Usman Ali

UW-19-ME-BSC-029

Course code ME-212L

Course Title MMT-I-Lab Student Name Usman Ali

Faculty Junaid Ahmad Reg. No. UW-19-ME-BSC-029

Lab Engr. Maryam Arshad Submission Date 26-1-2021

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Experiment no # 01

Objective:
To determine the shear modulus of steel and brass rod by using torsion apparatus.

• In this torsion testing experiment , the torsion test was evaluated as a system for
calculating the torsional rigidity (GJ), modulus of rigidity (G), and the shear yield
stress (τ) for mild steel , and brass. Both ends of the cylindrical specimen are
tightened to hexagonal sockets , which one is fixed to a torque shaft and another
is fixed to an input shaft.
• By turning the input handwheel, the twisting moment has applied to produce the
torque until the specimen fails. At the end of the experiment, it shows that the
comparison of the behavior of ductile and brittle materials under torsion.

Introduction:
The responses of metals were deal with by mechanical testing to applied forces. This testing
includes torsion, tension, hardness, fatigue, creep and stress rupture, and impact tests.

Torsion occurs when any shaft is subjected to a torque. The torque causes the shaft to twist.
This makes one of the ends to rotate relative to the other ; shear stress is induced on any cross-
section.

Appratus:
There were only a few apparatus and materials involved in this experiment, such as:

• Two pieces of specimens (Aluminium, brass and mild steel)

• Vernier Caliper
• Torsion Testing Equipment

The device will apply a torque to the rods fixed between two holding clamps. Torque is
developed by applying a force of F via load handle above the system through a distance

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spindle arm.The rods should be securely tightened between the end holding clamps as much as
possible.

The measuring dial will measure the displacement of an arm handle at a fixed distance.

This displacement is proportionally related to the angle of twist of the rod.

Method:
Firstly the apparatus was set up as shown in Figure.

The torque meter was switched on to allow the reading to appear on the screen which connected
to the torsion testing machine.

Two specimens were carried out, mild steel and brass. Each specimen was placed at the
hexagonal sockets and it was tightened with the deflection arm. The handwheel was turned
90 degrees each time to take the reading for the angle of twist from the 360 protractor scale and
torque from the torque meter of each specimen. The handwheel was continuously turned until the
specimen was fractured.

By the time the specimen was fractured, this shows that the maximum torque and the maximum
angle of twist of the specimen.

Theory:
The test specimen will encounter shearing stresses as a result of the twisting of the specimen
and the specimen which is more rigid, or more resistant to twisting, will have a higher modulus
of rigidity. Again , the modulus of rigidity is a material property and , under non-extreme
environmental conditions, is a constant value for each material.

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In this experiment two specimens will be tested . These specimens will possess identical
geometric measurements and differ only in material type. The various materials tested may
include brass and steel. The experimental determination of the modulus of rigidity is similar to
the experimental determination of the modulus of elasticity. However,

• The modulus of elasticity was determined by the application of an axial load and the
test specimen was not plastically deformed. The modulus of elasticity was calculated
by determining the slope of the axial stress versus axial strain curve.
• The modulus of rigidity will be determined by twisting the test specimen and
calculating the slope of the shear stress versus shear strain curve.

In addition, the torsion test specimen will be twisted to failure in order to determine the shear
stress at the limit of proportionality. The shear stress at the limit of proportionality is the largest
value of the shear stress for which the material will behave elastically. The actual values will be
recorded experimentally, as the specimens are being twisted, are the angle of twist applied to the
specimen and the corresponding value of torque at a particular angle of twist.

Procedure:

• Mount the rod onto test equipment holding chucks, by losing the tightening screws
and slide in the rod. Tighten the rod by securing tightening screws and sliding arm .
• Measure a fixed span length , Measure the diameter of the rod.
• Measure the distance between load application point and the center of rod.
• Measure the distance between the Vernier measuring point and the center of the rod.
Compare this value with equipment value.
• Set the Vanier reading to Zero, or register the Zero Load location.
• Apply Loads gradually and record the Deflection at Vernier point.
• Make sure that if the gauge reader has been rotated more than one full rotation, keep
record of that.
• Increase the load in fraction and record the deflections. .
• Repeat for each specimen.
• Change the length to maximum span, and repeat the measurements.

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Graph of torque against the angle of twist of the specimen (mild steel, brass,
and aluminium)

Theoretical values for Shear Modulus of elasticity (modulus of Rigidity):

Steel G= 80 GPa E= 270 GPa

Brass G= 44 GPa E= 120 Gpa

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Conclusion:
In this torsion testing experiment , the torsion test was evaluated as a system for calculating the
torsional rigidity (GJ), modulus of rigidity (G), and the shear yield stress (τ) for mild steel ,
and brass. Both ends of the cylindrical specimen are tightened to hexagonal sockets , which
one is fixed to a torque shaft and another is fixed to an input shaft.

Questions:

1. What are the effects of torsion?

2. Why is a hollow shaft superior to a solid shaft?
3. What are the Experimental Sources of Errors?

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Experiment no # 02
Objective:

To determine the relationship between angular deflection and rod length at

constant torque.

Introduction:
Members in torsion are encountered in many engineering applications. The most common
application is provided by transmission shafts, which are used to transmit power from one point
to another. These shafts can be either solid or hollow. Theses shafts are designed to transmit a
specific torque such that when the shaft is subjected to torsion, it should be able to resist the
permanent deflection thus avoiding the failure.

Torsion:
When a machine member is subjected to the action of two equal and opposite couples acting in
parallel planes (or torque or twisting moment), then the machine member is said to be subjected
to torsion. The machine member can be a simple torsion bar, and axle or a transmission shaft
used in machines or automobiles. The stress set up by torsion is known as torsional shear stress.
It is zero at the centroidal axis and maximum at the outer surface.

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Angular Deformation:
The degree to which an object bends about its center is termed as the angular deflection.
Consider a circular shaft that is attached to a fixed support at one end. If a torque T is applied to
the other end, the shaft will twist, with its free end rotating through an angle f called the angle of
twist. Observation shows that, within a certain range of values of T, the angle of twist Ø is
proportional to T. It also shows that Ø is proportional to the length L of the shaft. In other words,
the angle of twist for a shaft of the same material and same cross section, but twice as long, will
be twice as large under the same torque T.

The relationship between the torque, angular deflection, and other parameters of shaft is given
below:

Ø = 𝑇𝐿/ 𝐽𝐺

Where,

∅ = angular deflection

T = torque applied on the shaft L = length of shaft

J = polar moment of inertia of cross section G = modulus of rigidity of material

Apparatus Used:

• Structural test frame

• Torsion apparatus
• Steel rod
• Brass rod
• Chuck keys
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• Vernier calipers
• Steel rule.

Procedure

• Place an assembled test frame on table.

• Place torsion apparatus on test frame with the help of two securing nuts.
• Make sure Digital Force Display is ON.
• Carefully zero the force meter using dial.
• With pencil and rule mark the rod and brass shaft with these distances.
• Wind the thumbwheel to its stop position.
• Insert rod into the chuck with rubber tipped side towards left chuck and Adjust the
length of rod .
• Set the force display and protector scale to zero.
• Take readings of angle.

Conclusion:
Members in torsion are encountered in many engineering applications. The most common
application is provided by transmission shafts, which are used to transmit power from one point
to another. These shafts can be either solid or hollow. Theses shafts are designed to transmit a
specific torque such that when the shaft is subjected to torsion, it should be able to resist the
permanent deflection thus avoiding the failure.

Questions :
1. What the slope of the graphs will give us?
2. What is the relationship b/w torque and angle of deflection?
3. In which situation where torsional deflection is desirable?

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Experiment# 03
To determine the relationship between tube and solid rod.

Apparatus.
It is shown in figure.

Introduction:
Relationship between the Torque and Angular deflection

The relationship between the torque angular deflection, and other parameters of shaft is given
below.

=TL/JG

Mass calculation for hollow rod:

Density=mass/volume

Volume=area length Area-pi"(do N2-di^2)/4

Mass=density"volume Mass-density area length

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Mass calculation for solid rod:

Density=mass/volume

Volume=area length Area-pi*rA2

Mass=density"volume

Mass=density*area"length

Advantage of hollow shafts

• Lightweight comparable to solid shaft of same diameter.
• Low rotational inertia.
• Cheaper.
• High tolerance to rotational imbalance due to low weight
• Also, hollow shafts is tolerant to high temperature because of low specific mass.

Disadvantage of hollow shafts

• Less tolerant to over torque.

• Prone to bending especially when exposed to lateral stress. Ex, boat propeller shaft.
• Even though it is tolerant to mild imbalance, this however increases as rotational speed
exceeds critical limit.

Advantages of solid shafts

• Suitable for high torque applications.
• Very resistant to bending.
• When perfectly rolled it has a very smooth operation even at high speeds.
• High rigidity even a small diameter.

Disadvantages of solid shafts

• High cost.
• Must be perfectly straight from manufacture.

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• A slight imbalance is not tolerable and very hard todeal with High rotational inertia
especially on larger diameters
• On application where shaft is exposed to very high temperature, solid shaft made of mild
steel bends even at rest. Special metal is used for this application thus adding cost..

Conclusion:
Relationship between the Torque and Angular deflection. The relationship between the torque
angular deflection, and other parameters of shaft is given below.

=TL/JG

Questionaires.
1. What are advantage and disadvantages of hollow and solid rods?

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Experiment # 04
Objective:

To determine the shear force variation at the point of loading in a beam.

Introduction:
Beam:

A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting

bending.

Supports: Identified by the resistance offered to forces.

Rollers/Links: Resists forces in a direction along the line of action.

Pins: Resists forces in any direction of the plane.

Fixed Support: Resists forces in any direction resists moments.

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Types of Beams:
Simply supported beam:
A simply supported beam is a type of beam that has pinned support at one end and roller support
at the other end. Depending on the load applied, it undergoes shearing and bending.

Cantilever beam:
A cantilever beam is fixed at one end and free at other end.
Overhanging beam:
Overhanging beam is a beam that has one or both end portions extending beyond its supports. It
may have any number of supports.

Continuous Beam:
A continuous beam has more than two supports distributed throughout its length.
Fixed Beam:
Fixed beam is a type of beam whose both ends are fixed.

Apparatus used:

• Structural test frame

• shear force apparatus
• load hangers
• loads.

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Procedure:

• Place an assembled test frame on a workbench. Make sure the window of the test frame is
sassily accessible.
• There are four securing nuts in the top member of the frame. Slide them to appropriate
position.
• With the right hand end of the experiment resting on the bottom member of the test frame
fit the left hand support on to the frame to ensure that the internal bars are sitting on the
frame squarely Tighten the support in position by screwing two of the thumbscrews
provided into the securing nuts (on the front of the support only).
• Lift the right –hand support into position and locate the two remaining thumbscrews into
the securing nuts. Push the support on to the frame to ensure the internal bars are sitting
on the frame squarely. Position the support horizontally so the rolling pivot is in the
middle of its travel. Tighten the thumbscrews.
• Make sure the digital force display is ON. Connect the mini DIN lead to Force Input l’ on
the Digital Force Display to the socket marked ‘Force output’ on the left hand support of
the experiment. Ensure the lead does not touch the beam.
• Carefully zero the force meter using the dial on the left-hand beam of the experiment.
Gently apply a small load with a finger to centre of the beam and release. Zero the meter
again if necessary. Repeat to ensure the meter returns to zero.

Graph :

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Conclusion:
In solid mechanics, shearing forces are unaligned forces pushing one part of a body in one
specific direction, and another part of the body in the opposite direction. When the forces are
colinear, they are called compression forces.

A simply supported beam is a type of beam that has pinned support at one end and roller support
at the other end. Depending on the load applied, it undergoes shearing and bending.

Questions:
What is shear force?

What is bending moment?

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EXPERIMENT # 05
Objective:

To determine the shear force variation away from the point of loading in a beam

Introduction:
Beam : A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by
resisting bending.

Supports: Identified by the resistance offered to forces.

1. Rollers/Links: Resists forces in a direction along the line of action.

2. Pins: Resists forces in any direction of the plane.
3. Fixed Support: Resists forces in any direction.

Resists moments:

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Types of Beams:
Simply supported beam:
A simply supported beam is a type of beam that has pinned support at one end and roller support
at the other end. Depending on the load applied, it undergoes shearing and bending.

Cantilever beam:
A cantilever beam is fixed at one end and free at other end.

Overhanging beam:
Overhanging beam is a beam that has one or both end portions extending beyond its supports. It
may have any number of supports.

Continuous Beam:
A continuous beam has more than two supports distributed throughout its length.

Fixed Beam:
Fixed beam is a type of beam whose both ends are fixed.

Apparatus required:

• Structural test frame

• shear force apparatus
• load hangers
• loads.

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Procedure:

• Place an assembled test frame on a workbench. Make sure the window of the test frame
is sassily accessible.
• There are four securing nuts in the top member of the frame. Slide them to appropriate
position.
• With the right hand end of the experiment resting on the bottom member of the test
frame fit the left hand support on to the frame to ensure that the internal bars are sitting
on the frame squarely Tighten the support in position by screwing two of the
thumbscrews provided into the securing nuts (on the front of the support only).
• Lift the right –hand support into position and locate the two remaining thumbscrews into
the securing nuts. Push the support on to the frame to ensure the internal bars are sitting
on the frame squarely. Position the support horizontally so the rolling pivot is in the
middle of its travel. Tighten the thumbscrews.
• Make sure the digital force display is ON. Connect the mini DIN lead to Force Input l’
on the Digital Force Display to the socket marked ‘Force output’ on the left hand support
of the experiment. Ensure the lead does not touch the beam.
• Carefully zero the force meter using the dial on the left-hand beam of the experiment.
Gently apply a small load with a finger to centre of the beam and release. Zero the meter
again if necessary. Repeat to ensure the meter returns to zero.

Graph :

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Conclusion:
In solid mechanics, shearing forces are unaligned forces pushing one part of a body in one
specific direction, and another part of the body in the opposite direction. When the forces are
colinear, they are called compression forces.

A simply supported beam is a type of beam that has pinned support at one end and roller support
at the other end. Depending on the load applied, it undergoes shearing and bending.

Questions:

1. What is shear force?

2. What is bending moment?
3. What the graph tells you?

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EXPERIMENT # 06
Objective :

To determine the moment of inertia of a flywheel by falling weight method.

Introduction:
Flywheel:

Flywheel is a rotating mechanical device that is used to store rotational energy. Energy will be
stored in flywheel by applying torque to it.

E= ½ I ω2

Energy stored in the flywheel is proportional to the square of the rotational speed.

Moment of Inertia:

Moment of inertia is the mass property of a rigid body that defines the torque neede for a desired
angular acceleration about an axis of rotation.

• It is a measure of an object’s resistance to change in rotation direction. For a point mass

the moment of inertia will be
I= mr2
• Moment of inertia depends on the amount and distribution of masses and shape of the
body.
• If moment of inertia is large, requires more torque to increase the rotation or to stop the
rotation of the body.

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Measurement of the Moment of Inertia of a Flywheel:

A flywheel of radius R is set up on a horizontal axle of radius r. A string of length h is wrapped

round the axle with a mass m tied to the end. The moment of inertia of the flywheel and axle is I.
The flywheel is accelerated by the couple applied by the mass m. The mass is allowed to fall
through a height h at which point the string leaves the axle. The velocity of the falling mass at
this instant is v and the angular velocity of the flywheel ω.
The potential energy lost by the weight is converted into kinetic energy of the weight, kinetic
energy of the flywheel and heat due to friction in the bearings.
If the energy lost per revolution due to friction is E and the flywheel makes n1 revolutions during
acceleration, then: mgh = ½ mv2 + ½ Iω2 + n1E
The flywheel is then allowed to come to rest due to the frictional couple. If it stops after a further
n2 revolutions then: ½ Iω2 = n2E
Therefore:

mgh = 1/2 mv2 + 1/2 Iω2 + (n1/n2) 1/2 Iω2

= 1/2 mv2 + 1/2 Iω2 (1 + n1/n2)

From which I can be calculated as;

I= 2(mgh-1/2mv2) / ω2 [ (n1+n2) /n2 ]

We could convert linear velocity (v) into angular velocity (ω) if we wished using v = rω.

Here,

m= mass of falling weight (kg) h= height of fall (m)

v= velocity of body (m/s)

ω= angular velocity (rad/s)

n1= no. of revolution of flywheel to wind up the string from the ground to starting point.
n2= no. of revolution of flywheel makes after the falling body strikes the ground.
R = effective radius
t1= time of fall of body
V= 2h/t1

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Apparatus required:

Frame and cupboard , Flywheel , Stopwatch , Weights , Thread.

Procedure :

• The moment of inertia of a flywheel can be found experimentally by the falling weight
method.
• The flywheel mounts as described above so that it can rotate freely on an axle fitted to
one of the vertical members of the frame.
• Attach a body of mass m to a length of string. Wind the string around the circumference
of the rotor, ensuring that it loops around a steel peg projecting from the ring.
• Allowed the body to fall through a measured height h to the ground and record the time
of descent, t1, by a stopwatch.
• Note the no. of revolutions n1 during the acceleration period.
• Find the no. of revolutions n2 and the corresponding time t2 , from the instant the body
strikes the ground to the instant the rotor comes to rest.

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Conclusion:
A flywheel of radius R is set up on a horizontal axle of radius r. A string of length h is wrapped
round the axle with a mass m tied to the end. The moment of inertia of the flywheel and axle is I.
The flywheel is accelerated by the couple applied by the mass m. The mass is allowed to fall
through a height h at which point the string leaves the axle.

Questions:

1. What is axle in flywheel?

2. What is the function of flywheel?
3. Does flywheel create inertia?

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EXPERIMENT# 07
Implement an experiment to determine the stiffness of the spring and compare with
theoretical prediction

Objective:

• To determine the stiffness of the spring and compare with theoretical prediction.
• Draw a graph between deflection of the spring and load applied.
Introduction:
Spring: Spring is an elastic device, typically a helical metal coil that can be pressed or pulled
but returns to its former shape when released.A spring is an elastic object used to store
mechanical energy.

Types of Springs:

Compression Spring:

Compression spring is designed to operate with a compression load, so the spring gets shorter as
the load is applied to it. These springs have coils that are spaced apart. When a force compresses,
the spring becomes shorter. The spring then has its own stored energy. This energy tries to push
its two ends back to their original position. Car suspension struts use this type of spring.

Tension Spring:

Tension springs, tensional springs or extension springs, are tightly wound coils designed to
operate with the force known as 'tension'. They usually have a loop or hook at either end for
attachment purposes. Tension springs are typically wound very tightly and are coiled closely
together when at rest. These spring Ends back to their original position. Spring-operated garage
doors use this type of spring.

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Torsion Spring: The load applied to a torsion spring is a torque or twisting force, and the end of
the spring rotates through an angle as the load is applied. A torsion spring usually has tightly
packed coils. When a force rotates its ends around its centre, the spring stores energy. This
energy tries to force its ends back to their original position. Some electronic products and toys
use this type of spring to open small doors or lids.

Stiffness: The stiffness, k, of a body is a measure of the resistance offered by an elastic body
to deformation. Stiffness is the rigidity of an object, the extent to which it resists deformation in
response to an applied force.

Stiffness K= F / x Where,

“F” is the force applied on the body and “x” is the deflection produced.

Spring Testing Apparatus:

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Procedure:

• Fit one end of the spring onto the hook at the top of equipment.
• Fit the other hook and transparent pointer to the bottom of spring.
• Record the initial reading on the scale without applying load.
• Note the spring’s maximum weight and divide it into at least ten different weights. So
graph will be more accurate.
• Attach the weight hanger to the bottom of the transparent pointer.
• Slowly add ten (or more) different weights. While adding weight, record the reading
on the table.
• Plot a graph for the extension against load, and from this determine the spring
stiffness K.Stiffness K= F / x
• At last compare experimental value of spring constant with theoretical value by using
the following relation; K= d4 G / 8nD3 Where
• d is the diameter of the wire ,D is the inner diameter of the coil/spring, G is the
modulus of rigidity (for carbon steel 79300 N/mm2), n is the number of coils.
• Repeat the experiment with other different springs.

Graph:

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Conclusion:
Spring is an elastic device, typically a helical metal coil that can be pressed or pulled but returns
to its former shape when released a spring is an elastic object used to store mechanical energy.
Compression spring is designed to operate with a compression load, so the spring gets shorter as
the load is applied to it.

Questions
1. How do you reduce spring stiffness?
2. Can the spring constant change?
3. What affects the spring constant?
4. Does spring constant change with gravity?

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EXPERIMENT #08
Objective:

To determine the bending moment variation at the point of loading in a beam.

Introduction:

Beam: A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by

resisting bending.

Bending Moment:
A bending moment is the reaction induced in a structural element when an external force or
moment is applied to the element causing the element to bend. The most common or simplest
structural element subjected to bending moments is the beam.

Supports: Identified by the resistance offered to forces.

Rollers/Links: Resists forces in a direction along the line of action.

Pins: Resists forces in any direction of the plane.

Fixed Support: Resists forces in any direction.

Types of Beams:

Simply supported beam: A simply supported beam is a type of beam that has pinned support at
one end and roller support at the other end. Depending on the load applied, it undergoes shearing
and bending.

Cantilever beam: A cantilever beam is fixed at one end and free at other end.

Overhanging beam: Overhanging beam is a beam that has one or both end portions extending
beyond its supports. It may have any number of supports.

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Continuous Beam : A continuous beam has more than two supports distributed throughout its
length.

Fixed Beam : Fixed beam is a type of beam whose both ends are fixed.

Apparatus required:

• Structural test frame

• bending moment apparatus
• load hangers
• loads.

Bending Moment Apparatus

Procedure :

• Place an assembled test frame on a workbench. Make sure the window of the test frame is
sassily accessible.

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• There are four securing nuts in the top member of the frame. Slide them to appropriate
position.
• With the right hand end of the experiment resting on the bottom member of the test frame fit
the left hand support on to the frame to ensure that the internal bars are sitting on the frame
squarely Tighten the support in position by screwing two of the thumbscrews provided into
the securing nuts (on the front of the support only).
• Lift the right –hand support into position and locate the two remaining thumbscrews into the
securing nuts. Push the support on to the frame to ensure the internal bars are sitting on the
frame squarely. Position the support horizontally so the rolling pivot is in the middle of its
travel. Tighten the thumbscrews.
• Make sure the digital force display is ON. Connect the mini DIN lead to Force Input l’ on
the Digital Force Display to the socket marked ‘Force output’ on the left hand support of the
experiment. Ensure the lead does not touch the beam.
• Carefully zero the force meter using the dial on the left-hand beam of the experiment.
Gently apply a small load with a finger to centre of the beam and release. Zero the meter
again if necessary. Repeat to ensure the meter returns to zero.

Graph:

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Conclusion:
A bending moment is the reaction induced in a structural element when an external force or
moment is applied to the element causing the element to bend. The most common or simplest
structural element subjected to bending moments is the beam.

Questions:
1. What is the bending moment of the end of the beam?
2. What is shear force and moment?
3. What is bending moment?

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EXPERIMENT #09
Objective:

To determine the bending moment variation away from the point of loading in
a beam.

Introduction:
Beam: A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting
bending.

Bending Moment: A bending moment is the reaction induced in a structural element when an
external force or moment is applied to the element causing the element to bend. The most
common or simplest structural element subjected to bending moments is the beam.

Supports: Identified by the resistance offered to forces.

Rollers/Links: Resists forces in a direction along the line of action.

Pins: Resists forces in any direction of the plane.

Fixed Support: Resists forces in any direction.

Types of Beams:
Simply supported beam: A simply supported beam is a type of beam that has pinned support at
one end and roller support at the other end. Depending on the load applied, it undergoes shearing
and bending.

Cantilever beam: A cantilever beam is fixed at one end and free at other end.

Overhanging beam: Overhanging beam is a beam that has one or both end portions extending
beyond its supports. It may have any number of supports.

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Continuous Beam: A continuous beam has more than two supports distributed throughout its
length.

Fixed Beam: Fixed beam is a type of beam whose both ends are fixed.

Apparatus Required :

• Structural test frame

• bending moment apparatus
• load hangers
• loads.

Bending Moment Apparatus

Procedure :

• Place an assembled test frame on a workbench. Make sure the window of the test
frame is sassily accessible.

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• There are four securing nuts in the top member of the frame. Slide them to
appropriate position.
• With the right hand end of the experiment resting on the bottom member of the test
frame fit the left hand support on to the frame to ensure that the internal bars are
sitting on the frame squarely Tighten the support in position by screwing two of the
thumbscrews provided into the securing nuts (on the front of the support only).
• Lift the right –hand support into position and locate the two remaining thumbscrews
into the securing nuts. Push the support on to the frame to ensure the internal bars are
sitting on the frame squarely. Position the support horizontally so the rolling pivot is
in the middle of its travel. Tighten the thumbscrews.
• Make sure the digital force display is ON. Connect the mini DIN lead to Force Input
l’ on the Digital Force Display to the socket marked ‘Force output’ on the left hand
support of the experiment. Ensure the lead does not touch the beam.
• Carefully zero the force meter using the dial on the left-hand beam of the experiment.
Gently apply a small load with a finger to centre of the beam and release. Zero the
meter again if necessary. Repeat to ensure the meter returns to zero.

Conclusion:
A bending moment is the reaction induced in a structural element when an external force or
moment is applied to the element causing the element to bend. The most common or simplest
structural element subjected to bending moments is the beam. A simply supported beam is a type
of beam that has pinned support at one end and roller support at the other end. Depending on the
load applied, it undergoes shearing and bending.

Questions:
1. What is the bending moment of the end of the beam?
2. What is shear force and moment?
3. What is bending moment?

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EXPERIMENT # 10
The show the linearity of the strain gauges in the open ends condition.

Objectives:
1. The show the linearity of the strain gauges in the open ends condition.
2. To find the hoop stress and strain relationship (young's modulus) for the cylinder
material in open end connection.

To find the longitudinal and hoop strain relationship (Poisson’s Ratio) for the cylinder material
in open end connection.

Apparatus Requires:

• TQ SM1007 Computerized Thin Cylinder. The cylinder is made of aluminum (E = 69

GPa) and has strain gages attached as shown below:
• Dell Computer with the SM1007 program installed
• Printer (as a backup device)

Introduction:
The pressure vessels (i.e. cylinders or tanks) are used to store fluids under pressure. The fluid
being stored may undergo a change of state inside the pressure vessel as in case of steam boilers
or it may combine with other reagents as in a chemical plant. The pressure vessels are designed
with great care because rupture of a pressure vessel means an explosion which may cause loss of
life and property. The material of pressure vessels may be brittle such as cast iron, or ductile
such as mild steel. In many engineering applications, cylinders are frequently used for
transporting or storing of liquids, gases or fluids e.g: Pipes, Boilers, storage tanks etc. These
cylinders are subjected to fluid pressures. When a cylinder is subjected to a internal pressure, at
any point on the cylinder wall, three types of stresses are induced on three mutually
perpendicular planes

• Hoop or Circumferential Stress (σC) : This is directed along the tangent to the
circumference and tensile in nature. Thus, there will be increase in diameter.
• Longitudinal Stress (σL ) : This stress is directed along the length of the cylinder. This
is also tensile in nature and tends to increase the length.
• Radial pressure ( pr ) : It is compressive in nature. Its magnitude is equal to fluid
pressure on the inside wall and zero on the outer wall if it is open to atmosphere.

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Classification of Pressure Vessels:

The pressure vessels may be classified as follows:

According to the dimensions : The pressure vessels, according to their dimensions, may be
classified as thin shell or thick shell. If the wall thickness of the shell is less than 1/20 of the
diameter of the shell (d), then it is called a thin shell. Magnitude of radial pressure is very small
compared to other two stresses in case of thin cylinders and hence neglected. On the other
hand, if the wall thickness of the shell is greater than 1/20 of the diameter of the shell, then it is
said to be a thick shell. Thin shells are used in boilers, tanks and pipes, whereas thick shells are
used in high pressure cylinders, tanks, gun barrels etc.

According to the end construction: The pressure vessels, according to the end
construction, may be classified as open end or closed end. A simple cylinder with a piston,
such as cylinder of a press is an example of an open end vessel, whereas a tank is
an example of a closed end vessel.
In case of vessels having open ends, the circumferential or hoop stresses are induced by the
fluid pressure, whereas in case of closed ends, longitudinal stresses in addition to
circumferential stresses are induced.

This experiment gives students an opportunity to experiment with a cylinder that has a
diameter/thickness ratio of more than 20, making it thin-walled.

• The cylinder will undergo pressure loading that will introduce hoop and longitudinal
stresses on the surface of the material.
• The fact that the cylinder is thin-walled allows for the assumption that the hoop and
longitudinal stresses are constant throughout the wall thickness or area.
• Two different conditions of pressure loading will be tested: “open end” and “close
end”. The open end condition can be seen as studying a portion of a long pipeline,
while closed end conditions can be imagined as looking at an enclosed gas tank that
holds a certain amount of pressure.
• Using this computerized thin cylinder experiment we will introduce varying amounts
of pressure into the cylinder and utilizing strain gage readings on the surface of the
cylinder to determine Young’s modulus (E), Poisson’s ratio, ν, and to study the strain
Mohr’s circles of the two different end conditions.

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Open End Connection:

Hand Wheel at the end of the frame sets the cylinder for the open and Closed Ends experiments.
When the user screws in the Hand Wheel, it clamps the free-moving pistons in the cylinder. The
frame then takes the axial (longitudinal) stress and not the cylinder wall, as if the cylinder has no
ends.

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Procedure :

• Create a blank table of results, similar to table shown.

• Switch ON the power to the thin cylinder and leave it for five minutes before you do the
experiment. This allows the strain gauges to reach a stable temperature and give you
accurate readings.
• Look at the positions of the strain gauges.
• Open (turn anticlockwise) the pressure control and screw in the hand wheel to set up the
open ends condition.
• From VDAS interface select the 'open ends' experiment condition.
• Shut (turn clockwise) the pressure control and use the 'press & hold to zero' button to
zero the strain gauge display reading. All the strain gauge reading should now read 0 µ
(+/-5 µ), and the pressure meter should read 0 MN.m⁻².
• The strain gauge reading may vary slightly (+/-2 µ) as you take readings. This is normal.

Analysis:

• Using the strains, Poisson’s ratio and Young’s modulus obtained from the experiment
read the Dowling textbook and come up with the hoop stress, σH, and the longitudinal
stress, σL, for both cases (open and closed ends). There should be four results reported.
(Hint: Look around section 5.3.2 in the Dowling textbook or section 7.5 in the Gere &
Timoshenko textbook, and since this is a plane stress condition, neglect σz. Assume εx is
in the longitudinal direction and εy is in the hoop direction.)

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• With the data obtained in the Young's Modulus experiment, plot on ONE GRAPH the
hoop stress (in MPa) versus hoop strain (in με) for gauges 1 and 6. With these two
straight line fits, find the Young's Modulus E for both gauges (which are the slopes for
the curves). Use these E values to determine an average E.

Conclusion:
The pressure vessels are used to store fluids under pressure. The fluid being stored may undergo
a change of state inside the pressure vessel as in case of steam boilers or it may combine with
other reagents as in a chemical plant. The pressure vessels are designed with great care because
rupture of a pressure vessel means an explosion which may cause loss of life and property.

Questions:
1. Define hoop stress?
2. Define longitudinal stress?
3. Which one will be greater hoop or longitudinal?
4. What is the difference between the “Open End” and “Closed End” conditions?

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EXPERIMENT # 11
Objective:

The show the linearity of the strain gauges in the closed ends condition.

Introduction:
The pressure vessels lle cylinders or tanks) are used to store fluids under pressure. The fluid
being stored may undergo a change of state inside the pressure vessel as in case of steam boilers
or it may combine with other reagents as in a chemical plant The pressure vessels are designed
with great care because rupture of a pressure vessel means an explosion which may cause loss
of life and property. The material of pressure vessels may be brittle such as cast iron, or ductile
such as mild steel.
In many engineering applications, cylinders are frequently used for transporting or storing of
liquids, gases or fluids c.g: Pipes, Boilers, storage tanks etc. These cylinders are subjected to
fluid pressures. When a cylinder is subjected to a internal pressure, at any point on the cylinder
wall, three types of stresses are induced on three mutually perpendicular planes

Hoop or Circumferential Stress fod - This is directed along the tangent to the circumference
and tensite in nature. Thus, there will be increase in diameter.

• Longitudinal Stress (o.) - This stress is directed along the length of the cylinder. This is
also tensile in nature and tends to increase the length.
• Radial pressure (p,)- It is compressive in nature. Its magnitude is equal to fluid pressure
on the inside wall and zero on the outer wall if it is open to atmosphere

Classification of Pressure Vessels The pressure vessels may be classified as follows:

• According to the dimensions: The pressure vessels, according to their dimensions, may
be classified as thin shell or thick shell. If the wall thickness of the shell is less than 1/20
of the diameter of the shell (d), then it is called a thin shell Magnitude of radial pressure
is very small compared to other two stresses in case of thin cylinders and hence
neglected. On the other hand, if the wall thickness of the shell is greater than 1/20 of the
diameter of the shell, then it is said to be a thick shell. Thin shells are used in boilers,
tanks and pipes, whereas thick shells are used in high pressure cylinders,tanks, gun
barrels etc.

• According to the end construction: The pressure vessels, according to the end
construction, may be classified as open end or closed end. A simple cylinder with a

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piston, such as cylinder of a press is an example of an open end vessel.

whereas a tank is an example of a closed end vessel. In case of vessels having open ends,
the circumferential or hoop stresses are induced by the fluid pressure, whereas in case of
closed ends, longitudinal stresses in addition to circumferential stresses are induced.

This experiment gives students an opportunity to experiment with a cylinder that has a diameter
thickness ratio of more than 20, making it thin-walled. The cylinder will undergo pressure
loading that will introduce hoop and longitudinal stresses on the surface of the material. The fact
that the cylinder is thin-walled allows for the assumption that the hoop and longitudinal stresses
are constant throughout the wall thickness or area. Two different conditions of pressure loading
will be tested: "open end" and "close end". The open end condition can be seen as studying a
portion of a long pipeline, while closed end conditions can be imagined as looking at an enclosed
gas tank that holds a certain amount of pressure. Using this computerized thin cylinder
experiment we will introduce varying amounts of pressure into the cylinder and utilizing strain
gage readings on the surface of the cylinder to determine Young's modulus (E), Poisson's ratio,
v, and to study the strain Mohr's circles of the two different end conditions

Apparatus Required:
• TO SM1007 Computerized Thin Cylinder. The cylinder is made of aluminum (E -69
GPa) and has strain gages attached as shown below
• Dell Computer with the SM1007 program installed
• Printer (as a backup device)

Close End Connection:

A Hand Wheel at the end of the frame sets the cylinder for the open and Closed Ends
experiments. When the user screws in the Hand Wheel, it clamps the free-moving pistonsin the
cylinder.

The frame then takes the axial (longitudinal) stress and not the cylinder wall, as if the cylinder
has no ends. This allows Open Ends experiments, as shown infigure

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Procedure:

• Switch ON the power to the thin cylinder and leave it for five minutes before you do
the experiment. This allows the strain gauges to reach a stable temperature and give
you accurate reading
• Look at the positions of the strain gauges,
• Open (turn anticlockwise) the pressure control and screw in the hand wheel to set up
the close ends condition
• From VDAS interface select the 'open ends' experiment condition
• Shut (turn clockwise) the pressure control and use the press & hold to zero' button to
zero the strain gauge display reading. All the strain gauge reading should now read 0
u (+/-5 u), and the pressure meter should read 0 MN.m.v
• The strain gauge reading may vary slightly (+-2 p) us you take reading. This is
normal.
• Pump the hand pump until the pressure is approximately 0.5 MN.mt. Wait a few
seconds for the reading to stabilize and record the reading into the result table.
• Carefully increase the pressure in 0.5 MN.m increment up to 3 MN.m. At cach
increment, wait for a while for the reading to stabilize and record the reading into
your result table
• Warning: do not exceed a cylinder pressure of 3.5 MN.m
• Open turn anticlockwise) the pressure control to reduce the indicated pressureback to
OMN.m

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Conclusion:
The pressure vessels lle cylinders or tanks) are used to store fluids under pressure. The fluid
being stored may undergo a change of state inside the pressure vessel as in case of steam boilers
or it may combine with other reagents as in a chemical plant The pressure vessels are designed
with great care because rupture of a pressure vessel means an explosion which may cause loss
of life and property. The material of pressure vessels may be brittle such as cast iron, or ductile
such as mild steel.

Questionnaire.
1. What is hoop stress?
2. Classification of pressure vessel?
3. What is radial pressure?

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EXPERIMENT # 12
To determine the horizontal and vertical deflection of semi-circle and comparison
with theoretical predictions.

Introduction:
Energy method is a method of determining the stresses and deformations in structures subjected
to both static and impact loading. For example, a beam such as shown in Figure that subjected to
transverse loads, the strain energy associated with the normal stress is

Castiglione’s theorem states that the deflection x, of the point of application of a load P
measured along the line of action of P is equal to the partial derivative of the strain energy of the
structure with the respect to the load j P . It can be show as

Hence, the theorem can be applied to determine deflections and slopes at various points of a
given structure. The use of “dummy” loads enabled us to include points where no actual load
was applied. The calculation of a deflection x can be simplified if the differentiation with the

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respect to the load P was carried out before the integration. In the case of a beam, referring to
equation above, the deflection of a beam can be wrote as

APPARATUS:

• Test Frame
• Back plate
• A pair of dial indicators
• Semi Circle
• Weight set
• Vernier caliper

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Procedure :

• Measure and record the average width and thickness of the test structure cross section.
Then calculate the second moment of area (I) of the cross section by using equation.
▪ I = bd3 / 12
• Prepare the Test Frame to test the semicircle structure. Ensure that you have mounted and
clamped securely the semicircle structure on each ends.
• Attach the load hanger to the free end of the test structure.
• Adjust the dial indicator in positions so it is in contact with the boss horizontally and
vertically. Ensure that the dial indicators can cover its maximum travel distance in each
direction. Set the indicator reading to zero.

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• Apply a weight to the load hanger. Tap the test frame to reduce the effect of friction.
Record the reading of both dial indicators.
• Increase the weight .Tapping the test frame each time. Record the reading of both dial
indicators.

Conclusion:
Energy method is a method of determining the stresses and deformations in structures subjected
to both static and impact loading. Castiglione’s theorem states that the deflection x, of the point
of application of a load P measured along the line of action of P is equal to the partial derivative
of the strain energy of the structure with the respect to the load j P

Questions:

1. What is energy method?

2. Define Castiglione’s theorem?
3. What are the applications of curved bars and davits?

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EXPERIMENT NO # 13
Objective:
To determine the horizontal and vertical deflection of quarter-circle and comparison with
theoretical predictions.

Apparatus Required:

• Test Frame , Back plate , A pair of dial indicators , Quarter Circle , Weight set ,
Vernier caliper

Introduction:
Energy method is a method of determining the stresses and deformations in structures subjected
to both static and impact loading. For example, a beam such as shown in Figure that subjected to
transverse loads, the strain energy associated with the normal stress is

Castigliano’s theorem states that the deflection j x , of the point of application of a load j P
measured along the line of action of j P is equal to the partial derivative of the strain energy of
the structure with the respect to the load j P . It can be show as

Hence, the theorem can be applied to determine deflections and slopes at various points of a
given structure. The use of “dummy” loads enabled us to include points where no actual load
was applied. The calculation of a deflection x can be simplified if the differentiation with the
respect to the load P was carried out before the integration. In the case of a beam, referring to
equation above, the deflection of a beam can be wrote as

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Deflection of curved Bar & devit:

Procedure:

• Measure and record the average width and thickness of the test structure cross section.
Then calculate the second moment of area (I) of the cross section by using equation.
I = bd3/ 12 .
• Prepare the Test Frame to test the quarter circle structure. Ensure that you have mounted
and clamped securely the quarter circle structure on each ends.
• Attach the load hanger to the free end of the test structure.
• Adjust the dial indicator in positions so it is in contact with the boss horizontally and
vertically. Ensure that the dial indicators can cover its maximum travel distance in each
direction. Set the indicator reading to zero.
• Apply a weight of 100 gm to the load hanger. Tap the test frame to reduce the effect of
friction. Record the reading of both dial indicators.
• Increase the weight up to 500 gm in 100 gm increments, tapping the test frame each time.

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Graph b/w load vs horizontal and vertical deflection for both experimental and theoretical
deflection and determine its slope.

Conclusion:
With using the Castigliano’s Theorem Method in calculate the bar deflection, it more easier if
compared with other method.

The result of deflection value is not far between experimental and theoretical.This experiment is
succesful that is the deflection bar formula according to the Castigliano’s Theorem can be
approved it punctuality for getting the beam deflection.

Questions:

1. What is energy method?

2. Define Castigliano’s theorem?
3. Wrote at least three applications of curved bars and davits?

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EXPERIMENT NO # 14
Objective:
To determine the horizontal and vertical deflection of quarter-circle and comparison with
theoretical predictions.

Introduction:
Energy method is a method of determining the stresses and deformations in structures subjected
to both static and impact loading. For example, a beam such as shown in Figure that subjected to
transverse loads, the strain energy associated with the normal stress is

Castigliano’s theorem states that the deflection j x , of the point of application of a load j P
measured along the line of action of j P is equal to the partial derivative of the strain energy of
the structure with the respect to the load j P . It can be show as

Hence, the theorem can be applied to determine deflections and slopes at various points of a
given structure. The use of “dummy” loads enabled us to include points where no actual load
was applied. The calculation of a deflection x can be simplified if the differentiation with the
respect to the load P was carried out before the integration. In the case of a beam, referring to
equation above, the deflection of a beam can be wrote as

Apparatus Required:

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• Test Frame , Back plate , A pair of dial indicators , Quarter Circle , Weight set ,
Vernier caliper

Deflection of cuvrved Bar & devit:

Procedure:

• Measure and record the average width and thickness of the test structure cross section.
Then calculate the second moment of area (I) of the cross section by using equation.
I = bd3/ 12 .
• Prepare the Test Frame to test the quarter circle structure. Ensure that you have mounted
and clamped securely the quarter circle structure on each ends.
• Attach the load hanger to the free end of the test structure.
• Adjust the dial indicator in positions so it is in contact with the boss horizontally and
vertically. Ensure that the dial indicators can cover its maximum travel distance in each
direction. Set the indicator reading to zero.
• Apply a weight of 100 gm to the load hanger. Tap the test frame to reduce the effect of
friction. Record the reading of both dial indicators.
• Increase the weight up to 500 gm in 100 gm increments, tapping the test frame each time.

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Graph b/w load vs horizontal and vertical deflection for both experimental and theoretical
deflection and determine its slope.

Conclusion:
With using the Castigliano’s Theorem Method in calculate the bar deflection, it easier if
compared with other method.

The result of deflection value is not far between experimental and theoretical.This experiment is
successful that is the deflection bar formula according to the Castigliano’s Theorem can be
approved it punctuality for getting the beam deflection.

Questions:

What is energy method?

Define Castigliano’s theorem?

Wrote at least three applications of curved bars and davits?

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