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TUNNEL

A tunnel can be defined as an underground passage for the transport of passengers, goods, water,
sewage, oil, gas, etc. The construction of a tunnel is normally carried out without causing much
disturbance to the ground surface. The history of tunnels is very old. The first tunnel was
constructed about 4000 years ago in Babylon to connect two buildings. The first railway tunnel in
the world was constructed at the end of the nineteenth century to connect Switzerland and Italy.
The cross section of the tunnel was in the shape of a horseshoe and its length was about 20 km.
On Indian Railways, the first tunnel was constructed near Thane on Central Railways known as
the Parsik tunnel. It is the longest railway tunnel of India with a length of about 1317 m.

 Necessity/Advantages of a Tunnel

The necessity of constructing a tunnel may arise because of one of the following
considerations.
a) A tunnel may be required to eliminate the need for a long and circuitous route for reaching
the other side of a hill, as it would considerably reduce the length of the railway line and
may also prove to be economical.
b) It may be economical to provide a tunnel instead of a cutting, particularly in a rocky terrain.
Depending upon various factors, a rough calculation would indicate that for a small stretch
of land the cost of constructing a tunnel is equal to the cost of a cutting in a rocky terrain.
c) In hills with soft rocks, a tunnel is cheaper than a cutting.
d) In metropolitan towns and other large cities, tunnels are constructed to accommodate
underground railway systems in order to provide a rapid and unobstructed means of
transport.
e) A tunnel constructed under a river bed may sometimes prove to be more economical and
convenient than a bridge.
f) In the case of aerial warfare transportation through tunnels provides better safety and
security to rail users compared to a bridge or deep cutting.
g) The maintenance cost of a tunnel is considerably lower than that of a bridge or deep cutting.

 Tunnel Alignment and Gradient

A precise and detailed survey is necessary before setting the alignment of a tunnel on the
ground. A small error in setting the alignment would result in the two ends never meeting at
all. When starting work, both the ends of the tunnel as well as the centre line are marked
with precision on the ground so that the correct length of the tunnel can be determined. An
accurate survey is then carried out to ensure that the centre line of the alignment and the
levels are transferred properly to their underground positions.
a) The alignment should be straight as far as possible since normally such a route would be
the shortest and most economical.
b) The minimum possible gradient should be provided for a tunnel and its approaches.
c) Proper ventilation and adequate lighting should be provided inside the tunnel.
d) The side drains in a tunnel should be given a minimum gradient of 1 in 500 for effective
drainage. In longer tunnels, the gradient should be provided from the centre towards the
ends for effective and efficient drainage.

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 Surveying
The correctness and economy of constructing tunnels entirely depends on the accuracy of
the surveying. Therefore, survey work should be done with great accuracy and it should
be checked several times during the execution of the construction work also.
Sequence of surveying: Mainly the survey work consists of the alignment of the
centre line on the surface, its transfer into the tunnel and proper leveling inside the tunnel.
Following are the main sequence of the surveying during the tunnel construction.

a) First a preliminary location survey is done in the area which is followed by the precise
Re-survey of the centre line on the ground surface.
b) The centre line is transferred to the underground through shafts which are constructed
over it.
c) The tunnel excavation is started from both end as well as several intermediate shaft faces.
Therefore, minute accuracy in the centre line is necessary. This centre line is extended in
both the side inside the tunnel.

 Transferring Center-line to inside of tunnel ( When the shaft is located directly

over the centre line )
Generally the centre line is transferred underground through the opening of the shaft.
This is very difficult work and requires more attention because the alignment will entirely
depend on it.
Two plumb-bobs attached to fine wires are suspended in the shaft. The wires are wound
on the mouth of the shaft. By revolving reels plumb-bobs can be raised or lowered. In the
tunnel these plumb-bob are immersed in water or oil buckets, so that they may not be
affected by the vibration. With the help of a theodolite these wires are brought on centre
line at the ground.
When the wires at top are lying on the centre line they will automatically be on centre
line in the shaft also. Now one theodolite kept about 7 m away from wires in such a way
that, when observing through the telescope both wires are in one line. In this position the
axis of telescope will lie in the centre line of the tunnel. Now the construction of the
tunnel in one or both direction is started along the centre line, which has been fixed by
driving the pegs in the roof of the tunnel and suspending plumb-bobs from them as
shown in figure.

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Methods of Tunnelling
There are various methods of tunneling. The selection of a method depends upon the size
of the bore, the condition of the ground, the equipment available, and the extent to which
timbering is required. Tunnelling may be basically divided into two main groups.
a) Tunnelling in hard rocks
b) Tunnelling in soft rocks

 Tunnelling in Hard Rocks

The following methods are generally employed for tunneling in hard rocks.

Full face method:

The full face method is normally selected for small tunnels whose dimensions do not
exceed 3 m. In this method, the full face or the entire facade of the tunnel is tackled at the
same time. Vertical columns are erected at the face of the tunnel and a large number of
drills mounted or fixed on these columns at a suitable height as shown in Figure.

A series of holes measuring 10 mm to 40 mm in diameter with about 1200 mm centre-to-

centre distance are then drilled into the rock, preferably in two rows. These holes are
charged with explosives and ignited. Next the muck is removed before repeating the
process of drilling holes.
Advantages
a) Since an entire section of the tunnel is tackled at one time, the method is completed
expeditiously.
b) Mucking tracks, which are tracks used for collecting muck, can be laid on the tunnel
floor and extended as the work progresses.
c) With the development of the ‘jumbo’ or drill carriage, this method can be used for larger
tunnels too.

Disadvantages
a) The method requires heavy mechanical equipment.
b) It is not very suitable for unstable rocks.
c) It can normally be adopted for small tunnels only.

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Heading and bench method

In this method, the heading (top or upper half) of the tunnel is bored first and then the
bench (bottom or lower half) follows. The heading portion lies about 3.70 m to 4.60 m
ahead of the bench portion (Fig. 30.3). In hard rock, the drill holes for the bench are
driven at the same time as the removal of the muck. The hard rock permits the roof to
stay in place without supports.

Advantages
a) The work of drilling of holes for the explosives and the removal of muck can progress
simultaneously.
b) This method requires the use of lower quantities of gunpowder than the full face method.
Drift method:
A drift is a small tunnel measuring 3 m × 3 m, which is driven into the rock and whose
section is widened in subsequent processes till it equates that of the tunnel. A number of
drill holes are provided all around the drift and these are filled up with explosives and
ignited so that the size of the drift expands to become equal to the required cross section
of the tunnel. The position of the drift depends upon local conditions; it may be in the
centre, top, bottom, or side as shown in Fig. 30.4. Field experience has shown that the
central drift is the best choice, as it offers better ventilation and requires lower quantities
of explosives. The side drift, however, has the advantage that it permits the use of timber
to support the roof.

Advantages
a) If the quality of the rock is bad or if it contains excessive water, this is detected in
advance and corrective measures can then be taken in time.
b) A drift assists in the ventilation of tunnels.
c) The quantity of explosives required is less.
d) A side drift allows the use of timber to support the roof.

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Disadvantages
a) It is a time-consuming process, as the excavation of the main tunnel gets delayed till the
drift is completed.
b) The cost of drilling and removing the muck from the drift is high, as the work has to be
done using manually operated power-driven equipment.

Pilot tunnel method:

This method normally involves the digging of two tunnels, namely, a pilot tunnel and a
main tunnel. The cross section of the pilot tunnel usually measures about 2.4 m × 2.4 m.
The pilot tunnel is driven parallel to the main tunnel and connected to the centre line of
the main tunnel with cross cuts at many points. The main tunnel is then excavated from a
number of points. The pilot tunnel offers the following advantages.

a) It helps in removing the muck from the main tunnel quickly.

b) It helps in providing proper ventilation and lighting in the main tunnel.
The method, however, requires the construction of an additional tunnel and therefore the
time and cost of construction are higher as compared to the methods described before.

 Tunnelling in Soft Ground or Soft Rock

Tunnelling in soft ground or soft rock is a specialized job. It does not involve the use of
explosives and the requisite excavation work is done using hard tools such as pickaxes
and shovels. In recent times, compressed air has also been used for this purpose. During
excavation, the rail requires support at the sidewalls and the roofs depending upon the
type of soil.

The various operations involved in soft rock tunneling are as follows.

a) Excavation or mining
b) Removal of excavated material
c) Scaffolding and shuttering
d) Lining of tunnel surface
In the case of soft rock, the selection of the method of tunneling depends upon the
following important factors.
a) Nature of ground
b) Size of tunnel
c) Equipment available
d) Sequence of operations

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Forepoling method:
Forepoling is an old method of tunneling through soft ground. In this method, a frame
is prepared in the shape of the letter A, placed near the face of the tunnel, and covered
with suitable planks. Poles are then inserted at the top of the frame up to a viable depth.
The excavation is carried out below these poles, which are supported by vertical posts.
The excavation is carried out on the sides and the excavated portion is suitably
supported by timber. The entire section of the tunnel is covered thus. The process is
repeated as the work progresses.

Forepoling is a slow and tedious process and requires skilled manpower and strict
supervision. The method has to be meticulously repeated in sequence and there is no
short cut for the same.

Linear plate method

In the linear plate method timber is replaced by standard size pressed steel plates. The
use of pressed steel plates is a recent development. The method has the following
advantages.

a) The linear plates are light and can be handled easily.

b) The number of joints is less, as the linear plates are bigger in size, and as such the
maintenance cost is low.
c) The steel plates are fireproof and can be safely used while working in compressed
air condition.
d) The necessary work can be done by semi-skilled staff.
e) There is considerable saving in terms of the excavation and concrete required.

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Needle beam method

The needle beam method is adopted in terrains where the soil permits the roof of the
tunnel section to stand without support for a few minutes. In this method, a small
drift is prepared for inserting a needle beam consisting of two rail steel (RS) joists or
I sections and is bolted together with a wooden block in the centre. The roof is
supported on laggings carried on the wooden beam. The needle beam is placed
horizontally with its front end supported on the drift and the rear end supported on a
vertical post resting on the lining of the tunnel. Jacks are fixed on the needle beam
and the tunnel section is excavated by suitably incorporating timber. This method of
tunneling is more economical compared to other methods.

American method
In this method (Fig. 30.9), a drift is driven into the top of the tunnel. The drift is
supported by laggings, caps, and two vertical posts. The sides of the drift are then
widened and additional support is provided using timber planks and struts. The
process of widening is continued till it reaches the springing level. Wall plates are
fixed at the springing level, which in turn are supported by vertical posts. The
vertical posts now occupy the entire roof level. The posts supporting the drift can
then be removed and tunneling work continued further in a similar manner.

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 Shapes of tunnel
Following shapes of the tunnel are commonly used
1. Circular
2. Horse-shoe
3. Rectangular
4. Elliptical
5. Egg-Shaped
6. Segmental roof section
Circular Sections
These sections are commonly used for the tube railway, Highway tunnel, and Sewer and
hydro-electric tunnels.
Advantages
1. For minimum perimeter, it gives it gives the maximum cross-sectional area, hence it is
economical
2. For non-cohesive soil, it is best suitable.
3. These sections can be constructed by using shields.
4. Circular sections are the best section for taking external and internal forces
5. This section is best suitable for taking water carrying purposes.

Disadvantages

a) It is not suitable for roads and railways as more filling is required for obtaining flat base.
b) Construction of the circular section is difficult than other sections.

Horse –shoe Section

These section is commonly used. It is in between the circular and arched tunnel.
Advantages
1. The external pressure is resisted by the curve side and the arch action.
2. This section is most suitable for the soft rock.
3. As small filing is requires. This section is best suitable for road and railway traffic.

Fig. Circular Section Fig. Shoe- Horse Section Fig. Rectangular Section

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Rectangular Section

This section is suitable only in case of hard rocks. This section is constructed with R.C.C and is
commonly used for pedestrian traffic. These sections are difficult in construction and are very
costly as well. Therefore not used in these days.

Elliptical Section

These sections are constructed in soft materials, with its major axis vertical. But these are not
used commonly these days

Fig. Elliptical Section Fig. Egg- Shaped Fig. Segmental roof

Egg-shaped Section

This section is commonly used for the sewers, because it gives self-cleaning velocity even in
Dry weather flow (DWF). This section is also good for resisting external as well as internal
forces.

Segmental Roof section

This type of section is suitable for sub-ways or navigation tunnels. The segmental roof takes
the external load and transfers it on the vertical side walls. This section is suitable for the soft
rocks. In case of soft soil the side-walls are to be constructed in R.C.C for taking external
forces.

Ventilation of Tunnels
A tunnel should be properly ventilated during as well as after the construction for the reasons
given below.

a) To provide fresh air to the workers during construction.

b) To remove the dust created by drilling, blasting, and other tunneling operations.
c) To remove dynamite fumes and other objectionable gases produced by the use of
dynamites and explosives.
The methods listed below are normally adopted for the ventilation of a tunnel. These are
illustrated in Figure.

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Fig. Tunnel Ventilation

Natural method of ventilation: This is achieved by drilling a drift through the tunnel
from portal to portal. In most cases natural ventilation is not sufficient and artificial
ventilation is still required.

Mechanical ventilation by blow-in method: In the blow-in method, fresh air is

forced through a pipe or fabric duct by the means of a fan and supplied near the
washing face (or the drilling face; the drilling operation requires the washing of bore
holes too). This method has the advantage that a fresh air supply is guaranteed where
it is required the most. The disadvantage is that the foul air and fumes have to travel a
long distance before they can exit the tunnel and in the process it is possible that the
incoming fresh air will absorb some dust and smoke particles.

Mechanical ventilation by exhaust method: In the exhaust or blow-out method, foul air
and fumes are pulled out through a pipe and is expelled by a fan. This sets up an air
current that facilitates the entrance of fresh air into the tunnel. This method has the
advantage that foul air is kept out of the washing face. The disadvantage, however, is that
fresh air has to travel a long distance before it can reach the washing face during which
period it may absorb some heat and moisture.

Combination of blow-in and blow-out methods: By combining the blow-in and blow-
out methods using a blower and an exhaust system, respectively, a tunnel can be provided
with the best ventilation. After blasting the ground, the exhaust system is used to remove
the smoke and dust. After some time, fresh air is blown in through the ducts and the
rotation of the fans is reversed to reverse the flow of air.

Drainage of Tunnels
The removal of water from the tunnel during its construction and after the construction is
very essential. Drainage ditches or sump wells are provided at suitable interval in the
tunnels in which the water from both side is collected and from where it is pumped out at
suitable intervals.
Ground Water Removal
Following methods are adopted for the removal of ground water.

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1. Open Drainage System

This is the simplest method of removal of the water. This method is suitable for the hard
rock bases and water resistance soil.
2. Pumping Drainage System
In modern tunneling methods, the removal of the water from the tunnel by pumping system
is preferred. Two types of pumps are commonly used. First is the piston type pumps.
Which are available in vertical or horizontal models, and are usually operated by
compressed air.
Second type is centrifugal pumps which can be operated by the electricity or compressed
air.

Permanent Drainage
At the time of completing the tunnel, permanent drainage arrangement is provided, to take
out water entering the tunnel continuously, to save the road or railway track. If the tunnel
carries two railway tracks, one open drain is provided between both railway lines. The
section of the drain should be sufficient to carry the water without submerging the floor of
the tunnel at self- cleaning velocity.
If the tunnel carry single lane traffic, one or two side drains can be provided as shown in
the figure

Fig. Central Drainage System Fig. Two side drain System

 Tunnel Lining

Tunnel lining is done in the tunnel to give the finishing touch to the cross section and
preventing the collapse of side or roof ground soil. Temporary or primary lining is the
temporary support to the side and roof of the tunnel during the construction.
Objects of Lining

1. It provides the correct shape of the tunnel.

2. It withstand the soil pressure and prevents the collapse of soil in case of soft ground.
3. It keeps the inside of the tunnel free from the water percolation as suitable outlets are
provided.

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4. It binds and keep the loose rock pieces in position and keep the tunnel safe
5. It prevent the rock from air slack.
6. In soft ground the lining gives strength to the structure and make it safe.

Types of Lining

Following are the main types of tunnel lining.

a) Timber-Lining
b) Iron-Lining
c) Cast steel Lining
d) Pressed Steel linear plates
e) Brick Lining
f) Stone Masonry Lining
g) Concrete and RCC Lining

Concrete and RCC Lining

This type of lining is most common nowadays in soft grounds as well as hard rocks. The
thickness of the concrete lining mainly depends upon the following:
a. Size and shape of the Tunnel Section
b. Relative amount of the vertical and horizontal pressure on the lining at the various places.
c. In case of water tunnel, the amount of maximum internal pressure.
d. Final use of the tunnel
e. Condition of the ground around the tunnel.
f. Condition under which the tunnel is to be constructed.

The thickness of the concrete lining should be as thin as practical for the economy
purpose. Every tunnel has its own condition of design, analysis and circumstances of the
loads coming over the lining. As a thumb rule the approximate thickness of the tunnel
lining is kept 2.5 cm for each 30 cm of the bore diameter of the tunnel. Sometime the
thickness of the lining can be calculated by

T= 82 D

T= Thickness of lining in mm
D= diameter of the tunnel in meters

Advantages Concrete and RCC Lining

a. It makes the lining water tight

b. It provides smooth surface
c. The maintenance cost is lowest possible.
d. It can be easily moulded and casted in any desired shape.
e. Its thickness can be control during the casting

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