
• Measure the line segments ON and NI.
Repeat the experiment with different distances of O from the mirror line.
Observation
ON = NI.
Conclusion
The image is formed as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of the
mirror.

Characteristics of Images Formed by Plane Mirrors

Experiment 8.9: To investigate the size of image in a plane mirror
Apparatus
Soft board, plain sheet of paper, mounted mirror, extended object.
Procedure
Repeat experiment 8.8 using an extended object as shown in figure 8.31.
Measure TS and T'S'.

Fig. 8.31: Size of image formed in a plane mirror

Observation
The image formed is the same size as the object.
Experiment 8.10: To investigate the nature of the image formed in a plane
mirror
Apparatus
Mirror, softboard, plain sheet of paper. Procedure
• Stand in front of a mirror and view your image in the mirror.
• Raise your right hand and observe the behaviour of the image.
• Obtain a piece of white paper and draw a vertical line through its centre.
• To the left of the line, write a word, e.g., ‘BET’, see figure 8.32.
Fig. 8.32: Lateral inversion

• Place a plane mirror along the line with the reflecting surface facing the word
and vertical to the plane of the paper.
• View the image of the word in the plane mirror and note the appearance.
Observation
(i) When you raise your right hand, the image in the mirror raises its left hand.
(ii) The word appears inverted left to right (laterally inverted).
From figures 8.30 and 8.31, it is clear that no rays come from the image.
The rays (represented by dotted lines) only appear to come from there.
Images from rays which only appear to come from them, but are not real
rays, are called virtual images. Such images cannot be formed on the screen as
they are only imaginary (as seen by the observers eye).

Parallax
Imagine viewing two trees positioned in a line, one behind the other, as shown in
figure 8.33. With the eye at position E1, tree 2 appears to right of tree 1 and with
the eye at position E2, tree 2 appears to the left of tree 1.
This apparent relative motion of two objects due to the movement of the
observer is called parallax.
Fig. 8.33: Parallax

If the two trees were being viewed at the same position, i.e., tree 1 on top of
tree 2, the apparent relative change in their positions would not have occurred.
The two trees would have appeared to move as one unit.
This means that parallax occurs only when objects are some distance apart.
When the objects are at the same position, there is no parallax. In measurements
using a metre rule, it is found that when the eye is not positioned vertically
above the point to be measured, there is an error due to parallax.
Other instruments that have moving pointers above a scale, e.g., electrical
meters, may suffer errors of parallax if the line of sight is not placed
perpendicular to the pointer.
Experiment 8.11: To locate the position of the image in a plane mirror by
method of no parallax
Apparatus
Softboard, plain sheet of paper, mirror, pins.
Procedure
• Secure a plain sheet of paper on a soft board using drawing pins. Draw a
mirror line. Place the mirror on the paper as in earlier experiments.
• With the mirror on the mirror line, position an object pin, O, about 10 cm in
front of the mirror, see figure 8.34.
Fig. 8.34: Finding image position by non-parallax

• Obtain another pin (a search pin) whose height is greater than the height of
the mirror. Hold this search pin behind the mirror such that its top can be seen
when the eye is placed in front of the mirror and directly in front of the object
pin. The eye sees the image of the object pin and the top of the search pin.
• Shifting the eye position sideways, you will observe parallax between the
image of the object pin and the top of the search pin. Keep moving the search
pin until there is no parallax between the image of the object pin and the top
of the search pin. This position of the search pin is the position of the image
of the object pin.
• Fix the search pin into the softboard and measure the image and object
distances.
• Repeat for different positions of object pin to confirm the results.
Observation
The object distance is always equal to the image distance.
The characteristics of the images formed by a plane mirror can thus be
summarised as follows:
(i) The image is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of the mirror.
(ii) The image is the same size as the object.
(iii) The image is virtual, erect and laterally inverted.
Example 7
A girl stands 2.0 m in front of a plane mirror.
(a) Calculate the distance between the girl and her image.
(b) If the mirror is moved 0.6 m away from the girl, what will be the distance
between her and the image?
Fig. 8.35

(a) Since object distance equals image distance, the image is 2.0 m behind the
mirror. Thus;
Distance between object and image
= object distance + image distance
= 2.0 + 2.0
= 4.0 m
(b) When the mirror is moved 0.6 m away; object distance becomes 2.0 + 0.6 =
2.6 m. The image distance is also 2.6 m.
Hence, distance between them
= 2.6 + 2.6 m
= 5.2 m

Images Formed by Mirrors at an Angle

Mirrors inclined at 90°

Experiment 8.12: To investigate formation of images by mirrors inclined at
an angle of 90°.
Apparatus
Two mirrors, object.
Procedure
• Arrange two plane mirrors M1 and M2 at right angles to each other on a level
bench, as shown in figure 8.36.
• View the images as shown.
Fig. 8.36: Images formed by two plane mirrors inclined at 90° to each other

Observation
Three images will be seen. Rays of light by which the eye sees one of these
images 11.2, are shown in the figure.
Explanation
When two mirrors are inclined at right angles to each other as in figure 8.36, two
images I1 and I2 are formed by a single reflection by mirrors M1 and M2
respectively. Two extra images 11.2 and I2.1 are produced by double reflections.
The subscripts in the symbols I1.2 and I2.1 signify the order in which reflections
take place. Thus, I1.2 implies reflection by mirror 1 then mirror 2.
The image I1 is seen by looking into mirror 1 and image I2 by looking into
mirror 2. The two images I1.2 and I2.1 are actually superimposed on one another
so that we only see a total of three images as in figure 8.36.

Mirrors inclined at 60°

When the angle is made 60°, we see five images, as shown in figure 8.37.
Fig. 8.37: Images formed by two plane mirrors inclined at 60° to each other

Mirrors inclined at 45°

When the angle is further reduced to 45°, the number of images seen increases to
seven as in figure 8.38.
Repeat the experiment with the mirrors inclined at 120°, 72°, 40° and 30°.

Fig. 8.38: Images formed by two plane mirrors inclined at an angle of 45° to each other
Fig. 8.39: Images formed by two parallel mirrors

By recording the results in the table below, try to find the relationship
between the number of images, n, and θ, the angle between the mirrors.

Conclusion
The number of images increases as the angle is reduced. The actual number (n)
of images when the mirrors are inclined at an angle is given by the formula;

Mirrors parallel to each other

When the mirrors are parallel, i.e., θ = 0°, number of images formed is given by;

This is evident as one walks between parallel mirrors, as in some wash rooms or
a barbers shops. The farther images are fainter due to absorption of light on
reflection.
Example 8
Two parallel plane mirrors are placed 30 cm apart. An object placed between
them is 10 cm from one mirror. Determine the image distance of two nearest
images formed by each mirror.
Solution
Figure 8.40 illustrates the set-up. Since image distance equals object distance;

Fig. 8.40

The image of the object on mirror 1 is I1. Image distance is 10 cm.

The image of object on mirror 2 is I2. Image distance is 20 cm.
The image distance of I2 on mirror 1 is 50 cm.
The image distance of I1 on mirror 2 is 40 cm.
Example 9
Two plane mirrors are inclined at angle 60° to each other. A ray of light makes
an angle of 40° with mirror M1 and goes on to strike mirror M2. Find the angle
of reflection on the second mirror M2.
Solution
Fig. 8.41

The angle of incidence on mirror 1 is 50°.

Since I = r, the angle of reflection is also 50°.
Hence, the incident ray makes an angle of 10° with the normal of mirror 2.
Therefore, the angle of reflection on mirror 2 is 10°.

Applications of Plane Mirrors

The Kaleidoscope
The kaleidoscope applies the principle of mirrors at an angle. Initially, it was
produced as a toy under the name ‘mirrorscope’.
It consists of two mirrors M1 and M2 placed at an angle of 60° to each other
inside a tube.
The bottom of the tube is a ground glass plate for admitting light. On this
plate is scattered small pieces of brightly coloured glass, which act as objects.
Fig. 8.42: The kaleidoscope

When one looks down the tube, five images of the object are seen which
together with the object form a symmetrical pattern in six sectors, as shown in
the figure. The instrument is used by designers to obtain ideas on symetrical
patterns.

The Periscope
This is an instrument used to view objects over obstacles. It is used in
submarines and also to watch over the heads of crowds. The images seen with
aid of the instrument are erect and virtual.
A simple periscope may be constructed by arranging two plane mirrors
inclined at 45° to the horizontal, as shown in figure 8.43. The rays from the
object are reflected by the top mirror and then reflected again by the bottom
mirror into the observer’s eye.

Fig. 8.43: Simple periscope

More elaborate periscopes are used in submarines. Here, prisms are used
instead of mirrors and the tube supporting them incorporates a telescope to
extend the range of vision.
Revision Exercise 8
1. How does a person see an object?
2. Distinguish between luminous and non-luminous objects, giving five
examples of each.
3. Light travels in a straight line. Describe a laboratory experiment to verify
this fact.
4. (a) Distinguish between a lunar and a solar eclipse. Describe the events
leading to the occurrence of each.
(b) State the conditions necessary for the occurrence of an annular eclipse.
5. (a) Outline the steps required to make a pinhole camera.
(b) A pinhole camera forms on its screen an image which appears upside
down. With the aid of ray diagrams, explain how this happens.
(c) The pinhole camera has advantages and disadvantages when used to take
photographs. Discuss these.
(d) Briefly describe the effects of the following on the size of the image
formed on the screen of a pinhole camera.
(i) Increasing the distance of object from the pinhole.
(ii) Decreasing the distance of the object from the pinhole.
6. (a) State the laws of reflection.
(b) Name three applications of the reflection of light in everyday life.
(c) Explain the construction and the working of an instrument that could be
used to view a football match from outside the field which has a high
concrete wall.
7. (a) How many images would be seen from two mirrors when the reflecting
surfaces make an angle of 60° with each other?
(b) What is the practical application of this arrangement?
(c) At what angle would the two mirrors be inclined to form.
(i) 17 images.
(ii) 29 images
8. (a) Define the term magnification as applied to the formation of images by a
pinhole camera.
(b) A pinhole camera of length 15 cm forms an image 3 cm high of a man
standing 9 m in front of the camera. What is the height of the man? Give
your answer to the nearest centimetre.
9. (a) What is the purpose of a translucent screen on the pinhole camera?
(b) A lamp of height 6 cm stands in front of a pinhole camera at a distance
of 24 cm. The camera screen is 8 cm from the pinhole as in the figure
below. What is the height of the image on the screen?

10. (a) Two mounted mirrors are inclined at an angle of 120° with their faces
inwards. A pin is placed between them. Draw ray diagrams to show how
many images will be observed.
(b) Complete the ray diagram below to show how the eye views the tip of
the lighted candle as the object.

11. (a) Describe an experiment to verify the laws of reflection.

(b) A man stands 300 cm from a large wall-mirror. He then walks slowly
towards the mirror at a speed of 50 cm per second. What is the distance
between him and his image after 4 seconds?
12. (a) Differentiate between a real image and a virtual image.
(b) Although a plane mirror forms a virtual image, it is possible to take
your own picture when standing in front of a plane mirror. Explain.
13. The figure below shows part of an incomplete device:
 (a) Draw the ray diagram to show the true position of the image.
(b) Describe fully the image formed.
14. In a hair salon, a plane mirror is suspended using a string and makes an angle
of 35° with the wall, as shown below:

A ray of light strikes the mirror horizontally. Calculate the angle between the
horizontal and the reflected ray.
 Electrostatics (I)
When a plastic comb, a plastic pen or rubber balloon is rubbed on one’s sleeve
or hair and brought near small pieces of paper, it attracts them.

Fig. 9.1: A rubbed plastic object attracting pieces of paper

Household mirrors and windows attract dust and other small particles when
wiped with a dry duster. A crackling sound is sometimes heard when nylon cloth
are taken off the body.
These observations are as a result of the formation of static charges. The
charges found on the surfaces of the materials are caused by friction between the
rubbed surfaces. The materials are said to be charged and the study of these
static charges is called electrostatics.
There are two types of charges negative and positive charges. The SI unit
of charge is the coulomb(C). Subunits of the coulomb, millicoulombs (mC) and
microcoulombs (µC) are also used.
1000 mC = 1C
1 000 µC = 1 mC
1 000 000 µC = 1C

Origin of Charge
Matter is made up of atoms. An atom consists of particles known as protons,
neutrons and electrons. The protons and neutrons are concentrated in a small
space at the centre of the atom and form the nucleus of the atom.
Protons are positively charged while neutrons have no charge. The
electrons move in orbits around the nucleus and are negatively charged.
The nucleus has positive charge due to the charge on the protons. The total
number of the positive charges in the nucleus is equal to the total number of
negative charges on the electrons. Therefore, the whole atom is neutral, see
figure 9.2.

Fig. 9.2: The particles in an atom

Electrons in the outermost orbit are weakly held by the nucleus and can be
transferred easily from the atoms of one material to another by rubbing.
The material that gains electrons becomes negatively charged and the one
which loses electrons becomes positively charged. It is worth noting here that
charge is neither created nor destroyed during rubbing or charging, but simply
transferred from one body to another. A negatively or positively charged atom is
called an ion.
When a polythene rod is rubbed with a piece of cloth, the cloth loses
negative charges to the rod, making the latter negatively charged. Consequently,
the cloth becomes electron deficient and it acquires positive charge, see figure
9.3 (a) and (b).

Fig. 9.3: Charging by rubbing

Materials such as polythene and most plastics acquire extra electrons on their
surface and hence become negatively charged when rubbed. The rubbing
material (cloth or duster) loses an equal number of negative charges and
becomes positively charged. On the other hand, materials such as acetate,
perspex and glass have electrons removed from their surface when rubbed. They
thus become positively charged while the rubbing material (duster) gains an
equal number of negative charges.
Experiment 9.1: To investigate the law of charges
Apparatus
Two glass rods, silk cloth, silk thread, a stand, a Bunsen burner, polythene and
duster.

Fig. 9.4: Law of charges

Procedure
• Dry the glass rod by running it over a Bunsen flame a few times.
• Rub the dry rod with a silk cloth.
• Suspend the rubbed glass rod by a thread from the stand.
• Dry a second glass rod and rub it with silk cloth.
• Hold this second glass rod close to the suspended glass rod, as shown in
figure 9.4 (a) and observe what happens.
• With the glass rod still suspended, bring a polythene rod rubbed with fur
close, to it as shown in figure 9.4 (b). Note what happens.
Observation
When a charged glass rod is moved close to a suspended charged glass rod, they
repel each other. When a charged polythene rod is moved close to a suspended
charged glass rod, they attract each other.
Explanation
Since the glass rods were rubbed with the same material, both acquired a
positive charge. The repulsion between them implies that like charges repel each
other. The polythene rod (negatively charged) attracted the glass rod (positively
charged), showing that unlike charges attract each other.
Therefore, like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other. This is
called the basic law of electrostatic charges.

Charging by Induction
Experiment 9.2: To charge a conductor by the induction method
Apparatus
A polystyrene ball coated with aluminium point, silk thread, glass rod, silk cloth,
stand, polythene rod.

Fig. 9.5: Charging by induction

Procedure
• Suspend the polystyrene ball coated with aluminium using dry silk thread.
• Bring a charged glass rod close to, but not touching the suspended ball, as
shown in figure 9.5 (a).
• Touch the side of the ball away from the glass rod with a finger, as shown in
figure 9.5 (b).
• While holding the glass rod near the ball, withdraw the finger and then the
glass rod, see figure 9.5 (c).
• Bring a charged polythene rod (negatively charged) close to, but not touching
the polystyrene ball.
Observation
When a charged polythene rod is moved close to the charged ball, they repel.
Explanation
Initially, the positive glass rod attracts negative charges on the ball at the side
close to it, leaving positive charges to the farther right side of the ball (9.5 a).
Touching the ball with fingers makes negative charges flow from the earth
through the body to the sphere. The electrons neutralise the positive charges on
the right part of the ball.
When the rod is withdrawn, negative charges on the ball spread all over the
ball. Hence, the ball becomes negatively charged (9.5 c) as confirmed by the
repulsion from the negatively charged polythene rod.
When a body is charged by induction, it acquires charges that are opposite
to the inducing charge.

Charging by Contact
Experiment 9.3: To charge a conductor by the contact method
Apparatus
Polystyrene ball coated with aluminium paint, silk thread, glass rod, silk cloth,
polythene rod, woollen cloth.
Fig. 9.6: Charging by contact

Procedure
• Suspend the polystyrene ball coated with aluminium with a dry silk thread.
• Bring a charged glass rod close to, but not touching the ball, see figure 9.6 (a).
• Bring the charged glass rod in contact with the ball, rolling it over the surface,
as shown in figure 9.6 (b).
• Withdraw the charged rod.
• Bring a charged polythene rod close to, but not touching the suspended ball
and observe what happens.
Observation
The suspended ball is attracted by the polythene rod. If the charged ball is tested
with a positively charged glass rod, they repel.
Explanation
When the positive rod is rolled on the ball, some of the negative charges induced
in the ball are neutralised by some positive charges on the rod.
When the rod is withdrawn, the positive charges redistribute themselves all
over the surface of the ball (9.6 c).
Conclusion
When a body is charged by contact method, it acquires charges that are similar
to the ones on the charging rod.

Charging by Separation
Experiment 9.4: To charge a conductor by the separation method
Apparatus
Two metal spheres A and B with insulating stands, a polythene rod, woollen
cloth, stand, thread.

Fig. 9.7: Charging by separation

Procedure
• Place the two spheres A and B together so that they form a single conductor.
• Charge a polythene rod and place it close to, but not touching sphere A.
• Move sphere B away so as to break contact, while holding the charged
polythene rod in position.
• Withdraw the polythene rod.
• Test the two spheres A and B using a suspended negatively charged polythene
rod for the presence and type of charge in each sphere.
Observation
When the two spheres in turn are brought close to the suspended charged
polythene rod, sphere A attracts the rod while sphere B repels it.
Explanation
Sphere A attracts the negative rod because it has acquired positive charges which
are opposite to the charges on the rod.
Sphere B repels the rod because it has acquired negative charges which are
similar to the charges on the rod.

The Electroscope
This is an instrument which works on the principle of electrostatic charges. It is
used for investigating the effects of electric charges. Figure 9.8 shows a common
type of electroscope.
The gold-leaf electroscope consists of a thin gold or aluminium leaf on a
plate connected to a metal rod that has a brass cap at the top.
The cap acquires a charge through induction or contact and spreads it down the
rod to the plate and leaf. The cap is circular to ensure uniform distribution of
charges on it.
Both the plate and the leaf show the presence of charges by repelling each
other, making the leaf diverge. The absence of charges is also shown when the
leaf divergence decreases.
The metal casing is for protecting the leaf from the effects of draught. The
casing has a glass window through which observations are made.
The rod is supported by passing it through a plug of good insulating
material such as rubber. The insulator stops charge given to the cap from
spreading onto the case and leaking away. The casing may have a terminal for
connection to the earth. This is labelled E, see figure 9.9 (b).
Fig. 9.8: Gold-leaf electroscope

When the electroscope is touched by a finger or connected to the earth by a

wire, electrons either flow to the earth or from the earth, depending on the
charge on the electroscope.
This process of losing charges to or gaining charges from the earth through
a conductor is called earthing.

Charging an Electroscope by the Contact Method

Charge a polythene rod by rubbing it with a clean, dry duster. Roll the charged
rod over the brass cap of the electroscope and subsequently withdraw it.
The negatively charged polythene rod repels the negative charges which
spreads on the plate and the leaf. Repulsion between the plate and the leaf occurs
and the leaf divergence increases, as shown in figure 9.9 (a).
Fig. 9.9: Charging an electroscope negatively by contact

When the process is repeated several times with the negatively charged
polythene rod, the leaf divergence increases to a maximum point. The
electroscope is said to be charged negatively by contact method.
The electroscope can be discharged by touching the brass cap with a finger.
The electroscope can be charged positively through the same process by
using a different charging material, e.g., glass rubbed with a clean dry silk cloth.
In this case, electrons are attracted from the cap to the rod. They neutralise the
rod and the electroscope becomes positively charged.
In the contact method, the charged material coming into contact with the
cap of the electroscope is an insulator. Only the charges on the rod’s surface
coming into contact with the cap are used in neutralising the charges induced on
the cap.

Charging an Electroscope by Induction

The most effective way of charging an electroscope is by the induction method.
Experiment 9.5: To charge an electroscope by induction
Apparatus
A gold leaf electroscope, polythene rod, woollen cloth.
Procedure
• Touch the cap of a gold-leaf electroscope with your finger to ensure that it is
fully discharged.
• Bring a charged polythene rod close to the cap of the uncharged electroscope,
see figure 9.10 (a). Note what happens to the leaf of the electroscope.
• While the rod remains in its position, touch the cap and note again what
happens to the leaf.
• Withdraw your finger and subsequently remove the polythene rod. Note what
happens.
Observation
When the charged polythene rod is brought close to the cap, the leaf rises. When
the cap is touched while the rod is still in position, the leaf divergence decreases,
see figure 9.10 (b).
When the earth connection is removed by removing the finger and the
polythene rod subsequently withdrawn, the leaf diverges, see figure 9.10 (c).

Fig. 9.10: Charging an electroscope by induction

Explanation
When the charged polythene rod is brought close to the cap, electrons are
repelled to the plate and the leaf, making the leaf diverge. When the cap is
touched, the negative charge (electrons) flow to earth through the body.
When the earth connection is broken by removing the finger and the
polythene rod withdrawn, the positive charge which was attracted to the cap
redistributes onto the plate and the leaf. The leaf as a result diverges and the
electroscope becomes positively charged, see figure 9.10 (c). The electroscope
can be charged negatively in the same way by using a positively charged rod.

Uses of the Electroscope

An electroscope has a number of uses, some of which are described below.
1. To detect the presence of charge on a body
The material to be tested is placed on or brought close to the cap of the
electroscope. If it is not charged, the leaf does not diverge.
2. To test the sign of charge on a charged body
Charge an electroscope negatively by contact method. Slowly bring a negative
rod to be tested close to the cap of the electroscope. The leaf diverges more. It
does so because the negative charges on the rod repel more charges from the cap
to the plate and the leaf. Similar charges in the plate and the leaf are repelled.

Fig. 9.11: To test the sign on a body

When a strong positively rod is brought from high position towards the
negatively electroscope, the leaf divergence first decreases then increases as the
rod approaches the cap. The leaf divergence reduces slightly first because the
positive charges on the rod attract negative charges on the leaf and the plate,
making the electroscope neutral. On moving the rod much lower, the leaf
divergence increases again to higher position. This is because the strong positive
rod attracts more electrons from the plate and the leaf, making them more
positive. Hence, they repel further. The same observations are made when a
negatively charged rod is brought towards a positively charged electroscope.
 On moving a neutral conductor close to a charged electroscope. Leaf
divergence decreases. Charges on the electroscope induce opposite charges on
the conductor. The table below shows a summary of the results obtained when
we test the sign on a charged object using differently charged electroscopes.
Charge on Charge brought near Effect on leaf
electroscope cap divergence
+ + Increase
– – Increase
+ – Decrease
– + Decrease
+ or – Uncharged body Decrease

An increase in the divergence of the leaf is therefore the only sure way of
confirming the kind of charge on a body.
3. To test the quantity of charge on a charged body
Two pith balls coated with aluminium and having different radii are placed on
insulating handles.
They are charged by rubbing with a duster. The charged balls are brought
close to the cap of a charged electroscope.
The ball with a smaller radius causes a slight increase in divergence while
the larger ball causes a greater increase in divergence.
4. To test for insulation properties of a material
Materials like copper, iron, aluminium, zinc and graphite make the leaf
divergence decrease. Materials like plastic, glass, wood, do not affect the
divergence of the leaf.
For metals and graphite, the leaf decreases in divergence because they
allow electrons to flow between the electroscope and the earth. Such materials
are called conductors. In conductors, electrons freely move from one atom to
another. Such electrons are called free electrons.
For materials like plastic, glass and wood, there is no change in leaf
divergence because they do not allow electrons to flow between the electroscope
and the earth. In these materials, the electrons are not free to move and they are
strongly bound to their nuclei. Such materials are called insulators.
There are other materials like silicon and germanium which are conductors
under special conditions. Their conductivity is between the conductivity of
insulators and conductors. Such materials are called semiconductors.

Charges in Air
Air can also be charged. The presence of charges in air can be shown by heating
air above a charged electroscope. It observed that the leaf divergence decreases.
When a fuel burns, chemical reactions yield ionised products. The ions
move and collide with air molecules, causing air to become ionised. Ionisation
produces both positive and negative charges. The ions carrying opposite the
charge to the electroscope are attracted to the cap of the electroscope, resulting
in the discharge of the electroscope. Charges on insulators can be removed by
ionised air.
Other than heating, air can also be ionised by radiations.

Applications of Electrostatic Charges

Some of the applications of electrostatics include electrostatic precipitators,
spray painting and photocopiers.

Electrostatic Precipitator
Air pollution is a serious environmental problem of global concern. Heavy
industrialisation has contributed most to this phenomenon. In an attempt to
reduce the pollutants, some industries have installed electrostatic precipitators.
Figure 9.12 shows a common precipitator used in chimneys.
Fig. 9.12: Electrostatic precipitator

The precipitator consists of cylindrical metal plate fixed along the walls of the
chimney and a wire mesh suspended through the middle. The plate is charged
positively at a potential of about 50 000 V while the mesh is negatively charged.
A strong electric field is set up between the plates, which ionises the particles of
the pollutants. These are then attracted to the plate. The resulting deposits are
then removed from the plates occasionally.

Spray Painting
The spray gun can is filled with the paint and its nozzle charged. During
spraying, the paint droplets acquire similar charges and, therefore, spread out
finely due to repulsion. As they approach the metallic body, they induce opposite
charges which in turn attracts them to the surface. Little paint is therefore used.

Photocopier
A photocopier produces paper copies of documents using heat and electrostatic
charges. Inside a photocopier is a cylindrical drum that is charged negatively.
Fig. 9.13: A photocopier

The bright light is used to illuminate the original document. The unprinted
areas reflect light and become negatively charged while the toner is positively
charged and, therefore, sticks on the negatively charged areas. The toner image
is transferred to the paper which is negatively charged. The hot drum melts the
toner to the paper and pressure rollers help to ensure complete and dry bonding
to the paper. A copy of the original document is, therefore, produced.

Dangers of Electrostatics
Some dangers associated with electrostatics include:
(i) Sparks and fires
• Fuel rubbing the inside of a pipe becomes charged and can cause a spark
which ignites the fuel.
• Fuel in plastic cans generates charges as it rubs with inner walls of the
can.
• Fast moving water jets become charged and may cause fuel tanks in
shops to explode while cleaning them out.
(ii) Electric shock
• A person walking on a nylon carpet can experience shock by touching
metallic door handles in the building.
• A car radiator generates charges that can cause shock if touched.
(iii) Lightning
• Electrostatic charges from lightning cause shock leading to death.
Revision Exercise 9
1. (a) Explain the following:
(i) A nylon dress sticks on the body and crackles when removed.
(ii) Fuel tankers have a loose chain under them to touch the ground as
they move.
(iii) A glass window when wiped with a dry cloth on a dry day soon
becomes dusty.
(b) Explain what happens when a charged glass rod is brought close to a
neutral pithball placed on a flat table.
2. Explain why it is not possible to charge an electroscope by following the
steps below:
(i) Bring a charged rod near to, but not touching the cap.
(ii) Touch the cap with a finger.
(iii) Remove the charged rod.
(iv) Remove the finger.
3. Describe how to charge an electroscope positively using a positive rod.
Name the other apparatus needed.
4. State two applications of electrostatics.
5. Describe the construction of a gold-leaf electroscope. Given a gold-leaf
electroscope, an ebonite rod and fur, explain how you would use them:
(a) to detect presence of electrostatic charge on another body.
(b) to find the sign of the charge on the body.
6. A polythene rod may be charged negatively by rubbing it with a cloth, but a
brass rod held in the hand cannot be charged this way.
(a) State clearly what happens when the polythene is being charged.
(b) Explain why brass cannot be charged by rubbing.
7. The two electroscopes below are identical. One is charged while the other is
not. Copy the diagram and show the divergence of the leaves after
connecting the caps of the two electroscopes with a thin copper wire.
8. A positively charged rod is brought near the cap of a lightly charged
electroscope. The leaf first decreases in divergence but as the rod is brought
nearer, it diverges. State the charge on the electroscope and explain the
behaviour of the leaf.
9. Explain why a gold-leaf electroscope casing is made of metal. Why is the
casing earthed?
10. An uncharged metal rod brought close to, but not touching the cap of a
charged electroscope causes a decrease in the divergence of the leaf. Explain.
11. (a) Explain what happens when a plastic pen is touched by a charged
polythene rod and then moved close to snall pieces of paper.
(b) Why do some motor tyres contain graphite?
12. In the diagram below, a negatively charged metal sphere P is placed a short
distance away from a suspended light neutral metal plate Q.
(a) What will happen to Q?
(b) Show the resulting charge distribution on both P and Q.
(c) What do you observe when you introduce:
(i) a neutral light conductor C between P and Q.
(ii) a negative conductor between P and Q.
 Cells and Simple
Circuits
Electricity is one of the most common forms of energy.
It is used, among other things, for lighting, heating and powering devices
like television, radio, mobile phones, computers and high speed trains.

A Simple Electric Circuit

Experiment 10.1: To set up a simple electric circuit
Apparatus
One dry cell, a torch bulb, a switch, connecting wires.

Fig. 10.1: A simple electric circuit

Procedure
• Connect the apparatus as shown in figure 10.1.
• Close the switch and observe what happens.
Observation
The bulb lights.
Explanation
The bulb lights because charges are flowing through it. The rate of flow of
charge (charge per unit time) is called an electric current and is measured using
an ammeter, see figure 10.2. The SI unit of current is the Ampere (A).
Fig. 10.2 : Ammeter

From the definition of current;

Where I is current flow in Amperes, Q the charge in coulombs and the t time in
seconds.

Example 1
Calculate the amount of current flowing through a bulb if 300 coulombs of
charge flows through it in 2.5 minutes.
Solution

Conventional Circuit Diagram

An electric circuit like the one shown in figure10.3(a) allows charges to move in
a complete path when the switch is closed, see figure 10.3(b). The circuit is then
said to be closed. Copper wire readily allows electric charges (mainly electrons)
to flow. The wires may be covered by an insulating material like rubber to
prevent the user from electric shock if the current is too high. The cell is the
source of electrical energy in the circuit and maintains the flow of charges round
the circuit. When a gap is introduced in the circuit, for instance by opening the
switch, the charges stop flowing. The circuit is then to be open (broken circuit).
Loose connection of wires or components in the circuit may open the circuit.
 For clarity and neatness, symbols are used in representing components of an
electrical circuit. Figure 10.3 shows the conventional ways of drawing the circuit
in figure 10.1.

Fig. 10.3 (a): Circuit diagram

Fig. 10.3 (b): Circuit diagram

Connecting wires are drawn as straight lines with right angle corners, although
the actual wires are flexible and bent. The arrow-heads drawn on the lines
indicate the direction of flow of electric current.
A condition can cause an electric current to accidentally flow through a path of
extremely low resistance and avoid the path of the load. This condition is
referred to as short circuit.
In figure 10.4 (a), the cell and bulb are short circuited by the wire AB while in
figure 10.4 (b), only the bulb is shorted.
Fig. 10.4 (a)

Fig. 10.4 (b)

Table 10.1 shows some of the electrical symbols used in drawing circuits.
Table 10.1

Device Symbol
Cell
Battery

Switch
Bulb/Filament lamp
Wires crossing with no connection
Wires crossing with connection
Fixed resistor
Fixed resistor
Variable resistor
Potential divider

Fuse
Capacitor
Rheostat

Ammeter
Voltmeter
Galvanometer

Electromotive Force and Potential Difference Potential

Difference
Fig. 10.5: Water level and potential difference analogy

We have seen that a cell moves charge round a circuit. To explain this, consider
a tin containing water connected to another empty tin, as shown in figure
10.5(a).
Water flows from tin A to tin B because the water in the two tins is at
different levels. When the two levels are the same, as shown in figure 10.5(b),
the water stops flowing. Hence, there must be a difference in the water levels if
it is to flow.
Fig. 10.6: Water and electric circuit analogy

Let us study the flow of water in figure.10.6, which can be referred to as water
circuit because water flows round a complete ring. Water at a height h1, from the
ground level has potential energy because of its position. The greater the height,
the higher the potential energy. The rate of flow will depend on the height, to
which the water had initially been raised. A higher water level results in a faster
rate of flow. At a height h0, the water has no potential energy. If the water is to
be raised to h1, a pump has to be used. So long as the pump in the water circuit is
working, the water will move round the complete path, from a point of higher
potential energy to a point of lower potential energy. The pump creates a
difference in potential.
Now replace the water at height h1 with positive charges, pipes with copper
wires and the pump with a battery, see figure 10.7.

Fig. 10.7

For the charges to move through the conductor, there must be a battery which
produces an electrical potential difference at the ends of the conductor. The
battery does the work of pumping charges to a high potential so that they can
flow. The higher the potential difference (pd), the stronger the current in the
circuit, if the other factors like opposition to flow of current (resistance) are kept
constant. The model of the circuit shown in figure 10.7 can help suggest that the
function of a battery is to cause a potential difference across a conductor.
Not all the energy supplied by the pump is used to drive the water round the
circuit. Some of the energy is lost in moving or raising parts of the pump.
Similarly, for the battery, some energy is lost in moving charges through the
battery itself. The total energy supplied by the battery is called its electromotive
force (emf).
Potential difference is measured in volts, by an instrument called
voltmeter.

Fig. 10.8: Voltmeters commonly used in laboratories

Although both emf and pd are measured in volts, the potential difference of a
cell is different from its emf. The emf of a cell is the voltage across its terminals
when it is supplying no current in the circuit (an open circuit), while the pd of a
cell is the voltage across the cell in a closed circuit. Figure 10.9 (a) and (b)
respectively show the emf of the cell as 1.5 V and the pd as 1.45 V.

Fig. 10.9: Pd and emf of a cell

The difference between the readings is known as the lost volts, in this case
0.05V. This voltage is lost because of the opposition to the flow of charges
within the cell (internal resistance).

Connecting Cells in Series and Parallel

Cells in Series
When two or more cells are connected such that the positive terminal of one is
joined to the negative of another one, then they are said to be in series, see figure
10.10. Two or more cells connected in series make a battery.

Fig. 10.10: Cells in series

Experiment 10.2: To investigate the effect of series connection on current

and emf
Apparatus
Two cells, a 2.5 V torch bulb, connecting wires, switch, ammeter (0 – 5A),
voltmeter (0 – 5 V).
Fig. 10.11: Emf and current

Procedure
• Set up the circuit shown in figure 10.11 (a). Note the way the ammeter and
voltmeter are connected.
• Read and record the voltmeter and ammeter readings.
• Switch on the circuit.
• Read and record the voltmeter and ammeter readings. Note the brightness of
the bulb.
• Repeat the experiment with two cells in series, as shown in figure 10.11 (b).
Observation and explanation
Connecting cells in series increases the emf and the current in the circuit (the
rate of flow of charge) is higher. If the emf of each cell is 1.5V, then the total
emf is 3 V (emf’s are added). Note that an ammeter is always connected in series
while the voltmeter is connected across the cells in parallel.

Cells in parallel
Cells are said to be in parallel when placed side by side, the positive terminals
joined together and the negative terminals also connected together.

Fig. 10.12: Cells in parallel

Experiment 10.3: To investigate the effect of parallel connection on current

and emf
Apparatus
Two cells, voltmeter (0 – 5 V), ammeter (0 – 5A), switch, 2.5 Vbulb, connecting
wires.
Fig. 10.13: Emf and current with cells in parallel

Procedure
• Connect the circuit as shown in figure 10.13.
• Read and record the voltmeter reading.
• Put on the switch.
• Read and record the voltmeter and ammeter readings.
• Compare the results to when only one cell was used.
Observation
The emf of the cells is the same as that for a single cell. There is no significant
increase in the brightness of the bulb and the current flowing in the circuit.
Conclusion
The effective emf for identical cells in parallel is the same as the emf of a single
cell.
Note:
(i) Cells should be arranged in parallel when they have identical emfs,
otherwise one will drain the other.
(ii) The advantage of connecting cells in parallel is that the current is supplied
for a longer time.
Experiment 10.4: To investigate the current flowing in a circuit when
devices are arranged in series and parallel
Apparatus
Two cells, three identical bulbs, ammeter, a switch.
Procedure
• Set up the circuit shown in figure 10.14 (a).
• Close the switch.
• Observe the brightness of the bulbs and record the ammeter reading.
• Disconnect one of the bulbs and observe what happens to the other bulbs.
• Connect the circuit as shown in figure 10.14 (b).
• Close the switch and observe the brightness of the bulbs.

Fig 10.14: Arrangement of bulbs

• Read and record the ammeter reading.

• Disconnect one of the bulbs and observe what happens to the other bulbs and
the reading of the ammeter.
• Disconnect two of the bulbs and observe the brightness of the remaining bulb.
Observation
The bulbs connected in series give out light of the same brightness and when one
is disconnected, the others go off too. In the parallel circuit, the three bulbs give
out light of the same brightness, but brighter than the ones connected in series.
When some of the bulbs are disconnected, the rest continue with the same
brightness.
Conclusion
The same current flows through devices connected in series. If one of the
devices is disconnected, it introduces an open circuit. Electrical devices
connected in series offer greater opposition (resistance) to the flow of current.
For devices connected in parallel, the current flowing in one does not affect
the current flowing in the other devices. If one of the devices causes an open
circuit, current will still flow in the other devices.
In domestic electrical wiring (lighting circuit), bulbs are connected in
parallel, as shown in figure 10.15.

Fig. 10.15: Bulbs wired in parallel

The three bulbs can be switched on or off independently, and one bulb blowing
out does not affect the working of the remaining bulbs.

Example 2
Three cells have an emf of 1.5 V each. What is the total emf when the cells are
in parallel and when in series?
Solution
When in parallel;
Effective emf = the emf of one cell = 1.5 V
When in series;
Effective emf = 1.5 + 1.5 + 1.5 = 4.5 V

Example 3
Diana connected three identical bulbs, as shown in figure 10.16.
Fig. 10.16

Explain what happens, indicating the path of current when:

(a) S1 is closed while S2 and S3 are open.
(b) S2 is closed while S1 and S3 are open
(c) S1 and S2 are closed while S3 is open.
(d) S1 and S3 are closed while S2 is open.
(e) S2 and S3 are closed while S1 is open.
Solution
(a) Bulb B2 lights because it is in a closed circuit, while B1 and B2 do not light
because they are in open circuits. Path of current;
O → P → R → S → U
(b) Bulbs B1 and B2 light because they are in a closed circuit. The bulbs are less
bright, since they are in series. Path of current is;
O → P → R → S → T → U
(c) Bulbs B2 lights brightly. B1 does not light since it is short-circuited. B3 is in
an open circuit. Path of the current is;
O → P → R → S → U
(d) B1 does not light (open circuit). B2 and B3 are in a closed parallel circuit.
They light with the same brightness. Path of the current;
O → P → R→ S → U and
O → P → Q → R → S → U
Current through B2 is the same as current through B3.
(e) The three bulbs light. B1 is brighter than B2 and B3. B2 and B3 share the
 current flowing through B1.
Path of the current is;
O → P → R → S → T → U
and
O → P → Q → R → S → T → U

Conductors and Insulators

Experiment 10.5. To investigate electrical conductivity
Apparatus
Bulb, a cell and cell holder, connecting wires, switch, two crocodile clips,
sampled materials.

Fig. 10.17: Electrical conductivity

Procedure
• Set up the apparatus as shown in figure 10.17.
• Connect the crocodile clips to the ends A and B.
• Bring ends A and B of the crocodile clips together and switch on the circuit.
The bulb should light, indicating that the circuit is ready for use.
• Fix the material under test between the two clips and switch on. Note the
brightness of the bulb.
• Repeat for other materials.
Observation
The bulb lights in some cases although with different amount of brightness. In
other cases, the bulb does not light at all.
The materials which, when connected, the bulb lights are known as
conductors. Examples are copper, silver and aluminium. Those materials which,
when connected, the bulb does not light (they do not allow electric charges to
pass through them) are called insulators. Examples of insulators are plastic,
rubber and dry wood.
Conductors can either be good or poor. Examples of good conductors are
copper, silver and aluminium. An example of a poor conductor is graphite.
Metals are in general good conductors of electricity. They have a large number
of free electrons moving randomly within them, as shown in figure 10.18 (a).
When a cell is connected across the ends of the conductor, the free electrons
move in the direction, as indicated in figure 10.18 (b).

Fig. 10.18: Flow of electrons in a conductor

When electrons are made to drift in a given direction, current is said to be

flowing through the conductor. Conventionally, current is taken to flow in the
direction opposite to that of electron flow.
Poor conductors like graphite have fewer free electrons. Insulators have their
electrons tightly bound to the nuclei of their atoms. Because they cannot conduct
electric current, insulators are used as cover materials for good conductors.
There exists another group of materials whose electrical properties fall
between those of conductors and insulators. Such materials are called
semiconductors. Examples of semiconductors are silicon and germanium. It is
these elements that form the basis of diodes, transistors and integrated circuits
which have wide applications. Some liquids like dilute sulphuric acid, sodium
chloride solution and potassium hydroxide are good conductors of electric
charge. These liquids are called electrolytes. Others like paraffin and cooking
oil are poor conductors.

Sources of Electricity
The main sources of electricity present are chemical cells and generators driven
by water (hydro) steam (geothermal) and fuel oil. The alternative sources
gaining prominence are wind-driven generators and solar cells. Apart from cells,
batteries and generators, other sources of electricity include solar cells or panels,
thermocouples and some crystals when under pressure (piezo electric effect).
The main sources of electricity presently are chemical cells, generators and solar
cells. Figure 10.19 shows some of these sources.

Fig. 10.19: Some sources of electricity

Chemical Cells
Chemical cells produce an electromotive force as a result of a chemical reaction.
There are two types of chemical cells, namely, primary and secondary cells.

(a) Primary Cells

Primary cells cannot be renewed once the chemicals are exhausted while
secondary cells can be renewed by recharging.
Experiment 10.6: To make a simple primary cell
Apparatus
Zinc and copper plates, a beaker containing dilute sulphuric acid, a bulb,
connecting wires, a switch, an ammeter (0 – 100 mA).

Fig. 10.20: Simple cell

Procedure
• Clean the surfaces of the metal plates using a wirebrush.
• Connect the circuit as shown in figure 10.20.
• Dip the plates in the acid.
• With the switch open, observe bubble formation on the plates.
• Close the switch and observe the brightness of the bulb.
• Record the ammeter reading. Observe if it remains constant over a period of
time. Observe also gas bubble formation on the plates.
• Add potassium dichromate to the acid and observe what happens.
Observation
Bubbles of gas form around the zinc plate when the switch is open, while no
bubbles are formed around the copper plate. This indicates that zinc is reacting
with the acid faster than copper. When the switch is closed, current flows
through the circuit as indicated by the ammeter. This current may not be
sufficiently large to light the bulb brightly lit. Bigger bubbles of gas form around
the copper plate and on testing, the gas is found to be hydrogen.
The zinc metal is ‘eaten’ away as it reacts with acid. The strength of current
supplied decreases because of cell defects and the bulb soon goes off. Addition
of potassium dichromate to the acid makes the bulb relight.
Explanation
The two metal plates (electrodes) when dipped in the dilute sulphuric acid
(electrolyte) carry electric charges (current) into and out of the electrolyte. Dilute
sulphuric acid exist as hydrogen ions (H+) and sulphate ions (SO42–), as seen in
the chemical equation below;
H2SO4(aq) 2H+ (aq) + SO42– (aq)
The chemical action between zinc and dilute sulphuric acid liberates electrons,
which flow through the connecting wire and the bulb to the copper plate.
Zn (s) → Zn2+ + 2e–
The hydrogen ions (H+) move to the copper plate, where they are neutralised by
the electrons that had come from the zinc and acid reaction. This produces
hydrogen gas bubbles around the copper plate.
2H+ (aq) + 2e–→ H2(g)
Copper receives more electrons from the reaction of the zinc and the acid. This
makes the zinc plate negative and copper plate positive. Conventionally, the
direction of current is from the positive plate to the negative plate.
Accumulation of bubbles around the copper plate is called polarisation.
This effect produces a resistance to the flow of current and also sets up some
‘local’ cells with in the copper whose electron flow tends to oppose the flow of
electrons from the zinc plate. The overall effect is increase in the internal
resistance of the cell, which reduces the flow of current. When potassium
dichromate (depolariser) is added, some of its oxygen atoms combine with the
hydrogen atoms to produce water. This boosts the current flow once more, but
the electrolyte gets more diluted by the water.
The zinc plate on the other hand is ‘eaten’ away as it reacts with dilute
sulphuric acid. This defect is called local action. Impurities in zinc promote
local action. The use of pure zinc or coating the zinc with mercury
(amalgamation) reduces this effect.
Polarisation and local action are the main short coming of a simple cell.

The Leclanché cell

Figure 10.21 shows a Leclanche’ cell, which is an improvement of the simple
cell. Defects of polarisation and local action have been minimised.
Fig. 10 21: Leclanché cell

The carbon rod (positive terminal) is surrounded with manganese (IV) oxide
mixed with carbon powder.
The manganese (IV) oxide acts as a depolariser, reacting with the hydrogen
gas formed on the carbon rod to produce water. This process is however slow
and hence large currents cannot be drawn out of this cell steadily for a long time.
The carbon powder increases the effective area of plate, which in effect reduces
the opposition to flow of current.
The zinc plate is immersed in ammonium chloride solution, which converts
zinc to zinc chloride when the cell is working. Local action is still a problem in
this cell.
The cell is used for purposes where current is not drawn from it for a very
long time, like operating bells and telephone boxes. It has a longer life span than
the simple cell.

The Dry cell

This type of cell is referred to as dry cell because it has no liquid. The
ammonium chloride solution in the Leclanché cell is replaced with the
ammonium chloride jelly or paste. Manganese (IV) oxide [or (II) dioxide] and
carbon powder act as the depolariser. The hydrogen gas produced is oxidised to
water, making the cell become wetter as it is used.
Fig. 10. 22: The dry cell

The zinc case acting as the negative electrode gets eaten away by the
ammonium chloride and changes to zinc chloride. Local action is still problem in
this cell.
The cell cannot be renewed once the chemical action stops. A new dry cell
has an emf of about 1.5 V.
Large currents should not be drawn from the dry cell within a short time.
Shorting its terminals can also ruin it. The cells must be stored in dry places.
Dry cells are used in torches, calculators and radios.

(b) Secondary Cells

The chemical process which occurs in secondary cells when delivering current
can be reversed by applying a direct current to the terminals. Examples of such
cells are the lead-acid accumulator and nickel alkaline cell. Secondary cells are
also called storage cells because they can store electrical energy as chemical
energy.
Experiment 10.7: To charge and discharge a simple secondary cell
Apparatus
Two clean lead plates, beaker containing dilute sulphuric acid, charging battery,
zero-centred ammeter, connecting wires, a variable resistor and two switches.
Fig. 10.23: Charging and discharging secondary, cells

Procedure
• Set up the apparatus as shown in figure 10.23.
• Close the switch S1 and observe the changes on the plates, if any.
• Note how the ammeter reading varies with time and the direction of the
pointer with respect to the zero mark.
Observation
When S1 is closed and S2 is open, the cell is charging. The positive plate
(anode) turns chocolate brown while the negative (cathode) plate remains
metallic grey (lead). Gas bubbles form on the two plates. The ammeter deflects
away from the zero mark. This deflection decreases with time.
When the switch S1 is open and S2 is closed, the cell is being embolden
(passing current to an external circuit). The ammeter deflects in the opposite
direction from charging. The dark brown colour on the positive plate turns to
grey and gas bubbles are seen on the plates.
Explanation
During charging, sulphuric acid is electrolysed, giving off oxygen at the anode
and hydrogen at the cathode. The oxygen reacts with the lead to give lead (IV)
oxide, which is deposited at the anode. Hydrogen gas formed at the cathode has
no effect. The flow of current through the ammeter decreases with time because
the cell starts supplying current in the opposite direction to the charging current.
In discharging, the current flows in the direction opposite to that when charging.
Oxygen gas bubbles form at the cathode while hydrogen gas forms at the anode.
The dark brown colour on the positive plate changes to grey.
Lead-acid Accumulator
This is the most reliable, long lasting and cost effective of the secondary cells.
Figure 10.24 shows a lead-acid accumulator.

Fig. 10.24: Lead-acid accumulator

A 12 V lead-acid accumulator has six cells connected in series. Each cell has
several plates made in the form of a lattice grid, the positive plates carrying lead
(IV) oxide and the negative plates having spongy lead.
The plates are very close to one another and are prevented from getting into
contact (short circuiting) by having insulating sheets separating them.
The surface area and the number of plates in a given cell determine the
current-carrying capacity of the cell. The charge (electrical energy) stored is
directly proportional to the surface area of the plates, see figure 10.25.

Fig. 10.25: Plates inside a lead-acid accumulator

 The container used in the construction of the lead-acid accumulator must be
mechanically strong, acid-proof and with insulating properties. The electrolyte is
a solution of about 64 per cent water with relative density of 1.00 and about 36
per cent sulphuric acid with relative density of 1.84. When the accumulator is
discharging (giving out electrical energy), the sulphuric acid dissociates into
hydrogen ions (H+) and sulphate (SO42–) ions.

Fig. 10.26: Chemical reaction in a lead-acid accumulator

At the positive plate, a sulphate ion reacts with the lead to form lead sulphate,
while the hydrogen ions react with the oxygen in the lead (IV) oxide to form
water, as below;
2PbO2 (s) + 2H2SO4 (aq) → 2PbSO4 (s) + 4H2O (l)
At the cathode, lead reacts with sulphuric acid to form lead sulphate and
hydrogen gas;
Pb (s) + 2H2SO2 (aq) → PbSO4 (s) + H2 (g)
During these processes, electrons are amassed at the negative plate while
positive charges develop at the anode because of the deficiency of electrons.
This generates an electromotive force between the anode and the cathode. A
single cell has an emf of 2.2V when fully charged but this drops to 2.0 V when it
is working. As the battery continues working, lead sulphate (white deposit)
forms on the plates and the relative density of the electrolyte drops because of
the formation of water.
In recharging, a direct current is passed through the cell in the opposite direction
to that during discharging, see figure 10.27.
Fig. 10.27: Charging a lead-acid accumulator

The process that takes place during discharging is reversed during recharging.

Capacity of Lead-acid Accumulator

The capacity of the lead-acid accumulator is the amount of current that can be
drawn in a given time from the battery. This is the total amount of charge, Q = It,
and is expressed in ampere-hours (Ah).
Lead-acid accumulators give strong current over a long time compared to
other cells because of an effective low internal resistance. The internal resistance
of a cell is inversely proportional to the linear dimensions of the plates.

Example 4
A battery is rated at 30 Ah. Find how long it will work if it steadily supplies a
current of 3 A.
Solution
Q = It
But I = 3 A and Q = 30 Ah
30 = 3 × t
Therefore, t = 10 hours

Example 5
The charge stored by a cell A of plate dimensions 0.2 m × 0.2 m is 108 000 C.
(a) Calculate the charge is stored by cell B of plate dimensions 0.4 m × 0.4
m?
(b) Find the ratio of internal resistance of cell A to that of cell B.
Solution

Maintenance of Accumulators
1. The level of the electrolyte should be checked regularly and maintained
above the plates. Topping up should be done using distilled water not acid.
Acid can only be used in cases where there has been spillage.
2. The accumulator should be charged when the emf of the cell drops below 1.8
V and when the relative density of the acid falls below 1.12. The relative
density of the acid is measured using a hydrometer.
3. Large currents should not be drawn from the battery for a long time. This
loosens the lead (IV) oxide and the lead in the mesh framework of the plates,
causing them to fall off. The plates then buckle.
4. The accumulator should not be left in a discharged condition for a long
period. The lead (II) sulphate deposits on the plates harden up and cannot be
converted back to lead (II) oxide and lead. This is called sulphation.
5. Shorting or overcharging the accumulator should be avoided.
6. The terminals should always be kept clean and greased.
7. The accumulator should not be directly placed on the ground during storage.
It should be rested on some insulator like a wooden block.

Alkaline Accumulators
The electrolyte in this case is an alkaline solution, such as potassium hydroxide.
The common types are nickel-cadnium and nickel-iron accumulators. Figure
10.28 shows a nickel-iron accumulator with iron as the negative terminal and
nickel hydroxide as the positive terminal.

Fig. 10.28: Nickel-iron cell

Advantages of Alkaline Accumulators over Lead-acid Accumulators

1. Large currents can be drawn from them.
2. They can be kept in a discharged condition for a very long time before the
cells are damaged.
3. They require very little attention to maintain.
4. They are lighter (more portable) than the lead-acid accumulators.

Disadvantages
1. They are very expensive.
2. They have a lower emf per cell.

Uses of Alkaline Accumulators

They are used in ships, hospitals and buildings where large currents might be
needed for emergencies.

Solar Electrical Energy

Solar electrical energy is gaining prominence as a substitute for hydro-electrical
and diesel generated power energies which are increasingly becoming limited as
the global climate change takes toll. Solar energy is preferable since it is clean
and renewable.
The main component of a solar electrical system is the solar panel
consisting of solar cells, see fig. 10.29. Solar cells convert energy from the sun
into electricity.
Fig. 10.29: Solar cell

The solar cell contains a special crystalline material based on silicon which
absorbs energy from the sun resulting in generation of electrons hence current
flow.
Solar cells are used in:
(i) Solar calculators and mobile phones.

Fig. 10.30: Solar calculators and mobile phones

(ii) Solar powered cars

Fig. 10.31: Solar powered car

(iii) Powering of space stations

Fig. 10.32: Space station

Revision Exercise 10
1. In terms of their electrons, distinguish between good conductors, poor
conductors of electricity and insulators.
2. (a) Define electric current and state its SI unit.
(b) (i) A charge of 180 coulombs flows through a lamp every minute.
Calculate the current flowing through the lamp.
(ii) Calculate the number of electrons involved (charge of an electron is
1.6 × 10-19 C).
3. A battery circulates charge round a circuit for 1.5 minutes. If the current is
held at 2.5 A, what quantity of charge passes through the wire?
4. Define electromotive force and distinguish it from potential difference of a
cell.
5. (a) Draw a circuit diagram of a three-cell torch.
(b) Define the following terms:
(i) open circuit.
(ii) closed circuit.
6. Explain why lights in a house are wired in parallel and not in series.
7. (a) Give three differences between primary and secondary cells.
(b) In making a simple cell, the two electrodes used are not of the same
metal. Explain.
8. You are provided with a car battery, a switch and two car headlights. Draw a
possible circuit diagram for the arrangement that will allow the driver to
switch on the two lights simultaneously.
9. (a) Draw a well-labelled diagram of a dry cell and explain how it works.
(b) What are the defects and their remedies in the working of a dry cell?
(c) How are dry cells maintained?
10. Eight dry cells can be arranged to produce a total emf of 12 V, just like a car
battery.
(a) Find the emf of an individual cell.
(b) Explain why it is possible to start a car with the lead-acid accumulator,
but not with the eight dry cells in series.?
11. (a) Draw two separate diagrams showing a lead-acid accumulator when it
is:
(i) charging.
(ii) discharging.
(b) Describe the changes that are observed during the two processes above.
(c) Explain why it is dangerous to light a match near a charging car battery.
12. (a) What do you understand by the term capacity of a lead-acid
accumulator?
(b) Explain why it is effective to charge a car battery over a long time with a
small amount of current rather than a big amount of current over a short
time.
(c) A car battery is rated 40 Ah and it is expected to supply a constant
 current for 120 minutes. What is the strength of current delivered.
13. State at least five precautions that you would take to maintain accumulators
in your laboratory.
14. State the advantages and disadvantages of lead-acid accumulators over
alkaline accumulators.