Contents

COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND: RELEVANCE IN THE UNIVERSE .......................................... 2

Criterion A: Focus and Method ....................................................................................................... 3
Prognosis ..................................................................................................................................... 3
Criterion B: Knowledge and Understanding ................................................................................... 3
Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation .................................................................................. 3
Blackbody Radiation, Planck and Rayleigh – Jeans ..................................................................... 5
Criterion C: Critical Thinking ........................................................................................................... 9
Preview ........................................................................................................................................ 9
Analysis, Relating, Induction & Deduction .................................................................................. 9
The Cosmological Redshifts......................................................................................................... 9
Assuming Redshifts as Doppler Shifts ................................................................................... 10
Planck’s Radiation Law: Verification by Cosmological Data .................................................. 11
Hubble’s Law: Is the Universe Expanding or Contracting...................................................... 14
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 15
 COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND: RELEVANCE IN THE UNIVERSE

Research Question: Does the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) supports the existence of
Big Bang Theory
Approach: A good opportunity for evaluating and solving the research question with the help of
theoretical framework developed by Literature from Scientific Journals and Books to unravel the
existence of Cosmic Microwave Background with the discussing in context with the laws of
physics to approach a decision about the Big Bang Theory
Criterion A: Focus and Method

Prognosis
The beginning of the Universe remains an unsolved mystery till date. Numerous scientific
theories have been presented to support different models of establishment of life. The hot Big
Bang theory is the name of given to one such standard cosmological model which describes the
Universe as: Homogenous, Isotropic whose evolution governed by Friedmann equations and
occurred from a high density and high temperature star – referred to as singularity. The radiation
component of the energy is of cosmological background, hence the term hot is given to the
model. The real universe is not exactly Homogenous and Isotropic, hence the hot big bang model
is an abstraction after a point. But this model, which is assumed standard in the cosmological
studies helps in developing a framework which allows to observed galaxies and clusters of
galaxies from early universe. The big bang theory also provides possible explanation for
cosmological phenomena such as Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation, abundance of
light elements, large – scale structures and Hubble’s law.
The discovery of microwave background radiations in 1965 by Penzias and Wilson was awarded
with a Nobel Prize, proved to be benchmark in understanding and supporting the hot big bang
model. This essay aims to establish a relationship between Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB)
radiation and Big Bang theory. Laws of physics such as Wien’s Displacement, Doppler’s Effect,
and Hubble’s Law will be used to support the existence of CBM radiation.

Criterion B: Knowledge and Understanding

Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation

Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation were discovered in 1964, by Arno Penzias and
Robert Wilson as an omnidirectional signal in the microwave band. This discovery supported the
already presented confirmation of Big-Bang predictions by Alpher, Herman and Gamow around
1950. During the 1970s, the radiation was already found approximately to be exhibiting a
spectrum with a similarity with that of a blackbody spectrum with no deviations at a level of 1
part in 104, which was redshifted by the expansion of Universe.
Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation is a strong evidence of the Big Bang origin of the
universe. The universe in the beginning was hotter, denser and filled with plasma compacted as
a singularity. When the Universe cooled down, the protons and electrons combined to form
electrically neutral hydrogen atoms. This phenomena in cosmology is referred to as
recombination epoch which occurred 370,000 years after the big bang (according to Wikipedia).
Unlike, the excited electrons and protons which emit or absorb thermal radiation, the electrically
neutral hydrogen atoms could not scatter radiation. Shortly afterwards recombination, photon
decoupling occurred around 378,000 years after Big Bang. Photon decoupling was the period of
Universe development when different particles fall out from each other instead of constantly
being scattered in plasma. During decoupling, the free electron density decreased since,
decoupling and recombination happened nearly together. Decoupling occurred fast when the
rate of Compton scattering of photons was equal to the rate of expansion of Universe. The
photons scattered were able to stream freely in the Universe producing the cosmic microwave
background as we know it today. The Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation holds a lot of
importance in the cosmic observation and theory. These radiations, as already explained, holds
evidence for the existence of big bang theory. Moreover, two important properties of CMB which
have widely been discussed in the literature are:

 Striking similarity with the Black – Body spectrum

 Isotropy

First, the CMB Radiation possesses a near – perfect black – body spectrum. When the CMB were
discovered, it was supposed to have a thermal spectrum but other explanations for its type were
also possible. There are different and alternative cosmologies presenting own models i.e. The
Bianchi Model, Inhomogeneous model, The Steady – State Model, The Dirac Theory, Brans – Dicke
Theory. Scientists and observers who were in favor of steady state model, suggested that CMB
Radiations are primarily incoming starlight reprocessed by dust which accounted for the
observations. In the previous three decades, the improved experimental techniques have been
focused at the measurement and analysis of CMB Spectrum such as exploiting ground 0 based
antennae, balloons, rockets and most efficient and important of all, the COBE satellite.
The COBE satellite had the ability of avoiding the absorption of frequencies other than CMB
radiation, which interfered with the ground – based experiments at microwave and
submillimetric frequencies. The results obtained for the spectrum of CMB by COBE reveal that
the radiation background is very close to an ideal black body. Hence the temperature of CMB is
2.726K ± 0.005K, since this is the temperature of black body spectrum and also, the universe
cooled down to this temperature right before decoupling started.
The Isotropy or, rather, small anisotropy is the second important and widely discussed property
of CMB radiation in the universe. The anisotropy in terms of temperature is expressed as the
following quantity:
∆𝑇 𝑇(𝜃, ∅) − 𝑇°
(𝜃, ∅) =
𝑇 𝑇°
This gives the temperature differential as a fraction of mean temperature as a function of angular
position on the sky. It was realized that if CMB did actually originated shortly after the Big Bang,
it should contain the imprints from processes occurred both during and after its production i.e.
Recombination and Recoupling. In the previous decade, CMB anisotropies were investigated by
a large number of ground – based experimentation. Several experiments revealed facts about
the features of the Universe. Most notably, BOOMEranG, found the shape of the Universe to be
almost flat by measuring the angular size of the anisotropy. The isotropy of a cosmic microwave
background radiation is important because:

 It suggests the evidence of large – scale isotropy of Universe;

 Negates any model in which the source of this radiation is a galaxy or produced by random
disturbances, also on the grounds that it has near perfect black – body spectrum; and
 It provides important information on the origin, nature and evolution of density variations
which are key to birth of galaxies and large-scale structures in the Universe.

Blackbody Radiation, Planck and Wien’s Law

Blackbody Radiation or “Cavity Radiation” refers to an object which absorbs all the radiation
thrown upon it. It sends of radiations in the form of energy which is unique to this radiating body
only and has no correlation with the type of radiation incident over the body. The radiated energy
is produced by standing wave or resonant modes of the body/cavity which is radiating. The
amount of radiation which is emitted for a given frequency range, is proportional to the number
of modes in that frequency range. Classical physics suggested that all modes had an equal chance
of being produced.

Cavity modes were analyzed and studied by Rayleigh and Jeans which showed that number of
modes was proportional the frequency squared. A mode to exist for any electromagnetic wave
in a cavity, it must fulfill the condition of zero electric field at the wall. That means, shorter the
wavelength of a mode, the more the permutations for fitting it into the cavity.
Describing the black-body spectrum is not possible without the context of discussing the Planck’s
law. This law relates the spectral density of electromagnetic waves (radiation) which are emitted
by a black body in thermal radiation at a given temperature T, provided the net flow of energy or
matter is zero between the environment and body. Max Planck discovered a formula for the
observed spectrum with assumption that a hypothetically electrically charged oscillator in a
cavity which contains a black – body radiation could only change its energy, either increment or
decrement (decrement in case of black body), by a small increment, E. This increment was
proportional to the frequency of the electromagnetic wave (radiation emitted by the black body).
This discovery serves as a pioneering benchmark in modern physics and have critical importance
in developing the fundamental framework of the quantum theory.
The law, in empirical terms states that, every physical body keeps emitting electromagnetic
radiation continuously and spontaneously, and that the spectral radiance of that body, B, is the
amount of energy it emits at different radiation frequencies. This radiance is basically the power
emitted per unit area of the body, per unit solid angle, per unit frequency. Planck proved that the
spectral radiance of a body for frequency v at absolute temperature T at which the radiation is
being emitted, is given by:
 2ℎ𝑣 3 1
𝐵(𝑣, 𝑇) = ℎ𝑣
𝑐2
𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 − 1
𝑘𝐵 = 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
ℎ = 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑘 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑐 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
Representing the Planck law in terms of wavelength (λ) instead of per unit frequency. The law
can be simplified to:

1
𝐵(𝑣, 𝑇) = 2𝑣 3 𝑣
𝑒𝑇 −1
The relationship between spectral radiance in terms of wavelength (λ) and in terms of frequency
(ν) can be obtained by equating the integrals of spectral radiance in per unit wavelength to that
of spectral radiance per unit frequency:
λ2 𝑣(λ1 ) λ1 λ2
𝑑λ 𝑑λ
∫ 𝐵(λ, T) 𝑑λ = ∫ 𝐵(𝑣, 𝑇) 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ 𝐵(𝑣, 𝑇)𝑑𝑣 = − ∫ 𝐵(𝑣, 𝑇)𝑑𝑣
λ1 𝑣(λ2 ) λ2 𝑑λ λ1 𝑑λ

The second integral integrates from 𝑣(λ2 ) to 𝑣(λ1 ) because integrating forward in frequency is
integrating backwards in wavelength (wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional to
each other). Hence if, λ1 < λ2 then 𝑣(λ2 ) < 𝑣(λ1 ). We can write:
𝑑𝑣
𝐵(λ, 𝑇) = − 𝐵(𝑣, 𝑇)
𝑑λ
We know that c = λ𝑣, hence
2ℎ𝑐 2 1
𝐵(λ, 𝑇) = ℎ𝑐
λ5
𝑒 λ𝑘𝐵 𝑇 − 1
The above expressions relates that how radiant energy emitted at short wavelengths rises more
exponentially at temperature than the radiations emitted at longer wavelengths. In the range of
low frequencies i.e. longer wavelengths, Planck’s law tends to take the shape of Rayleigh – Jeans
law, while in the domain of high frequencies i.e. shorter wavelengths, it tends towards the Wien
Approximation.
Figure 1: Planck’s law describes black – body radiation. The figure shows curves for different temperatures. The black curve
diverges from observed intensity at high frequencies

Figure 2: Comparison of Rayleigh – Jeans law with Wien Approximation and Planck’s Law for a body at 5800K temperature

Wien’s Displacement law states that the black-body radiation curve for different temperatures
will achieve peak values at different wavelengths that are inversely proportional to the
temperature. The shift of peak temperature points in the spectrum is a direct consequence of
the Planck Radiation law, i.e. the spectral brightness (radiance) of a black-body is a function of its
wavelength. Wien’s Displacement law was discovered by Wilhelm Wien several years ago before
Max Planck discovered the general equation which describes the entire shift of the spectrum of
black-body towards shorter wavelengths with increased temperature (Approximation to Wien’s
Displacement Law).
Empirically, Wien’s law states that spectral radiance of black – body radiation per unit
wavelength, will peak at the wavelength λ𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 ,
𝑏
λ𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 =
𝑇
Where T is the temperature in kelvins and b is the constant of proportionality called Wien’s
displacement constant (value 2.897771955 E-3). In short, the peak wavelength is inversely
proportional to the temperature and vice versa for the peak frequency.

Figure 3: Black Body radiations at different temperatures. Different temperatures have peak values at different wavelengths
Criterion C: Critical Thinking

Preview
The previous sections discussed the detailed literature which was essential to understand the
cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation and its loose context with the Big Bang Theory
(discussed with a birds eye view in prognosis). The Laws stated above (Planck’s Law, Wien’s
Displacement Law, Rayleigh – Jeans Law), were essential in understanding the black body
spectrum like features of a CMB radiation. This section will focus on developing a more formal
relationship between the big bang theory and CMB radiation. Arguments based on data and
literary information in the form of calculations and empirical relations (equations), will be used
to strengthen the validity of big bang theory by the support of CMB radiations.

Analysis, Relating, Induction & Deductionr

As we know already, the events of decoupling and recombination occurred slightly before the
last surface scattering when photons started to free stream into the universe from plasma state.
The arguments to be developed in this section will be around Redshifts, Doppler’s Law, Planck’s
Radiation Law and Hubble’s Law in order to satisfy two criteria: that the radiation wavelength is
larger than it was when big bang happened and that the galaxies are expanding in the universe.

The Cosmological Redshifts

Robertson – Walker introduced an arbitrary factor 𝑎(𝑡) called the Robertson – Walker time scale
factor in the Euclidean differential models. The change in the frequency of spectral lines coming
from distant galaxies gives us the information about the increase or decrease of this factor. We
will calculate these frequency shifts with some prior assumptions.
To approximate the redshifts as Doppler’s shift, let us assume a coordinate system in which we
are at the center with rays of light received as radial vectors. Such a light ray is given by:
𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑡 = ±𝑎(𝑡)
√(1 − 𝐾𝑟 2 )
Taking differentials and rearranging the above equation for initial and final conditions, we get:
𝛿𝑡1 𝛿𝑡0
=
𝑎(𝑡1 ) 𝑎(𝑡0 )
Whereas, the initial and final conditions correspond to the intervals between subsequent
departure and arrival of light rays. Hence writing in terms of frequency, 𝜈 (1) will be the emitted
frequency and 𝜈 (0) will be the observed frequency:
𝜈0 𝑎(𝑡1 )
=
𝜈1 𝑎(𝑡0 )
(Weinberg, 2008) States that if a (t) is increasing, it is a redshift, and blue shift if vice versa. Which
means a decrease in the frequency by a factor of 𝑎(𝑡1 )/𝑎(𝑡0 ) for redshift, which is equivalent to
an increase in the wavelength by a factor called 1 + 𝑧 ∶
𝑎(𝑡1 )
1+𝑧 =
𝑎(𝑡0 )
The above results are commonly discussed in reference to Doppler’s Shift which says that for an
increasing or decreasing a (t), the distance between any moving light source is changing which in
this case are galaxies moving away from us or either moving towards us, will cause redshift or
blue shift. This means that typically, galaxies are either contracting or expanding which will
produce redshifts or blue shifts respectively. Some literatures even give radial velocities to
galaxies in this context. However, the interpretation of redshifts completely as Doppler shifts is
not straight forward. Particularly, the change in wavelength from emission to absorption of light
does not depends on the rate of change of a(t) only at the times of emission and absorption, but
for the whole duration from emission to absorption, a postulate which Doppler’s shift fails to
consider.

Assuming Redshifts as Doppler Shifts

A very common belief about the big-bang cosmology is that cosmological redshifts cannot be
assumed as Doppler’s Shifts. While this is not completely true, this assumption has been proved
correct in some literatures. (Emory F. Bunn, David W. Hogg, 2009) Attempts at proving this by
assuming a suitable number of observes along the photon’s path for Doppler’s shift formulation.
Let’s assume a photon which travels from a distant galaxy to an observer. Both of them have
commoving coordinates. Also imagine a family of observers at the photon path each commoving
with the photon. The observers are so close to each other that they can be assumed to be in a
single frame of reference and relativity can be used to calculate the frequency change in them. If
the distance between one observer and the next is 𝛿𝑟 the relative speed is given by 𝛿𝑣 = 𝐻𝛿𝑟
where H is the Hubble Constant. Frequency shift is given by the non-relativistic Doppler’s
formula:
𝛿𝑣 𝛿𝑣 𝐻𝛿𝑟
= − = − = −𝐻𝛿𝑡
𝑣 𝑐 𝑐
We know from previous heading that 𝐻 = 𝑎̇ /𝑎 and the overall redshift is given by:
𝑣(𝑡𝑒 ) 𝑎(𝑡𝑒 )
1+𝑧 = =
𝑣(𝑡0 ) 𝑎(𝑡0 )
Where subscript e corresponds to emitted radiation and o corresponds to observed radiation.
If we wish to talk about the cosmological redshifts as Doppler shifts, we must talk about the V rel
i.e. the relative velocity of the galaxy then to us now. Under normal assumption of curved space
time, there is not unique defined way of translating the velocity in widely separated space time
events. Comparing the velocities of two objects require 4 vectors. For that, we need to transport
one vector from one point to the other. In curved space time, the result of such a translations is
a function of the path chosen. (Narlikar, 1994) & (Synge, 1960) Said, that if we forget about the
purist rule and talk about the relative velocity, the only possible path to choose for the parallel
transport of velocity vectors is the null geodesic line joining the emission and observation events.
The relative velocity in this case will become:

𝑐 + 𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑙 𝑎(𝑡𝑒 )
√ =
𝑐 − 𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑙 𝑎(𝑡0 )

The ration of scale factors on the right hand side is 1 + 𝑧, the above equation is the standard
special – relativistic Doppler formula. The relative speed 𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑙 define by the parallel transport
along the null geodesic, is related to the observable redshift in the above equation as if it was the
redshift is the Doppler shift.

Planck’s Radiation Law: Verification by Cosmological Data

Calculations based on the cosmological data is required to prove the validity of these physical
laws. Different literatures have gathered cosmological data from the radiations coming from
distant galaxies. Since the Planck Law is generalized form for Wien’s and Jeans formula, we will
verify Planck Law only.

Although there are many methods to analytically verify the existence of Big Bang theory. But we
will take inspiration from the study (Bluestone, 2001). We will perform calculations to ensure
whether the data from COBE satellite in the figure 5 is in correspondence by measuring the
Stephen Boltzmann constant of the incoming radiation. If the calculated values are accurate, then
we have established the argument that the measured cosmic data is correct and empirically
supports the validity of big bang theory.

The incident energy flux (B) has units of 𝑊/(𝑚2 𝑠𝑟 𝐻𝑧) and is given by:
𝑐
𝐵=( ) 𝜌(𝑣, 𝑇) (𝟏)
4𝜋
The Planck brightness function and Wien’s Brightness function is given respectively by:
ℎ𝑣 −1
3 2
𝐵 = 2ℎ(𝑣 /𝑐 ) (𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1) (𝟐)

ℎ𝑣
𝐵 = 2ℎ(𝑣 3 /𝑐 2 )𝑒 𝑘𝑇 (𝟑)
Figure 4: Data obtained from COBE satellite retrieved from (Bluestone, 2001). The first column is the wave number (𝑣̅ ), second
column is the weightage to each measurement (w) and third column is the spectral intensity (B)

The total energy flux given by the radiating body is given by:
𝑐
𝑒(𝑇) = (4) ∫ 𝜌( 𝑣, 𝑇) 𝑑𝑣 (𝟒)

Integrating between the limits of zero and infinity:

𝑒(𝑇) = 𝜎𝑇 4 (𝟓)
The term 𝜎 is the Stephen Boltzman Constant and has a value of 5.67 × 10−8 𝐽/(𝑚2 𝑠 𝐾 4 ).
Solving Equation. 5 using Equation.4 and Equation.1, we get the following relationship:
𝜋𝑐
𝜎=( ) ∫ 𝐵 𝑑𝑣̅ (𝟔)
𝑇4
The Equation.6 gives the expression of Stephen Boltzmann constant as a function of Spectral
Radiance (B) and the wavenumber (𝑣̅ ) . The integral of Spectral radiance with respect to
wavenumber is taken by the help of trapezoidal formula, since we have the cosmological data
available. The integration is done with the help of spreadsheet, for all the measured values. One
sample calculation is performed below by using the data from Figure 4.
𝑇 = 2.728𝐾
𝐵 = 0.1003
𝑣̅ = 19.51
𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠
𝜋𝑐
𝜎=( ) ∫ 𝐵 𝑑𝑣̅
𝑇4

𝜋 × 3 × 108
𝜎=( ) 𝐵 ∫ 𝑑𝑣̅
2.7284

𝜋 × 3 × 108
𝜎=( )𝐵𝑣̅
2.7284
𝜋 × 3 × 108
𝜎=( ) (0.1003)(19.51)
2.7284

𝜎 = 5.6 × 10−8 𝐽/𝑚2 𝑠 𝐾 4

As followed by (Bluestone, 2001), the exponent to the power -18 in the spectral radiance is
neglected during calculations, which explains the discrepancies but the above equation has been
written with the consideration of the negative exponent and hence the value is adjusted. The
wavenumber is also not adjusted for meters per second. The value of 𝜎 obtained are not accurate
for all the 45 measurements but are close with very minimal precision loss.
Hubble’s Law: Is the Universe Expanding or Contracting
The measurement of Hubble Constant i.e. the expansion rate of universe, has been performed in
multiple literatures with different techniques. The constant has change by an order of 10 in the
last 50 years and its value is predicted in a confidence interval of probability. We will take down
one such study and breakdown it to prove that the Universe is actually expanding.
Research done by (Alberto Dominguez, Francisco Prada, 2019) used the γ-rays attenuation to
calculate the Hubble constant (𝐻0 ). They calculated the expansion rate by utilizing the gamma
ray attenuation observed in the spectral lines of gamma rays produced due to the interaction
between extragalactic γ – ray photons and extragalactic background light. The recent knowledge
about the cosmic γ – ray horizon (CGRH) by observing the incoming waves of multiple
wavelengths from blazars, and increased knowledge about the Extragalactic Background Light,
has helped in deriving the Hubble Constant. This research also outlines the fact that the
dependence between cosmic γ – ray horizon (CGRH) and the Hubble Constant is between the
Redshifts of 0.04 and 0.1.

For the calculation of Hubble constant from γ – ray attenuation, we need to consider some
cosmological parameters into account. Once such cosmological parameter of paramount
importance in the observational data is optical depth Ʈ of γ – ray produced by the interaction
between EBL photon and galactic γ – ray photon. The optical depth is analytically given by:
𝑧 2
𝑑𝑙 ′
𝑑𝜇 ∞ ′
Ʈ(E, z) = ∫ ( ′
) 𝑑𝑧 ∫ 𝑑𝜇 ∫ 𝑑𝜀 𝜎γγ (𝛽 ′ )𝑛(𝜀 ′ , 𝑧 ′ )
0 𝑑𝑧 0 2 𝜀𝑡ℎ

The optical depth is dependent upon two factors as evident from the above equation: (Alberto
Dominguez, Francisco Prada, 2019) said “First, the dependence given by the EBL density
evolution 𝑛(𝜀 ′ , 𝑧 ′ ). Second, the dependence with the extragalactic γ-ray propagation through the
𝑑𝑙
universe given by the factor 𝑑𝑧 ′ .Interestingly, both effects contribute quantitatively as well as
qualitatively differently to τ.”

The potential to measure Hubble constant from γ – ray attenuation was identified by (F. W.
Stecker, 1996) early on. After the starting of Imaging-Atmospheric Cherenkov Telescopes (IACTs)
like H.E.S.S, MAGIC and VERITAS, new investigations sprouted. Some researchers used simulated
VHE spectra of blazars to quantify the how effectively cosmological parameters can be
constrained. However, another fact which was neglected during that era was that cosmological
dependence is deeply rooted in the evolution of EBL spectral intensity with redshifts. The work
by (Alberto Dominguez, Francisco Prada, 2019) takes into account both of these considerations.

Attempts at evaluating the Hubble Constant by (Barrau, A.; Gorecki, A.; Grain, J. , 2008) led to the
derivation of a lower limit of the Hubble Constant, 𝐻0 > 74𝑘𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑀𝑝𝑐 −1 at a 68 % confidence
level by observing the γ – ray photon coming from blazar Mkn 501.
In the study made by Dominguez and Prada, the CGRH was derived using the methodologies and
data in (Dominguez, 2011) whereby adopting different values of Hubble Constant for an
assumption of a flat universe with a Lambda – CDM with a fixed matter density of Ωm = 0.3.

The work presents the best value of Hubble Constant on the basis of best fit CGRH model i.e.
𝐻0 = 71.18+4.6 +7.2 −1
−5.6 (𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡)−13.8 (𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡)𝑘𝑚𝑠 𝑀𝑝𝑐
−1
with the assumption that the uncertainties in in
𝑥−𝜇
the CGRH data are Gaussian distributed. In the likelihood range, the width 𝜎 ∝ exp(− 2𝜎2 ) is
assumed the mean value. The statistical errors are accounted for the maximum likelihood and
systematic uncertainties are then accounted for EBL modelling. The value of 𝐻0 obtained on the
basis of γ – ray attenuation with a total accuracy of 18% is in good agreement with the present
day methods (Alberto Dominguez, Francisco Prada, 2019).

Conclusion
This essay comprehensively discusses the history and evolution of Cosmic Microwave
Background (CMB) radiations and also evaluates the relationship with big bang theory through
the use of theory and inductive arguments based on analytical and data driven information. A
number of books and research journals were consulted in developing the base for understanding
the physical laws that explains the birth of CMB radiations and govern them till present day as
well. These research journals have also been explored deeply to make critical arguments using
formulas and empirical expressions regarding the cosmic parameters which explains the
happenings of CMB radiations. Finally, an extensive regard has been established for explaining
the Hubble’s Law which explains expansion of the Universe, and Planck’s Radiation Law which
validates the data retrieved through COBE satellite by calculating a Universal constant (Stephen
Boltzmann) using the same data. The document gives an extensive review of the existing
literature on cosmology and the crucial information needed to understand the Big Bang Theory
and CMB Radiations. Moreover, the essay also establishes context through analytical approaches
taken in different research papers for proving the positive correlation between the Big Bang
Theory and Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) Radiation.
References
Alberto Dominguez, Francisco Prada. (2019). Measruement of the expansion rate of the universe
from gamma ray attenuation. The Astrophysical Journal letters .

Barrau, A.; Gorecki, A.; Grain, J. . (2008). An original constraint on the Hubble constant: h > 0.74
. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 919-924.
Bluestone, S. (2001). The Planck Radiation Law: Exercises Using the Cosmic Background Radiation
Data. Journal of Chemical Education.
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