Rajiv Gandhi University of Knowledge Technologies – AP

Srikakulam Campus

Department ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATIONS ENGINEERING

Year 2021-2022
Semester II-II
Course Name COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS-I
Course Code 20EC2201
Course Credit 4
Name of the Faculty VARISA SASIBHUSHANARAO

UNIT-IV

AMPLITUDE (LINEAR), ANGLE MODULATION & RECEIVERS

1.1 Introduction:

Communication can be defined as the process of exchange of information through means

such as words, actions, signs, etc., between two or more individuals.

 Transmitter is the part of communication system which sends a message

signal/information. It could be a transmitting station from where the signal is
transmitted.
 Channel is the medium through which the message signals travel to reach the
destination.
 Receiver is the part of communication system which receives the message signal. It
could be a receiving station where the transmitted signal is being received.

1.2. Basic Analog Communication System Block Diagram:

The block diagram of a general communication system as shown in below figure, in which
the different functional elements are represented by blocks.
(i) Information Source:
A communication system serves to communicate a message or information. This information
originates in the information source.In general, there can be various messages in the form of
words, group of words, code, symbols, sound signal etc. However, out of these messages,
only the desired message is selected and communicated.

(ii)Input Transducer:

A transducer is a device which converts one form of energy into another form.The message
from the information source may or may not be electrical in nature. In a case when the
message produced by the information source is not electrical in nature, an input transducer is
used to convert it into a time-varying electrical signal.

For example, in case of radio-broadcasting, a microphone converts the information or

massage which is in the form of sound waves into corresponding electrical signal.

(iii) Transmitter:
The function of the transmitter is to process the electrical signal from different aspects.

For example in radio broadcasting the electrical signal obtained from sound signal, is
processed to restrict its range of audio frequencies (upto 5 kHz in amplitude modulation radio
broadcast ) and is often amplified.

In wire telephony, no real processing is needed. However, in long-distance radio

communication, signal amplification is necessary before modulation.

Modulation is the main function of the transmitter. In modulation, the message signal is
superimposed upon the high-frequency carrier signal.

In short, we can say that inside the transmitter, signal processings such as restriction of range
of audio frequencies, amplification and modulation of signal are achieved.

(iv) The Channel and The Noise

The term channel means the medium through which the message travels from the transmitter
to the receiver. In other words, we can say that the function of the channel is to provide a
physical connection between the transmitter and the receiver.

During the process of transmission and reception the signal gets distorted due to noise
introduced in the system.
Noise is a unwanted signal which tend to interfere with the required signal. Noise signal is
always random in character. Noise may interfere with signal at any point in a communication
system. However, the noise has its greatest effect on the signal in the channel.

(v) Receiver
The main function of the receiver is to reproduce the message signal in electrical form from
the distorted received signal. This reproduction of the original signal is accomplished by a
process known as the demodulation or detection. Demodulation is the reverse process of
modulation carried out in transmitter.

(vi) Destination
Destination is the final stage which is used to convert an electrical message signal into its
original form.

For example in radio broadcasting, the destination is a loudspeaker which works as a

transducer i.e. converts the electrical signal in the form of original sound signal.

1.3. Modulation:

Modulation is the process by which some characteristic of a carrier signal (High frequency
signal) is varied in accordance with a modulating/ message signal (Low frequency signal).

1.3.1. Types of Modulation

There are many types of modulations. Depending upon the modulation techniques used, they
are classified as shown in the following figure.
1.3.2. Need for Modulation:

In the process of modulation, the baseband signal is translated i.e., shifted from low
frequency to high frequency. This frequency shift is proportional to the frequency of carrier.

1. Reduction in the height of antenna

2. Avoids mixing of signals
3. Increases the range of communication
4. Multiplexing is possible
5. Improves quality of reception

1. Reduction in the height of antenna

For the transmission of radio signals, the antenna height must be multiple of λ/4 ,where λ is
the wavelength .
λ = c /f

where c : is the velocity of light

f: is the frequency of the signal to be transmitted

The minimum antenna height required to transmit a baseband signal of f = 10 kHz is

calculated as follows :

The antenna of this height is practically impossible to install .

Now, let us consider a modulated signal at f = 1 MHz . The minimum antenna height is given
by,

This antenna can be easily installed practically. Thus, modulation reduces the height of the
antenna.

2. Avoids mixing of signals

If the baseband sound signals are transmitted without using the modulation by more than one
transmitter, then all the signals will be in the same frequency range i.e. 0 to 20 kHz.
Therefore, all the signals get mixed together and a receiver cannot separate them from each
other.

Hence, if each baseband sound signal is used to modulate a different carrier then they will
occupy different slots in the frequency domain (different channels). Thus, modulation avoids
mixing of signals.
3. Increase the Range of Communication
The frequency of baseband signal is low, and the low frequency signals cannot travel long
distance when they are transmitted. They get heavily attenuated, the attenuation reduces with
increase in frequency of the transmitted signal, and they travel longer distance.

The modulation process increases the frequency of the signal to be transmitted. Therefore, it
increases the range of communication.

4. Multiplexing is possible
Multiplexing is a process in which two or more signals can be transmitted over the same
communication channel simultaneously; this is possible only with modulation.

The multiplexing allows the same channel to be used by many signals. Hence, many TV
channels can use the same frequency range, without getting mixed with each other or
different frequency signals can be transmitted at the same time.

5. Improves Quality of Reception

With frequency modulation (FM) and the digital communication techniques such as PCM,
the effect of noise is reduced to a great extent. This improves quality of reception.

1.4. Amplitude Modulation:

1.4.1. Single tone Amplitude Modulation:

Amplitude modulation is defined as the amplitude of the carrier signal varies in accordance
with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.
The first figure shows the modulating wave, which is the message signal. The next one is the
carrier wave, which is a high frequency signal and contains no information. While, the last
one is the resultant modulated wave.
It can be observed that the positive and negative peaks of the carrier wave are interconnected
with an imaginary line. This line helps recreating the exact shape of the modulating signal.
This imaginary line on the carrier wave is called as Envelope. It is the same as that of the
message signal.

Mathematical Expressions

Let the modulating signal be,

m(t) = Amcos(2πfmt)
and the carrier signal be,
c(t) = Accos(2πfct)

Where,
Am and Ac are the amplitude of the modulating signal and the carrier signal respectively.
fm and fc are the frequency of the modulating signal and the carrier signal respectively.
Then, the equation of Amplitude Modulated wave will be
s(t)=[Ac+Amcos(2πfmt)]cos(2πfct)……. (Equation 1)

Modulation Index:

A carrier wave, after being modulated, if the modulated level is calculated, then such an
attempt is called as Modulation Index or Modulation Depth. It states the level of
modulation that a carrier wave undergoes.
Rearrange the Equation 1 as below.
s(t)=Ac[1+(AmAc)cos(2πfmt)]cos(2πfct)
⇒s(t)=Ac[1+μcos(2πfmt)]cos(2πfct)……. (Equation 2)
Where, μ is Modulation index and it is equal to the ratio of Am and Ac. Mathematically, we
can write it as
μ=Am/Ac……….(Equation 3)
Now, let us derive one more formula for Modulation index by considering Equation 1. We
can use this formula for calculating modulation index value, when the maximum and
minimum amplitudes of the modulated wave are known.
Let Amax and Amin be the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the modulated wave.
We will get the maximum amplitude of the modulated wave, when cos(2πfmt) is 1.
⇒Amax=Ac+Am……… (Equation 4)
We will get the minimum amplitude of the modulated wave, when cos(2πfmt) is -1.
⇒Amin=Ac−Am……….(Equation 5)
Add Equation 4 and Equation 5.
Amax+Amin=Ac+Am+Ac−Am=2Ac

⇒Ac=(Amax+Amin)/2……… (Equation 6)
Subtract Equation 5 from Equation 4.
Amax−Amin=Ac+Am−(Ac−Am)=2Am

⇒Am=(Amax−Amin)/2……….. (Equation 7)
The ratio of Equation 7 and Equation 6 will be as follows.
Am/Ac=[(Amax−Amin)/2] / [(Amax+Amin)/2]

⇒μ=(Amax−Amin) / (Amax+Amin)………… (Equation 8)

Therefore, Equation 3 and Equation 8 are the two formulas for Modulation index. The
modulation index or modulation depth is often denoted in percentage called as Percentage of
Modulation. We will get the percentage of modulation, just by multiplying the modulation
index value with 100.
For a perfect modulation, the value of modulation index should be 1, which implies the
percentage of modulation should be 100%.
For instance, if this value is less than 1, i.e., the modulation index is 0.5, then the modulated
output would look like the following figure. It is called as Under-modulation. Such a wave
is called as an under-modulated wave.

If the value of the modulation index is greater than 1, i.e., 1.5 or so, then the wave will be
an over-modulated wave. It would look like the following figure.
As the value of the modulation index increases, the carrier experiences a 180 o phase reversal,
which causes additional sidebands and hence, the wave gets distorted. Such an over-
modulated wave causes interference, which cannot be eliminated.

Bandwidth of AM Wave:

Bandwidth (BW) is the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies of the signal.
Mathematically, we can write it as
BW=fmax−fmin
Consider the following equation of amplitude modulated wave.
s(t)=Ac[1+μcos(2πfmt)]cos(2πfct)

⇒s(t)=Accos(2πfct)+Acμcos(2πfct)cos(2πfmt)

⇒s(t)=Accos(2πfct)+Acμ/2cos[2π(fc+fm)t]+Acμ/2cos[2π(fc−fm)t]
Hence, the amplitude modulated wave has three frequencies. Those are carrier frequency fc,
upper sideband frequency fc+fm and lower sideband frequency fc−fm
Here,
fmax=fc+fm and fmin=fc−fm
Substitute, fmax and fmin values in bandwidth formula.
BW=fc+fm−(fc−fm)

⇒BW=2fm
Thus, it can be said that the bandwidth required for amplitude modulated wave is twice the
frequency of the modulating signal.

Power Calculations of AM Wave:

Consider the following equation of amplitude modulated wave.

s(t)=Accos(2πfct)+Acμ/2cos[2π(fc+fm)t]+Acμ/2cos[2π(fc−fm)t]
Power of AM wave is equal to the sum of powers of carrier, upper sideband, and lower
sideband frequency components.
Pt=Pc+PUSB+PLSB
We know that the standard formula for power of cosine signal is
 P=vrms2/R= (vm/√2)2/R
Where,
vrms is the rms value of cosine signal.
vm is the peak value of cosine signal.
First, let us find the powers of the carrier, the upper and lower sideband one by one.
Carrier power
Pc=(Ac/√2)2/R=Ac2/2R

Upper sideband power

PUSB=(Acμ/2√2)/R=Ac2μ2 /8R
Lower sideband power
PLSB=(Acμ/2√2)/R=Ac2μ2 /8R
Now, let us add these three powers in order to get the power of AM wave.
Pt=Ac2/2R+Ac2μ2/8R+Ac2μ2/8R

⇒Pt=(Ac2/2R)(1+μ2/4+μ2/4)

⇒Pt=Pc(1+μ2/2)
We can use the above formula to calculate the power of AM wave, when the carrier power
and the modulation index are known.
If the modulation index μ=1 then the power of AM wave is equal to 1.5 times the carrier
power. So, the power required for transmitting an AM wave is 1.5 times the carrier power for
a perfect modulation.

1.4.2. GENERATION OF AM SIGNAL:

The following modulators are used to generate AM wave

 Square law modulator
 Switching modulator

Square Law Modulator

Following is the block diagram of the square law modulator

Let the modulating and carrier signals be denoted as m(t) and Accos(2πfct) respectively.
These two signals are applied as inputs to the summer (adder) block. This summer block
produces an output, which is the addition of the modulating and the carrier signal.
Mathematically, we can write it as
V1(t)=m(t)+Accos(2πfct)
This signal V1(t) is applied as an input to a nonlinear device like diode. The characteristics of
the diode are closely related to square law.
V2(t)=k1V1(t)+k2V1(t)2………..(Equation 1)
Where, k1 and k2 are constants.
Substitute V1(t) in Equation 1
V2(t)=k1[m(t)+Accos(2πfct)]+k2[m(t)+Accos(2πfct)]2

⇒V2(t)=k1m(t)+k1Accos(2πfct)+k2m2(t)+k2Ac2cos2(2πfct)+2k2 m(t)Accos(2πfct)
⇒V2(t)=k1m(t)+k2m2(t)+k2Ac2cos2(2πfct)+k1Ac[1+(2k2k1)m(t)]cos(2πfct)
The last term of the above equation represents the desired AM wave and the first three terms
of the above equation are unwanted. So, with the help of band pass filter, we can pass only
AM wave and eliminate the first three terms.
Therefore, the output of square law modulator is
s(t)=k1Ac[1+(2k2k1)m(t)]cos(2πfct)
The standard equation of AM wave is
s(t)=Ac[1+kam(t)]cos(2πfct)
Where, Ka is the amplitude sensitivity
By comparing the output of the square law modulator with the standard equation of AM
wave, we will get the scaling factor as k1k1 and the amplitude sensitivity kaka as 2k2k1.

Switching Modulator

Following is the block diagram of switching modulator.

Switching modulator is similar to the square law modulator. The only difference is that in the
square law modulator, the diode is operated in a non-linear mode, whereas, in the switching
modulator, the diode has to operate as an ideal switch.
Let the modulating and carrier signals be denoted
as m(t)m(t) and c(t)=Accos(2πfct) respectively. These two signals are applied as inputs to the
summer (adder) block. Summer block produces an output, which is the addition of
modulating and carrier signals. Mathematically, we can write it as
V1(t)=m(t)+c(t)=m(t)+Accos(2πfct)
This signal V1(t) is applied as an input of diode. Assume, the magnitude of the modulating
signal is very small when compared to the amplitude of carrier signal Ac. So, the diode‟s ON
and OFF action is controlled by carrier signal c(t). This means, the diode will be forward
biased when c(t)>0 and it will be reverse biased when c(t)<0.
Therefore, the output of the diode is
V2(t)=V1(t) if c(t)>0
=0 if c(t)<0
We can approximate this as
V2(t)=V1(t)x(t)………..(Equation 2)
Where, x(t)x(t) is a periodic pulse train with time period T=1/fc

The Fourier series representation of this periodic pulse train is

The 1st term of the above equation represents the desired AM wave and the remaining terms
are unwanted terms. Thus, with the help of band pass filter, we can pass only AM wave and
eliminate the remaining terms.
Therefore, the output of switching modulator is

Where, ka is the amplitude sensitivity.

By comparing the output of the switching modulator with the standard equation of AM wave,
we will get the scaling factor as 0.5 and amplitude sensitivity kaka as 4π/Ac.

1.4.3. Demodulation of AM Wave:

The process of extracting an original message signal from the modulated wave is known
as detection or demodulation. The circuit, which demodulates the modulated wave is known
as the demodulator. The following demodulators (detectors) are used for demodulating AM
wave.
 Square Law Demodulator
 Envelope Detector

Square Law Demodulator

Square law demodulator is used to demodulate low level AM wave. Following is the block
diagram of the square law demodulator.

This demodulator contains a square law device and low pass filter. The AM wave V1(t) is
applied as an input to this demodulator.
The standard form of AM wave is
In the above equation, the term k2Ac2kam(t) is the scaled version of the message signal. It can
be extracted by passing the above signal through a low pass filter and the DC
component k2Ac2/2 can be eliminated with the help of a coupling capacitor.

Envelope Detector:

Envelope detector is used to detect (demodulate) high level AM wave. Following is the block
diagram of the envelope detector.

This envelope detector consists of a diode and low pass filter. Here, the diode is the main
detecting element. Hence, the envelope detector is also called as the diode detector. The low
pass filter contains a parallel combination of the resistor and the capacitor.
The AM wave s(t) is applied as an input to this detector.
We know the standard form of AM wave is
 s(t)=Ac[1+kam(t)]cos(2πfct)
In the positive half cycle of AM wave, the diode conducts and the capacitor charges to the
peak value of AM wave. When the value of AM wave is less than this value, the diode will
be reverse biased. Thus, the capacitor will discharge through resistor R till the next positive
half cycle of AM wave. When the value of AM wave is greater than the capacitor voltage, the
diode conducts and the process will be repeated.
Select the component values in such a way that the capacitor charges very quickly and
discharges very slowly. As a result, we will get the capacitor voltage waveform same as that
of the envelope of AM wave, which is almost similar to the modulating signal.
1.5. Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC):
The transmission of a signal, which contains a carrier along with two sidebands can be
termed as Double Sideband suppressed Carrier system or simply DSBSC. It is plotted as
shown in the following figure.

However, such a transmission is inefficient. Because, two-thirds of the power is being wasted
in the carrier, which carries no information.If this carrier is suppressed and the saved power is
distributed to the two sidebands, then such a process is called as Double Sideband Suppressed
Carrier system or simply DSBSC. It is plotted as shown in the following figure.
GENERATION OF DSBSC:
The DSBSC modulation scheme which gives 100% efficiency the following are the
generation methods of DSBSC signal
Ring Modulator

Following is the block diagram of the Ring modulator.

Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier:
The process of suppressing one of the sidebands along with the carrier and transmitting a
single sideband is called as Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier system or simply SSBSC. It
is plotted as shown in the following figure.

In the above figure, the carrier and the lower sideband are suppressed. Hence, the upper
sideband is used for transmission. Similarly, we can suppress the carrier and the upper
sideband while transmitting the lower sideband.
This SSBSC system, which transmits a single sideband has high power, as the power allotted
for both the carrier and the other sideband is utilized in transmitting this Single Sideband.
Mathematical Expressions

Let us consider the same mathematical expressions for the modulating and the carrier signals
as we have considered in the earlier chapters.
i.e., Modulating signal

Bandwidth of SSBSC Wave

The DSBSC modulated wave contains two sidebands and its bandwidth is 2fm. Since the
SSBSC modulated wave contains only one sideband, its bandwidth is half of the bandwidth
of DSBSC modulated wave.
i.e., Bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave =2fm/2=fm
Therefore, the bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave is fmfm and it is equal to the frequency
of the modulating signal.

Power Calculations of SSBSC Wave

Consider the following equation of SSBSC modulated wave.

Advantages
 Bandwidth or spectrum space occupied is lesser than AM and DSBSC waves.
 Transmission of more number of signals is allowed.
 Power is saved.
 High power signal can be transmitted.
 Less amount of noise is present.
 Signal fading is less likely to occur.
Disadvantages
 The generation and detection of SSBSC wave is a complex process.
 The quality of the signal gets affected unless the SSB transmitter and receiver have an
excellent frequency stability.
Applications
 For power saving requirements and low bandwidth requirements.
 In land, air, and maritime mobile communications.
 In point-to-point communications.
 In radio communications.
 In television, telemetry, and radar communications.
 In military communications, such as amateur radio, etc.
Demodulation of SSBSC Wave:
 Frequency discrimination method
 Phase discrimination method

Frequency Discrimination Method

The following figure shows the block diagram of SSBSC modulator using frequency
discrimination method.

In this method, first we will generate DSBSC wave with the help of the product modulator.
Then, apply this DSBSC wave as an input of band pass filter. This band pass filter produces
an output, which is SSBSC wave.
Select the frequency range of band pass filter as the spectrum of the desired SSBSC wave.
This means the band pass filter can be tuned to either upper sideband or lower sideband
frequencies to get the respective SSBSC wave having upper sideband or lower sideband.

Phase Discrimination Method

The following figure shows the block diagram of SSBSC modulator using phase
discrimination method.
This block diagram consists of two product modulators, two −900 phase shifters, one local
oscillator and one summer block. The product modulator produces an output, which is the
product of two inputs. The −900 phase shifter produces an output, which has a phase lag
of −900 with respect to the input.
The local oscillator is used to generate the carrier signal. Summer block produces an output,
which is either the sum of two inputs or the difference of two inputs based on the polarity of
inputs.
The modulating signal Amcos(2πfmt) and the carrier signal Accos(2πfct) are directly applied as
inputs to the upper product modulator. So, the upper product modulator produces an output,
which is the product of these two inputs.
The output of upper product modulator is
SSBSC modulated signal has only one sideband frequency. Theoretically, we can get one
sideband frequency component completely by using an ideal band pass filter. However,
practically we may not get the entire sideband frequency component. Due to this, some
information gets lost.
To avoid this loss, a technique is chosen, which is a compromise between DSBSC and
SSBSC. This technique is known as Vestigial Side Band Suppressed Carrier
(VSBSC) technique. The word “vestige” means “a part” from which, the name is derived.
VSBSC Modulation is the process, where a part of the signal called as vestige is modulated
along with one sideband. The frequency spectrum of VSBSC wave is shown in the following
figure.

Along with the upper sideband, a part of the lower sideband is also being transmitted in this
technique. Similarly, we can transmit the lower sideband along with a part of the upper
sideband. A guard band of very small width is laid on either side of VSB in order to avoid the
interferences. VSB modulation is mostly used in television transmissions.

Bandwidth of VSBSC Modulation

We know that the bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave is fm. Since the VSBSC modulated
wave contains the frequency components of one side band along with the vestige of other
sideband, the bandwidth of it will be the sum of the bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave
and vestige frequency fv.
i.e., Bandwidth of VSBSC Modulated Wave = fm+fv
Advantages:
 Highly efficient.
 Reduction in bandwidth when compared to AM and DSBSC waves.
 Filter design is easy, since high accuracy is not needed.
 The transmission of low frequency components is possible, without any difficulty.
 Possesses good phase characteristics.
Disadvantages:
 Bandwidth is more when compared to SSBSC wave.
 Demodulation is complex.
Applications
The most prominent and standard application of VSBSC is for the transmission of television
signals. Also, this is the most convenient and efficient technique when bandwidth usage is
considered.
Now, let us discuss about the modulator which generates VSBSC wave and the demodulator
which demodulates VSBSC wave one by one.
Angle Modulation:
Angle Modulation is the process in which the frequency or the phase of the carrier signal
varies according to the message signal.
The standard equation of the angle modulated wave is
s(t)=Accosθi(t)

Where,
Ac is the amplitude of the modulated wave, which is the same as the amplitude of the carrier
signal
θi(t) is the angle of the modulated wave
Angle modulation is further divided into frequency modulation and phase modulation.
 Frequency Modulation is the process of varying the frequency of the carrier signal
linearly with the message signal.
 Phase Modulation is the process of varying the phase of the carrier signal linearly
with the message signal.

Frequency Modulation

In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal varies. Whereas, in Frequency
Modulation (FM), the frequency of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.
Hence, in frequency modulation, the amplitude and the phase of the carrier signal remains
constant. This can be better understood by observing the following figures.
The frequency of the modulated wave increases, when the amplitude of the modulating or
message signal increases. Similarly, the frequency of the modulated wave decreases, when
the amplitude of the modulating signal decreases. Note that, the frequency of the modulated
wave remains constant and it is equal to the frequency of the carrier signal, when the
amplitude of the modulating signal is zero.
Mathematical Representation
The equation for instantaneous frequency fi in FM modulation is
fi=fc+kfm(t)

Where,
fc is the carrier frequency
kt is the frequency sensitivity
m(t) is the message signal
We know the relationship between angular frequency ωi and angle θi(t) as
Where,
β = modulation index =Δf/fm=kfAm / fm
The difference between FM modulated frequency (instantaneous frequency) and normal
carrier frequency is termed as Frequency Deviation. It is denoted by Δf, which is equal to
the product of kf and Am.
FM can be divided into Narrowband FM and Wideband FM based on the values of
modulation index β.
Narrowband FM
 This frequency modulation has a small bandwidth when compared to wideband FM.
 The modulation index β is small, i.e., less than 1.
 Its spectrum consists of the carrier, the upper sideband and the lower sideband.
 This is used in mobile communications such as police wireless, ambulances, taxicabs,
etc.
Wideband FM
 This frequency modulation has infinite bandwidth.
 The modulation index ββ is large, i.e., higher than 1.
 Its spectrum consists of a carrier and infinite number of sidebands, which are located
around it.
 This is used in entertainment, broadcasting applications such as FM radio, TV, etc.
Phase Modulation

In frequency modulation, the frequency of the carrier varies. Whereas, in Phase Modulation
(PM), the phase of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of
the modulating signal.
So, in phase modulation, the amplitude and the frequency of the carrier signal remains
constant. This can be better understood by observing the following figures.

The phase of the modulated wave has got infinite points, where the phase shift in a wave can
take place. The instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal changes the phase of the
carrier signal. When the amplitude is positive, the phase changes in one direction and if the
amplitude is negative, the phase changes in the opposite direction.
Mathematical Representation
The equation for instantaneous phase ϕi in phase modulation is
ϕi=kpm(t)
Where,
 kp is the phase sensitivity
 m(t) is the message signal
The standard equation of angle modulated wave is
s(t)=Accos(2πfct+ϕi)
Substitute, ϕi value in the above equation.
s(t)=Accos(2πfct+kpm(t))
This is the equation of PM wave.
If the modulating signal, m(t)=Amcos(2πfmt), then the equation of PM wave will be
s(t)=Accos(2πfct+βcos(2πfmt))
Where,
 β = modulation index = Δϕ=kpAm
 Δϕ is phase deviation
Phase modulation is used in mobile communication systems, while frequency modulation is
used mainly for FM broadcasting.

Generation of NBFM

We know that the standard equation of FM wave is

s(t)=Accos(2πfct+2πkf∫m(t)dt)

⇒s(t)=Accos(2πfct)cos(2πkf∫m(t)dt)−Acsin(2πfct)sin(2πkf∫m(t)dt)
For NBFM,
∣2πkf∫m(t)dt∣<<1
We know that cosθ≈1 and sinθ≈1 when θ is very small.
By using the above relations, we will get the NBFM equation as
s(t)=Accos(2πfct)−Acsin(2πfct)2πkf∫m(t)dt
The block diagram of NBFM modulator is shown in the following figure.
Here, the integrator is used to integrate the modulating signal m(t). The carrier
signal Accos(2πfct) is the phase shifted by −900 to get Acsin(2πfct) with the help of −900 phase
shifter. The product modulator has two inputs ∫m(t)dt and Acsin(2πfct). It produces an output,
which is the product of these two inputs.
This is further multiplied with 2πkf by placing a block 2πkf in the forward path. The summer
block has two inputs, which are nothing but the two terms of NBFM equation. Positive and
negative signs are assigned for the carrier signal and the other term at the input of the summer
block. Finally, the summer block produces NBFM wave.

GENERATION OF WBFM:

The following two methods generate WBFM wave.

 Direct method
 Indirect method
Direct Method
This method is called as the Direct Method because we are generating a wide band FM wave
directly. In this method, Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO) is used to generate WBFM.
VCO produces an output signal, whose frequency is proportional to the input signal voltage.
This is similar to the definition of FM wave. The block diagram of the generation of WBFM
wave is shown in the following figure.

Here, the modulating signal m(t) is applied as an input of Voltage Controlled Oscillator
(VCO). VCO produces an output, which is nothing but the WBFM.
fiαm(t)

⇒fi=fc+kfm(t)
Where,
fi is the instantaneous frequency of WBFM wave.
Indirect Method
This method is called as Indirect Method because we are generating a wide band FM wave
indirectly. This means, first we will generate NBFM wave and then with the help of
frequency multipliers we will get WBFM wave. The block diagram of generation of WBFM
wave is shown in the following figure.

This block diagram contains mainly two stages. In the first stage, the NBFM wave will be
generated using NBFM modulator. We have seen the block diagram of NBFM modulator at
the beginning of this chapter. We know that the modulation index of NBFM wave is less than
one. Hence, in order to get the required modulation index (greater than one) of FM wave,
choose the frequency multiplier value properly.
Frequency multiplier is a non-linear device, which produces an output signal whose
frequency is „n‟ times the input signal frequency. Where, „n‟ is the multiplication factor.
If NBFM wave whose modulation index β is less than 1 is applied as the input of frequency
multiplier, then the frequency multiplier produces an output signal, whose modulation index
is „n‟ times β and the frequency also „n‟ times the frequency of WBFM wave.
Sometimes, we may require multiple stages of frequency multiplier and mixers in order to
increase the frequency deviation and modulation index of FM wave.
 Frequency discrimination method
 Phase discrimination method

Frequency Discrimination Method

We know that the equation of FM wave is

The following figure shows the block diagram of FM demodulator using frequency
discrimination method.

This block diagram consists of the differentiator and the envelope detector. Differentiator is
used to convert the FM wave into a combination of AM wave and FM wave. This means, it
converts the frequency variations of FM wave into the corresponding voltage (amplitude)
variations of AM wave. We know the operation of the envelope detector. It produces the
demodulated output of AM wave, which is nothing but the modulating signal.

Phase Discrimination Method

The following figure shows the block diagram of FM demodulator using phase discrimination
method.
This block diagram consists of the multiplier, the low pass filter, and the Voltage Controlled
Oscillator (VCO). VCO produces an output signal v(t), whose frequency is proportional to
the input signal voltage d(t). Initially, when the signal d(t) is zero, adjust the VCO to produce
an output signal v(t), having a carrier frequency and −900 phase shift with respect to the
carrier signal.
FM wave s(t) and the VCO output v(t) are applied as inputs of the multiplier. The multiplier
produces an output, having a high frequency component and a low frequency component.
Low pass filter eliminates the high frequency component and produces only the low
frequency component as its output.
This low frequency component contains only the term-related phase difference. Hence, we
get the modulating signal m(t) from this output of the low pass filter.

Receivers:

Performance Parameters of a Receiver:

The performance of a radio receiver is measured on the basis of its selectivity,
sensitivity, fidelity and image frequency rejection.

Selectivity:
The selectivity is the ability of the receiver to select a signal of a desired frequency
while rejecting all others.
The selectivity of the receiver is obtained partially by RF amplifier and mainly by
IF amplifiers. The selectivity shows the attenuation that the receiver offers to
signals at frequencies near to the one to which it is tuned. Fig shows the typical
selectivity curve of the receiver. The selectivity depends upon tuned LC circuits
used in RF and IF stages. ƒr is the resonating (tuned) frequency and Q is quality
factor of these LC circuits. As shown in fig, bandwidth should be narrow for better
selectivity. Hence Q of the coil should be high.

Sensitivity:
The ability of the receiver to pick up weak signals and amplify them, is called
sensitivity. It is often defined interms of the voltage that must be applied to the
receiver input terminals to give the standard output power, measured at the output
terminals.
As the gain of the receiver is increased, sensitivity is also increased. The sensitivity
is expressed in microvolts or decibels.

Fig shows the typical sensitivity curve of a receiver. As shown in the figure, the
sensitivity is decreased (voltage is increased) at higher frequencies.

Fidelity:
The ability of the radio receiver to reproduce all the range of modulating
frequencies equally is called fidelity of the receiver.

Fig shows typical fidelity curve of the receiver. The fidelity curve shown in the
figure basically represents frequency response of the receiver. The curve should be
nearly flat over the required range of frequencies. A good fidelity Fig Typical
fidelity curve requires wide band of frequencies to be amplified. Hence for good
fidelity, more bandwidth of RF and IF stages is required. But this results in poor
selectivity. AM receivers are not good fidelity receivers, since bandwidth in AM is
low.

Image Frequency Rejection:

We know that local oscillator frequency is made higher than the signal frequency
such that ƒ0 – ƒs = ƒi. Here ƒi is IF. That is ƒ0 = ƒs + ƒi . The IF stage passes only ƒi.
If the frequency ƒsi – ƒs + 2ƒi appears at the input of the mixer, then the mixer will
produce difference frequency equal to ƒi. This is equal to IF. The frequency ƒsi is
called image frequency and is defined as the signal frequency plus twice the IF.
This image frequency is converted in the IF range and it is also amplified by IF
amplifiers. This is the effect of two stations being received simultaneously. The
image frequency rejection is done by tuned circuits in the RF stage. It depends
upon the selectivity of the RF stage. The image rejection should be done before the
IF stages.